Gas Turbine Operation And Maintenance Course

Rationale
Why it is important to lean this skill? Gas turbines are a significant prim mover in industrial plant application. For this reason it is important for the technicians to understand the basic principles of operation and maintenance involving gas turbine.

Outcome
When you have completed this course you will be able to:
Describe the working principles, types, applications, systems, startup & shutdown procedure, and gas turbine maintenance

Objectives
Objective one 1) General description of the gas turbine and principle of operation 2) Gas turbine applications 3) The advantages and disadvantages of the gas turbine Objective two 1) Gas turbine operating cycles (open closed) 2) Gas turbine simple cycle and its improvement Objective three 1) Gas turbine categories (single-dual- twin shaft ) and its applications 2) Gas turbine main components description and its types (air comp. turbine- combustors) Objective four 1) Other gas turbine components descriptions (air intake exhaust duct seals igniters package air bleed valve IGV fuel nozzles) 2) General description of the gas turbine systems Objective five 1) Lube oil system functional description 2) Lube oil system major maintenance items

Objective six 1) Fuel system functional description 2) Fuel system major maintenance items Objective seven 1) Start system functional description 2) Start system major maintenance items Objective eight 1) Air /exhaust system description 2) Air /exhaust system options Objective nine 1) Background about the formation of NOx 2) NOx system description Objective ten 1) Electrical control system types & function 2) Speed control Objective eleven 1) Performance evaluation and factors affecting the turbine efficiency 2) Gas turbine maintenance (monthly annual overhaul ) Objective twelve 1) Start up sequence 2) Shut down types and its sequences 3) List of most important malfunction shutdowns Objective thirteen Some of trouble shootings

Objective One
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Explain gas turbine advantages and disadvantages, background and industrial applications. Identify the types of gas turbines, their major components and describe the operating principles of a simple gas turbine.

Simple Gas Turbine Operating Principles

Referring to Fig. 1, ambient air enters the air compressor and is compressed to a pressure of 1100 3000 kPa and then passes to the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber adds fuel (natural gas or oil) to some of the air from the compressor to achieve continuous combustion. This combustion causes a sudden increase in temperature to about 2000C, which is the flame temperature. By mixing the combusted products with the remaining compressed air, the temperature is reduced to 918C at the exit of the combustion section to achieve a temperature low enough for the turbine materials. The hot gases from the combustion chamber then enter the turbine. The turbine expands the air from the combustion section and produces mechanical power to drive the air compressor and a generator, which produces electricity. These gases exit the turbine at nearly atmospheric pressure, but still at a temperature of up to 500 640C.

Fig 1 Simple gas turbine

Gas Turbine Major Components

While gas turbines exist in many different designs, every gas turbine has three major components, which are shown in Fig. 1:

Compressor section Combustion section, also called a combustor Turbine section

The Cycle On The T-S Diagram

Temp. P2 T3 Heat Add T2 T4 T1 1 Entropy S 2 4 P1 3

Fig.2 Gas turbine operation curve on T-S diagram Process from 1 to 2 is compression (power extracting)

Process from 2-3 is heat adding Process from 3-4 is expansion

(combustion) (power generation)

Gas Turbine Applications

The efficiencies and power output of the earlier gas turbines were limited by the fuel available and by lack of metals that could withstand high temperatures. Early air compressor and turbine efficiency was not hi enough to give reasonable net output of power. The low efficiency of the compressor and turbine meant that almost all of the turbine output was used to drive the compressor. Efficiency has now increased to produce a more useable engine. Today gas turbine engines are being used extensively for aircraft propulsion (Fig-3) and have recently made more inroads into industrial applications (Fig.4). They are used in hi speed marine propulsion by many navy ships. Gas turbines are currently used for stationary power generation both as standby and main power generation. There have also been many experimental units built and operated in railroad service, cars and heavy equipment.

Fig.3

Fig-4

Gas turbines are in general or experimental use in the following applications:

Aircraft Power plants Standby equipment Boat and ship propulsion Gas pipeline compressor drives Railroad (have been used but are not common) Automotive (extensive experimentation in the past) Heavy mobile equipment (experimentation)

Types Of Industrial Gas Turbines

There are two basic types of industrial gas turbines: aero-derivative derived from the jet engines used in aircraft; and heavy-duty gas turbines only designed for land-based applications. Each type has advantages and disadvantages, which make them more suitable for certain applications. However, there is considerable overlap in their usage and there are no hard and fast application rules. Aero-derivative gas turbines, such as the 55 MW General Electric LM 5000 in Fig. 5, are aircraft (jet) engines adapted for industrial use either by:

Expanding the engine gases through an added power turbine to drive a generator or mechanical load, rather than expanding the exhaust through a jet nozzle as occurs in aircraft Converting a turboprop engine

In general, aero-derivative gas turbines are:

Low weight which makes them suitable for locations such as offshore platforms, ships, trains and vehicles where weight is important

Easily maintained, removed and replaced which maximizes availability Fast starting which is crucial for backup power generation and pipeline applications Usually less durable with a shorter life than heavy-duty gas turbines Potentially more efficient than reciprocating engines with the same power rating (depending on the way they are integrated into the plant power system) Able to use either natural gas or good quality liquid fuels and sometimes designed to allow switching between them

Fig.5 Heavy-duty gas turbines share many design aspects with steam turbines, compressors and plant machinery. Because weight is less of an issue in many applications, their layout is more flexible and their design is more rugged than aero-derivatives.

In General, Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines Are:

Larger and heavier than their aero-derivative equivalents Very durable with long intervals between overhauls which makes them especially suitable for base load applications More efficient than aero-derivative engines of the same capacity Able to use all fuels including distillates, residuals and crude oil Able to accommodate a flexible layout between compressor, combustors and turbine to allow for inter-cooling, regeneration, steam injection, combined cycle, closed cycle and reheat

An example is the General Electric Frame 5 gas turbine shown in Fig. 6. The identification of the major components of the gas turbine unit, and in particular, that one of those components is referred to specifically as the turbine. The term "gas turbine" is commonly applied to the entire collection of components, including the turbine section. However, when the term "turbine" is used on its own, this refers only to the specific turbine section of the gas turbine.

Fig.6 Industrial gas turbine

Gas Turbine Advantages

Modern gas turbines have a number of significant advantages over other types of power plants, including:

Capability to produce large amounts of power, currently up to 250 MW High power to weight ratio, making them especially suitable for applications (such as offshore) where weight must be minimized Ability to use a wide range of liquid and gaseous fuels High HP per Dollar installed cost Ability to start rapidly, which is important for backup power generation Relatively simple and compact design with few and simple auxiliary systems High availability and reliability and ability to minimize outage time by quick replacement of the gas turbine in case of major failure Remote operation capability with minimal operational manpower requirements

Minimum water cooling system

Disadvantages

The turbine engine is low thermal efficiency engine, which have prevented its widespread use in many applications such as automotives Turbine engines have high manufacturing costs - Because of the complicated design, manufacturing is expensive Skilled technicians are required to operate the gas turbine

A gas turbine is less suitable for low-power applications - At partial throttle conditions, the efficiency of the gas turbine decreases A turbine requires intercoolers, regenerators and/or reheaters to reach efficiencies comparable to current gasoline engines; this adds significant cost and complexity to a turbine engine High noise levels

Objective Two
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe open cycle and closed cycle operation. & Describe the cycle improvements.

Open Cycle Operation

An open cycle gas turbine system is shown in Fig. 7. Air is drawn into the compressor inlet from the atmosphere, compressed and supplied to the turbine after heating with oil in the combustion chamber. It then expands through the gas turbine and exhausts to atmosphere. The system is termed open cycle because the working fluid (air) is drawn from the atmosphere at the beginning of the cycle and returned to atmosphere at the end of the cycle. The term simple is used because the plant has no additional features such as heat exchangers, reheaters, intercoolers, and so on.

Fig.7

Closed Cycle Operation

The simple, open cycle can be modified so that the working fluid is contained and re-circulated within the system, rather than being drawn

in from and exhausted to the atmosphere. Atmospheric air may be, however, used in the combustor and heat exchanger to heat the recirculating working fluid. Fig. 8 shows a closed cycle gas turbine system. Starting at the inlet of the compressor, the working fluid is pressurized, as in the open cycle, but it is then pre-heated in a regenerator by the hot exhaust gases from the turbine exhaust before its main heating process in the air heater. The air heater is a heat exchanger in which hot combustion gases, from the burning of a fuel, transfer heat to the working fluid. The fluid then expands through the turbine. To be re-used, the hot gases at the exit of the turbine must be cooled before compression. To accomplish this, the gases give up their residual heat, first in the regenerator (where they preheat the working fluid en-route to the air heater) and then in the cooler, where they exchange heat with cooling water. Closed cycle systems are associated with modifications whose purpose is to increase the net power output and thermal efficiency of the equipment, which is discussed more thoroughly in Objective 4. In that section, more detail will be given regarding the purpose and operation of the regenerator and air heater shown in Fig. 10.

Fig.8 Closed cycle operation

Closed Cycle System Advantages

Higher pressures can be used throughout the cycle and therefore higher densities of the working fluid are obtained. This increases the output of the machine for the same physical dimensions. The working fluid is clean, and does not cause corrosion or erosion of the turbine. The working fluid need not support combustion and may be chosen for its superior thermodynamic properties. A cheap fuel may be used.

Closed Cycle System Disadvantages

A supply of cooling water is required. Heat-exchanger efficiencies are considerably lower than those of direct internal combustion. The complexity, size, and cost of the system have been considerably increased.

Efficiency And Rating Of Gas Turbines

Gas turbines are normally rated in terms of the power produced at the output shaft where it connects to the generator or compressor. The power rating specified by the manufacturer will be in kilowatts, at a standard of 15C and at sea level, using natural gas as a fuel, air with 60% humidity and with no intake or exhaust losses. Thermal efficiency is the ratio in % of the rated power and the fuel energy rate. The fuel energy rate is calculated by multiplying the fuel flow rate by the lower heating value of the fuel. Modern gas turbines are able to reach efficiencies of 35% to 40% in simple cycle mode without the cycle improvements or combined cycle described below.

Cycle Improvements
In order to improve the efficiency of the basic gas turbine cycle, three methods, or a combination of them, can be implemented. As simple

cycle gas turbines are improving in efficiency, these cycle improvements are becoming less necessary as combined cycle, utilizing waste heat for other purposes, is becoming more prevalent. Since these cycle improvements are generally not applied to aircraft engines because of the weight penalty involved, aero-derivative engines are usually not able to use them. The three possibilities for improving the gas turbine cycle intercooling, regeneration and reheat - are shown together in Fig. 9.

Regeneration
The most common cycle improvement is regeneration where exhaust heat is used to increase the temperature of compressed air before combustion. This is accomplished by installing a heat exchanger in the exhaust to preheat the air between the compressor and the combustors. This approach, which is becoming less common, allows the efficiency of the gas turbine to be improved by 15-20%. Disadvantages are the increased capital cost and the fact that there are increased pressure losses with the newer high-pressure ratio compressors. Instead, many installations now use the exhaust heat for combined cycle or cogeneration.

Figure 9 Intercooling, Reheat And Regeneration

Intercooling
In some gas turbine arrangements, the compression of the inlet air is done in two stages with the air being cooled between the stages in a heat exchanger (intercooler). Since isothermal compression (compression without an increase in temperature) takes less work than adiabatic compression (compression where no heat is removed so that the air temperature increases), more of the turbine power will be available for the output load. Another advantage of intercooling is that the specific volume of the air is reduced, permitting a smaller physical size for the machine. The beneficial effect of intercooling decreases as pressure ratio increases. A high-pressure ratio also means that losses through the intercooler become more significant. Using an intercooler is more

beneficial if it is combined with regeneration as more of the exhaust heat will be recovered and this will improve the overall cycle efficiency. The intercooler is a shell and tube heat exchanger similar in construction to the regenerator. Cooling water passes through the tubes while the air passes over the outside of the tubes. In some cases the air may pass through tubes surrounded by water.

Reheat
In addition to compressing the air in two stages and intercooling between these stages, the gas turbine plant may also be arranged to expand the hot gases in two stages, with the gases being reheated between the stages. The gases are expanded first in a high-pressure turbine and then reheated before entering a low-pressure turbine. The location of the reheater is shown in Fig. 9. The effect of this reheating is to increase the energy content of the gases and thus improve the thermal efficiency of the cycle. As a result, less air must be compressed to do the same amount of work. The reheating is done by burning fuel in a second combustion chamber using the excess oxygen content of the gases from the high-pressure turbine for combustion.

Combined Cycle
Gas turbines can be integrated into a wide variety of combined cycle or cogeneration systems. Many of these are in use today, and their utilization is increasing. These systems usually extract the exhaust heat from the gas turbine by means of a heat exchanger, usually a type of boiler. Steam is produced, which can be used to drive a steam turbine, or to provide steam for process plant purposes or other heating applications. The steam turbine can be connected to the same generator as the gas turbine, another generator, a compressor or some other mechanical drive. An example is shown in Fig. 10.

Figure 10 A Typical Combined Cycle

Objective Three
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe the types of gas turbine shafts and gas turbine main component and it types, also main components of the turbine and its types

SHAFT TYPES SINGLE SHAFT

In the single shaft arrangements shown in Fig. 11, the compressor, turbine and load are all connected and rotate at the same speed. The more common situation is for the load to be connected to the turbine, as shown in Fig. 11(a) and Fig. 12. Another arrangement, as shown in Fig. 11(b) and Fig. 13, is for the load to be connected to the compressor.

(a) Figure 11 Single Shaft Layouts

(b)

Fig. 12

1. Fresh Air 2. Compressor 3. Combustion Chamber 4. Burners

5. Flame Cylinder 6. Turbine 7. Gas Turbine Exhaust Gas 8. Generator

Figure 13 Single Shaft Gas Turbine Arrangement (Courtesy of Siemens)

Dual Shaft
In the dual shaft arrangement shown in Fig. 14, the compressor is driven by a high pressure turbine while the load is driven by a low pressure turbine with no mechanical linkage between the low pressure and the high pressure turbines. A single-shaft arrangement is used for power generation where a constant speed is required but is rarely used for other applications. It is mechanically simpler than a two-shaft arrangement, but requires a large starting motor. This is because, during start-up, the compressor of a gas turbine must provide a threshold air pressure for ignition in the combustor. In single shaft systems, the starting motor must turn the turbine and load mass, as well as the compressor, whereas in two-shaft arrangements, the starting motor does not have to turn the load mass along with the compressor. The advantage of this arrangement is greater flexibility. The load may be operated at varying speeds while the compressor speed remains constant. Conversely, the load speed may be constant as in the case of a generator while the compressor speed may be varied. Another advantage of the dual shaft machine is that a smaller starting motor may be used, as during start-up it is only necessary to turn the compressor and the high-pressure turbine.

Figure 14 Dual Shaft Arrangement

Compressor Types
A highly efficient and capable compressor is critical for the efficient operation of a gas turbine. Two types of compressors are used in gas turbines: Centrifugal or radial Axial In small gas turbines, centrifugal compressors are often used, in combination with several axial stages. The majority of large gas turbines use a multi-stage axial compressor. Since the compressor absorbs up to of the energy provided by the fuel, it must be structurally sound, as well as efficient.

Centrifugal (Radial) Compressors

These compressors take air in at the center or eye of the rotor. Due to the high rotational speeds of the rotor, the air is accelerated by the blades and forced radially to the edge of the rotor at high velocity by centrifugal force. There, the air is received by the diffuser, which in turn, converts the high velocity to pressure energy. The components of a centrifugal compressor rotor are shown in Fig.14. A multistage centrifugal compressor design is shown in Fig. 15. Advantages of the radial or centrifugal compressor are simplicity, strength and short length.

Figure 14 Centrifugal Compressor

Figure 15 Multistage Centrifugal Compressor Rotor

Axial Compressors
This type of compressor operates on a principle similar to a turbine, but acting in reverse. The moving blades act upon the air so as to increase its velocity and discharge it axially into the next row of fixed blades, rather as though each moving blade was a small section of a propeller. The fixed blades tend to slow the air down in its passage through them and so raise its pressure. If the moving blades are properly shaped, they will cause the air to be compressed in its passage through them so that compression takes place in both fixed and moving blading. If the pressure rise in each is equal, the compressor is symmetrically staged and is similar to a reaction turbine (in reverse). An axial flow compressor rotor is shown in Fig. 16.

Figure 16 Multi-Stage Axial Compressor Rotor

Combustors
The combustion chamber, or combustor, in the open cycle gas turbine is used to heat the working air after its discharge from the compressor and before entry to the gas turbine. It must do this with a minimum loss of pressure and with the minimum of combustion impurities since these will be carried with the air into the turbine blading. About 20 per cent of the air entering the combustor is mixed with the fuel in the flame tube as combustion air; the remainder - 80% - flows on the outside of the tube and services as cooling air. The temperature of the burning gases in the tube will be 1370C to 1650C but the final mixture of the air and hot gas leaving the combustor is limited to the temperature that the turbine blading can withstand over its working life. This is about 650 to 700C in present day practice so that the cooling air and hot gas must be thoroughly mixed before leaving the combustor. Some of the gas turbine designs use a single, large volume combustor and others a series of smaller combustors disposed radially around the engine between the compressor and the turbine. Generally the large combustion chamber will be used when a regenerator is included in the

plant or where heavy oil is to be the fuel used. Fig. 17 shows a section of a combustion chamber of the single type as used by Brown Boveri. The air inlet is located low down and the air flows upwards between the inner and outer jackets. Approximately halfway up, some of the air is mixed with the combustion gases through adjustable mixing nozzle. The remaining air serves to cool the telescopically arranged cylindrical sections forming the inner tube, finally flowing through the annular spaces between sections. Almost 20% of the total inlet air reaches the top of the combustor and enters the swirler to act as combustion air for the fuel. An electrically heated ignition rod is positioned close to the swirler.

Figure 17 Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber

Fig. 18 illustrates a section through a combustor used by Associated Electrical Industries (Canada) Ltd. Six of these combustors are used on a machine of 6.5 MW output burning natural gas or distillate oil. Each combustor is made up of an inner chamber, which is carried on radial pins to allow relative expansion, and an outer casing.

Interconnecting pipes are provided between the six combustors to give uniform combustion conditions and to carry the flame from one to the other during the starting sequence, only two of the combustors carry igniter elements.

Figure 18 Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber Arrangement

Types Of Combustors
There are three basic designs for combustors:

Can-annular Annular Single-can

Can-Annular
In the can-annular design, combustion takes place in multiple combustors, also called combustion cans, which are placed around the centerline of the gas turbine. Some are straight through, as shown in Fig. 19. Usually these are older aero-derivative designs where minimum frontal area is important.

The advantage of a Can setup is that problems associated with aerodynamics and combustion, such as non-uniform outlet temperatures, are minimized. The disadvantages are that multiple igniters and fuel lines are required and also that the 'Can' setup is not the most efficient use of space in an annular volume.

Figure 19 Straight Through Can-Annular Combustor (Courtesy Rolls Royce)

Annular
This type of combustion chamber, shown in Fig. 20, consists of a single concentric flame tube surrounding the spools. This is the most efficient use of the space available to the airflow. The main advantage of the annular combustion chamber is that for the same power output, there is

up to 25 % reduction in the weight. As a single large combustion chamber, the combustion process is more evenly distributed in the tube.

Figure 20 Annular Combustor Cross Section

Single Can
Chambers are arranged around the engine and the air is delivered into ducts in each chamber. Each chamber has an inner flame tube. All the tubes are interconnected which allows each tube to operate at the same pressure. The early axial flow compressor engines used this type of chamber. The burners are arranged in a circular fashion around the engine. Each chamber has a separate flame tube although they are all interconnected. Each tube operates at the same pressure, which provides identical operating conditions.

Fig. 21 Cans type combustion chambers

Combustion Chamber Parts and Operation

Most of the commonly used combustors or combustion chambers are designed with several main parts and areas so that combustion is continuous and complete The Parts of the Combustor are(Fig.22): The Combustion Chamber housing (Combustor) is the outside housing The Combustion Chamber Liner (Flame Tubes) is the inside of the housing The Fuel Nozzle (Fuel Injector, Atomizer, or Vaporizer) injects the fuel The Igniter Ignites the Fuel/Air Mixture The air swirler for good mixing between the air and fuel

Fig. 22 Combustion chamber components

The zones in the combustion chamber (Fig. 22)

There are three zones in the combustion chamber as following: The primary zone: is the first part of the combustion chamber liner where fuel is injected and ignition begins The secondary zone: is where combustion continues and begins to mix with the secondary air Dilution zone: is where combustion should be complet but secondary air is mixed with the burnt gases

The Primary And Secondary Air Primary air is air that enters the combustion liner (flame Tube) to be mixed with fuel and burnt. The Secondary air is the air that has no part in the combustion process , it moves around the outside of the liner (Flame Tube) to control the temp. of the liner. In the intermediate zone the secondary air will enter the liner through small holes. In dilution zone the air will become completely mixed with the burned gases through large holes in the liner.

Turbine Types
Turbine Basic Theory
The turbine extracts power from the hot gases supplied from the combustion section by decreasing pressure and temperature. It is used first to drive the compressor and then provides mechanical power for the generator, compressor or other load. As was discussed earlier, the turbine may be split into one, two or even three separate sections and shafts. Similar to compressors, turbines can be of the axial-flow or radial-inflow type although axial-flow turbines are much more common. Turbines operate at very high temperatures, high blade loading and large rotational stresses.

Axial-Flow Turbines
Because energy can be extracted much more efficiently, fewer stages are needed in the turbine than in the compressor. In the axial-flow turbine, a stage consists of a row of stationary blades, usually called nozzle guide vanes or nozzles, and a row of rotating blades, sometimes called buckets. The nozzles increase the velocity with a partial pressure drop and the moving blades extract power with a further drop in pressure and temperature. This design is usually of the impulse or reaction type. In impulse turbines, the nozzles decrease in area to convert pressure into velocity and this kinetic energy is used to drive the turbine, which is of constant area. With reaction turbines, the nozzles are of constant area and serve only to redirect the flow at the right angle for the turbine blades, which have divergent passages to reduce pressure and increase velocity. All gas turbines utilize turbines of the impulsereaction type, which is a combination of the two.

Basic Turbine Principles

There are several laws of nature that apply to the operation of gas turbines. The most important ones are Newtons third law Bernoullis principle.

Newtons Third Law (Fig. 23)

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The recoil from firing a shotgun is a good example of this law in action. As the bullet leaves the barrel ( action) there is a force against the hunters shoulder ( reaction ) . When this is applied to a turbine, the gas accelerates through the reaction blading, pushing back on the blades as it leaves.

Fig. 23 Bernoullis Principle (Fig. 24)

Fig. 24

If a fluid flowing through a tube reaches a constriction of the tube, the velocity of the fluid flowing through the constriction increases and the pressure decreases

Turbine Blades Types And Function

The key to the operation of the gas turbine is the shape of the blades that are used on the turbine wheels and the nozzles that direct the gases toward the blades. The following will be an examination of each of theses types of blades and nozzles and how they harness the energy from the hot moving gases.

Impulse Blades
The gases pass through a nozzle before they strike the turbine blades (Fig. 25) the nozzles are arranged to direct the hot expanding gases at the best angle possible to harness their energy. Impulse blades harness the energy of high-velocity gases only by the change in direction of the gases. Impulse blades are symmetrical and have the blades tips parallel with the rotating shaft. The blades are arranged around the circumference of the wheel. The space between the adjacent blades forms a channel with a uniform path from entry to exit. The significance of this uniform path is what when gases pass through there will not be a change in pressure or velocity but only a change in direction if the blades are stationary. If the impulse blades are moving, there were only be a change in velocity because some of the energy will be transferred to the moving blade. Thus, the energy transferred to the rotating blade is only due to a change in direction, which give the wheel an impulse. Sometimes impulse blades are stationary and are used as re-directional blades. In this situation there would be no pressure or velocity drop but only a change in direction of the gas. When you look at the construction of impulse blades you will notice that they tend to be thicker, shorter, and stronger than reaction blading because they absorb more force.

Fig. 25 Impulse Blading

Reaction blades
The gases pass through nozzles before they strike the turbine blades (Fig.25). Reaction blades are not symmetrical and their tips are not parallel to the shaft. There is also an unequal distance between adjacent blades from entry to exit. The distance gets smaller as the gas passes between the blades. This causes the gases to accelerate as they pass through the reaction type blading. This creates a pressure drop from entry to exit of the blades (Bernoullis principle). Due to the acceleration of the gases and the pressure difference, a reaction force is produced as the gases pass through the moving blades. Reaction blades will also receive an impulse from the gases due to the change in direction or the gases as they pass through the blades. (In truth, reaction blades harnesses power by impulse and reaction principles, but are only called Reaction.)

Fig. 26 Reaction Blading

Turbine Blade Profile

Fig. 27A & B represents the profile of a typical turbine blade which uses both impulse and reaction principles. At the base (root) of the turbine blade, the blade will be shaped like an impulse blade, but closer to the tip; the blade will resemble reaction blading, this will make the blade appear twisted from the base to the tip section. Providing both impulse and reaction shapes in the blades.

Fig. 27-A

Fig.27-B

Blade And Disc Cooling

The nozzles (stationary blading) direct the hot gases onto the rotor blades. Rotor blades harness the energy of the hot hi velocity gases by changing it into rotating mechanical energy, the blades and discs get very hot, because both the nozzles and turbine blades are subjected to extreme temperatures. To combat the heat, larger turbines have internally air cooled blades and discs to reduce these thermal stresses (Fig28).

Fig. 28- Air-cooling for turbine blades Many gas turbines use air-cooled (and sometimes water-cooled) blades to reduce metal temperature and increase life. Air is supplied from the compressor section, circulated through the blade and then extracted through holes in the leading edge, trailing edge and surface of each blade (Fig.29). The incorporation of complicated cooling passages in turbine nozzles and blades is also a major manufacturing challenge that has resulted in many special techniques and methods.

This cooling can reduce blade temperature by as such as 300 C (572 F) Fig. 30. By cooling both the turbine and nozzles blades, higher combustion temperatures are allowed which make for a higher power, more efficient, and longer lasting turbine engine.

Fig. 29- Air-cooling for turbine section

Fig. 30- typical turbine blade temperatures not cooled and air-cooled.

Turbine Assembly
The turbine assembly has two main parts: Nozzles (stationary) often called turbine nozzles vans, turbine guide vans, nozzles diaphragm, or nozzle guide vans. Fig. 32 Turbine rotor (rotating turbine wheels) Fig.31A & B The turbine assembly harnesses the power of the hot expanding gases. The turbine has to withstand the greatest stress from the heating and loading. Large turbine is usually axial flow with alternating rows of rotating and stationary blades (nozzles). The blading arrangement for gas turbine is very similar in appearance of that a steam turbine and the same principles of expansion through the blades apply. You will notice that each consecutive turbine wheel is larger than the previous one. This is required to handle the increased volume of gas as it is expanded in the nozzles and turbine blades.

Fig. 31-A

Fig. 31-B Turbine rotor assembly

Fig. 32 Nozzles diaphragm

Methods Of Mounting The Blades On A Rotor

The rotor discs are welded or bolted to a low allow steel shaft. The turbine exerts a high torque load on the shaft, which then exerts a high torque load on the compressor. The blades on the rotor discs are attached and locked securely to the rotor with sufficient clearance to allow for thermal expansion Fig. 33 The turbine rotor assembly is dynamically balanced because of high rotational speeds. The speed range of most industrial turbines is from 3,600 RPM to 9,000 RPM. Some small gas turbine may be up to 42,000 RPM. These high rotational speeds impose severe centrifugal loads on the wheels. The temperature are also severe, form 1050 F to 2300 F, which lower the strength of the materials. For this reason the engine speed and temp. are controlled within safe limits by the governor and the fuel system.

Fig. 33 Method of mounting blades on a rotor

Turbine Materials
The greatest challenges in gas turbine materials are existed in the turbine nozzles and blades, particularly the first stage. Conventional nozzles are cast with special nickel-based super alloys such as Inconel, Udimet, Waspalloy and Hastelloy. Gas turbine blading is made of heat resisting steel, forged and machined to shape.. The stresses in the turbine rotors and blading are high because of the high gas temperatures. In order to withstand this, the rotors are made from heat resisting steel and, owing to the difficulty of making large forgings of this material, the rotors are generally made up of discs bolted or welded together. Fig. 34, (a) and (b), show a Westinghouse Gas turbine rotor of bolted construction.

(a)

(b) Figure 34 Gas Turbine Rotor Of Bolted Construction

Special casting techniques are now able to manufacture superior strength and temperature resistance. Ceramic components are becoming a reality and will allow a significant increase in firing temperatures. At very high temperatures and stresses, materials suffer from a phenomenon called creep. This is a stretching of a material over time, which opens up voids and ultimately causes catastrophic rupture and failure of turbine blades. This usually requires replacement of turbine blades at a fixed interval, typically between 75,000 and 100,000 hours of operation.

Objective Four
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe the other components of the gas turbine and its function, also gas turbine systems in general description

Intake and Exhaust

A gas turbine always has an air intake that filters the air to remove contaminants and prevent damage from foreign objects. The intake plenum ensures smooth flow into the gas turbine compressor section. Since cooler air is denser than warm air, some air intakes incorporate special cooling systems to decrease the air inlet temperature. This increase in air density means that more mass can flow through the turbine and therefore produce more power. The exhaust system provides a safe exit for the hot exhaust gases and may include a silencer to reduce sound to acceptable limits. The exhaust may also flow to a waste heat recovery heat exchanger to supply heat to some other process at the overall facility. This will be discussed later in this module. Both the intake and exhaust need to operate with the lowest possible pressures losses to minimize resultant losses in power and efficiency.

Fig. 35 inlet and exhaust ducting for industrial gas turbine

Air seals
In gas turbine, labyrinth seals are used as shaft seals on both the compressor and turbine. These seals work the best, because of the high rotational speed, high temperatures, and high surface speeds encountered in the gas turbine. Labyrinth seals are often assisted in sealing by jets of air routed from the compressor section. (Fig. 36)

Fig. 36- Turbine bearing lubrication with air seals (labyrinth Seals)

Air bleed valve and IGV

Inlet guide vanes (IGV)
The inlet guide vanes is the first three or four stationary blades in the air compressor, however they are fabricated so as they can be moved together to change there angles for controlling the flow of the air entering the air compressor during start up and acceleration, this will minimize the load of the air compressor during start up and will save power for better acceleration, once the speed of the gas generator turbine reached a certain speed the IGV should be opened completely to allow the air to enter the air compressor in full capacity. The variable IGV is used also to prevent surge of the air compressor by controlling the angle of attack to be adjusted under variable speeds.

Air Bleed Valve (Blow Off Valve)

The air bleed valve(s) is located on a certain intermediate stage(s) of the air compressor, it bleeds the air from this stage(s) to the atmosphere, the air bleed valve is normally opened at Shutdown case (zero GG turbine speed), then when the GG speed begins to increase the air bleed valve begins to close at certain speed. It became full closed before the loading speed.

The air bleed valve function is to minimize the deferential pressure across the air compressor during the start u to prevent the surge condition.

Fuel Nozzles (injectors, atomizer, vaporizer)

The fuel injectors is used to spray the fuel in a fine mist for combustion. Fuel injectors can also be called atomizers or vaporizers. Some combustion chambers have spiral vanes before the injector to cause the combustion air to swirl and mix with the fuel. The fuels used in the gas turbine are either liquids or gas. Liquid fuel: are injected into the combustor in two basic methods: The first is to use an atomizer, which spray a fine mist into the chamber. The fuel is burned in this form. This is the usual system. The second way is to vaporize the fuel with the heat in the combustion chamber. Fuel is metered into a tube surrounded by combustion gases that evaporate the fuel. The fuel mixture is discharged into the combustion chamber where it is mixed with more air and ignited. Gaseous fuel: will use larger injector nozzles than liquid fuels because the fuels are already in a vapor form. Some combustion chambers can change from gaseous fuels to oil fuels (kerosene) during operation without any adverse effect. Gas turbine can use almost any fuel for combustion, but because distillate fuels ( such as heavy residual oils) leave residue downstream, gaseous fuels are preferred. Liquid fuels can also cause serious damage to the turbine blades if the atomizer is not working properly. This happens when the burning liquid is not completely atomized. Unburned fuel travels to the turbine where it will pit and wear down the blades.

The Gas Turbine Package

The gas turbine is normally located in a closed enclosure to protect it form the environment and also for fire and gas leakage detection To prevent the enclosure interior from excessive heating a cooling fan is used to provide ventilation and also pressurization inside the enclosure . Many instrumentations are equipped with the enclosure, the most important one is the fire fighting system which consist of (UV) detectors to detect any fire, fire control panel and fire extinguisher (Halon- CO2 FOG system) Also gas detection system is equipped with the enclosure to detect any gas leaks inside the package.

Both of the fire system and gas detection system initiates fast stop shutdown when fire or gas leak occurred.

Gas turbine controls and auxiliary systems

The gas turbine control system determines what happens during all operating conditions including start-up, run and shutdown. The turbine must also have auxiliary support system that keeps the keep the turbine operating. Auxiliary systems and control system can become extremely complex. Every operation and function of the turbine is monitored and will have a shutdown sequence if there is a malfunction in the system. These protection systems monitor the performance of the turbine. Any malfunctions are detected engine will shutdown by the appropriate system. Auxiliary systems help the turbine run more efficiently within its design specifications. The main systems are: Governor control Lubrication system Fuel system Starting system Cooling system Instrumentation and control

Governor control
The governors purpose is to automatically control the turbine speed under varying loads. The governor provides automatic regulation of fuel and compressor vanes (where applicable) for both starting and normal operation of the gas turbine.

Lubrication system
The lubrication system supplies oil to the bearings for lubrication and cooling. Depending on the turbine size, the lube oil may be used for hydraulic operation of its control. Synthetic oils with low viscosity and high viscosity index are recommended for gas turbine because of there high quality and better resistance to high temperatures and oxidation than petroleum based oils.

Fuel system
For liquid fuel a storage tank is required, fuel pump, and filters. The filters are required to remove solids in the fuel as they could damage the blades. Some fuels contain sulfur and other metals, which may corrode the internal parts of the turbine.

Fuels for gas turbines

Solid fuels (experimental) Coal, Wood, Peat Natural gas fuel (Methane and some Ethane) Natural gas is the ideal fuel for gas turbine but not practical for mobile applications. The gas is very clean so no contaminants to cause blade deposits, also no vaporization is required. LPG (Propane) LPG has excellent burning characteristics like natural gas, however the cost is more than the natural gas Liquid fuels Alcohol Kerosene Gasoline Stove Oil Diesel Heavy residual oil Blend of diesel and gas ( most common)

Starting system
A gas turbine is not self-starting, thus a starting motor in an essential auxiliary item. On the start up the gas turbine needs a large supply of high-pressure air. To get this the gas turbine should be rotated to about 20%-30% of its maximum speed before the fuel is turned on. This is done to give sufficient air compression so that when the fuel in injected flame is traveling in correct direction and so the gas turbine will have enough power to drive the air compressor and maintain the speed increase

Cooling systems
Cooling system will keep the hot sections and lube oil in safe operating range. This system can be air cooled or liquid cooled, the internal blading and discs will be cooled by the secondary air.

Instrumentation and control

Protective devices, such as pressure & temperature switches, pressure & temperature sensors, vibration detectors, and speed protection devices is often used to protect the gas turbine from any abnormal conditions. Other instrumentation is used for display and indications of some operating parameters such as: RPM of the turbine RPM of the GG (Gas generator) Inlet air temperature Gas temperature before the turbine Gas temperature after the turbine Exhaust temperature Lube oil pressure Lube oil temperature Vibration levels

Objective Five
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe the types of bearings used in a gas turbine and explain the components, operation, protective devices and routine maintenance of a typical lube oil system.

Lube Oil Systems

Almost all gas turbines have a lube oil system that lubricates the bearings that support the rotor or rotors. Aero-derivative gas turbines normally use antifriction bearings which require only a small lube oil system. Heavy-duty gas turbines use radial bearings that necessitate a larger lube oil system. Micro turbines are an exception and, because of their small size, are able to operate with air bearings that do not require a lube oil system. Gas turbine installations may have more than one lube oil system. These are the major configurations:

Some heavy-duty gas turbines, such as those manufactured by Solar Turbines, have a single integrated lube oil system that serves the gas turbine, power turbine, gearbox and driven equipment (compressor or generator) Other heavy-duty gas turbines have a lube oil system for the gas turbine and power turbine but incorporate a separate lube oil system for the load device Most aero-derivatives require separate lube oil systems for the engine and for the power turbine and load

All lube oil systems provide two basic functions:

Lubricate sliding surfaces in the bearings Cool the bearings; especially those located close to the combustion and turbine sections of the gas turbine

All oil systems consist of these basic components:

An oil reservoir to ensure an adequate supply of oil Filters to ensure the oil is clean Pumps to provide pressure Coolers to ensure oil temperatures are kept within operating limits Protective, monitoring and control devices

Bearings
Gas turbines use two different types of bearings:

Antifriction (roller and/or ball) bearings which are common in aero-derivative gas turbines because rotors are light enough Radial (journal or tilt-pad) bearings for heavy-duty gas turbines that have heavier rotors

Fig. 37 illustrates an antifriction (roller) bearing. It features a special squeeze film to dampen the bearing and increase its life. This engine also uses ball bearings for thrust.

Figure 37 Antifriction Bearing The Antifriction Bearing has two shafts (rotors) and uses a total of 5 bearings two thrust (ball) bearings and three radial loads (roller) bearings. Heavy-duty gas turbines require bearings, which can take higher loads. Although standard journal bearings have been used in the past, the most common type of radial bearing used today is the tilt-pad bearing. Fig. 38-A shows a bearing, which has five tilting pads on individual pivot pins. A tilt-pad thrust bearing can be seen in Fig. 38-B. On a typical dual-shaft heavy-duty gas turbine, bearings will be located on the front end of the compressor, at the end of the compressor, before the turbine and after the power turbine. Thrust bearings will be positioned at the front end of the compressor and next to the power turbine bearings (one for each shaft).

Figure 38-A Typical Radial Tilt-Pad Bearing (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Figure 38-B Typical Tilt-Pad Thrust Bearing (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Aero-Derivative Gas Turbine Lube Oil System

Fig. 40 shows a typical lube oil system for an aero-derivative gas turbine used for power generation. It lubricates the bearings of both turbine sections the compressor turbine and the power turbine. The lubrication of the load (driven) equipment is handled by a separate system. This oil system is divided into two sections: a supply system and a scavenge system. The scavenge system returns the oil from the bearings to the supply and treating equipment. All piping, fittings and reservoir are Type 304 Stainless Steel to prevent corrosion. The system uses synthetic oil suitable for high temperatures. The oil reservoir contains approximately 500 litres in a 568 litre tank.

Protection devices are fitted against low oil level and low oil temperature. A thermostatically controlled heater is included and ensures a minimum temperature is maintained while the unit is not operating, to facilitate easy starting. A positive displacement pump driven by an auxiliary gearbox on the engine provides the required pressure to the bearings. After the pump, the oil is filtered by a duplex, full flow filter that allows filter change out while running. High oil temperature, low oil pressure and high filter differential pressure switches protect the oil supply.

Figure 39 Typical Lube Oil System The oil flows through the bearings and accumulates in the bearing sumps. The oil temperature is measured at each scavenge line in case

of bearing problems. Chip detectors are often located in the sumps to detect metal particles from the bearings. If a bearing becomes damaged, metal particles will become entrained in the oil. The chip detector is basically a magnet that attracts these metallic particles and detects when they accumulate on the magnet. Upon alarm, the detector is removed and inspected to diagnose the type and extent of bearing damage. Scavenge pumps, also driven by the auxiliary gearbox of the turbine, provide the pressure for the oil to flow through another set of filters and then through duplex, water-cooled coolers that are thermostatically controlled. The oil then flows back to the reservoir.

Heavy-duty Gas Turbine Lube Oil System

The lube oil system shown in Fig. 40 is typical for a heavy-duty gas turbine with one integrated oil system for the gas turbine, gearbox and driven equipment. The oil reservoir is much larger than for aero-derivative gas turbines. It normally contains mineral oil, which does not have as high a temperature capability as synthetic oil, but is more economic. Generally, oil temperatures are not as high in heavy-duty gas turbines since the oil flow is greater. Oil heating may be supplied if required. Oil pressure is supplied during normal operation by a main lube oil pump driven from the accessory drive mounted on the front of the compressor shaft. Prior to startup and on shutdown, a motor driven pre/post lube oil pump supplies oil pressure. This pump runs for a period of time after shutdown to cool and lubricate the bearings and prevent damage. A third pump using another source of energy (for example a direct current motor supplied by batteries) is available as backup in case of power loss or pre/post lube oil pump failure. The oil is cleaned with duplex filters that allow filter replacement during operation. There is a differential pressure alarm and pressure gauge. The oil is then cooled prior to entering the bearings by either an air or water cooler. At the lube oil header, there is protection against high oil temperature and low oil pressure. The oil drains back into the oil reservoir using gravity. The oil

temperature is also normally measured in the drains to monitor bearing health.

Figure 40 Lube Oil System for a Typical Gas Turbine (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Hydraulic System
A hydraulic pump is sometimes provided after the main lube oil pump to supply high pressure oil for the actuation of the main turbine instrumentation for controlling speed and load. The location of the connection for this point is shown in Fig. 5 by an asterisk (*), located just after a filter branching off of the main lube oil line, immediately downstream of the main lube pump. The hydraulic system is typically the medium through which the turbine speed sensor sends its signal to the speed control valve that modulates the fuel flow to the turbine, as well as to the variable inlet and stator vanes, and bleed valves.

Oil System Maintenance

Oil systems are relatively maintenance free and automatic protection is usually provided against common problems. Maintenance consists of:

Checking for oil leaks (usually daily) Monitoring oil pressures and temperatures (usually daily) Checking chip detectors when they alarm Topping up the oil reservoir or secondary lube oil tank. Often a second supply tank with an automatic slow fill valve and level control keeps the reservoir filled. Changing oil filters when the differential pressure alarms Cleaning the cooler externally Taking oil samples regularly for analysis and replacing oil when required Calibrating instrumentation and testing protective devices

System temperatures and pressures, and the status of pumps, filters and coolers, are usually monitored and displayed on computer screens. This type of interface may also be used to start or stop the lubrication and hydraulic system pumps.

Objective Six
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe and explain the operation and routine maintenance of a typical fuel gas supply system for a gas turbine.

Natural Gas Fuel

Natural gas is the best fuel for gas turbines since it promotes the most efficient combustion and produces the lowest environmental emissions. Engine life is also the longest with clean natural gas. It has to be within a specified range of heating values and be free of liquid contaminants. Natural gas is often heated to ensure no liquids are present. If fuel with a low energy value is used, special fuel nozzles and combustors have to be installed and the fuel gas system has to be adapted because of the corresponding requirement for higher flow rates.

Fuel Gas System

The fuel gas system shown in Fig. 41 is typical for most gas turbines. A fuel gas compressor is shown in case extra compression is required to boost a low pressure fuel source. The pressure of the fuel gas has to be higher than the compressed air delivered to the combustion section. A pressure regulator and relief valve are also installed to ensure steady fuel pressures at the combustor. Low and high pressure switches protect against over or under pressure conditions. A fuel filter is then installed to ensure contaminants do not enter the fuel system. Some systems also have a heat exchanger to remove liquids and increase fuel temperature to required levels. A fuel gas flow meter is installed to enable the determination of fuel consumption but is otherwise not needed for fuel control. The fuel flow rate is measured and controlled by the fuel metering valve which is the most important component of the fuel gas system. It ensures that the right amount of fuel is provided for the operating conditions. It is precisely controlled to ensure that the maximum turbine

temperature is not exceeded. It is an essential component of the startup and shutdown sequence. The rate at which the fuel valve is opened or closed is also limited to prevent temperature increases that might damage the turbine. Additional shutoff valves are provided for emergency purposes.

Figure 41 Typical Fuel Gas System (Courtesy General Electric) Fig 42 shows a typical fuel valve. They are normally electrically controlled with hydraulic actuation but electrically actuated valves are starting to become common.

Figure 42 Typical Fuel Gas Metering Valve (Courtesy General Electric)

Routine Maintenance
Fuel gas systems are relatively maintenance free and automatic protection is usually provided against common problems. Maintenance consists of:

Checking for fuel gas leaks (usually daily) Monitoring pressures and temperatures (usually daily) Changing fuel filters at the required differential pressure Calibrating instrumentation and testing protective devices

Fig. 43 shows a typical computer control system display used for monitoring a fuel system. Since the unit is stopped, the valves are in the closed position except for the vent valves. The 310 valve is a pressure regulator, the 20F12 valve is the main shutoff valve and the 65BA valve is the fuel metering valve.

Figure 43 Monitoring Screen for the Fuel Gas Control System (Courtesy Rolls Royce)

Liquid Fuels
The gas turbine can operate on a wide range of liquid fuels including:

Distillates, such as kerosene, for which no fuel treatment is required

Blended heavy distillates and low ash crudes, which require some treatment Residuals and heavy ash crudes that require considerable cleaning and treatment The life of the gas turbine (in terms of time between maintenance actions and overhauls) is reduced as the quality of the fuel decreases. Maintenance costs increase as well.

Fuel Oil System

A typical fuel oil system is shown in Fig. 44. The system starts with a fuel storage tank and fuel treatment. Treatment varies with the type of fuel and may include centrifuges, filters, de-watering and chemical treatment. Chemicals that are especially harmful to the turbine section are sodium, potassium and vanadium since they cause rapid corrosion. The cleaned and treated oil is then filtered and pumped to the gas turbine where it is filtered once more. There is a main metering valve with a primary and secondary shutoff valve. At the fuel metering valve, there is an overflow for unused fuel back to the fuel tank. Drains are provided on the fuel manifolds. Protective instrumentation is installed for filter differential pressure and low pressure.

Figure 44 Typical Liquid Fuel System (Courtesy General Electric)

Dual Fuel Systems

Some gas turbine installations feature dual fuel capability so that the operator can switch to a less expensive fuel or as a backup. An example of a dual fuel system is shown in Fig. 45. Liquid fuel is shown entering at the top left of the system, and fuel gas at the lower right. The electronic control unit in the center of the system selects which metering and control system (liquid or gas) will be in operation, and therefore which fuel will be sent to the burners. A special fuel nozzle is required and the control system is more complex to manage the two types of fuels and to accommodate the switchover between them. With some systems, a mixture of gaseous and liquid fuels can be burned simultaneously.

Figure 45 Typical Dual Fuel System (Courtesy Rolls Royce)

Routine Maintenance
Fuel oil systems are relatively maintenance free and automatic protection is usually provided against common problems. If specialized fuel treatment is required (for example when waste products are being used as fuel sources) more maintenance is generally required. Maintenance consists of: Checking for fuel oil leaks (usually daily) Monitoring pressures and temperatures (usually daily) Cleaning centrifuges and other treatment components and replenishing chemicals Changing fuel filters at the required differential pressure Calibrating instrumentation and testing protective devices.

Objective Seven
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Explain the purpose, location and operation of the gas turbine starting motor and turning gear.

Starting Systems
Gas turbines must have a source of power (other than the compressor or load turbines) to provide the initial compression needed for ignition. This power source is used to rotate the large mass of the compressor, and bring it up to the speed necessary to supply combustion air to the combustor. The starting system engages the compressor shaft at the beginning of the start-up. Once ignition has been obtained, this system is disengaged from the compressor shaft. A variety of devices can be used to provide the initial rotation of the main compressor, including:

pneumatic starters using compressed air or gas electric motors small diesel engines steam turbine expanders

Of these, pneumatic starters and electric motors are the most common.

Pneumatic Starters
High-pressure air or gas can be expanded in a small turbine (called a starter motor) to drive the main gas turbine compressor up to ignition conditions. This is a particularly convenient system in remote gas pipeline applications (where the gas turbine itself is used to drive large transmission compressors). The high-pressure pipeline gas is used as the starting gas supply. Fig. 46 and 47 illustrate a pneumatic starter system. In this case a dual starter configuration is used. The user has the option of using air or gas

depending on the most convenient source. The exhaust of the starter motor is normally vented to the atmosphere. The starter transmits power to the front end of the gas turbine rotor by means of an overrunning clutch. The shutoff valve is also pneumatically operated.

Figure 46 Pneumatic Starter System Diagram (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Figure 47 Pneumatic Starter Installation (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Electric Starters
Electric starters consist of an ac motor and a variable frequency drive as shown in Fig. 48and 49, but otherwise operate in the same fashion as a pneumatic starter. The variable frequency drive enables the motor speed to be controlled while still maintaining motor efficiency.

Figure 48 Electric Starter Diagram (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Figure 49 Electric Starter Installation (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

Turning Gear
On larger gas turbines, especially of the heavy-duty type, the rotors are quite heavy and they develop a sag or bow when they cool down after shutdown. If a rotor becomes bowed, the rotor may lock and prevent startup or it may result in high vibration until the bow slowly disappears. To prevent this, a special turning motor is provided to slowly turn the shaft for a number of hours after shutdown. This is sometimes a hydraulic ratchet or a slow turning electric motor. The motor and the

turbine shaft have corresponding gears. The turning motor gear can be engaged or disengaged (normal turbine operation) with the shaft. A similar type of device is used on large steam turbines for their warm-up and cool-down periods.

Objective Eight
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Explain the control of NOX from a gas turbine and describe the purpose and operation of water/steam injection and dry low NOX systems.

Learning Material
Nox Emissions
NOX refers to a family of compounds NO and NO2. They are formed during combustion from the reaction of the oxygen and nitrogen naturally occurring in the air, and are partially responsible for creating acid rain. As can be seen in Fig. 50, the rate of NOX formation decreases exponentially as the temperature decreases. The main way to decrease NOX is to decrease the fuel to air ratio and operate with a lean fuel mixture. However, a decrease in combustion temperature also increases the undesirable formation of CO (carbon monoxide) so a balance has to be achieved.

Figure 50 Dependence of NOX on Combustion Temperature

Water Or Steam Injection Systems

Water or steam injection reduces NOX by dropping the combustion temperature, which drastically reduces the formation of NOX. Either steam or water can be used depending on what is most easily available. Cleanliness and purity of the water or steam is of paramount importance to prevent corrosion of hot section components. The water or steam can be injected into the combustion section through the fuel nozzles or can be premixed with liquid fuels in a separate manifold. Aside from increased corrosion, the main disadvantage of water or steam injection is that, as more water or steam is injected to further reduce NOX, the thermal efficiency is reduced because of the energy transferred to the water or steam. There is also an increase in combustion activity and pulsation, which reduces the life of hot section components. There is, however, an increase in power output that is important to some users. The practical limit for NOX emissions achievable with water or steam injection is 25 ppm for natural gas and 42 ppm for liquid fuels.

Dry Low Nox Combustion Systems

The standard scrubbing method for limiting NOX is now mostly being replaced by dry low NOX (DLN for dry low NOX or DLE for dry low NOX emission) technology, which is able to achieve the lower levels now required. The standard maximum level for NOX in many locations is now 25 ppm and some gas turbines are now able to reach levels of 9 ppm. Dry low NOX combustion systems operate on the principle of lean premixed combustion. Air and fuel are premixed to the proper lean proportion and then combusted at lower temperatures. This requires an increase in combustion area. Fig. 12 shows a DLE configuration. Instead of single fuel nozzles, a triple annulus arrangement is used. They are staged over the operation of the gas turbine so that only one is used at low speeds; another one is activated at medium load and the third one is added at maximum speeds. The extensive solenoid arrangement required to make this work can be seen in Fig.51. Other manufacturers use variations on this approach but the basic principles are the same. In all cases, fuel control becomes more complicated to enable low NOX to be achieved over the entire

operating envelope. Some vendors are also supplying retrofit options for existing equipment. Catalytic systems, either during combustion or after a combined cycle exhaust heat exchanger, offer future possibilities for very low levels of emissions. However, they are still in the research and development stages and will not be commercially viable for some time to come.

Figure 51 Fuel Manifold and Solenoids for Low NOX Combustors (Courtesy General Electric)

Objective Nine
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe the compressor intake and the turbine exhaust components.

Air Intake System

The air intake system ensures that clean air is provided to the gas turbine. To achieve this, air filters are installed in the intake to filter the air. The type of air intake system is dependent on the environmental conditions encountered at the gas turbine location. Special challenges are posed when a gas turbine is installed on an offshore platform, close to the ocean, in a desert or dusty location, or in an arctic environment. The intake system becomes more complicated if intake cooling (to increase power at high ambient temperatures) is required, or if icing conditions may occur. A typical intake system is shown in Fig. 52. Note that in this design, the air intake is positioned above the enclosure both to save space and to place the intake in a higher position where the air may be cleaner. The intake is designed to allow the installation of intake cooling and/or antiicing. The first stage of filtration is a stainless steel screen to prevent entry of major debris. The main filtration is achieved by a series of cylindrical filters mounted inside the air intake.

Fig. 52 Typical Air Intake System (Courtesy General Electric) In the past, many filter systems were based on inertial filtering which consisted of a series of vanes that deflected the air to separate the contaminants, using centrifugal force. The current approach is to use many small cylindrical filters such as the ones shown in Fig. 53. In this system, compressed air is used to backflow individual filters and dislodges the dust that has collected on them. These pulse cleaning systems are commonly called huff and puff, and operate automatically, based on pressure differential. They work well in both dusty and cold weather conditions.

Fig. 53 Pulse Cleaning Filter (Courtesy Donaldson Filters)

Inlet Cooling
Inlet cooling systems that decrease the temperature of the inlet air and thereby increase power output have been available for a long time but are now seeing renewed interest. They are based on the principle of evaporative cooling. When water evaporates, it requires a large amount of latent heat, which is provided by the warmer air. The result is a drop in air temperature. Various methods are used today:

Spray cooling where air is sprayed into the intake in fine droplets Fog cooling where a very fine fog is produced using a high pressure spray Special evaporative pads

Anti-Icing Systems
The formation of ice in the air intake or on the first few stages of the compressor can occur if a combination of temperature and humidity takes place (see Fig. 54). If chunks of ice are ingested into the compressor, major damage can result including catastrophic destruction of the compressor section blading.

Fig. 54 Range of Icing Conditions Anti-icing systems may operate by:

Bleeding air from the compressor and injecting it into the front of the compressor through the nose cone and the first few stator vanes (see Fig 55) Installing heating coils in the air intake Feeding heated air from some other source (such as the exhaust) into the air intake

Introducing warm air into the gas turbine intake will reduce the capacity of the unit, because warm air is less dense than cold air. The increase in air temperature means less mass will flow through the turbine. Because of this, anti-icing systems are activated only when icing conditions are present.

Fig. 55 Anti-Icing System (Courtesy Rolls Royce)

Exhaust System
The exhaust system directs the hot turbine exhaust, at the lowest possible pressure, to a location that is safe for employees and other equipment. It must be designed for the high temperature of the exhaust and be structurally sound. Noise attenuation and silencers may be required to meet local requirements. Care must be taken that the exhaust air does not re-circulate into the air intake since this will result in a loss of maximum power. The exhaust may incorporate a heat exchange for regeneration or combined cycle installations. An example is shown in Fig. 56. Two gas turbines (GTA and GTB) exhaust into a common duct going to the water wall section of a boiler. The Heat Recovery Steam Generator (boiler) tubes are not shown, but they are connected to two steam drums. After leaving the boiler section, the exhaust gas provides heat to an economizer section, which preheats the boiler feedwater, and then travels to the

stack and the atmosphere. Immediately downstream of each of the turbine outlets, there is a diverter damper that permits the air to be exhausted directly to the atmosphere if the steam system is not operative. Prior to the heat recovery system, there is also a supplemental burner system to increase the exhaust temperature and thereby the recovery capacity of the boiler.

Fig. 56 Combined Cycle Exhaust System

Objective Ten
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Explain the types and functions of the control systems and instrumentation needed for gas turbine operation.

Control System types

There many types of control systems, the most common types are Relay logic control system (RLC) Programmable logic control system (PLC) Distribution control system (DCS) Most of the controls systems now are Programmable logic control system (PLC) because it very accurate, more control could be achieved, and the facility to change the programs any time if needed. The Distribution control system (DCS) is commonly used in a large plants which have multi deferent operating units, each one of them perform deferent functions and the DSC is used to indicate, control and maintain the operation synchronization between all of these units. The relay logic control is an old fashion control system however it is very reliable and it is not so complicated like PLC or DCS, also it is often used as backup control system in case of main control system failure.

Control System function

The control system provides automatic operation of the turbomachinery systems to meet the user demand. It allows starting, stopping, loading, and unloading either manually or automatically, and from local or remote locations. The function provided by the control system is: Sequencing

Control Protection Display

The component of the control system

The control system includes the instrumentation and control elements installed in the system, the main control consol, and complete electrical system; all of these components could be electrical, electronics, electromechanical, or electro-hydro-mechanical. For example the microprocessor is a electronic component, also the solenoid valve is an electrometrical device.

Functional Description
Control of a gas turbine is affected by varying the fuel flow to the fuel nozzles according to operating requirements and conditions. Although the final control system configuration varies according to the application and type of fuel used, the block diagram, Fig. 57, shows some of the basic control units common to both liquid and gaseous fuel systems. The supply of pressurized fuel may come from a liquid fuel reservoir and engine-driven gear pumps incorporating a bypass system, or in the case of gaseous systems, directly from a gas supply line through a pressure regulator. The gas turbine unit shown in the block diagram is a dual shaft machine with separate compressor drive (or gas producing) turbine and power turbine. All-speed governing of the power turbine is used to control the speed and power output of the unit. A reset mechanism in the governor determines the position of the fuel-metering valve and hence, controls the engine fuel flow. Initially, the operator at the loading station sets the desired engine speed. This establishes a speed reference setting in the reset mechanism. If engine speed is above or below the setting, a proportional error signal is transmitted to the metering valve positioner. The valve is repositioned until the error is eliminated and the power turbine is at the desired output.

Various override trims, such as over temperature and over speed protection for the gas producer, are applied on the governor reset mechanism through the loading station to produce an artificial error signal until the adverse condition is overcome. To avoid compressor surge during acceleration, a separate signal, applied directly to the metering valve positioner, overrides the governor error signal. The acceleration fuel flow schedule is based on the rise in compressor outlet pressure. An automatic emergency trip system closes the main fuel shutoff valve if: The lubricating oil pressure drops to an unsafe value The exhaust temperature exceeds the allowable limit The rotor speed of Gas Generator (NGG) or Power Turbine (NPT) becomes excessive Fire occurred in the turbine enclosure Failure of the main control processor

Figure 56 Gas Turbine Control System

Manual shutdown is also affected through this circuit by means of a manual hydraulic valve.

INSTRUMENTATION
The following instrumentation is normally provided for control and monitoring of a gas turbine:

Rotor speed for each shaft, in RPM (revolution per minutes) Air inlet temperature in C, preferably after the intake filter but often ambient air temperature. Differential pressure across the intake filters Compressor discharge pressure measured at the exit of the compressor and before combustion, in kPa Exhaust gas temperatures in C, usually measured at multiple circumferential points and as an average after the first or second turbine stage or in between the engine turbine and power turbine Vibration, using accelerometers mounted on the engine case if anti-friction bearings are used (applies to most aero-derivatives) Vibration using eddy-current displacement probes if journal or tilt-pad bearings are used (applies to most heavy-duty gas turbines) Bearing temperatures in C if journal or tilt-pad bearings are used (applies to most heavy-duty gas turbines) Fuel gas flow, pressure and temperature Oil system pressures and temperatures Generator output, in kW, or compressor shaft power

Operator Interface
With every control system, there is an operator interface (sometimes called an MMI Man Machine Interface or HMI Human Machine Interface). It allows an operator to:

Startup or shutdown the gas turbine Control the turbines speed Modify the control system logic, with special access only Monitor measured parameters

Startup and Shutdown Sequencing

The startup and shutdown of a gas turbine may occur automatically if predetermined conditions occur. For example, a backup power generation unit may start if there is an increase in demand and a compressor may start if the pressure drops in a process. Often, operators monitoring the overall process will initiate a manual start. Once the start or shutdown is initiated, the sequencing is almost always automatic.

Protection
A number of protective devices will first alarm and then shutdown the engine if certain levels are exceeded. They normally protect against:

Power turbine over speed Exhaust gas temperatures higher than the maximum limit Excessive vibration Excessive oil and bearing temperatures Fuel gas pressure too low or too high Excessive air intake filter differential pressure

Objective Eleven
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Explain the typical operating parameters of a gas turbine; describe the effects of compressor inlet temperature, compressor discharge pressure, and turbine inlet temperature on gas turbine performance. Also turbine maintenance types and description

Learning Material
Operating Parameters
The operation of a gas turbine is defined by a number of operating parameters that consist mainly of flows, pressures and temperatures along the gas path of the engine. It is possible to produce a map of these parameters, such as the one shown in Fig. 57 which shows the interrelationship between these parameters over a range of operating conditions up to some predetermined maximum limit. Producers of gas turbines provide electrical production performance data in terms of the heat rate input. Heat rate is the amount of joules required to produce one kWh of electrical energy (MJ/kWh).

Figure 57 Performance Graph For Solar Mars 90 Gas Turbine

Effect of Inlet Air Temperature

The temperature of the air entering the gas turbine has a great impact on its operation and performance. As the air temperature decreases, its density increases and the mass airflow through the engine increases, accordingly. The power that is produced by the gas turbine is proportional to the mass flow. Therefore, a gas turbine will produce more power at lower ambient temperatures. This is the basis for using heat exchangers that increase power by cooling the inlet air. From Fig. 57, it can be seen that the rated power at standard conditions of 15C is 9500 kW. At 45C, the power output drops to approximately 6600 kW. At an ambient air temperature of -30C, the power output is almost 12 000 kW.

Effect of Compressor Discharge Pressure and Turbine Inlet Temperature

The two major factors in determining efficiency and power are compression ratio across the compressor and turbine inlet temperature:

The greater the compressor ratio, the higher is the cycle efficiency and the greater the power output. An increase in the turbine inlet temperature has the same effect because more work is done by the same amount of air.

Although factors, such as compressor and turbine efficiency and pressure losses, are important, the largest efforts in gas turbine design have been to increase the compression ratio and to improve combustion and turbine materials so that the turbine inlet temperature can be increased. With these improvements, simple cycle efficiency has now reached 40%. With combined cycle applications, the total efficiency of the gas turbine plant can exceed 60%.

Maximum Power
The maximum power that can be achieved is also a function of the life expected of the hot gas path components. Vendors usually specify a maximum power that will permit the engine to achieve a reasonable life. They also specify a maximum peak power limit that can be applied if a user is willing to incur higher maintenance costs. This tradeoff is sometimes used for peak power generation where gas turbines operate for only short periods of time to satisfy peak load conditions. For base load operation, this is not desirable because of the increased maintenance costs and the risk of failure.

Gas Turbine Preventive Maintenance

The Most Important Item In The Periodical Maintenance Is The Air Compressor Wash
The major cause of deterioration in gas turbine performance is fouling of the compressor blading. Fouling results in a decrease in compressor efficiency which reduces overall thermal efficiency and maximum power. It will also result in compressor surging and acceleration problems. The source of contamination is usually dust, salt and other airborne particles that are not trapped by the intake filters. Contamination can also come from other machinery close to the gas turbine or even the gas turbine exhaust being re-ingested under certain wind conditions. Sometimes, a compressor front bearing oil leak will make the problem worse. Compressor cleaning can be accomplished by using either a liquid or an abrasive material. In the past, it was quite common for walnut shells or even rice (or other abrasive materials sometimes called carbo-blast) to be injected into the intake to abrasively clean the compressor blading. This is done while the unit is running and the materials are burnt up in the combustion section and then pass through the engine. Since it is not as effective as the water wash method, it is not utilized as often any more. It also has the disadvantage of plugging up cooling passages in the compressor and cooling holes in the turbine blades. The most effective method of compressor cleaning is the off-line water wash. This method consists of stopping the unit, injecting water wash fluids into the intake of the compressor while running on the starter and then restarting. It is also referred to as the crank-soak method. On-line water washing is not as effective as off-line although it is still a viable alternative if downtime is not acceptable.

Water Wash Fluids

The water that is used must be very clean and must conform to quality standards specified by the gas turbine vendor. Using hard water or water contaminated with sodium, potassium, vanadium or other chemicals can cause further fouling and increased corrosion.

To remove oily substances, additional cleaning agents and solvents need to be used. These are mixed with water and gas turbine vendors often specify acceptable cleaners. However, the most effective cleaning agents are also the most toxic and require special handling. If the temperature is less than 4C, a 1:1 mixture of water and ethylene glycol is recommended to prevent icing. Again the gas turbine vendor has to be consulted since commercial and automotive anti-freeze products are usually not acceptable.

Off-Line Water wash

To perform an off-line waterwash, the engine is stopped and allowed to cool first. Some vendors specify that various instrumentation, bleed and drain lines be disconnected prior to water washing. The engine is then run at maximum crank speed with the fuel valve and igniters deactivated. The waterwash fluid can be injected either through a pre-installed waterwash ring or provided manually by means of a hand-held sprayer. The waterwash ring can be installed on the intake bell mouth as shown in Fig. 26 or on the intake volute. As can be seen from Fig. 58, due to the difference in airflow, there are two ring assemblies depending whether an on-line or off-line wash is performed.

Fig. 58 Waterwash Connections (Courtesy Rolls Royce) In some cases, operators will actually go into the intake to manually scrub and wash the first few stages with a brush if deposits are especially stubborn. The waterwash fluids are contained in a special tank and the spray pressure is provided by compressed air applied to the tank. This tank may be permanently installed or located on a special cart such as the one shown in Fig. 59. Once all of the fluids have been sprayed into the intake, all disconnected lines are reconnected and the unit restarted.

If the waterwash has been successful, the operator should be able to see an increase in compressor discharge pressure and a decrease in turbine inlet temperature.

Fig. 59 Waterwash Cart (Courtesy Solar Turbines)

On-Line Waterwash
To perform an on-line wash, the gas turbine is brought to idle and allowed to cool. The waterwash fluid or abrasive material is then injected and burnt in the combustion chamber, after which the engine is returned to the required operating condition. This method is sometimes used to reduce the time between off-line washes, /however this method is not recommended with some gas turbine manufacture

Other periodical maintenance is six monthly and annual Maintenance

The manufacturer of the gas turbine identify the check list of those types of maintenance, in general it contains the following as example: Instrument checks like pressure and temp switches, transmitters and indicators Cleaning the fuel injectors Inspection of the thermocouples

Calibrating pressure safety valves Check alignment between gas turbine shaft and the driven equipment shaft Bore scope for the internal parts of the engine

Gas Turbine Overhauls

The manufacturer of the gas turbine identify the intervals between overhauling of the engine according to various parameters such as the engine running hours, working load (full load or partial load) and the No. of starts of the engines. In general the overhaul of the engine includes the following: Repair the air compressor stationary and rotary blades Repair /change the combustors Repair /change the nozzles and rotary blades of the turbines Perform non destructive test for the shaft , rotor disks and the casings to discover the thin cracks which can not be seen by visual check ,repair if required Cleaning all parts and cooling paths Check the seals and bearings, repair/change if required Check shaft unbalance and correct if required

Objective twelve
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Describe the preparation and complete start-up and shutdown sequence for a gas turbine.

Gas Turbine Start-Up Procedure

The basic steps in starting a gas turbine are:

Preparation for startup Start initiation Crank and light off Warm-up Loading

These steps must occur in a specific sequence and at certain time intervals. They are usually managed by the control system and the operator often has no role except to watch the process. If certain conditions occur or specific requirements are not met at some point in the startup sequence, the startup will be aborted and the unit stopped. The progress of the startup is displayed on a control panel such as the one shown in Fig. 60.

Fig. 60 Typical Control Panel Used to Monitor Startup, Shutdown and Operation

Preparation For Startup

When a start is initiated, it is assumed that all electrical, pneumatic, air, instrumentation and control systems are activated and energized. These systems will usually be active and will only need to be turned on if the equipment has been shut down for maintenance or an extended period of no demand. In remote applications, startup normally occurs automatically without human participation and intervention unless an abnormal situation requires response. The operator may need to reset the system if a previous malfunction or abnormal condition has occurred. Pressing a reset switches on the panel, or on a computer screen does this. There are also a number of per missives that need to be satisfied before the start sequence will be allowed by the control system. Some

of these will pertain to the gas turbine, such as a minimum oil reservoir temperature, and others are related to the requirements of the particular load being driven by the turbine (typically an electrical generator or process/transmission gas compressor). Fig 61 shows an example of a startup screen for a gas turbine driving a gas compressor.

Fig. 61 Startup Screen with Permissives (Courtesy Rolls Royce)

Start Initiation
A gas turbine is normally in one of two modes of operation: remote or local. The mode of operation is set either by a switch on the control panel or a selection box on a computer screen. When in remote, a higher level process control system has the ability to initiate a start. When in local, the start can only be initiated from the control panel. During the startup sequence, a number of operating conditions must be met as determined by various pressure, temperature and status switches. Timers are used to ensure these conditions occur in the expected time period, or else the startup will be aborted. An example of a startup sequence screen is given in Fig. 62. Notice the sequence of steps and the descriptions on the left of the screen.

Fig. 62 Startup Screen with Sequencing Status (Courtesy Rolls Royce)

When the start button is pressed (locally or remotely), the following occurs:

The ventilation fans starts which vents the building or enclosure. Pre-lubrication occurs. Depending on the design of the lube oil system, the backup pump will start, and if adequate pressure is achieved within a certain time period, the pre-lube pump will start and the pre-lube timer resets to ensure adequate pressure. There may be a check of the fuel gas system to ensure that the fuel valves are operating properly and adequate fuel pressure is available.

Crank and Light off

Once these steps have been completed, the starter begins to rotate the gas turbine rotor (see Fig. 63). The first portion of this process purges the gas turbine for several minutes in case explosive vapors are still present. The rotor then coasts down to a speed appropriate for light off.

Fig. 63 Startup of a Typical Gas Turbine

Fuel is then admitted to the combustion chambers, the igniters are energized and light off occurs. This results in a rapid increase in speed. The overrunning clutch disengages the starter, which then shuts down, and the igniters are de-energized.

Warm-up
Once idle speed is reached, the engine is allowed to warm up. For backup power generation, especially for small gas turbines, this may be very short. When time is not as critical, it is best to permit the engine to warm up slowly. Heavy-duty gas turbines take longer to start and warm up than aero-derivatives. On start initiation, the bleed valve(s) will be open and the inlet and variable guide vanes will be in their closed position. The bleed valves will close either at a certain speed or over a specified range of speeds. The guide vanes will open to their optimum position over a range of speeds as designated by a specified schedule (based on a control program that relates guide vane position to turbine speed).

Loading
After the warm-up is finished, the fuel flow is increased and the load is applied. For a generator, this will require synchronizing the speed, phase and voltage, and then closing the breaker. If the gas turbine drives a compressor, the compressor will have been pressurized prior to the purge crank, and the suction and discharge valves will have been opened. The compressor is started in the unloaded position, with the recycle valve open. Loading is accomplished by slowly closing in on the recycle valve. The actual operating point will be determined by the control system. The acceleration and deceleration of the gas turbine is limited to a certain rate. Sudden increases in speed will cause rapid increases in turbine temperature that could easily be above the limit. A rapid decrease in speed could cause combustion to be interrupted and any re-lighting, without going through the required start-up procedure, would be catastrophic.

Normal Shutdown
An operator most often initiates shutdown of a gas turbine although some systems do have an automatic shutdown when the gas turbine is no longer required. To a large extent, a shutdown is the reverse procedure of a startup. The first step in a normal shutdown is to reduce speed to idle so the gas turbine can cool down. In this step opening the breaker that connects the generator to the power system or opening the recycle valve of the compressor unloads the power turbine, for example. The gas turbine cools down as much as possible to minimize the negative thermal effects. During this time, the engine can easily be restarted, according to the specified procedure. When the cooldown timer times out, the fuel valve is closed which extinguishes combustion. The rotor speed decreases until the rotor stops. As the speed drops, the main lube oil pump (if driven off the rotor) will lose pressure. At a specified point, usually based on oil pressure, the post lube pump starts up and continues to lubricate and cool the bearings for a specified time period. The enclosure or building fans shut off. On some gas turbines, the turning gear activates once the rotor stops.

Fast Shutdown
In certain situations a fast shutdown will be initiated. This occurs when a protective device detects an abnormal condition such as high vibration, or when an operator initiates an emergency stop. In this case, the cooldown period is eliminated and the fuel valve is closed immediately. The rest of the shutdown sequence is the same as for a normal shutdown. This type of shutdown increases the wear on the gas turbine because of the rapid cooldown it entails and is reserved for emergency conditions only.

List of most important malfunction shutdown during normal operation

Low lube oil pressure S/D High lube oil temp. S/D GG over speed P.T over Speed Backup P.T over speed High vibration for any bearing High exhaust engine temp. High deferential exhaust temp. High fuel gas pressure Low lube oil tank level

Objective Thirteen
When you complete this objective you will be able to
Study some of trouble shooting during startup or normal operation of the gas turbine 1) Low oil pressure alarm a. Check the pressure instrumentation (gauge or transmitter) b. The pressure regulator need adjusting c. The lube oil filter need replacement due to hi deferential pressure d. There is blockage in main lube oil header e. There is major leak in the lube oil line f. The lube oil pump is not pumping due to (cavitationsfailure- pump gear box failure)

2) High oil temp. alarm a. Check the temp. Instrumentation (gauge- RTD) b. Oil cooler is not operating c. Oil cooler is not clean d. The temp. Control valve is internal leaking (by-passing the cooler) e. Problem in one or more lube oil bearing f. The lube oil needs to be replaced due to aging

3) Ignition failure (fail to ignite - flame failure) a. The fuel pressure is not enough b. The igniter is bad or not cleaned c. The flame detector is not working d. Bad fuel metering valve

4) The engine fails to reach the self sustain speed a. The fuel pressure is not enough b. The fuel metering valve is not working good c. The speed pick-up is not working d. The starter motor is not engaged or is weak e. The clutch of the starter is not working good (slipping disengaged) f. The gas turbine it self is not good g. The air bleed valve or the IGV in not-correct position

5) Fail to load the engine a. Not enough fuel pressure b. Fuel metering valve is not good c. Air bleed valve or IGV is not working good d. Air intake filter is not clean e. Bad engine performance

6) Hi engine temp. (Exhaust temp.) a. Sudden increase in fuel pressure b. One tip or more of thermocouples are bad c. Bad fuel metering valve d. Bad fuel contents (liquids in the fuel) e. Bad air intake filters f. Bad engine combustors or injectors