Basic Circuit EIements and Waveforms

1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of transferring charge from one point in a circuit to another is termed as
electric current. An electric current may be defined as the rate of net motion of electric
charge q across a cross-sectional boundary. Random motion
of electrons in a metal does not constitute a current unless
there is a net transfer of charge. Since the electron has a
charge of 1.6021 10
19
coulomb, it follows that a current of 1
ampere corresponds to the motion of 1/(1.6021 10
19
) = 6.24
10
18
electrons per second in any cross-section of a path.
In terms of the atomic theory concept, an electric
current in an element is the time rate of flow of free electrons
in the element. The materials may be classified as
(i) conductors, where availability of free electrons is very large,
as in the case of metals; (ii) insulators, where the availability
of free electrons is rare, as in the case of glass, mica, plastics,
etc. Other materials, such as germanium and silicon, called
semiconductors, play a significant role in electronics.
Thermally generated electrons are available as free electrons
at room temperature, and act as conductors, but at 0 Kelvin
they act as insulator. Therefore, conductivity is the ability or
easiness of the path or element to transfer electrons. The
resistivity of the path is the resistance offerred to the passage
of electrons, i.e., resistance (resistivity) is the inverse of
conductance (conductivity).
1
Andr-Marie Ampre (1775
1836), a French mathematician and
physicist, was born in Lyon, France.
At that time the best mathematical
works were in Latin and Ampere
was keenly interested in mathe-
matics, so he at the age of 12
mastered in Latin in a few weeks.
He was a brilliant scientist and a
prolific writer. He formulated the
laws of electromagnetics. He
invented the electromagnet and
ammeter. The uni t of el ectri c
current, was named in his honour,
the ampere.
2 NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS
In circuit analysis, we are concerned with the four basic manifestations of electricity,
namely, electric charge q(t), magnetic flux (t), electric potential v(t) and electric current i(t).
We assume that the reader is familiar with these concepts. There are four fundamental
equations of circuit analysis.
The current
1
through a circuit element is the time
derivative of the electric charge q(t) i.e.,
i t
d
dt
q t ( ) ( ) =
(1.1)
The unit of charge is coulomb. The unit of current
i(t) is coulomb per second, which is termed ampere
(abbreviated A) in honour of the French physicist Andr-
Marie Ampre (17751836).
The potential difference between the terminals of
a circuit element in a magnetic field is equal to the time
derivative of the flux (t), i.e.,
v t
d
dt
t ( ) ( ) = (1.2)
The unit of potential is webers per second, which
is called volts in honour of the Italian physicist Alessandro
Volta (17451827).
Voltage is the energy required to move 1 coulomb of charge through an element, i.e.,

v t
dw
dq
( ) =
(1.3)
The instantaneous power p(t) delivered to a circuit element is the product of the
instantaneous value of voltage v(t) and current i(t) of the element.
p(t) = v(t) i(t) (1.4)
The unit of power is watt in honour of the British inventor James Watt (17381819).
The energy delivered to a circuit element over the time interval (t
0
, t) is given by
E(t
0
, t) =
t
t
0

p(x) dx =
t
t
0

v(x) i(x) dx (1.5)

The unit of energy is watt-second, which is called joule in honour of the British scientist
J.P. Joule (18181889).
Equation (1.1) through (1.5) hold for all circuit elements, irrespective of their nature.
However, the relation between the voltage and current of an element depends entirely on the
physical nature of the circuit element. The circuit element may be linear, non-linear and time-
varying or time-invariant.
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio
Anastasio Volta (17451827), an
Italian physicist, was born in a noble
family in Como, Italy. Volta was
engaged himself in performing
electrical experiments at the age of 18.
Hi s i nventi on of the el ectri c cel l
(battery) in 1796 revolutionised the use
of electricity. Volta received many
honours during his lifetime. The unit
of voltage or potential difference, was
named in his honour, the volt.
1
From French word intensit, current symbol is taken as i.
BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS AND WAVEFORMS 3
B
a
s
i
c

C
i
r
c
u
i
t

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
a
n
d

W
a
v
e
f
o
r
m
s
1.2 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
a
b
A
B
S
DW
D
V
Q
v
DQ
Charge in coulomb
O
( ) b ( ) a
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
,

v
Fig. 1.1. (a) Energy storage on a capacitor (b) Relation between energy and stored charge
1.2.1 Capacitance
Consider two identical plates, both without a net charge, separated by a distance s as in
Fig. 1.1 (a). If a small positive charge, Q is removed from a of plate A and taken to b of plate
B, plate A has a negative charge and plate B has a positive charge. Work is done in moving Q
from A to B because there is a force on Q trying to return Q to A. Accordingly, plate B now
has a positive potential with respect to plate A. When a second small positive charge of same
magnitude, Q, is taken from A to B, the force is larger and the work done greater. The process
is linear if Q is sufficiently small. Hence, we can say that the charge Q is proportional to the
potential difference V, i.e.,
Q V
or Q = CV coulombs
or C = Q/V
The unit of capacitance is farad in honour of Michael Faraday. It is defined as the ratio,
coulomb per volt. The physical device that permits storage of charge is a capacitor and its
ability to store charge is its capacitance. The reciprocal of capacitance is defined as elastance.
The energy expended at any point, in the process of transferring charge from one plate
to the other, is shown in the shaded region of Fig. 1.1 (b). Therefore, the total energy required
to transfer Q coulombs of charge, resulting in a final potential of V volts between the plates, is
the area of the triangle OQD, i.e.,
W =
1
2
VQ =
1
2
V (CV) =
1
2
CV
2
joules (1.6)
The energy is contained in the electric field and in the lines of force.
When two parallel plates of cross-sectional area A
1
with a spacing between them as s
1
,
and a battery of V
1
volt is connected to the capacitor plates as in Fig. 1.2 (a), then the battery
draws Q coulombs of electrons from the left plate and adds Q coulombs of electrons to the
4 NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS
right plate. Hence, the left plate has + Q and the right plate Q charge. The charge density on
the plate is . If the cross-sectional area alone is increased from A
1
to A
2
as in Fig. 1.2 (b),
then, as the charge density remains unchanged, the total charge on A
2
must have increased.
That is, C, the capacitance, is proportional to the cross-sectional area A. Now, if the spacing
has changed from s
1
to s
2
, where s
2
> s
1
, without altering other quantities, i.e., A
1
and V
1
, as in
Fig. 1.2 (c), the charges + Q and Q on the plates cause an attraction between them. If the
plates are moved apart to a new separation s
2
, more work has to be done to move these charges
apart, if the charges on the plates are to be maintained at + Q and Q, that is, the voltage
must be increased. This increase in voltage (or work) is proportional to the increase in spacing s.
+
V
1
s
1
A
1
A
1
+
V
1
s
1
A
2
A
2
+
V
2
s
1
A
1
A
1
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Fig. 1.2. Parallel plate capacitors showing different plate spacing and plate area
So, C A and C 1/s
Hence C A/ s
or C =
0
A/s = 8.854 A/s pF
where, A is in square metres and s in metres. The above discussion is for vacuum having
dielectric constant
0
. Let us define , the dielectric constant
= C
2
/C
1
where, C
1
and C
2
are the capacitance values in vacuum and in the new dielectric material
respectively. Then, the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor in a dielectric medium of dielectric
constant , in SI units, can be written as
C =
0
A/s farad = 8.854 A/s pF (1.7)
as
0
= 8.854 10
12
These equations are valid for parallel plate capacitors. For other geometric shapes such
as two spheres, two conductors, or one conductor and the ground, the formula would be different.
In each case C will be a function of the geometry of the conductors and .
Various materials such as mica, paper and oil are some of the dielectrics used. Typical
values of dielectric constants are listed in Table 1.1. It may be observed that in actual capacitors,
electric field lines are not parallel and fringing occurs at the edges. With fringing, we have
additional electric field lines. These cause the actual capacitance value to be somewhat larger
than the value obtained from Eqn. (1.7). As long as A and s are large, the fringing effect can be
neglected.
BASIC CIRCUIT ELEMENTS AND WAVEFORMS 5
B
a
s
i
c

C
i
r
c
u
i
t

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
a
n
d

W
a
v
e
f
o
r
m
s
Table 1.1 Typical Values of Dielectric Constants
Material Dielectric constant
Vacuum 1
Dry air 1.0006
Glass 5 to 10
Mica 5 to 7
Oil 3
Paper, paraffin 2.5
Porcelain 6
Rubber 3
Teflon 2
Titanium compound 500 to 5000
Water 80
Sheets of metal foil separated by strips of mica can withstand high voltages and have
excellent characteristics at radio frequencies.
Ceramic capacitors are manufactured by depositing directly on each side of a ceramic
dielectric, the silver coatings that serve as capacitor plates. These capacitors have a very high
capacitance per unit volume.
Paper capacitors are manufactured by winding long narrow sheets of alternate layers
of aluminium foil and wax-impregnated paper into compact rolls. Large paper capacitors are
often enclosed in a can filled with special oils. These oils improve the breakdown characteristics
of the dielectric.
Electrolytic capacitors can only be used in a circuit that maintains the polarity of the
voltage in one direction. If the voltage is reversed, the capacitor acts as a short-circuit. An
aluminium electrode serves as the positive plate and an alkaline electrolyte serves as the
negative plate. A very thin aluminium oxide film forms on the surface of the positive plate to
serve as the dielectric. These capacitors have high values of capacitance, ranging from 1 to
2 F to the order of several thousand microfarads.
Capacitive Circuit
The potential difference v between the terminals of a capacitor is proportional to the charge q
on it. We know
v q
or v = q/C (1.8)
where, C is the constant of proportionality and is called the capacitance.
Now, i =
dq
dt
= C
dv
dt
.
0
/
1

(1.9)

= dv
C
i dt
1