Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

Why preprocess the data? Descriptive data summarization Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction

Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

Summary
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Why Data Preprocessing?

Data in the real world is dirty incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest, or containing only aggregate data

e.g., occupation= e.g., Salary=-10

noisy: containing errors or outliers

inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names

e.g., Age=42 Birthday=03/07/1997 e.g., Was rating 1,2,3, now rating A, B, C e.g., discrepancy between duplicate records
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Why Is Data Dirty?

Incomplete data may come from

Not applicable data value when collected Different considerations between the time when the data was collected and when it is analyzed. Human/hardware/software problems Faulty data collection instruments Human or computer error at data entry Errors in data transmission Different data sources Functional dependency violation (e.g., modify some linked data)

Noisy data (incorrect values) may come from

Inconsistent data may come from

Duplicate records also need data cleaning

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Why Is Data Preprocessing Important?

No quality data, no quality mining results!

Quality decisions must be based on quality data

e.g., duplicate or missing data may cause incorrect or even misleading statistics.

Data warehouse needs consistent integration of quality data

Data extraction, cleaning, and transformation comprises the majority of the work of building a data warehouse

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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data Quality

A well-accepted multidimensional view: Accuracy Completeness Consistency Timeliness Believability Value added Interpretability Accessibility Broad categories: Intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility

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Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

Data cleaning

Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and resolve inconsistencies Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files Normalization and aggregation Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same or similar analytical results Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for numerical data
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Data integration

Data transformation

Data reduction

Data discretization

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Forms of Data Preprocessing

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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

Why preprocess the data? Descriptive data summarization Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction

Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

Summary
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Mining Data Descriptive Characteristics

Motivation

To better understand the data: central tendency, variation and spread median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc. Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities of precision Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals Folding measures into numerical dimensions Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube
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Data dispersion characteristics

Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals

Dispersion analysis on computed measures

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Measuring the Central Tendency

1 n Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): x xi n i 1

Weighted arithmetic mean:

Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values

w x
i 1 n i

Median: A holistic measure

w
i 1

Middle value if odd number of values, or average of the middle two values otherwise Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):

Mode

median L1 (

n / 2 ( f )l f median

)c

Value that occurs most frequently in the data

Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal Empirical formula:

mean mode 3 (mean median)

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Symmetric vs. Skewed Data

Median, mean and mode of symmetric, positively and negatively skewed data

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Measuring the Dispersion of Data

Quartiles, outliers and boxplots

Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)

Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 Q1

Five number summary: min, Q1, M, Q3, max Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles, median is marked, whiskers, and plot outlier individually Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)

Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: )

1 n 1 n 2 1 n 2 s ( xi x ) [ xi ( xi ) 2 ] n 1 i 1 n 1 i 1 n i 1
2

1 N
2

1 ( x ) i N i 1
2

xi 2
2 i 1

Standard deviation s (or ) is the square root of variance s2 (or 2)

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Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

The normal (distribution) curve From to +: contains about 68% of the measurements (: mean, : standard deviation) From 2 to +2: contains about 95% of it From 3 to +3: contains about 99.7% of it

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Boxplot Analysis

Five-number summary of a distribution:

Minimum, Q1, M, Q3, Maximum

Boxplot

Data is represented with a box

The ends of the box are at the first and third quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IRQ
The median is marked by a line within the box

Whiskers: two lines outside the box extend to Minimum and Maximum
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Visualization of Data Dispersion: Boxplot Analysis

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Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

Why preprocess the data? Descriptive data summarization Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction

Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

Summary
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Data Cleaning

Importance Data cleaning is one of the three biggest problems in data warehousingRalph Kimball Data cleaning is the number one problem in data warehousingDCI survey

Data cleaning tasks

Fill in missing values Identify outliers and smooth out noisy data Correct inconsistent data Resolve redundancy caused by data integration
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Missing Data

Data is not always available

E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as customer income in sales data equipment malfunction

Missing data may be due to

inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted

data not entered due to misunderstanding certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry not register history or changes of the data

Missing data may need to be inferred.

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Data Mining Cup 2004

425 students from 166 universities and 32 countries took part in the competition, which lasted from April 15, 2004 to May 13, 2004. 111 participants submitted solution models. The objective of data mining is to discover hidden relations, patterns, and trends in databases. This year's data mining task dealt with the issue of predicting the behavior of customers returning mail-order merchandise. Yuchun Tang's solution ranked 50th with 9559 points (the top-ranked solution received 10511 points)

Winner' presentation DMC 2004 (PDF)

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How to Handle Missing Data?

Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (assuming the tasks in classificationnot effective when the percentage of missing values per attribute varies considerably. Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible? Fill in it automatically with

a global constant : e.g., unknown, a new class?! the attribute mean the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class: smarter the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian formula or decision tree

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Noisy Data

Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable Incorrect attribute values may due to faulty data collection instruments data entry problems data transmission problems technology limitation inconsistency in naming convention Other data problems which requires data cleaning duplicate records incomplete data inconsistent data
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How to Handle Noisy Data?

Binning first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc. Regression smooth by fitting the data into regression functions Clustering detect and remove outliers Combined computer and human inspection detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal with possible outliers)
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Simple Discretization Methods: Binning

Equal-width (distance) partitioning

Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B A)/N. The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation Skewed data is not handled well

Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning

Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same number of samples Good data scaling Managing categorical attributes can be tricky
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Binning Methods for Data Smoothing

Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34 * Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins: - Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15 - Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25 - Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34 * Smoothing by bin means: - Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9 - Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23 - Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29 * Smoothing by bin boundaries: - Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15 - Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25 - Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
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Regression
y
Y1

Y1

y=x+1

X1

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Cluster Analysis

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Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

Why preprocess the data? Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

Summary

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Data Integration

Data integration: Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id B.cust-# Integrate metadata from different sources Entity identification problem: Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton = William Clinton Detecting and resolving data value conflicts For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are different Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs. British units
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Handling Redundancy in Data Integration

Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases

Object identification: The same attribute or object

may have different names in different databases

Derivable data: One attribute may be a derived

attribute in another table, e.g., annual revenue

Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by

correlation analysis

Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed and quality
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Data Transformation

Smoothing: remove noise from data

Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction

Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified range

min-max normalization z-score normalization normalization by decimal scaling New attributes constructed from the given ones
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Attribute/feature construction

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Data Transformation: Normalization

Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]

v'

v minA (new _ maxA new _ minA) new _ minA maxA minA

Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0, 73,600 12 ,000 (1.0 0) 0 0.716 1.0]. Then $73,000 is mapped to 98 ,000 12 ,000

Z-score normalization (: mean, : standard deviation):

v'

v A

Ex. Let = 54,000, = 16,000. Then

Normalization by decimal scaling

73,600 54 ,000 1.225 16 ,000

v v' j 10
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Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(||) < 1

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Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

Why preprocess the data? Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation

Summary

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Data Reduction Strategies

Why data reduction? A database/data warehouse may store terabytes of data Complex data analysis/mining may take a very long time to run on the complete data set Data reduction Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that is much smaller in volume but yet produce the same (or almost the same) analytical results Data reduction strategies Data cube aggregation: Dimensionality reduction e.g., remove unimportant attributes Data Compression Numerosity reduction e.g., fit data into models Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
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Data Cube Aggregation

The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)

The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse

Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes

Further reduce the size of data to deal with

Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve the task

Reference appropriate levels

Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered using data cube, when possible
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Attribute Subset Selection

Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection): Select a minimum set of features such that the probability distribution of different classes given the values for those features is as close as possible to the original distribution given the values of all features reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to understand Heuristic methods (due to exponential # of choices): Step-wise forward selection Step-wise backward elimination Combining forward selection and backward elimination Decision-tree induction
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Example of Decision Tree Induction

Initial attribute set: {A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6} A4 ? A1? A6?

Class 1
>
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Class 2

Class 1

Class 2

Reduced attribute set: {A1, A4, A6}

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Heuristic Feature Selection Methods

There are 2d possible sub-features of d features Several heuristic feature selection methods: Best single features under the feature independence assumption: choose by significance tests Best step-wise feature selection: The best single-feature is picked first Then next best feature condition to the first, ... Step-wise feature elimination: Repeatedly eliminate the worst feature Best combined feature selection and elimination Optimal branch and bound: Use feature elimination and backtracking
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Dimensionality Reduction: Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k n orthogonal vectors (principal components) that can be best used to represent data Steps Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal component vectors The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing significance or strength Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be reduced by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low variance. (i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is possible to reconstruct a good approximation of the original data Works for numeric data only Used when the number of dimensions is large
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Principal Component Analysis

X2

Y1
Y2

X1

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Chapter 2: Data Preprocessing

Why preprocess the data? Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Summary

Data preparation or preprocessing is a big issue for both data warehousing and data mining Discriptive data summarization is need for quality data preprocessing

Data preparation includes

Data cleaning and data integration Data reduction and feature selection

Discretization

A lot a methods have been developed but data preprocessing still an active area of research
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References

D. P. Ballou and G. K. Tayi. Enhancing data quality in data warehouse environments. Communications of ACM, 42:73-78, 1999 T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley & Sons, 2003 T. Dasu, T. Johnson, S. Muthukrishnan, V. Shkapenyuk. Mining Database Structure; Or, How to Build a Data Quality Browser. SIGMOD02. H.V. Jagadish et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Technical Committee on Data Engineering, 20(4), December 1997 D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999 E. Rahm and H. H. Do. Data Cleaning: Problems and Current Approaches. IEEE Bulletin of the

Technical Committee on Data Engineering. Vol.23, No.4

V. Raman and J. Hellerstein. Potters Wheel: An Interactive Framework for Data Cleaning and Transformation, VLDB2001 T. Redman. Data Quality: Management and Technology. Bantam Books, 1992 Y. Wand and R. Wang. Anchoring data quality dimensions ontological foundations. Communications of ACM, 39:86-95, 1996 R. Wang, V. Storey, and C. Firth. A framework for analysis of data quality research. IEEE Trans. Knowledge and Data Engineering, 7:623-640, 1995

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