MANAGING KNOWLEDGE WORK AND INNOVATION 2nd Edition Sue Newell Maxine Robertson Harry Scarbrough Jacky Swan palgrave macmillanseme nn heh Sn 202.290 ‘jaectapteccbeaancenpern Nepotneotniny benpaucertntns eerste eke ea et ee wr cng sey te ope ere Ae ‘fad Eyrno MoE ine te cn rman ot coe er "prose ia tet atte aap toes tens {Schnee ano bt occas ernment ee ‘ste pnp ornate hon omAticotwcateme mentees pane ‘Semnotons ed bern ci bind CONTENTS is of Tes and Fgus Introducing Knowledge Work Procenes, Purposes and Contexts Introduction ‘Wht Is Knowledge? Stuctral Pespeeves and Types of Koowedge Drocess ad Practice Penpectes ‘Knowledge and Known Perspectives Compared Sune Management a Knowledge ‘Management ‘Managing Knowledge in he Information Age ‘Whar Is Knowledge Work Conclusions ‘Knowledge Intensive Fem Inerdtion “Types of Knowledge Jtenive Him ‘The Distinctive Chace of Krowledge Work and Kaowledge Workers Facitating Knowledge Work ~Ongaizng van Adbocracy ‘Scuctral Consents on Knomledge Work ‘Cat Conditions is Support of Knowledge Wack Conclasons ‘Case Scud 21: Sclenceco Managing an Expert Workforce Questions Summary of Key Leaning Pins u u 2» 2» 8 40 4 46 5 33. Now Onanizational Forms thet Seppore Quen as Knowledge Work The Rote of 1 s4 Stary of Key Lering Pins 3 Inet 3 ‘The Rltonsip Retweon Tecnology ant Organization % Human Resource Management and Knowledge Work 1m “aman gy the Socal Contacto of Teshnogy 2 Tinactn 1s {tytn Presa snd he Material Propras. Geng for HRM 1s of techeclogy 9 sting HRM Approaches to Krome Wok 12 Tecwoding a Conon 138 ‘New Orginal Frm nd ICTs & Cae Sty 6.1; Boman Tab 9 Folate Orgrnatonal Change Using ICT & Quesons 1a Nev Orginal For and Reale Loss “ ‘Stary of Key Leiring Pins Ma Canclsons ” {te Sty 8.1: Uni University nits New ERP Sytem a Komledge Management Systeme rrr Qoesne % Inuwdacton us Sonar 0 Key Lessing Pins ” The Hires Root of Cnet Entre Ses Ms Ener Sean the Sea fest Pie 4. Managing Knowledge Creation in Teams 7” Knowlalge w Innecicton » The Fly of Hest racic” Koowledge 1 The importance of Clsortion inthe The Powenion View and Kool Knoniege Creation ess 7» Managemen tens x Repstry 1st ‘Tem Werk Soca nd Tella Cap %0 “The Pace View and Kool Ceeing Snegy Win Teams 2 “Management Sen Neworing ble of Tet nd jee Work cH Conde “Advantages and Dianne of Tex Wo oe (Gate ey 7.1: Interaiona Constancy Company (ICC) ‘eine Knowledge Sheng od Knowcdge Crean ot Guction Colstortion nd Iteration Mechanisms 2 Stary of Key Leming Pons The Imporanc of Trin Calabi Wok 33 Defies of Tras 38 “The Role of Socal Network and Boundary Spanaet 6 Cancsons o Invoton 18 Care Sty 4.1: Resch Tem oe Neto Chane 1s Qeestone 103 Networks Commons 1st ‘Stary of Key Lenin Pins 13 Case Stay 8.1: KIN Rech Say of Manage Communities 198 CConcone re Project ated Organizations snd Knowledge Work 10s {Gane Sty 8.2: Mand Hospital (NHS Trost) 1% Iton 106 Geasion i Te Yones Pj 10 Sma of Key Leaning Points i Lesming Rounds Vers Kao Roun Joe ‘Staring Knowledge Aston Projet 0 Managing Knowledge fr Innovation 12 Deen Types of Poe Context 13 Inert 13 Conpies Project Cones i ‘The importance of Managing Knowl teal anon and High Poet Intec ne Work forimovston 1 Probl Encore in Compl jes Coes nn? What Istana? i Concinn, us “Tiana! Views norton Lina Proce 2 ‘Case Sey 5.1: Thergont ad Skin Canes 120 owes Vis lnennon sn ntcacte Procss wtNesworkd Innovation ‘Open Tanoraton Practice Penpetves on Innovation Tooting Aco Inttional Contexts Conclsions ‘Summary of Key Learn Pines Group Frese Innovation at Oskland umitare= A ale Pay Question: ‘Append 9.1: Tanonation at Oaland Furie The Roe Payers 10, Constsions: Understanding the Relationships Berween Knowledge Purposes, Knowledge Procence and Enabling Context Inwrduction Steatepe Kaowledge Purpones Kovledge Process and Enabling Context The Importance of the Wider Socal Gontet fr Managing Knowledge Work Condusons (Case Study 10.1: BIOTECH ~The Development of Radial New Thenpentc fran Acute Inflammatory Diese Questions Shramayof Key Leming Pines Referees, Inde 308 23 229 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Tables 1.1 Perspectives on knowledge wok compared 12 Mee I and Mode 2 knowledge protction 13 Core concepts 211 Types of olde intensive fem 22 The bureaucracy and the adhocracy compare 23, Organizing temples tha chance bigh-sech knowlege nese fms 44.1 Summary ofthe advantages and diadanrages ‘of calaboraive work 6.1 ‘The cullenges posed by owe werk for FRM poly BA Contrating iets of sch networks Service innovations and challenges for rmanaping knowledge work LA Anowldge Hierarchy (eg Aco, 1989) 12. “The SECI model (ater Nonaka, 1994) 1.3. Forms of nowledge = Senders framework 1 Oreunzaione and types of owed (ter Backer, 1998) 4.1 Framework for managing knowlege across boundaries 5.1 Leaming and koowledge boundaries 5.2 Comple project contents 8.1 The purpose af innovation 9.2 The lnc view of the innovason process 9.3. A pocesal view of nnoraion (eg afer ret al, 1992) 9.4 Dymus of aerworked innovation afer Swan and Sarbwough, 2005) 9.5 An opening innovation stem 30 36 ” 92 120 169 wm a us 190 m2 196(aap Reseach (CDER) Hi a2 231 an Al i INTRODUCING KNOWLEDGE WORK: PROCESSES, PURPOSES AND CONTEXTS > Ser Maar ort > Wma knee Wat? > Conchsone >> Summary of Rey Leaning Ponts >> Mange ren "he>> INTRODUCTION Managing koosledge work and knowledge workers is argsbly the sage most important challenge being fed by al kinds of organizations. “Knowledge ‘Management for example as been headed sential flrs to improve Compatvches an ination. Even sine writing the frst eon of thi ook {published in 2002), 3 ge number of new tool and ecrigues, bool, a tle and “how-to idles have been produced in dhe name of Knowledge ‘rth sa time, many asmpe to manage kaowledge in oganizaion ave failed uo deliver promised improverents (Seabrough and Swan, 2001). Some Fave faced to0 narowly on generclyaplable tol/netods 0 ans & aformation, without paying lent comseraon to Ue soc, Ba ‘tonal and esto context needed to exabe and support Knowledge work, Others have forgotten what they ae actully manasing kaowledge For ‘he pape 1 stprove the effcency of cures tits, or example, oF © to thingy dierety and innovate? Yer hers ave fered because they have “emphasized parla procener (eg, sharing knowledge besween 200s) and Tigoten others (eq. appsing knowledge to new ts). In thi new book, ‘hey major Festre i to ress all hve of thexe dimensions of Koowledge ‘we: eins one purges nd process, The need to align context, par ‘oneal proces when managing Knowledge wor there we sal revi fhrogaout te apes that flow Nany ofthe example and cat studies sed throughout this book ae drawn from our ova rexeath on innenatin, This because novation is central tw knowlege work = many ofthe unique sls and experiences of knowledge ‘workers woul be largely wasted they wexe mo provided wit the opportniy to pothesis work sn onder do hing deren (bop Bete) Sh t innovate. Inoation alin ena the aplstion of tno ledge to newt Tas andsitoation inorder to develop prodocts, presen eves, ad 2 pie te for owl wor We sary developing inthis introductory chapter a rudimentary under standing of he cove conceps we are going to be dealing with ~ knowlege, rganiraonal knowledge, Knowledge Management ad innovation, We ae Bot foing to engage deeply in pllonpbicl debates sat dhe precise nature of Kowiedge ihe has een done mach better caw Troukas, 2003; Tro 1s and Viadiieou, 2001), the, we outline some ofthe more wel-Anown ‘intone and fantwols that have been developed in oaniaatonal theory nd state, which hep inform eur undereanding oF what is eat Kes a6 "eying to do when they ci to he managing kneedge’- We lo look at bow ten preaches can be traced ack to a esr oboe managing work. Such {ison prounded account hip i tose how and way we heaved at ‘his pol, what oar pomible ites may Be and howe can sod sme of he abs oF yar ps >> WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE? Plosphers have wreted oner what knowledge i ce the cla Gresk patio Thin there va whole branch of plop, ‘cpaemology” fom the ‘Greek words spiseme (inowledge} and a (wora/speech) ~ that dels ith, and debates on, the nature, ong and scope of knowedge."These debates are trany and varied ft insist Koomege ork in organizational scings to vi sand ue. These have been wefly summed athe epetemolony ‘tpemession an the epistemology of practice” (Cook a Brown, 1999) I Sore the epistemology of possesion reatsknowiege a something people have wheres the epiemology of practice ets mowed ar someting people de "The epistemology of poxseon view on Knowledge emphases copstve specs knowege ten ae a poeeion ofthe haman mind apd ete 3 3 ‘mental (oe eognie) capac, source, that an be developed aplied and ‘ted to improve efectvenes inthe workplace. Those adopting thi ew often > STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVES AND TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE Swucturl penpectves on Inowedge draw largely fom the epistemelogy of possesion and focus on Kenting dierent types, o oes, of knowledge that people have iting Pola’ (1962) eer werk oa personal knowledge, 0 fixe or pes of knowledge ~ tat and expct~ ae ofendiinguihe Tack ‘nowedge ratocated withthe els orkn-how tat people develop trough their own experience in specie contents eg bowing bow to idea Beye std Javan ssently persona quali that makes ned male of communicate. In contr, expe knowledge that wich has been spelled out or cid, ‘making emote communi arom cote eg noms wba components 3 ‘opt ncae ro ave co make work and fw they shouldbe pu ogee) "An important spect of tae knowledge shat we know more than we can cculate or attend to at any point in te. Hence tact haowledge i often {eferrd toa hou’ = ends in our ade and in rate ltd ‘tions For example any oft know’ howto nin However, explain thi Tosomeonesetremely difcul,Inded, if novie tet alow ou eral Instructions they would probaly drown! In fc, the india experince of [ctrl to wie for ehensches and whet the water els Ute couped with help si instrction, i what leads othe scumolation of tacit knowledge, However, ceyting had tobe kared from eh experience ana Jing in organistions wold be severely ied. Expo knee, on the ote [pd an bere coed,arclstedand commie to ote andi here fore, ce by somes more sel for organizational leaming (Tee, sino and ‘Sac, 1997; Zalland Winer, 2002). The way to crest knowledge organi ‘on thes, ccning tothe erst penpectves eto deny important ac nomiege make epi, an convert i back gaint the tac omiedge of ‘others esewhere inthe orazation so tha it an be apie (Nonsks, 1994), Frameworks for understanding knowledge types Struct perpectives are wel in proving rameworks tha help wt ender ‘stand Farter what Kinds of knowledge cn be wove im wedge work, Nex Se otin tree modele developed by organization thers tht are paral lp thread, OF coarse thee are many others we cou hve Toke 2 but the ren principles capeurein those selected underpin mary ofthe proaches managing Knowledge work hat we ee today. Nonaka’ ramework (1994) ‘Nonala’s now welled 'SECT model (se Figure 12) ses knowledge tation 2.3 spiraling proce of intracione between knowledge types (expt and "ait He denied four tine noe conversion proves though Which- Tarr ‘eeueiT | enn | sini iS). 5 Joternalization Combinstion 5 igure 1.2. The SEC meer Now, 954) knowledge crestion could rake place: sxszaton (acta); extemalization [toct/emlict); combination expict/explct) and iteration (expe tact) ecsine Nona Beles hat nda cogs ply an essen part Inknowlegecreston, he agget that oganizationalknowedge cretion stems from the intial, IF we eke te soclration proces, fox example, thi ess ‘on individuals teratng with others an electing on their own abd ethos! "perience, This empha on kode citing only the vida level Fundamental direnceberwcen Nona’ amewerk ond the other Frameworks laced te THs not to suggest however, tha organizations and thie managers do rot havea role to ply ioe creton, Nona so sree hat mara ‘rence to provide the neceny enabling contest or nia shar ad ‘seat knowiedge, In ht more reset elaborations of the SECI model, then, [Nonak deveoped he notion of "= cancepe orignal developed by Japa ‘ete philosopher Kitaro Nisha, meaning ontet which harbours nani” (Nonaka and Konno, 1998). According to Nonaka and Konno (1998), ‘ba {outhly ante in Engl place) shared pace for emerging elation ships This pace can be pica ofc, disper busines pce), vrtea (eA: emal tleonfrence), mental (e sared experience, ideas, el) any combination of then” (p40). Relaing back to the dsinton between Snowladge and lnfcmasion discussed ear, Knowledge f seen a embeded in “ba where fis gue though indidual’ experiences and elections Infor mations nowledge dha separated rs ta as able wo be commune Independently "lnematon eades in med and network, Te tangle 19 ‘ontathromledge resides in "ba Ie intangible’ (p40). Nonaka nd Konno ‘dented in ur, four kinds ofthat map oto th our Kinds o knowledge convesion processes “+ viinating bathe place wher vida declp empathy, sare ings, «motions, experiences and mental model. This esata Soxization. Felson fice contac nd where knowledge creation fseen are ing. An example ian informal exchange around a shared problem or se Interacting “ts? — a more consciously constricted place where peer get together ocgage in daloguc challenge fee and reflec hr eae Inthe light of her? hen, This eset exteralzton. Am cape ssembling projec team and plan to resove an ste + Oyber bu ~ the virtua place where new knowledge can be combined with ‘sstingnformton and made sealable throghout the organization. This “tabled by information sommunication technology IC) and is eset to “ombinagon. An example adding project finding oan Internet database + xrcngh’=the pce where ormlep noedge a beappli ough ‘nthe ob ening and ace prtcon. Tis ewes titration. An ‘ranple developing traning oper ae? shames to pt els pace ‘The SECI mode of Nona and his colleagues snot without exis. Not last, ed dente the notion of ee presents an vel ini view of know ‘ge ar ica ttappery” sn how ets knowlege, For example, nthe one inn, Knomlage separ ron "bot Knowledge ba information, At the ‘Same time the el continues to clay knowledge etc ac ores, icing open the question of wha ext knowledge actly. The SECI ‘modelabo geicanty downgasthe dirences fines pone andpoitiat ‘macs that krowledge crcason proces in npaizatonal contexts ineiably encounter Instead the “eaowledge spl ~ the movement of howledge om ting the posession ofan nal to becoming an organizational resource is Aepcted a rather smoot, na, uncontested aed unpoblemat, Thee et ‘meade the model abe very nal ad as lye an mportant pact inchanneing tenon, no jw the copie information processing apes ‘ofknoulege creston in orgaizations, bua to the importance of aves and ‘he enabling context in which sickle ae shred, sequed and pled ov Spender’ ramowork (1996, 1998) Spender ramework, picture in Fgae 1 ,dfer fom Nonaha's becuse itis ‘ull on the principe ta, n onder to understand where organizasonal koow ‘ge comes fom, we need to be concerned with nt only spes of knowledge {ke epistemology), bu also where resides. otaigy) So a8 well 2 ea porting tac apd expt knowledge, hi amework ako makes a dsincion eevee ivi and sci (or collective) knowledge Combining concerns out whi knowledge ve tact or expt) and were resides (lal ‘socal means tha he ou, ate tha evo dierent ype of knowledge an te idenuied ()inividual/expict (conscious) (i) india impli auto- ai) i) sie (object) and) solange (calle),= — conaou ‘nets ; eal cee Clee ‘aia as Figure 1.2 Forms knee Sanders amen Spender’sfamework makes very portant aitiona pin, which shat foums of ial Kromledge can eit beyond the india, Hence itis possible to mabe a contre between the expe knowledge that individuals fee hey poses andthe collecve Roowedge on which tis expe knowledge actually Sand and the interaction the evo" (Spender 1998, p. 288). For etn ple the clare of an organization i» Rim of soil knoe tha aries {Rnd the contbution of parce inddeals Spender a saw dhe creation ‘of orgitizatinal inovledge at resting Rom interactions between all fu ‘pes of knowledge, What thi framework docs nr highlight, however, which the SECT mol makes explicate the proces tha allow ilerent types of Jisowledge te tested in the Bist place ‘Thinking sel, Spender ages tha collective (soap) know ‘edge acl the mew valable to organzasons because this a ype of owedge their fms ind ico o understand and iitate. Awe shal tevin Chaps 2 afin can develop ute (collective nee) that sop posts hao cecton the tic be very Bard to iia, even ind Es eae and ty to aepleat this new core elsewhere. This ie very ach pps dhe view sll hel tong today, tha Bes core competencies ae serch sateac resource, Blacker’ Framework (1095) Blacker’ amen depicted in Figure 1.4) ws il fom a reew oeiing Studies of cnganiatonl Knowledge at the ie. dentin Koowdedge pes fmiined,enfuodied,encltared, eed ad ence - eeameaseRoacg ~— ESSGOe ooneige Ron comniaiertione | Srp Sigutatone ‘ice ombinn (2Batver ona a cee timntins, | Seve nas rt Low ot equtemens.” | shay poceene Empower Fuh exayte asia anucesy | Dap Aaa wan Petertcr scr itgrmanagene oman Taper Dependent xenon | Symbalasomar Seeretnenmese anor" | Grgeseion Exeraoen | Seecrsaat fae sSpme | Sesrayor mance Srl | Wintec | arenes, ‘pair Expl Houle aaa Soe enero anal ocone igure 14. Crpeiaon nd pe tle er Bc 195) being knowles novel the dependent on concep il rcp feet Eoesed Eanes thn ented anda parle. Ea fared knowl refs te proven of sheng shred whesandng op the devant at organs cae. beled knoe i owed theres In ra ine Ic be abled by consdeng the eons terwcentecfopen sl, posers and omegee rons. Pally, encoded howl is inmtion envy by sig and ata ther in antl o roel ented fn, (ote, 1995, pp 10241028) lille’ famework, lke Spende’, sugges tat diferent pe o owed tata cher te veal (embed and embrained knowledge) oat the col icv eel (enclared ap embedded), However cach of thes knoedse pes fan be moe or ess exp, ging rise othe fihknd of knowledge encoded none Fc example, nan ogaizavn ike MeDanas,calie (eeu Knowledge) may bearcalted in the form of formal statements and symbols {er the Big tat indctes the McDonalds brand aroun the werd) or may teed aowm by cteryone ith rm and eect in tee Beis. ‘What Blair ted to laste, wich dines this Famewore fm the cer conden bon, that dren types of rowed iret ‘pes of oraz. Bor erampl, he suggested hat a burewurae onan: ‘Sonmaling hl sanded products, ie MeDonay, wiley predominant ‘on kal embeded in ergancatoal routines and rules More dari andInnovative Sms, tke Heo Packard, wil ey on ether ented knowledge, IT they are communion tense, or emesined noedge,ihey ae my > PROCESS AND PRACTICE PERSPECTIVES KNOWLEDGE AND KNOWING “The file of many iaives tha have atepted to “aprre’ and tran Fer individu” knowledge have belped fel sis towards accounts that take 1 their focus the development of procter and ably comets capable of Spporing knowledge week This if can be scen in cepaization theories SMch foes on knowing at a soc nd organiasonl sty, cones 0 “Knowledges avahing or objet, Broce and more recently practice, perspec ties dans ten, rom an epsemalogy of practice (ontined above ~ Cook and ‘Beown, 1999). ‘Our working defniion of knowlege — a8 the abit to dria within and arom contents =i bined on this procestal perspective In that it 00k ‘ations of rth and defines owed in djl terms a apace of mal {ng dsinctons (Taoukas and Visimiro, 2001). Process approiches wo manag ‘ng knee wok draw ftom theoreti alos of oil construcivsn', Seeing knowledge, or knowing, at» proces of sensemaling’, whereby actors, inserting within parca socal contexts come wo negotiate understandings of the word Berge and Lckman, 1967; Wes, 2001. Knowledge therefore: causa dubjse to dieent meaning nd interpretations) {gai dpe ening can change ators and comet chang) ands + context dependent (iti, if ot impose to separate om the contest Inwhich te produced) hile structural approaches see a diect relationship between increased [knowledge novledge transfer and organizational performance (Amidon, 1998), process approaches view thi relationship as socially and politically tmedited. Whether or not knowledge (or knowing leads to improvement Alpenda, deny om how tusks, actors and content come together (Clark and, Sctunton, 1989) For example, Clare (2003) describes how the US game of American Footbal erpinated from knowledge of the game of rugby inthe ‘United Kingslom, However, wat not simply a case of cacutng Knowledge lb rh an transfering ths tothe United States Hs historia analy $i showed hon hey stakeholders (including pyes, sports promotes and the meds) relerpretd the Brita rules ofthe game and ceated pivotal Inodiications' that lowed it to be adapted tothe parucalar context i the United tates at the cme. Hence, in order to generate avertsing revene through eda beak, they intoced shore pesous (instead of halves) be ste out within nd sero ieent soll and inttatonal costets come to bear it ‘eprodacing and leptiating particular Torms of kaowledge and inovaton The proses approach aso halt the cental ol of socal networks ia eae Laing oot ua trnsfring) knowledge sco roupe and context, Koning nota ened or tbe dpsion of bat aber oning cal sconphment, conse an conse acta ene tbe sonia patie. “This example shons how dhe patil lateness and iatrpecaions of actors (Ota, 200, 9.249) Managing knowlege work, then, i les about converting, capturing and transfering dierent forms of knowledge and more about bulling an ‘nailing cones that connect different socal gro and tere, denies nd penpectves to accomplish speci aks or purpon (Boland and Tenkas, 1995). Management iitaies timed a buling socalled communities of practice” (Thompeon, 2005; Wenger and Sayer, 2000) or socal networks {Cross and Sproul 2004) reflect sach a view. These wil be explored in — ¢ reer meet Many different kinds ofthersts have influenced practice pcrwpectves includ! peep contest (Conk and Brown 1998) and socly eogried nsafac |ca en some generis tha race perspectives offer ove and aon roses perpetves to our understanding of oedge work — int practice porpetine enn ts that knowlege chy” ie ses co practice and is thecfre ical oshare where people: peatces ae also not ‘hored Ths lp to caplain wy sharing knowledge sere specialist Functions ‘r dcplines within aa organization, or ffom one organization to another, ‘So ait ~ even where people appreciate other” iss, they may not be the to apply them because ft would be too difiel o change thelr current, practice, This means tha Knowledge is noe uiemly good but is actly {ute paradoical ination to organtational performance. On the one hand, iso of labour vests o-illerene groupe performing diflerest practices ‘which means that sake specialized knowledge can develop. Oa the other Tad, the “knowiedge boundaries efated by speciation pose baies to knowledge sharing crs diferent groupe of pracioners (Brown and Dug, 2001; Cale, 2004; Searbroug eta, 2008) As Carle (2002) pst: the ion that he now uit oc oni ae calenge, bao {pert ect bats ich of whit orion roe bas oumdon In especiaason of dire kins of knee (Cte, 202, 482) ‘Sccond, when we perform practice we use many kinds of meal and physi ‘objets not jose words and thought. Mater objects are fot js oo that, feaple ise to achive ends, homer, yey abo set nits ound what rae Hee are ataly posible. For example, Orava (2007) describes an online busines mecting where laptop competes, Intrset conpecons, phone Hines, ‘bls, conneston, pes, mute buttons on telephones ta he ten the ‘ull ‘eciyday Me serve to "safold the soil act ofthe people involved She wes the metaphor of cll t highlight the was in which tempo ‘ary mtefilarangements ep constitute particular Kids of socal acti ‘eal tine, Practice penpecives on knowledge work daw attention, then, € {he materi” of vac atvy(Olkownd, 2007; Scatsi, 2001), In eer ‘word they fogunon the says Wal fms ace, ineding Knowledge ‘work, ar interwoven with non-human ynteral artes, objets and pia ranger WH hes oleae dete around oy hy the tr ‘wei takes place (the portance of human vers non-human gen, being 1 paricalr bone ofeontenton Latour, 1988), practice perspectives ase that tiesoil words eld of enol, materi interwoven pacts etal ‘vganied around shared practi undeandinge (Schat, 2001, p 3). This npr npcatons fr managing knowledge work On the one hand mean thatthe sty fr lak hero! 1 transoem ksowledge sed innovate depends t east some extent on what Scat (2001) deseribes the dang int’ maternal layouts (ip 3), eyes ely andmentaly 0 ‘he whe and ac slr nach the meta a they were cries a3, fo ‘rample- On the er hand, mates objecs (mobile technologies, rang, roerypes an soon) cap alo act rica oar Kpowledge Management |An important pong, However, tha this not 3 one-way telaonsip~ the ‘eign of mater objet eg the yout ofthe meen oom) incnce human sy bt alo result rom The an nse we wl retro in Chap 8 “Thin, practice perspectives remind that Knowledge work actly takes pac in broader ‘eld of practices (Scat, 2001, For example the prices [retical profesional ar prt the bower fl of cee practice. Tht Ince eptemie practice (or “wee estes that gore how ko ‘lige crete an lepine in eee theres of scenic metho, or ‘umpc (Knorr Cetin, 1999), There, to manage knowledge werk, we 3 re to be ee tothe oer ian coe ai inerconneced et fof pactics in which hat nowedge work late. The notion af the ld of iereonnected paces reminds us tac change in one area of practice poten aly csupes wide ange of eter pracies It for hs reason that cteatng Suing nove inerdspnarsetings cn Beso calenging. AS Dea ies need athe fist coneence nanotechnology (in 1989}, unfortanatly, ierdiscpnary subjects fave a ay of escaping 0m any dsiline whaeve™ (Dees, 1999), our, practice penpeees emphasize not js the soil stated nature ‘of none, but ako the favoment of kaawlege tn people? practice (Ca He, 2002). other words, practice fen take cosa cine and efoto fstlah and, once ctblited, cn be reinforced by a whole range of other, Interconnected practice. Forth reason they ar filo change, even Where there good erence to do s. For example, new intetted IT stems ate otrioy ical o introdace into organizations because people I very Ciclo change om ther corre egacy systems. Moreover, esen ion froup i willing to change they may fice calengest neoducg the system cate other group cn not fr will ot). As we sal ce in Chapter 7, this plies equal when inroducing Knowle Management stems >> PERSPECTIVES COMPARED Table 1.1 provides 3 summary ofthe diinctions benecn struct process ng peactice perspectives on Knowledge and managing knowl work In the ‘taper hi fellow we want to undentand knowledge nok hat where people work with nome fn oder to aceompish things ~ not knowledge or sown sake. Because ofthis, we daw more hes fom the process and practice ‘perpen as thes a) ake cloner acount af the core pet of Knowledge ‘wok Rng process pps nd nang ones an () balance ate tion to the soil andthe material technological spect of krowlege work. ating fete core concep and approaches to Knowledge work, in the ext ction me lok t stl approaches to managing knowledge in organ ‘ations. This istorialoservew alle ie important in understanding why Snowe work eso importa say ad hy femal Kaovledge Management ‘programmes sometimes repeat the mistakes of the as.Table 11 epi on ad or coped Epistemology af Possession Epistemoiogy of Practice ‘Siuctwrt Froese rates Terdne aca aga aa oleae Paar ae Sete tmepenton fame soon) Siliendcoin Sect ci View oops Knoees ——_Knnngst ani Krome pice Spicy» gamely Seed Tennant cporet Sree searcmced ome Embers ic pte Luteo Keo ary Rai tte Rana owen Sowmmi "arctan et ronan Crean t or pcr scaly prema ad rosemanee ote mere rg pa ‘heangearessa Krone ee Sonrgewe egwomen ce Viet Tamdafomert—Smemin andar Imiorinoe Ionkteron, —natioee drut Sega dome Penney bloat Genyteserey Tg owe Tang pi Sateen innccomelt orem ene soucane cponneerat >> SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AS KNOWLEDGE. MANAGEMENT “The imporance of managing knowledge 10 improve the prodacion procs it not new Aslong ag as 1890 Aled Manhalagpeted hat knowedge wa the Ios powerful engine of precton, However, eno ely unl the ent ‘or Soke Managemen athe hepnning ofthe tweet centry that mnt gant ately explore How 1 manage hnowledge in work stings. Frederick Winlow Tylor developed the pandpcs of Scene Management ip 191] Ths nw (atthe tne) approach tothe organization of work in pared, ‘nga! work ~ had a ¥ery profound elec on management, many features of ich ve endured to he preset day. ‘Scene Management emerged inthe United States daring the instil volition ata time where there were major advances in teinology and mast rovtcton wat onthe increase Managers ever anger oranzaios were ap Bling. then, with the pots of controling ever inceang vole of werk, ‘Moreover thi was bing eared out bya lng untsined wer loce made ‘of immigrants rom Barope or nave Ameian workers who had come onthe Srila repons ofthe United State. These workers were fetal skied In tory work, many had ite nding ofthe Eng Ianguage snd the majority had ide or no experience of working ina fico environment, "Frederick Taylor began to develop the principe of Senie Management ‘ase om his experience tthe Mae Stel Compan, where hi caer ook him fom machine shop ibourer, through foreman to cit engineer. Having ‘een inva wit cera wrangles with shop floor worker ding his ime sr foreman, Taylor believed thatthe prevalent system of production a that ime ‘rat production ~ was highly neteet- This was because iewas large the troupe of rat works" themselves to plan and carry out work tas ey sn Fusing loosely defined "les of thom acquited trough yeas of exeience, Hence, the inowledge concerning the way work wast be aed ou rested i er, wich “the head andthe har of he workers, Thi, Tylor Slee it ‘rzaizations vulnerable wo 2 lack of dsipne and “tematic soliering~ the ‘aliberte sw pacing of work and rexticton of ouput ~ because twas no in workers iret to produce ny spe than dey absolutly had “To overcome these problems, Tylor beeved that work proces should be ‘organized ferent, being divided up into asses of simple sub-asks which ould be standaedized and gly poser. Workers could then be selected ‘Senuiealy” Talo, 1911) aecording tothe tas) they were to perform, ‘rks would ao longer be rsponaibe for planning the organization of work instead they would only be egured to carry ott spe, standalzed sa tanks in an let eee Taylor abo argo that it shoud be the tsk of managers to observe work proceser and determine ce mos efficient ay topaz rid cede the — [Rect acting at engineers The Busnes Prose Reengineering efor oF tosay are to some extent einscent ofthis apprch, Hence, whist with the {raf iytem the knowledge rege to cy ott work i eed i he eas tnd the hands’ of the workers, wth the ne sytem of Scientiie Management ‘gineer managers would exact and capere ths knowledge by systematic ‘observation They wos then we these aberrations to rede the work pro ‘ee that workers would then fallow Tn shor, managers won be the heads, tne workers the hand, ofthe organization, To use today's es, we can se, ‘hen tht these managers were in fc tempting to manage EnowedgeAir aving Mii, and carving outa caeer a an inpenden cons: tant, Tylor cai out some of is fst psec sods around 1898 a the Batchem Steel Conorstion inthe United Sate, with impeesve incre in proc His mon famous tad (a tory that he rewrote several mes, ich time with mors impeesive rents) as of Dutch pg ion handler ‘Shige Ae the sart of hi sade, 7 men were loading an sverage of 12.5, {ons perman perdi, Schmid followed Taser’ sple br dete instructions Texarding when to lod he pig on and walk and when tose and vs, with ho ineraction with ether worker By flowing these nsrutions specially ‘SChmilincresw his outpo 0 47.5 tons per dy. He was ble to matin his ‘output fr thee years of ie and rected 60 pe cent increase in Wages ‘compared this poets (Tylor, 191), Tollowing the impressive reat the Behlebem Cosporaion, othe fins vers keento apy Static Management prinpls However, chelmpronements In preety were asompanid by widespread Bost eaton rom workers ‘bene the wrk wi inherently boring an Te werkers ite or mo iad 10 their onde and sil, In addon, any fms management hose {inedace the prince ater slesively to reduce the numberof workers Tequited and, beeawe the sil required were ow simpler, cut rather than incrense wage Thisoltcniedvoserites sich thatthe Federation of Labor came ‘hcmenlyoppote Stic Managemen, in 19LL a House of Representatives “Comte asset op to vestigate Tinton methods, conlading that Scenic “Management dd peovie sf techniques forthe management an oranization fork However, because of continued hostiity and sigacant concer abot the potent or nda nest narmsfctoresi watine, congress banned. ‘the adoption a the approach i the defensins. ‘Dest this knock back, Henry Ford pli an erter developed cient Management penis for the proton of crt Atte tan ofthe century, hight sled rfsmen had ben employed oud ars usinghandraed pars Inanofsetred on general porpoe machines, However, ith the itodcton of ‘Sete Management an ronalation athe Ford automotive pln, singe purpose machines were inrodaced on which any could be cay tained to produce sandaied pacts The tnowledge and many ofthe sls requed to blac inet Been embodied nthe machine. However, workers still, onrale the sed of preucton was ace ntl Ford developed the concept ‘tthe sembly ins se toy = where de car moved past the men stead ‘men moving past theca = that Ford wa able o achieve what he considered, to be tot contol ofthe prdction proces Iinpertanty Taylor snd Ford both had ery iastrumenal views of human aur, becsng tat worker were ply atonal, exonomic Beings moat Solely by monetary incenies. They therefore Bebe tat mangement Labour feations could astaly be improved fesse workers would Rave the oppor tunity to ean more (but not too much more) money in eur or gas in ‘Siceacy, However, tee Bel were fundamental mistaken and 2s worker faxigue and boredom set in, abseteesm rose sigan and the quality of the work deceased. Ltr, the ‘Human Reais schooled bythe plonesing ‘work of Eton Mayo tthe Havahore plat of the Westera Electric Company, Ted the development of dierent preaches to the organiation of work bad ‘on group work and group responsi fr woek tasks. Tis demonstrated that ‘workers hae soil not fst monetary, ads andar ao moat by ita tpl rewards ach a jb ation and recgnion ofl well-done Te would be a misake to think that we have wien the end of Seaie Management The underying pines ae wil apple across sect today, “ips, whee eficency, stanarizaton andl om minization re he main {ers of competion. Take, fr example the ri offs food chan like MeDon- aids or the ever increasing number ol centres outsourced to low-wage cour lies: Many of the problems around quality of products increasing services, se now addresed technology, wih mechanisms for survedance and qual ity conte being bul into te cre technologie sed by workers (Sewell nd ‘Witkinson, 1992), For cumple, cal eenues acts a ange of cos now we sophisticated information technology to monitor the numberof cl ten by worker ad the quality ofthe interaction between cent andl worker Estially the dea with these sens isso ake knowledge, and al ce uncertainty that theres, outa the wosk (and wacker) and plc thin the hands of an sgemencand the technologies that they choose t We >> MANAGING KNOWLEDGE IN THE ‘INFORMATION AGE" Wht thier work et the fc that managing Koowlag ang een seca a importnt in organization the ole Keowee Ene Tnfrmaton ‘Age race jor vances in thse, Thscan be race wider debates about the ongaiation of wor andthe sources wealth cet in content so fy, Awhole new” lngage has ren around eee that is edie, a otother spires ih ahora cpt tht te main wource eon Advantage cos sects. This language snow wsed widely in management ai pois and inches such teens as: he kang organization, Know a gcment, soateg management of core competences, the knowledge-based ew ‘oftheir, knoledge Sed tems, rowed intense fem etal nt ‘ecal capital, Knowledge capital, tlent managerent ad sft. The fishionae als ome nd go andar presictedin the previous eon ‘ofthis book, "Knowledge Management has ately losis grounds sour of ‘he mont (Scarbrough and Swan, 2001). The emergence and dis ofthese ‘management fas, however, self continued testimony to the pheromens which they addres that ithe growing knowledge intensity of business, the impact of dicours on pater and sles of management, the seminghy ‘le inportnce of information and communication technology (ICT) on ‘woek and work elaoesips, andthe importance af ange and innovation for ‘rpanzsionsBcng increasingly tarbulent envwonments. These ators ate not the product of fshon but of history ~ a convergent set of ores which have snleaed fundamental putes of change on advanced industrial economies.These forces have Been examined in a number of diferent studies of indus, oscpatonal and organizational change in more recent decade. In 1969, Procter emphasned that knowledge had Become the crac {esource ofthe economy. Daniel Rell in 1973, ato described the potential for the development af 4 post-industrial society dominated by knowledge ‘worker operating in knowiedge intensive fms. This would bea society Dreamed around knowledge forthe purpose of esonomie development, Socal conte and iastutional innovation and change. Other workin the [0s and 90s (eg. Castes, 1996; Drucker, 1988; Gibbons et a, 1994) indicated che extent of such changes in advanced economies since the days ‘when Scientific Management principles were fst introduced, Such stad Jes have outlined important characterise features ofthe cutent ea. These include the fllowing (i) The eueat wo which nowladge has Ben globalize, or ee up fom rater phycal and peopraphie consi (i) ‘The economic value of nang, such a new ides, software, series and network elonshie, (i) "The convergence of computing power and communications technology, ‘sth anew generation of web bas echnolge ving mse mast ‘on the structuring of work and oecupations (i) The imporsnce of knowlege aa primary meas of production, sting ‘ion elf isan acekeating sil of innovation and change” (Castell 1990), (9) An emphasis on normative, of cura, eater tan hirrhial fens (of contal 0 that knowledge worker efcctvely manage sad dacipine ‘hemsces (and eachother) (si) Pendsmental change inthe ways knowledge sls prodaced ~ no lon- 5c jn ory tower academic organizations or RED departs {Me 1) hota applied in new contests (Mode 2) (Gibbons el, 1994; Noworny etl 2003), The diferent dimensions of hese modes of knowledge potion ae stmmarized in Table 12. Tie 12 rds and raat PDA itose 1 nowtedgeproauction Mode 2 knowledge production a Despina “tpn hone ena a ity anal te aa Scat rete frie Sechrest 7 "Taking a more crcl approach, es important that we continue vo ak quer tions but he extent to ic then changes have been as widespread eat Inberenty postive, se predicted by the les of Drucker or Gibbons eal At ste hve sen in sme types of work cll centres beng an example here it Tule evidence of worker being Feed from hierarchy or being ately engaged ins tir ow Knowledge as 2 meats of production. New web-based and incresingy mobile technologies ao, cet ceate ther owe problems. On the ome fad they can decentalve work and fee people and setites Eom the contain of phys lation or even ident Arte sae une, however, they can depeniondine the experience of wor, generating problems OF Socal [olan or cn inten ey sifting home aor ie balsnce. They ca ao increse apport for moe ale forms of rence and cone itive or negative, however, the changes herald by the “Information ‘Age’ ave undoubtedly having a ble impacto the way orgsneations ae ting stractored. Many have indeed shied avay from the tational com ‘mand and conto sutures of rile he asc bureaueray) towards fnter, decentralized sructores and more lene, open ended, fal and net tworkedarangement (ace Chapte 2), IFwe lok thigh technology sectors Sich the bnoparmacetl industry fr example, we ne thin characterized by loose constellations ofr alliances and merger, etna and pat- scringarngement, easing dese and o forth. There of networked re ‘ition (sometimes refered to a8 poeentec organizations), viral modes ‘St otpinzing, and more open-ended, callaborave forms of innovation and brevdct development (Chesbrough, 2004) dlsrate further the extent Ini ganization srctares have evolved in pace with changes in technol ‘oxy that break dow tracional boundaries of ve and space "Tae change in sructre hve, however, generated ae problems fr man sing brung in the cree ca tit re equal fn more, signe han thous eeiened in Taylors tine, For example, when eusouri inzodaced, for merge take place, the inplcins in erm of Tsing valuable knowl are ten not sngnied wt oo ie More open-ended, collaborate aeange nents for organizing week an product development abo generate signe Challenges terme of wh cs ttelecanl propery (Cesbrowph, 2003, A nen business are rtractred around vil fame and nce a Secched acon me and space, ty ao Ineviaby lve oppertantis or asal ‘arn of Knowledge an Teng ive by phy promity As Pak pat RU1997) he water coker wa font el now i he onal Bem, hat con Semel oe os) Indeed, it hasbeen suggested that inf ne of the resone that Krowledge Management ininivesDeare so popular inthe late 1990s was becuse hey ‘offer an antidote to some ofthe profound organizational problems posed ty hese changes of organiation inthe “Taformation Age. The empsis inKnowledge Management was, a less iil, on iensiing, exacting and ‘turing the, often ta, node ae ofthe rm 30 Ut Hey could Be ‘nh filly expe and ly protected as 3 source of compeatve advange For example, Dow Chem which ess 3 high income trough technology licensing spiced acta sche described orpanived mess of nlite ‘ial witha widely asceubledatabe to keep tack of hl any patents "The sac andnitaons of Koowlge Management stems inroducedvocaplit te copays intlectl or noedge acy ar explored ip Jean Caper 7. Froth listo ones we can seta n some respects “Knowledge Ma ‘gereitactly prety sna to Scene Management nso at bes Toei the Koonege that eden the hee ad the haf the workers Howes, the tsk of exacting ane cigtring the knee of wok process “pein the head of workers hs Boe fir mre complex aden ams of stk ve rl been placed by wht we ow refer tos knowledge werk >> WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE WORK? Iw lookback tthe definition of knowledge above we ca see thar all work, ‘ten Schmid’ pg roa handing, requires she aplication and use of Some Knowledge. You old argue, then that al works knowledge woek, However, {Sve hal sein Chapter, ing the term in sch bral brush ay sot very ep when shiking about managing Knowledge work ‘The tem ‘knowledge wor, ar eed here, eee more partic to ore ization actives and occupations that are characterized by an emphasis 08 ‘theoreti ledge, cenit and we ofanayial and socal sls’ Feeabel tal 1995, 9.773). "Knowledge work in these terms encompasses bath what {strony referred to a8 profesional work (eg. accountancy, selene a legal work) and more contemporary types of work (eg onstany sof ‘ware development, avertsing an public relations). In these kinds of work, Sinovwledge acts as the main inp into the wor, the major way of achieving the work andthe major output This hind of woek, and the organizations that Focus on i are explored in more depth in Chapter 2. Safi to say ere, is ‘with this kindof work that we are mot concerned in our book. “The term “knowledge worker’ encompasses, then, both profesionals and those with othr dlcplin- based Knowledge or more eaoteri expertise ad Slls—Tor empl adveresng, media, constancy whose major work asks involve the cretion of new knowledge or the aplication of exiting kao fcge in new ways. Keowledge workers ypcally have high level of education nd pci sls combined with the sly to apply these kl in pac tice to Meni and selve problems, What i sgncan about these types of Inowledge workers isthe, wie the Kinds f shop aor workers Taylor was desing with, oF the call conte workers dneaed above, bnowledge Work tare the organization's primacy means of prodcton. Hf we tke the ew, tbo, that speilit knowledge Ix deeply embeded in practice (the episte- ‘ology of prseice view), this means that knowledge work doce not lend itself patcully well ro knowledge cape or standardiaton. Therefore those engaged in these typeof work need tobe left to make tei own dec Sone about what and how to do ther work. >> CONCLUSIONS, Inti chapter we have focsed on iodacing and proving em an providing ised overie of how ad why Knowledge work ha become vo portant for organizations in ervey Since In hs we have seen how roe a pase paspetves st bosom mre rominen ve recent Yeas, pate 1 {helio and esque of puey rac approaches sh knowlege yoo ‘Table 13 summaries some of the ar comer eed i pt We can conde fom this that mansping knowledge workin the teen)- fin century is ess aboot diet conto and ep of knovedg in machines fortes a tthe days of Taylor and Kor nd more about proving sh ‘sung conta shat saps he process and practices of appving know. felge foe specs tasks and porposs. Kooledge workers res the command ‘Soncept Working Definition Fit stay a ‘reine yon renin Atmisesremasoed Craton my Stearn detest pe he ora olerwaetencvire Smiter ‘Sect sero ce rorke praetor Concra hn dp of cnc Sipldy marge ener fm orc he Sthcngesronare cre yiwensenar peer Kora Cnr sia cen Coc thm a ‘Me enero oer Semel aes amg Sooetaemdcecnd Sancta cr Kora feo dt cic a ta, ee Selon ener, SSerwortan move rane Seles rape eat, Socipnearorr eonton Teen iinsney Gaeta nw Tali atnene Aan contol tue of Talos tines and demand anew frm of management Sh eepniation more reminicet ofthe orchestra than whe wadionl man ictus dem. ike msktanynmeledge workers seek outlets foe thet creative lites ind Become sbwrbed in interesting challenges and the simulation of Seong mth cer specs Thi poaes ae challenges or management i howl bused orgniations that we ial consider dro the course of his book, which eto oF -. __saeaéscéw__tC a ——™Lr™t~—~—™— person rat p) tre psn cn eh serine gr hla nsec ro | «Darina eset greet nei it a -r—s—E a «ig na las pra a rn he inane no seo ‘Thong the loin chapters ur emphasis on combining theories with practi examples and cae ster ma of which are dawn ffm our own Fsarch ~ that enable gr to better andestand Snowe work and its man eement hough aligning prove, parpoes and emai context. Inthe fen cute, however, we fon onthe managemear of krowledgetused oe “Knowledge iconv fms’ a they tend to Be refed to inthe erature 8 these poe dative calenges for managing Knowledge work, Using theese ‘PSceneeCo' we explore in patclar the acura ad clue comets that ‘Suppor and enable knowledge work. ‘Summary of koy learning points >> Keowee iy cmt engi fom erm or. > Twoajr mac undersanding nowlee den ggonce to mmgrgiowede tre penal tones ode etme race: >> The etenogyof omen at knw ashing pl hae ad ie {2 deny pest frm fowl - mower ean a ewan he ‘omerson of one pe of tnenege to rater > Theeptomsagf pte rats knoe (rain) sorting Pat people do ‘ero wean recess by whch oop orpiaton come ON ah Sire meg mtn oe seis ign nen >> Srl aproieas maagrg Knee aume a epiteolon of ponesion ste pea pica aproschr mame epenoy of paces >> Teper of Scale Marageent canbe sen aan eaten 2 mage ga Thy 3 apd ay my ser. >> Ann sc theron A’ Keowee rhe weed ne om Snel iin in oer fea mt 2» Keonlos Magee’ bce opus nthe ck of i st a a mens cpg sth prong conan fone worn eet erry AoE Sm anh now ener oy 13> The mamgrent tones wort of wratagenperanca.n ards fone ucconge on tase of moonKNOWLEDGE-INTENSIVE FIRMS Chapter Ostine >> waning Oscomm >> scl onion 3 reoacion owed 3 Mpetrkregetesverin >> Ctr eons in Sopot 3 Monncwomaaecag” "Moxie Trgetonontnoncae 3» Conune wea 3 ety 2: ee >> Facing Kowtp Work trai anager toe Signy > Somaya earings Leaning Outcomes esheets par you shoud be Uniersnd covey of owen fem a errno ‘een pes of rotate rm Unicenter ané ral condom ree toe maga of lh fe wy wih ve vcr fl ond ‘arate poder enblogcoen he ng woken opm he perc fag 2 heen rc de rats tec rua tens wer >> INTRODUCTION “The fst chapeer inteduced and explined the notion of nowledge work” and ‘Knowledge worket’, Here we focis or attention on firms where the majority or even the entre workforce conse of knowdedge workers ~ hence the tem “knowledge intensive fem’ ~ and consider the dstnctie manage ‘ent challenges posed by this particular type of “expert workforce, Even {ovey in what many refer ta the‘nowledge based evonomie’ ofthe devel ‘oped work, knowledge workers ate alla tlatvely scarce resource within {he lahour market a thee particular knowlege, skills and expertise are not generally widely avulable (Horwitz eal, 2003), Knowledge workers there {ove ten to have considerable choice and Intiude regarding tei place of ‘work ~ pariuly within knowledge intensive fips and management ate ‘eee to nd sys of atracting and perhaps more important, retaining Snexpert workIore asthe costs of replacement in terms of ime and money are significa. Knowledge intensive rms tend tobe service-based oraninaions of com sting in ther especie tos based on thei aby ose complex problems provide soltions for cent Law Bem, accountancy paces, management “omnes nveument banks, arditectorl practice, adverts and public ‘estos agencies areal good examples of knowledge ince ers. Many oF these types of rms fend tong nese ways inorder (a) aac a ‘een kowiedge workers and () promote novation ad in sons ances ce vig Sosaining a expert workrce who are wing to reste and share know dg s crcl i knowledge intensive fms are to ace competve advantage lnthe longer, Yet ithe workforce in tes em tha to are extent os the means of peodcton, noe management, Developing and, ore important, suing an exper woekloce therfore possibly the most portant sate Sue tat controats management wih these ems oer ne Th this chapter we ae going to consider she structural apd cule cn tions whi in combiaton, suppor the management of knowlege work and promote the recruitment and retention of koowiedge workers in knowledge Fntenave sens. nao doing we fas onthe prov and prac of koe work We llustat the importance ofthe iteration and imtegration of these rzanizational clement thoagh the case of Science, The dsinctie orga ‘tional arrangements a developed a this fe, characterized by an apie Caltre, serve as uf example ofthe importance of creating an emaling “ote fo the cond ofknowledge work partly the design of coe work rocewer vbich vere cctv and innova, >> TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE-INTENSIVE FIRM Assan defines knowledge worker a “ualifed abou (Alvesion, 2004, 1.8). Howower, his 8 somewhat broad definition. Here we ase the fem "enowledge worker to encompass bot professionals and groups wih eerTable 24_typeot noida tn ‘Sraegiotocus Resources Exarples ra vee Seana Societe ‘ounatnet — Mtyarencreiy —Canetnte Solano [ama forms of dsipind- based knowledge or more cree expertise an sills, foe ‘ample adversng, mea whoxe major work aks involve the cretion of ew knowledge or the application of existing knowedge in new ways Flows then thar diferent peso fim employ diferent pe of nowese workers Lowen (1997), for example, agers that the Cra testes iference ‘bermeen knavedge ntcnaive Rr the role of the profesional employed, ‘hatin the characteristic of the resource base and herpes projet areeted, ‘She etfs tnce genes types of knowledge incre fir premised on the Br’ sestepc fat (sce Table 21). ‘Akeston (2008) dsinguishes between two major types of knowledge iene fers, RED companice and professional service rms, Profesional Service ims deal largely with inangiles and thore employed often dea tively with ents whe RECD companies typcly produce angble pro tis and contac between employees and the carom are lew direst. Thi largely concur with Lowendahlsiypology which only differentiate farther fone bas of what is poduced for he clint in ters of eer bespoke oF Fenty adapted wolation/prodset (be they ange or intangible). The tem "noledge intensive fi is therefore wed ata generic tex to encompas miny diferent types of firm operating aco seco. Traditional profesional ‘ervce firme such a [aw and accountancy Rem, for example ate seh 253 fuse of knowdedge intensive firme ae have exited as ong a the cxganized professions These types of firm generally organize along partnership tines tith recognize coe of practice and leat defined “up-or-ou eae! paths Despite the changing nature of some ofthe etablshed peoesions (Muzio snd Ackroyd, 2005), che msjority of profesional service Rams sl tendo be structed and organized slong similar hes ~ often relerzed to a8 the profesional bureaucracy (Mintzberg, 1979) Profesional bureaucracies are ‘organized slong trstona icarchia ines, Legal profesional wil eccupy the snr postions within the fm and a range of non egel professionals wil Imanage ditrete functions within th firm sich as human resources, ance find 0 on. Sal profesional src firme tnd to be organized along tad ‘onal partnership lines otherwise known asthe 2 form wherchy the senoe parner ofthe frm alo manage the frm (Greenwood, Hinngs and Brown, 1990). Larger ones ae often ered 2038 Managed Professional Bareucr «ies (MPBS] (Cooper et al, 1996) and employ away of profesional swell ‘leg pofesonals and admitatrs to deal with the management and ‘operation ofthe fren. Notably within the lager UPB, profesional een ‘won as pat of lage teams (ie they do not neces individual conta ‘esources) aldesing the needs of smi large, comport cents, Prfesona Service fms ate characterized by a lee Merah, partnership stuctire au well-dtiaed career pats, and he management oF this pe of i fs already well-documented inthe management iterate (Lowen, 2000) ‘Some lnowledge intensive firms in arc lags consltany By ae alu fen looey refered to at profesional sve fim, The way in which the very large, global eonsukancies such as Accenture, McKinsey and Price Wacerhouse Cooper onganize dose tend to resemble that of the triton profesional sere frm akough they tend to be output base eter then lent aed), However his tectonics oni, he etre kncmdedge intensive frre brosdec and, mporantly some the Festres scribed othe traltional professions are not neces aparen inal ksowledge tensive Firms. For example stint eatues of PSPs such a codes of tis, song profesional aiations and specie educational entry requirements leading to rented access need ot, and do not, ext in many Knowledge intensive Fron, More contemporary forms of knowledgeintensive Ses emerged in the Inger part of the tweets century including media, adertnng and public ‘eltons agencies, softaredevloprcat companies, nd many other high tech nd speiast consultancy fms. Around the nat ofthe new ellen we Sis wines the emergence of vraa,Ineret base! Knowledge intensive Finns offering specialist service to both nda cena the nel ube (e4 Napser, sends renited), Irs he fees around organizing and aging within thse rypicly smal, knowledgeinensive fe operting in Snowledge-hased sector that ae going e pec cast hee in this chapter "Not surprisingly, precise definition ofa knowledg-intensive Hi echve and si clear from the term itl that ti a soglyconstrted boas ‘aging and yet quite ambiguoas concept Alvewan (2004, p17) loely Aetnes ksowiedge ingnave fms at “onginitns that of to the market the use ofnowlge or knowledge sed psc. The core of activities Inthese companies based onthe iacelectal kilo very lege proportion fof the labour force deployed in development and offen ako in the sale of provlcts and inservice work and he goes onto defibe a knowledge neasive {nm san organization foal recognized as creating alae though the ae ‘of advanced knoe (p29). Homeves, the term “alansed Knoles? here is somewhat ambiguous. Untoransteh, becuse there no prec Aetinition cher hasbeen polieaionofarles on the abject of nome ‘workers and knowledge work i what might be considered iy rionwoe stings, which as ed some commentators to suggest tha all work sin Ther knaige work (Bright tal, 1993), However itis copier we ae ot tng he roa finn but instead focor on those sectors in tv's nowiedge sed pos india economy which compete onthe basis ofthe Abit to crest, apply and share profesional and dsptine-based knowledge “Ths ines score where thesis and expertise required are not neces quired through formal edoestion and qulcations but where knowledges Sal the bos for competition. For example, many sis that ae api! within the field of ICT uch a sfeware developement, web page design and soon, are ‘Sil tha ae often largely sf aught and almose develops ituiely by those individuals with 3 procul interest nF. 1s may instances tis not necessary to have a depfe in computer cence inorder to ecome a software expert Se web deveoper, Ite therefore gute slfcult to give a precise definition ‘fa knowledge-nensve frm in terms oF the particule sls and experi rere. "Vom ral perspec, Alveson (1993, 2001) suggests that knowledge Jensive fem ight be more usefully een purely a systems of persuasion’ ‘yng pay oa ter persuasive atin (ste sl) xe than expect rowiedge esl erst convince cents of tee serio ability and exper tse to say cet expectations, Thi might be the casein some sevice base noedge interven, for example, some adveresing ages, but ean otal rowed inte rs, Whi there therefore a ack of laity and {degre of ambiguity sound the er knowledge intense fen, ia we Talone wit which to encapsulate abroad tinge of firms operating across {ors in knowledge bse pontine economic, What ndputae shat inany pes of Knowledge mensve rs ceged in he ateewenteth and ea “ent fst entries and ow soc fine consti porn dus Eos ‘wthina pos industrial economy. Ln thi chapter we aden the ways in wich they onganize andthe drivers for parca modes of organizing. We nex tum to dccrbing the diinctine hart of knowlege work and knowledge worker. >> THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF KNOWLEDGE WORK AND KNOWLEDGE WORKERS ‘Autonomy. Generally knowige worker expect to have considerable atonony in their ‘work The nature ofthe work, which often carstrized by ecatity and ‘Problem solving, demands aun. Ie the Knowledge workers themsces ‘who fend tobe the mont appropriate people to decide how to slate, plan, ‘organize and coordinate thar maj work tasks. Unlike other kins of work {m. knowledge workers poses oon’ the onniations primary means of proviution = that is kale. They therefoe expect and demand autonomy {nd management tot ely na poston to deny them, This aot oy at Inowledge workers work aon, typical hey work in tans of varying sizes ‘with vrjing degrees of inter dependency Th adlton, is nr alvays the ase That mangement in knowledge intense firms shares these evel of sil lind exprtie ae the expert workforce they are trying to manage, Therefore, Knowledge worker demand for autonomy, in combination with ainsi ‘understanding ofthe work being conducted in some instances, means tha managements rypelly ot ip a postion to ciety contol or even Manage owledge wok process. Terloe, its pevaps more appropiate within 2 Knowledge werk setting to sugges hac management rae to provide the necessary onbling conte tat wil facie knowledge work, Further ev ‘ence fortis is provided in more recent research conducted by Ame el, (2004, 2008) Amabile and colleagues condacted research focus on the cognitive aspect of creatty and adoped soil psychology methodology. In toal 222 knowledge workers, working in 26 teams across 7 companies sa 3 industries competed daly queontire which soughe information te caabsh the rlasonsip beeween postive afer (mod) and ces ‘A postive mood was found tobe psiely ssoviated wih ratty and ths Fingered trough to the allowing dy (Amable et a, 2008). Moreove lead ‘nip beaioue was found wo have signifeaneiafseace on suboedinats in that leader behaviors was found wo precipitate subordinate precpttal and affective secon, which in ne iouened subordinate creative performance {male tal, 2004), Knowledge base and working methods Diferent types of knowledge worker ey ett, share and apply diferent ‘yper of knowledge inti wor, Thus in irene knowledge work tertings sina epistemic cultures can be found (Kaort-Cetia, 1999), epstemic tultres being "those amalgams of arrangements and mecianisns.... which, ina gen eld, make wp low ne buoy what we kane’ (Kort Cetin, 1999.1; ied authors com). Such culture ae earacteized by diferent socal, cut siveand mater practice, including ferent level ofineracion wih ata sles sgn syste and soon, When we consider the dillerent cpt cl tures sociated wth diferent forms of tnowedge work we tart to appreciate the "the complex texture of knowledge av pracsced (Kor Catia, 1999, 2) and how thi might ier aco diferent knowledge work contents Roberton eta. (2003) found signcant diferencia knowledge creating Prostos acros 8 siemie constancy ted x legal constancy which wat Ephtne in tems of nstionaly embeded mean of legimating kn ‘ge acos sient nd legal contest. These ince iflerent emphases on "experimentation versus interpretation, difeen forms of personal network, nd signicanediferences inthe relive importance of coding knowledge, In sien professions for esample, cits to Knowledge ae leiimize by ‘he application ofthe sient method (principally experiment) to naturat tn ogi phenomena, Once eablnied and rept though the ceniicmethod and validated by the scenic community, such knowdge claims Manscend particular contexts (Collins, 1985) In contest, “Tawyers point to the law fasng of des a he lw making of epslaures’ (Hala, 1988, 126) Thus the knowlege cline of the legal peosesion extend on to par Tear rsdition and particule points in time” Ie also important 0 recog- hive has ll ste Broad epistemological diernces that exit betwee profesons, suc ifezences are also found amongst iret specialisms chin abroad profesional grouping (Drain, 1990) This has implications For management inasmuch a8 actemps to Intoce eandaed work practices tn procedures (ee Kaowiedge Management tems and tol), ma be per ‘vad a contrary to dhe ongoing epistemic practices and an unnecessary cs ‘tetoa ffom core work process. Cortocation [Another distinguishing fare ofthe pe of work conducted by knowledge ‘rovers in Koowedgeinesive firms that there i often the need to work Femotely rm the employing fm, epi physi located atthe cen fim, This ply co locaton of knowledge worker an be an importante manage iment iusto be addreed, For example cent Semis ay wel be inclined 0 ‘fe permanent employment o knowledge workers who reduce good resus {who might pone to be aoe ee expensive employed dct by he chet ‘ithe than en 4 conaancy bass. The eine frm might therefore Be in diet Competition wth the employing fe forthe ences of owed worker. Not ‘nly management therefore reuied to feu on sates oa retention ‘ation to dacs competitors to the fm, they misao conser the develop Inet of retention strategie n tcltion tothe cent Bs. Th aiton, knowledge workers te pial organized in cams with moe oF les interdependence pending che nate of the task. Physi colocation ‘in therfore aso be problematic fr eeam-working even when sophisticated TCT sme salable The complesity of knowledge working fen makes ae tovfice mre of insertion the oa vibe comniction med for sharing thu cesting knowledge at eal plain the proses Here then, management {ins required to develop strates rd nehanim hat wl enable ue cooe ‘Eaton and integration knoe work proces aero the teat WHO ‘eco dec inverse in those proses. “Gold collar workers ‘The ditincve chaiterincs of knowledge workers and knowledge work process led to the term "gold coll” worker being apled to knowledge ‘worker (Kelley, 1990). "This term implies that thse Workers ned to be Imanaged sll povided with excelent working conditions and generally ‘forded exceptional ora last ery good, tems and condons of employ tment There te exception to ths natural, particu in large knowledge ‘tensive fms sich alge management consultancies (f Alvesoa and arreman, 2007), However, ins and medium sized knowledge satensne rm, eaders and manager of the fr eypially offer superior employment Comins which cin be sewed a ponding an enabling context Tor know ‘ge wosk (Baton et al, 2001), Tn aon t terms and condiions of employment, mods of organizing need tobe developed which wl e conducive to knowlodge work and iewed Frnourble by knowledge worker. Management mus therfore pay carl Menton t both the ractral ao the eltralconaons that exist within the frm, Koanedge intensive fret piel ee to oxgniz dicey Compared 4 more tadonal ims whee worker ae not neces the ect prove force of the onganiation and n many respets, ate eax to replce, There areal elavly fw in pth empirical stds ofthe management of Some tensive Br though ee Afveson, 1995, 204). Amices on the {opis however contin to peoiferte and many cas Om what is perceived teibe major problem of motivating knowledge workers (O°Nel and Ad, 3007, Thompson and Heron, 2006), These artes are somewhat finite In ther cts a do no ity address aspects ofthe wider organizational on text Here however we ae concerned primariy with developing a more hai ti accounts focus on what conse an enabling contest for Knowledge tok within koowdge iene setinge, The ener stracorl and cultural Conditions which ae considered t tae the management of knowledge intensive fm ate considered in conjunction with some ofthe atxtural OF Cultural bares thar might miiate against cel utcomes fom kno ‘ge work proce. >> FACILITATING KNOWLEDGE WORK - ORGANIZING AS, AN ADHOCRACY ‘he way in which brownie fran stra and omni eral ‘wl be eric where innovation and ereatity are the Bass om which he firm ‘ompete, Whit ft wl be partially impstan for management 10 offer fd tems and sondn of employaent to knowledge workers the way in thich the major work proses ae managed and coordinated wl be equally SSenikcan An approach osogaining eed tobe developed thai ers tie with knowledge work a proms anexang cone for the pracice of bowled work The way in which many knowledge iene fs organize tends to ree hemovegencral end twa fater les bureascraied ways of organizing {hv are becoming more common trowel sectors inthe weany BS ceneaTY {see Chapter 2). n gers terms, knowledge ftensive Bem 0 organize highly organically and fleubly, generally around tans. Henry Mintberg, (1970) idensied five archetypal struceral forms that characterize the wa Fem organize. He get that wher reatvity and innovation ~ ypc the form of developing none stone to chene problems ~ ave a consciousstrategy 2 fen tends tobe the ee within knowedgeitenive fms, then Irvadhoerscy isthe most sppopeate orgniationl eoniguraion: The hocracy is admost the complete opposite ofthe rational burencrcy. An Mhecracy genuinely de-empasies a hierarchic in preference to Nyman onpaniatonal stare ted on seformed and el’managed project teams dened deco making sn minimal formalization in {erm of pices; eules and procedres, Within an adhocray,Mint2berg nog {contol tend be bed on professionalism and she organizations ‘lnc retred to ax coral or nomaive contol ~ rahe than on more {pple forms of direct control such ss det supervision and adherence fules and procedure To summarize thx aalss, Table 2.2 bighight the “inner charters of the achocracy n comparon to the taditonl bares "The adocracy can ako be coated with tration profesional service fine wc cnfe a often ate heween competing profesional an rn “atonal aes (Rat, 1991) For example, roesion wll nara wan 0 ‘Smet chen wok othebes oth pofsna ses, ping dine tc nowledge (pl nani, scent) to cent proc, Howeve, ime isnvaye comic to bs reiusu in thee fr ae ie rested tote estore. Thre cn therefore, on ccs, be confi eren the Protea laste Iyer or cent for example to a" nd the need ofthe Gem to ange the resources srs dhe cen base tesa ponbleAcconlng wo Rac, maoging partner hin hese ‘pes of prota coi eri afin! way of medating hese ‘Sficing tenons. "Pie conic of vas, however, aot neces 0 apparent in some mote contemporary spe of knowledge intensive rm where the notion of “Proteins? braee and tends fo reer to goer eli and expe taco around high standards of performance and dominant work ethic “Tie cnploedferter ner ths cape Ths in genera he informal Boreauoroey Taanooreey Fai lar plot linac Fatale proce rec cwciSuncnty main Noire uch Conte deoneing acme Courrier etree Corsten hep mal dee mai sop om loorely coupled organizational content of the adhocray i considered to provide the necesary autonomogs wording conditions in which inv ts can spend tne expesmenting with idee and more generally engaging in eee and innovative work: Whilst t may ssem somewhat steel for Ianagernet to choose ro ongenize in chi this approach tea to be opted in many contemporary Knowledge intensive sectors such a sof ‘ware development, new medi, specialise consltancier and 0. Tt has teen shows that any significant shit from this mode of organizing ean be bight detrimental to both organizational performance and epoyes turn ‘over, Baron etal. (2001), for eumple, condacted a lrge-sae, longi al survey of sofware firms in Sion Valley over ten-year posed which Focused on modes of organizing, performance, CEO and employee tacnover, Baron’ team dicoveret that aciosa population of 173 software firms over time there were four dominant organlaing templates. Thee templates were ‘characterized by what wax considered tobe the pemary motivation to work for the firm (attachment), the primary selection enteris and the primary ‘means of co-ordination and contol. Acros the Sve templates the natore of the work conducted within the Fem acrow the sar, engineering an bureaucracy was considered to be the major meas of attachment, rating Snowledge workers to thee fms and promoting retention "The commit ‘ment template was characterized by knowledge worker strong emotion attachment the fem (lve) and money was the mjor means of stachinent In firms characterized a3 autoracies. Typically sll mere the major selection criteria applied although fem adopting the sae template selected on the ‘ass of ture potenti. The war template firme also relied largely on sl contol and professionali athe has fr co-ordination and conto whilst the engineering and commitment templates ried on call onto, These ie summarized in Table 2.3 “The majonty of fem in the sample were identified as cher Engnceting (pe cent) of Commitment (13 pe ent types and 11 pe cen ofthe sample ‘tere alto sented a Star types, Only 6 per cent organized as bureaserces and 7 per een organizes auroceaies where the CEO adopted a comand and control mode of engnising, The reminder ofthe sample were laid 1 hybids. The majority offs therefore relied pinay on profesional or Orn anya i ihn noe ‘Atachent Selection ‘covraleonol‘sul (oormatve) contol (see Below) rather than formal coordination and lontol mechanshs ss» means to co-ordinate work This supports the Mea {haan organ iformal and leatble mode of erganiaing peter in these {apes of knowledge intense fir (he notion of etl o¢ normative con= ‘Malis eapored inept ater inthe chapter). Nowy, fms which adopted 2 Irreaucrtc or atomic model had sgifcanty higher employee mover than those adopting 2 somitment or rar model Often over tie, with 2 ‘hinge in CEO! came a change in organizing and the most e-sabiing in term of employee tuover, an rm performance was the sit om sar oF Cenmmiement pest the bureaucracy. Tis ended to oceue when fms went public nd sarees demanded more tratonal modes of management. he very few firme tara rom a sar mst argeabl the template that ‘most closely resemble the adhoracy) to bureateray experienced the highest Employee trnove, Baron eal each therefore dealy demonstrates that the major of krowledgeiatensive fems do tend to organize largely infor Inala edition buresncratic odes of onganzing re aot suitable inno ‘io segue More recent research by Robertson and Swan (2004) alo highlighted that sue shi in organizing tempat from an adhoracy to 2 soft bureaucracy {sein largely lepiimate by the ple Nosion of the rm ont the stock ma Kes} ena hae a sipteane detrimental effect, Soft bureneracys considered to bean sue fom of burcancatie contol an domination characterized by “Snistentstrtoresofgemernance iin which domination we eset cherted means, forerample, wen, dec purishent orl heachic ‘person, bat evough ephitiaed manager statees (Courpuson, 2000, 142), Conte in oft Doreateraces i ths characterize y four dsincin€ Smponens (1) + specie combination of apersona an personal oben {Gy ceniation sea means of lgitnnting pola deco (8) contol based fn sft coercion and prsectons (4) control wich fses enteral and internal ‘cgimasy. In shor, the sm so manage Raowledgeatesive firms tobe both silkancousy innovate (retaining the sppeaance of wrker autonomy) and Secale to contol notion” (Roberton and Swan, 2008, p. 130). Ula Trower Ratu and Swan (2004) demonstrate that whilst sof boreavacy ay be one way of ly controling Snomledge workers, the negative effect in teem of moral an isequent performance maybe sigan Tei esearch to suppres Barnet as cater rvearch whic highlighted charging public, fin the ders of the make (hare) fo greater alzaon can ar {o eode the enabling comet for nosed work >> STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS ON KNOWLEDGE WORK Development of organizational ‘best practice’ Resch ha demonstrated ha exch when the stracterlconons are gener ally upportive of knowlege work tsk, el very eax fe creatity and innovation to be sie (Starbuck, 1992), Firs ae therefore cautioned to ey nd avoid the develope of parla norms andpractcesthat mightconstain Iovate beaut Br xa, informa oun tht hive devloped over ‘ne can sly star o become standardized wayy of working embeded ‘pial apa outines and exen onion crire. These inrmal ro [nes can develop into knowledge thr becomes cient Sem speci "best prt template, sich a sate ating proceed too or post ‘Planing and development. As the aug of these tool spre and comes be Sen se amost nandaory within the fe, hen innovation canbe constrained as ‘Somerton of ac tool concept nd wae of woking tendo be preted. This howeves perhaps leslie to happen nse context where expe: rnenatonis2dominase epistemic pactce and notions of "bes prac’ are Sonnet redandane Monitoring of time Starbuck highligh hatin many knowlege neni fms, sch 2 cone tance and advertising agence, ime pent working on cen project is ft ‘honitored and igoounly accounted fo, 85 ae tne and neds to be ‘etl documented tothe sxisction of management and the cen. This ‘monitoring, However, can ofen inhibit innovasve belour even When tines ‘Ses Ine cen mutaly agreed between the project fea and he cient as Should be he en in 4 genuine epersting adhoency. Where thsi common vt knowlege worker cen roe or aimstly lt spend tine earch Ing fir cent acquiring new knowledge and actiney earning This edu ‘anime (Nona, 1994) considered eo be priser for innovation Sind yet simply noe avalible within thon knowedge tensive ems hat are inten upon mortorng and contig bilabe te Growth Sarbock so emphasizes tha, over tne, knowledge intensive firms often have tendency to attempe to diversify and grow and this ino alas 2 sensible tec decision, Increasing growth and diversieaton often lead fo incessing formalization, layers of heatcy and increasing numbers oF Stppore staff which can all ukimatey lead to te fim experiencing prob: Teme. Ae Strbick sates, when support staff come to outnumber experts fret, or when knowledge sntenseSrms (KU) claim expertise I 100 any domains, KI lose thir alo of experi sod thee cei (1992, 737), Mintaber i act sggets thatthe adhocracy i typical organiza onal form only i young, sarap, entrepreneurial fms. He argues that fre tne adhoctacies evolve ino other archetypes the case oF knowledge Intensive fine they offen evolve into profewonal bureaucracies. The fem recesly becomes more formalized, introdcng, for example, levels ofprossionl management in an attempt ro manage basi requirements such SS efcency provement, ‘Av acsed car inthe chapter, this hf in structure and organizing may however be eounterprodacive where innovation isthe basi 09 which the fam competes, Reseach conducted by Lowendahl (1997) demonstrated thor a stsegy of growth can be counterrodactve, paticulay for those ims that compete onthe bade of thee ability to save complex problems for cleats, A compromise, howerer, might be achieved by creating new, ttonomoas bosines nits as soon ae the frm eeaches a parca nize oF Introducing internal markets around a project based form of ongenizing These new bine sits should iealy beled by those who recognize the need for an enabling contest and the importance and signa of low Icvels of formation and decentralized decison making or knowledge work paces. A numberof high-tech firms operating sa Cambdgeshire Inthe United Kingdom (ote referred to an Seon Fem) have adopted ths Statgy, “Spinning out” nw rms ax opposed to ongezaionl govt ithe Sprout these fms have adopted inorder to manage the exploitation of few innovations developed inhouse. "These frm ae sertore consciously ‘Htempiing to continue to operate as adhoctaies stimulating novation but dolding organizational growth. >> CULTURAL CONDITIONS IN SUPPORT OF KNOWLEDGE WORK Many Knowledge'intensive firme do attempt to structure and organize long the line of an adhoeracy, ecogsiing that this approach provides 20 “mbling contest for knowlege works However, a discussed in dhe previous ection, this highly informal approach to organizing can een be problem Stic to susan in the long cum. In order for an organization to survive in th long tem, muse beable to achieve and saan 3 competitive level of rofl. When firme organize predominantly around seleformed and {managed knowledge based team ican be very diet forthe leaders ‘of ich firms to both develop and manage eficensy cite een when the fam semaine sal, "The nature of much ofthe work that i cared ot can be both ambi cos and intangible nd is therefore diffe to messire, costal oe crea ‘want, For example, advertising agencies develop ie” r elem and Speci consleaney fms develop bespoke solutions to cen poblems Ta {hse ents itis extremely dificult for managers or even knowledge wore ts themselves to estimate the resources required in erms of te expertise tne skl to sucesflly complete client projects. Tn aditon success out omes cannot away be guaranteed a innovation is an inherent uncertain proces In many instance successful outcomes can ony be measired bythe {gece to which the cet is sated with the outcome. Rational, qoaed judgements that highlight meany-endseatonships ar dificult or impos: sible to make urtheor, it har aeady heen emphasize that knowlege workers wil toa groaer or leer eatent reset any attempt to det monitor and conto {hele work, demanding and reqiing at they do high levels of autonomy in ‘ner to ary ext ther mjor work tank. The lenders of knowledge ntemive Fran are therefore awaye seeking wap o manage the Fundamental under, tenon that ets between efcteney tad autonomy, Whist structural cond tion which mphasve Nesbit and al manage team-woetingaresenportant preconditions tating tnowledge work tans the elt condition within the rm wil beat lent important ltimstly creating an enabling co text for knowledge work proces that are lagely conte autonomy {isthe cultura conditions within a knowledge intense dem that pray promot eiponsbleatonomy” (Friedman, 1977), where eployecs se thie tok autonomy to advance the interests ofthe organization and not as thie ‘on personal nest CCuttural (normative) control Whi leaders of inowleg- intensive fms wll be keen to erp nid Wich parca sls an expertise, thei general requirements willbe rather [eon recognizing tht diversity actos the workforce considered to be ai ant ft promting nacon (ae eg, Grant 1996; Lowendahl, 1997; Nonaia, 1994), In Chapter I, ic was highlighted that the natre of knowledge proton is changing and increasingly kaowledge production relies on the ombination of knowledge fom a vaery of fells abd dspins. Not only ‘does thi create challenging envionment which to wor rm the perspec tive of the individ knowledge worker (se Chapter 4 fo 2 detaled exami ‘ation of the challenges faced by mul-dcpiar, iter dependent tam), verity ao generates signcane management challenges ina very Toosly ‘organized envionment form of management grounded inclu or noe Iai contro has been naggested to beam appropeate approach to alope ithin those organesbonal erironmene. The suggration fe tha leader of these types of iy ae int poston to rete and develop conpocte calle ‘which worker wl want an choore to enti with. By demain wath the ‘organization iis asmumed that worker internalize the dorsnast rsa tinal isology~ vale, bell and norms ~ and consequently beave f the Interests ofthe fm, "The agumentescound the roe of corporate cute have ben develop ing at tat snc the 1980s and the bosnes excellence’ deas ofthat period (fevers and Waterman, 1982). Deal and Kennedy (1982), Kanter (1984), Stn (1983, 1992), abo promoted the idea that iis the primary tak of leaders of onganiztions to develop and actively reinforce sony organ tinal caltareslnyprcvements In proctvty and ality ts age, owe fon corporat clare that eatin recognize and rad nial,ymboicily and meray, for iensifing their sense of purpose with che Caleta are designe into the organization (Willot, 193, pp. S15-S16 Vals authors own). Naturally thi lade led? organizational calare wl te characterized by an ongaiztinal (ore) ale stem tha eepresets the longterm intrest ofthe Ses. Ths epresents the bass of eltral (aoe tie) conto in organizations portant eratae tong organizational cultures ae those shat ae shared actos the Bm, sengthening the frm through integration and hanced producti Ts integrasion perspective on orgaizationalelture {Marui 1992) and mach ofthe hicratare tha octet promosion of Strong orginal sultare post clare ae cngniztonal variable that ‘Sl be dcety shaped bythe behiou and core values the ede and man Sement of te firm, These core belies permeate the whole organization over tine and serve to nfaence the vale nl norms of behaviour ofthe rest ofthe ‘worknce, There san empha on homogeneity consensus and, important, ‘thin the content of» knowlege intensive fr predic behavoue which, Inks conten, characterized by an impresive work ethic and commonitar. itn eylty(Aleson, 2008), Tie view has persed ver sme and move recent Tteratar in thie reinforce the Hea tht normative conte fan important aspect ofthe enabling context for knowledge work Pyora, 2007). What tends to be overlooked here, however, that wit predicate beavis I sought tv cand to kagwledge workers diplaying respon atonomy, in athe ‘especie preditable bcbaiour not advocated a ths may not aces ead fo tnmovstion and creat. The way in which ars of fms can actively create and shape organiza tional caltre explained in deal a Secs work (982, 1983). He sugeests tht lenders rein postion to implement primary embedding mechs ln secondary reinforcement oration mechanisms, which wl yal Uy refet and are consent wa the dominant, ore vies held bythe ead fs Specic employment pice and prictces sich a the enter esed foe ‘ecrtment and selection, performanes tanagement and reward are examples ‘of what Schein rf to a primary embedding mechanisms. Organizatonal tksign and sructre together sith formal statements of organizations phi lcxopiy til found nr’ mision statements are examples of secondary feinforcement mechani. Schein mggess that f leaders of Cs implement SIL 12 mechanisms nt consent and coherent manne then, ove ie core ‘nganizational ale il Beem shard ales across the workfore Fang 0 performance and prodactivty improvements. Alveson (2008) aso emphasizes the importance of symbol and symbole leadership, a an importa spect fot cresting and staining a song organizational clare within knowledge Incense stings rom this penpecti, ifthe leader of a krowledge-ntensive fm wished. to enphasize the importance of knowledge sharing ~ a5 mht be expected in owed intensive rms -then mechanisms tht diel o indict rewarded, owed sharing wold nec te nrsoced. For example, ledge wor cs might be faancily or symbole rewarded for contibuting wo projets {hey wee not deny enployed to work on Tn thi wb pementing is “nbeding mechan in conjnction with othe tal rfreing mec Sins, Scteln sugges tat koowlede ating behav in the fa an be ‘ncouraged and promoted s know works begin reognine tat hom ‘ge saring i core ae within the fs. ‘Multiple perspectives on organizational culture “There a oveeing assumprion in Schein’ work and ll ofthe busines ceelence itestre tht i i feasible and practicable fr leider of rms 0 {cvely create and shape an organizational clue which promotes integra ‘on sn commas around dominant organizational aus An exer, highly shilled and often highiy educated and diverse wortforce might, however, {ute natrally hold wie range of beef and vals, particularly When Uierty extends to atonal cater, Therfoe it ennot snp be awed ‘or take for granted that knowedge workers in knowledge itemive Hes sit necesariy be willing to subsume thei Menity and personal valu ss {ems to those ofthe firm. The integration perspective on eutare (Matin, 1982), which this erature reflects, asumes certain tuctral preconditions such a6 a well-defined hierarchy and highly centralized decsion-making ‘These, af we have see, are often notin place within knowledge-inensve fms” particularly those that organize as adhocraies It may therfore be Ighly problematic vo operationalize ths approach ro culture management” inna kaowledge-incensieseting. The extent to which the lesders of such Fans are in a postion vo shape Bele, particularly in such an informal orga> tlaational coaten, in fc highly questionable, leaders of knonledge intensive fens ma therefore have to acknowledge that Knowledge worker wll aturly hold arity of bel, which cannot neces be altered or subsumed within singe ongaiasonal vale stem ‘This refered ttn Marin’ (1992) work asthe fagenation perspective 8 caltre, The fagmentation perspective saggets tha elutes Date viewed as {metaphor rather than a vsble~ someting an orgniation fr rather an Something an organization baz From this pespecve elt ison loosely ‘Hrectued ond partly shared, emerging doar songanizational members ‘perience cach other, events apd the onganizaond context overtime The fragmentation penpectve provider support comping and conta tory ale ters held by indus aro the Sem, which fen the ease Tnowledge intensive Fim populated bya highly sled, dvese workforce Thi perspective acknowledges sbi, recognizing that win organiza ‘ions nda might expenence nk of clio smalancouly ha ml tiple meanings and ele Lick of cay en rm rs waclea structures, fz boundries of imrecie goa These re ikaly toe apparent wana nomedge intensive fem organized brosly as an adboray. Tt may’ wel be the ete then, that kaowledge intensive firms dpay alta charactrisicsmote ence of the agmenttonpenpectve rater than the integration "Trades of sch fins cece not eo acknowledge and accep ha i seen sn rantaton se chan tegration ght predominate and ‘Sos hth en so oon mana zane a ‘See ar cumpl: by promoting peas tone mee vl o bth Saige wettest ntl a fo eyo Recah by Abeson er Raton (200) dense ta in sever een pes of cos ity seeing adr ant managerca employed rat of sete and ‘Frac mechanme co comme sie nparizatonl dessiy wth wich “Boston eal ends th cv a overarhing wa of megTing {Bowe wort iin tee ons. Cantancy rms ape to be pa teh apropetestings forthe constuction fe cl eis Deas of the gre people employed (fcr high sede iy and the ate of Stach the rts conducted amon ander demanding. Consulates ns roe thar epee ther profesional the ‘rapt ofthis ar highly sll heehee therefore igh level of {eittonddenc i required. A coneracion of elf and the enaizaton ate {ht teeore deny sper nit rapes be importa eres on hich o rt promote a reinforce te requted self ones, Moreover elt emg wow fad abe a snient mediator of cosany work for {Niko ofteone Fr sn teeny wi oud o promot el dace ‘hich sosuined deseo compl high andar of perfomance Seon, erehing the frst oly sur he very bn ered to atc opts {hd gente igh etn ate Fly sre se hat conan thee ‘hesand them svarbole were" gener song mage hat Gene Sed igh lie cen Type, oganatona elics have been comidered the preg Sow who Conelogunizaonl resources a have contre power a inl {hice bth cearzasonaly ado some etn ose eve (HI 195; Fetaot af ll, 1996), Tesch of he extant erate the ete Ireted a te apes of an organza. Aheton and Robertson, howeset {fomonsraed tat the notin of belong to the cite can cx cos hele fms By promening an organictona chon that frmore oes generally feo and sazedy cher tan tempting ol and ire dominant crc lee stem, ha greater Hlboed that Bnowtedge workers wll SGrcto sete av "god? place to work. Asia posse such a Lines looty ssc evionmen, ti approach tore Hl to ad fetendon snd proms sesgansblestonomy win the fem. One example ‘The prea by moth Kool, the founder of Yahoo, 2 fad web [oval wo mpc ht hs organization bee sucess igs because Fopeamoted the er that employee shoo commancateFeey with one totter anda fr publ gage in gensneconensal css making {Gwar snd Barn, 2000. This the war comer tobe eset nthe Jas paced word ofthe Inert and at the sme tne intiiely appli the knowledge workers employed >> CONCLUSIONS. "This chapter has highlighted the structural and cultural conditions that pro ‘sie an enabling context fr knowledge work proeses characterized by cre ‘vey and innovation in owledgeatenste stings. Some of the conions ‘that can act 36 buries to knowledge work were alo dics. Ineds tO be “mph, however, that the ited seach that hasbeen conducted in sch fms highlights hr there io single "bese management practic” hee. Many Inowledge intensive Kr operate tn che maets Teng vey spied sericea the way in which many ofthese Rems chose to oanize often {gute enigue sod highly comexe-enave. General, te aructuing and ng nizing of tet Brn wl be lor, informal and Bethe characterise Fn ‘ofthe adhoency: Whi the adhoerey might appear to bea emewhat aot ‘elatly unmanaged context perhaps el to onde he way in wc thisconigrstom hasbeen operationalized in ascent eommancy Erm based inthe Une Kingom, The way in which stratural and extra conditions Incest to promote knoe work proses explained in the flowing ee ‘tay an illustrates the complex contons ety promoted over ime hich have imately mest the tensions around efiseney anatomy thin 2 owed intensive sting, Fin he cate described ad shen two queons ate pose, Th Chapter ve foes onthe acta proces of knowledge creation or know ‘ge generation and adopt mio level of nas We move from = reel fhalss ofthe way in which modes of organizing and organizational eon tons ean develop in support of knowledge work processes to an aa ofthe ‘jmuics of enedge eration process within a project eam sein. Before ths, however, Caper 3 locks more boa t et rgaiatonal forms and ‘he oe of ICT in supporting these new fms,CASE STUDY 2.1 SCIENCECO MANAGING AN EXPERT WORKFORCE SenceCo wa founded in 1980, Risa meds techs contancy thetimectitinception, the founder whet rene conaatanyeronment ht ‘wuld not oly develop stations in sponse oct probe, but ko mute Inveton and pra mre genera. igh ve percent of he workorce ae highest ents and ecology pearly ont expres Inowlede ater than equipment or systems to provide inveon an innovate ‘olor mandactuing, engineering nd pharmacetalcompanes ren he wot “Src 198, the frm at grown fram a eal etreprensitial busines employing a haat cena constants speclanginenlnesng and communications meus compay empleying about 200 peope and ncorperating oer fete dcpine uch a botcnlony, sped scenes and nfraton system “he wero uly ntemationaIncrporing 1 ferent narales. dt Ing the ype of projet tat cenesCo conducted forte cles, is importnt Understand the diference bebe isnt and Inavaon, Consultants werkng In inerascptnry projec teams develop completly ne cones ad produ {hat are mtteted a nec propery hts GPR) to ens and prot tems. “They also develop invative stone to cet pres using exiting concept Cot major scenic and technaageal developments tate recognized and aed {hough the word, One such tm isthe econ sec tag which ance ceo primary the busines f resting new Krowedge and apn exiting [eowiedge in new aye ' cul se for management a ScenceCo as always een atractng and ‘etaiing igh led, expert wrkorce ofinerrationa nding ode fot {rm oro and scsi compete on a gl bat. Tk developing nt pp ‘rat rganiations envionment which expert constants are hen Yo Work has ‘ean of paramount importance. The flowing setons atin the ogeiatons strc human resource practices, pattems of IT sage nd oganiationa cate ‘hat have developed wth the im ove ine. >> ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE, ‘auemptshave ben made to msintin sity fat egaizatona tract trowghout {hens dowlopmant ve toy tees turdametaly ony one eel of manage tres onitng oe founder (now Execute Chala), Chalman nd Manas Sector Delon aking tin the fr as peal volved nica rarer conus well management A woke comitee the Borde nage iments hich cons prima of comatants an one oo Support 3, ake ‘Ceowmendton to management regu daytoday operations a organiza tan, Management communicates constant wh ewe of he fr (eer tig ema) rearing new poets and potenti ature procs. Ture and poisbnty are ao communicated to everyone ona manly bas Constants are reo oleate ute of ces project work, an they can request rand ‘eso forth ugh the novation Exptation oa Ts for aes cor Sits ars the ia sa the management team, who meet egy {o dics the fenton hens proposed by conan. Al members othe Irarapenet team ae atv constants, cntratingt jet ear-waing ‘nth te fr ‘Constants ae organised across te sons within the frm according tothe area sei exper. These ate Busnes notion (8), Teco, er fet Med and Enttsunert (ME) ad Engineering ENC) Wie ional ma oeshead up cso there areata no earl lve er tio acs ‘sors, Donal manages ted ob hase rida who are pepe ok ‘nome minal inate responses sich a recording revenue gener ton an monitor he poet tat reblog manage by canmtant tn te tn con. any es col maager ae styrene sha ‘te constants with te don esctn Performance management) td yao arty contribute to projet working 20 then ivslons hve emerged merged nd dsbandedin a eatve anne vet, tase on the clint poet work in hand In 1980, dee were ol wo si groups, Enjcring and Communists. Howey, in 1990, a ional suctre was troduced i oder eo provide improved andl accountability By 1996, sever ‘sons exited inca to bane coating sons, nation Systems St Applied Science, The Ue Soencer vison emerged atts Ue rm the ‘ented Sconces divin when enough blteenology projets had been Secured toeure the dvs susainablty in the mer tem. By 2000, however, Ue Stiones had again meged wth the Engineering sion together wth Apples Sion: Busines Innovation by ths te eorporated ba business sons ana the internation Sytem dvs, Despte the exence of dvslon,consutants tee to work a nterdcipnary manne srs sons wthin sal projet team Ths cus because te nate of cle requirments general reqles ‘rove ipl sts and experts, These projet teams ae Sling and ‘Sitmanaged. Project eam-woring Is ented moe deta win he section (ch Pevlrmance management>> RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION Fr mary years the fe dd not empl «Human Resources (HR) manager Home, in 1995, bed on preted and wept poet work, the fr was faced Wh 9 ‘eee toners he expert worry 15 pe ent (and this vas preted tonne snl compounded). The fr erates a Huon Resouces Manage to develop a more fra ecrutment and seleation procs and dedop Ways of ‘antanng igh renin ets ars the en tn the past, constants ad Sypcaly been rected informally by word of out, dang upon constants’ global personal neers colleagues adc thes, In onder to mae the recent proces more sete, the HR manager ‘developed good rltinsip wth tematona recent agence that had ‘fies troughout the word, Once provided ith poston speataon a» bie {hat dered very broadly the ype of work ae ot by the fm, hey poe Sorts of candidates an ant ongoing bas ners ofthe selection poss, Ue founder had aways sited at candates take an ANS ligne tet an Cat tse 16PF poorly tes. Gen tht the mari of cana sted by the Spence generally hada PhD nascent dtpane, was vewaly imposible for Sy cane ofthe ANG test. was a eat oa te 16 beeae the firm di not look fran “dea profi oher than “opened 3 eines 0 tiperment. Constants were ply ken to see what sr of peony pote ‘andes ha Thy slot anddates who ad ben shorted proceeded © ‘int shornteiw th ts HR manager andthe erat dvsons manager ‘uring ts prelmary iter the HR manger sted tat canter were expected to damonstat a svong understanding of se Onn an more por {ant ote dbcns because ofthe need to werk in nterdcpinoy teans ing knowledge They werabo expected toe mostly marae’ anahave 1 srong corner aware The HR ranger aed, e's quite a unique mix we are foking for. A he way trough the selection pro ese ge out ig kates othe sor af exgnizaton we ae. ts te ‘ages maybe, and Fare ntervewse il pick up ule 8 OF arogancs fon the part the compar. Bu the mesages We ae ging out ar more about Ccnfgence ft we da ad How we do ater than rng we are beter than anyone se, ‘Ad aproniataly 25 per cent, which ypc emate to four cacdtes,progtss toa second inter, Te fr was itor concerned bout he high rbes of ‘antes reece. Management nly intrested inde itera PaO Dor prc expereince dipline, wh ae fer In Enh ave ‘ome commer experience, and who are pepe to apt the leo ‘costar. This le vohes mating teow and mare goer the ms ‘hltes and expertise, Is throne a ety unique et of roars when ought in eandten The second inte focuses on asesing the cand abit to mare to the over eet of experts, and thal aby to wok witha irdsepnay oj team Ti second Inte 2 pane inte nahin # ami on “Sant rm several dion who lhe appt tee detec ow ‘geo thr own an other scence of tela ase als. Panel members re ‘randomly ran om aces the fm, based on alba atthe ine of te er. ‘ec the pare ages on candidate, tha the candidate be ecard for “Sopointment tothe MD, tn 199, type, 16 candidates were terse foreach pot and foreach of those intevewed approumatly ten Cs wou have bean feed fom the ‘ecrutment agencies. Te selection proces 6 descbed as iors’ by the HR ‘manager He emphaszed that the htevaews foci primary athe cance hy to" in tothe SclencsCo way of working, Ts ives wing and yf colaborativly share knonedge eos lleret scence ad tecno- ‘y-se Fels, both within poet teams and more general The HR manager Eimmente, You get aC and he parton har 8 PD, and thee worked for» prety ih powered escreh agen and hats rll. Yu've got se he, but you row that theres prety strong cance tat the moment you ret the yu going to kw ht theyre nak tent one >> PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT ‘iy one foal system exits at SceneCo, and ths is the performance manage ‘ment stem Ut war mroduce in 1990 Tht stm war node the sae {ime a constants wer locate to dvisns, Bete th, india constants ‘omance had no ben managed The system fois on doa revenue fa ‘58 (OR) ard pesonl revenue gels (PID). Manogerentestabises hese {28 atthe Beginning of each ancl ear and they re monitored monty. The Same moh PT apps to af canst, egress of age experiance and SO fan. Hence, DATs re the accumulate of PTS, prensed on te umber of cans {ans within the cvsons. By dealt, then the ger isan hata generate more Revenue ganeatd vough eject work hat general pied a a ate rater than ates lead conan emerges once poet Type, hs {he constant who has the mat contact with a parce let. Te tea! cons ‘untisresporiblefornegotising the wae of the project th he let, fe cart Creation ofthe resources tat il be rear in fers of ben of experi ‘Sout potent mew projects and tel and experi that wil be remured Once {he vate a a projet has Been determine wth the ent he reponabily f Indu! contre who want to work on the projet o negotiate with the ed Costa regaing the sunt project eee they wl be aloes. A thre ‘senotorma systems torecordthese negations, eal mesiages serve as areca any negations ta tke pace, The aloaton of projet revenue contest ‘he india conan’ PR and the ORT to which they ae asses._ Management described PRs a scheme fr mating people sel ther il to ‘other people a ve mane: ttisa mio ecnary ta fee market or experi. Over the ett as been te subject of much controversy eps at of pear on people, a Ith ay tat ty 10 mata a eompetive Gare woul 3 combate) {toner it does cet eo, bt ot he ae ie, enhances novation {Juenby the te which ne eas come ox fhe organ In oxer to ache Ps, contre generally work on 2 small number of projets ‘anyone tm, commanding a percentage of the everl eee Ho each oe Zahvement of Ps corey overtime respec of een, ee han the ‘row nepereerd constants and recent ert The mary ons ws Uy echieve the PRT. Honeverconiency aos hse dons problematic and ‘ces dona manages de ea fo ace ther ORT AU heer of ‘ich inane eo sonal manages performance hoe win thi dvsn, ted on achevement of PRs and contrition to oval ses Tha anspor froces and nda constants are fee to du and in some stances pte, thal oval anting postion, When dona manages haw gro on hale Fankingswathin ther dso, they meet wih the ranogenent te to gre On| ‘real ranking across he em, Indl conan ae ten ded erent incemnts according tthe ranking. Underprtormer ae oleate inthe mec ‘en Contant who dono ace PRs over time wl RO reve nee ‘run ut hy ate actively encouraged and lp by management fo emprove pr formance the flown yer, Management has ever nradoed sary sales win thet, and no onal are scr ens beet tr foal earch Inv consiants a therfore awarded pcetage Invest bared on he sa 1 they have personally nage wh the MD on heap he itis seo important to ecogize that consultants manage teow tne both within and aude a projet working. Consultants ate ree to choose the hous ‘tod and length of vacations THs means that Some constants work ont ‘uly, cceaonaly fr mach ata tine and then take extended woaton, Up 10 2-3 months tay one te. Other consultants choose to work regular MOUS ad take shorter breaks Dison managers ony expect to be made aware of Srcations (me and length) and consultants ae Wasted 9 manage there >> TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Profesional deopmant is particulyimpotant al constants SceneeCo. a order to saya te top ofthe potssaal es, conutars mast be ae of any evelopment nthe land they need to para mates that he ‘opportunity or futher pessoal development Aga, constants ae response forendying ther own requemens in tems of cous, conferences nd work ‘hor: Management snp pines the necessary ancl esurces ch nome ‘en are conerble Te eased tat constants loge ther wero coding, oer opatpate mn potsionldevlpmest without ay ge nt spt of pet won occuring. "aang for arnt eve bee conse an se within heen. Man agement has aay eve thatthe quit of Te people employed nepaes any acd stating, es sures that dead rain seq, or ‘mpl in he we of parca tare aplation for poet work, then conse ‘ue suey sled to train hemes atime thts he >> ITUSAGE Slaaan resources have ays en ade waa for ivestment in ary techn. ‘oy that might flat project wong. Av eal te was ntoduced in 1990 {Dchttecommascton betwen constants. By ths ee he fm had grown run 10 cosa nd he pris or ea et ie cnt vik everyone weap inihing The ema System began tobe wed exe “hey amon imme a thee were very fe formal stems or procedures in {her communication, and on ay 1 igo rumbers of cnsitants Wook! SE werting reste cnt rms. By 1996, constants were recng between a0 an 130 coma ach dy and depte ater to cal the we of ema for val ate constants ody sl rece abou ths arb. This because fo protocol ed to casey anon, the than attach pei of SOC for "Sl communication ae INNOV for an ema where the senders searching or internation Irs the -mal ter that genera ue to broadcast request fr informa ‘sn when puting tether propos for lens. anyone who wars tebe noe na potental projet nial corpmuniatesin ate the potential conbuton, itr of als expert, ia ema. The system works wel nt spect 1 the mediom i good for commumnieating twice iforaton, auc and os he hole fm, Howeves, the level of email ommaniation constants fic exposed toon daly base recogized gveraly 352 signee burden, [Norms have develope, suchas sendng reps fo eveyone nthe rm ae Ing to et the tile of era to ese tot retest the content of te ema, ‘These norms wie mating the we femal rei thoughts noma ard Trple, hae generated sort cote ned apharat stm of commun {Gon for comple sone coats, when faced with evernceasig numbers imal, chose nat to other sang the mary and oly sete stern hen ott neces. ‘Ot tecnologes such as groupe tecnologis ae occasional used inane have bean se up in and as sons, Comutans ae aware that pack ge uch a Loti Notes can provide we pet documentation Howes, the ‘ery of projects cee fo be documented i 3 ghia mane [Decne pect ender re re 16 provide documentation in whatever wy hey ‘Soom appropriate. Cent reiterate oe ailedin hs espe Howe, the cents slit ith the dcumertation produced no furhe eft isc ot rode recording and clastyng poet documeation content mannercrs the em Ags constant ae sted to rode igh-quly projec dc ‘neath recourse otra stand, ystems of proces, “The tof bah goupmare and rants ens here tobe spesmoc and ecemea or eral, grower such Las Neeson ten to be wed (hen gographicl contrat impose a ned o work ths sion. Consultants Peer prot teamewring to be ace toa, rae tha via ols Noes dice Son heads, Groupware ecology not gereralycosieed eh eraugh to ade ‘ual convey some peso oaton and knndge reed ding pect Stork In many itn, when sgncart decors or ets eed o be shared {roe jet athe teciology simpy ed ose a leone cone cecal >> CULTURE ‘stated nthe nrodction, rom the ost the founder wanted promt at Irnorstwenitonmant and one at would rte rate sn mind, He attempted to develop ae pespetuat an ernment characterized by an absence ‘ere ier an formal procedures An empha as placed on mating > “ptr enorme, ne ich everyone wash pra ret cont ‘tcon-maing, and one thst allowed nvidua late Fedo to be create, ‘Wie the founder as kent promote corporate ound smal st a coe ‘als specie regacng the importance and vio cently an inet, both therm and socey more general he respecte avid 5 nda. He i ot hereto, atempt to develop 2Svong ete that encompased para rorms of Behaviour. The Sdenceco way of woking 1 thereore characeed by 2 Ibo prescrip, normality and syncs. Te heterogeneity and diversity of the wore exemplify the inpoance ace on indy within the fn. Not oy are 19 ferent naonate Fesente, there ae ao sigan ferences ars the em with eg 0 age, experience and genera athuder and beh Indiuaty ote tends tbe Iman symbol n des, ranging rm the Bare (eg unin shots ae ‘est nthe dps of winter wo the more wader conor darks and ‘uring projet waking however, diverse cups of nid wt ering expe the are expected to werk togethe jointly, developing solutions to cent requite rent of problems Wie cont neatly rier aos such 2 ange of dene Inada the eminent sane in wich ha fel eet spk out wit ‘uttecrmiaton. constants are te io reser any ferences tat ight ithout recourse othe management tam 0 tht timate cent equement Seated ‘While everyone ages hit he ernment is highly informal and ths con sidered to be one ofthe major atracson of workng inthe fm, cone do have aferent perceptions of what castes gestion rai. For eam, le everyone aoe thatthe ergnzton i almost fa 8 wel eogmaed nd anowtedged tata dynam, nora! Meech exits babe on experts However constants do fer (insome ess quite conser) inthe pions to the err odering bated onthe own eral experince of wating with ‘ern. As one conan sated, Nobody theory hat ab le, Sige stats piles but eb some prope {xe ane as rar pone, mare fori higher tts than aes — bred fry on what they ave en fo cntnae to the onan in ero lg rojo pray nove es vias acoe the fer can thao command power pons win the ‘ermal herr The poston wl be based ont ily to bth acquice new ‘buns and command ge propane of projet revenue at cntiute to thi RT. Postons within his norma erry, owe ae ean and realy {pierre ade oc ea ae pr we >> QUESTIONS |. Deine and exin sic eral organizational fctors tat have contributed to Science grow and aby to ream an expert worker 2. Watare dhe potent problems high as ver ine this orzo ‘Summary of key earning points >> Keowee tn finer on he wore for compete ete Tae ‘ore nploye ran 3 eral seg ne with hse pes ee > Kongers fia gee tem at ernie 9 oud ng of ts pening ern vers in postal eo 2 Kowege rte rms cn be cid enn, polemic a age > Kowege wore ae fan refered to af eli’ wor anode be sonoma verona wring onda hy rrr lode 2 Theadhocay cated by dnc nator eucure bse on setlomad nd aka ta coder tba propre confronts roa >> Sect onan on now workin he deoprent forgo et occ tones nenzon finale wri? tne a erst owe 2 Reins sony ere Bay ob chi maemene aeowleee at ‘rien are ay tobe crcterted y fireinion nd agen ‘tert comers aneneraton Hence magnet soon ano sey rare ctr sngto promote moron! wot ut owe wore od este an can rendiy oy wh ater aa dosnt oe a San.NEW ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS THAT SUPPORT KNOWLEDGE WORK: THE ROLE OF ICT ‘chapter Outing >> teaming Outcomes >> New Organizational forms and CTs >> reduction >> acting Organizational Change 35 ‘The lsinsip Bebe Using cr Tecnology al Orgmanson >> ‘Ne Organizational Forms an >> Han Ageny andthe So Kroneage oss Construction a eeholgy >> Conchsions >> rata Pesures andthe >> Case ta 3.1; Un Unies and Natal Popes teeology "New Pst >> Teewoning >> Sema Rey Leaning Points Learning Outcomes Aether you su a Undetnd he comple rentorases ewe ele option Reape nology ning Cnt eter work prctens = Unssnand how th mtr prope a techy nara cote ‘nen gel ret uencing how tecabgy ued npree > Agpect hw nw ome fornia an pore owe wok = nerd i fT Ite oof erin | 5 peepin er nla some for eT il he erg an sme ‘Unie he ng nok acs ad orn acre hg CT Ice» rcs af pgsnn ad cen compro Owl ocr oer ne owede-eenae work LW . : >> INTRODUCTION In Chaper 2 we denied some ofthe defining caress of knowledge inteasie fs (KIF) We also noted tht not al knowledge work takes ples ImKlf Rather, orgniatons a al nds even those tat comin app Stent Menagementprincpes to tbe organization of work (sich sal nutes) ~have workers who deal extensively with Information al knowledge Sh/or workers whose main output formation and knowledge. Hovseve, itive the cate that some organisational forms appea o be mere conducive torknowledge work han oer. Hene, a this chapter we look more bray St nen organizational forme that are olen sodas with Inowedge work, ‘We look n parca, at how thee can be supported by IC. In doing tis it ieimportane to explore, in general tems, te relationship between technology tna organization snd, perhaps more importantly, elect on the process of ‘Tange since, a we wil se, alopting ome form of ne techooiogy dos not, in any straightforward sens, antomataly lsd to conditions conducive oowedge work. Eady acount ofthe rlinship beeen technolo and organization were sone simpli, suggesting thie ecnlogy per would reveltonz” the ‘tread, peape more itiportanty the Ioetion of work. Ths, the advent (oF the Ince, the Won Wide Web, the mobile phone, elconfrencing froupwate and io on preted to meen tht people would natural tart fo work vital (ouny fom home), and that geographical ditance would no Tonge be bcs to communiation and work, Tisha led many to sume at Frog work wl automaticly be enabled by TCT. Others argue, however, that technology pore annot alc change, Rather, new technolo provide onstsntson opportune, an acon, Moreover, thisuman acon inembeded in parca socal pd isstutonal comet. This insitions ‘onrextsmultaneouly empowers ad conrls behaviour because it epimizes ‘ome form of Geo le mltaneousy peli” hes forms ‘Once we have undertond tht becomes le tht organizations shold ot simply expect that the adoption of tednology pers wl successlly promote nowedge work, especially where Knowledge Workers (such as profesional) ‘hve sanfant power to resi tecnology. Rather, changenedsto be negocatd tho ime 3 ners come to fear, eh paripaton, bow they moght vse the echcogy or ot) to sappore (or ne) ths dal Wook pate This t iota inthe cave atthe cro the chapter, where we Rod a univesty sug. ling to get nowledge workers to adopt an ererpese ssc when the neds of thers largely ben ignored drng the design phase The sem seventy ‘cepted, but ony afer gsi change ie made in ee postimplementation “snironsen, tats once the mem fay Being wed in practice Al this ‘Sirs cle thi teinology does have an mmportant ale o play in managing owed work, expel sx organizations and markets become more widely Usted, oer oma global bas In this chapter, then, we explore the restionsip beeween technology anew organizational forms tat can pentaly support hnowedge werkand Knowledge workers and rsognive the importance of taking a proce pepe (ee Chapes 1 on managing the troduction of any kind oF teh ology seeing ths comes ad peal highly politi organizational Change proces. The capt begins by looking atthe general reationstip tetweea technology and anganization and then provides the example of ce ering toilustte che una structral and ssiuionalinluences on this ‘eltoniup. The chaper ten oes onto explore new organizational forms {hat are potently more conducive to Knowledge Work and Row these have ‘bean inilenced by new forms of ICT We lara the problems of introduc ing ICT eo eter organizational change witha cae std of x university that tous secking to eprtesonaee’ practise throng iatodcing an enterprise Tesoarce panning (ERP) ster. Tn ths ese, igporing the needs and wihes (F pomerfl actly was no efetve but dis eas only recognized inthe pos Implementation pse when changes ad 10 be made to the astm design £0 sccommodate this group and thei administrators. >> THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND ORGANIZATION {a thinking about the role of technology (ad in particular TCT) in Bing owedge work within an egaizton, important to fst lookin more fone terms a the relatonship between technaogy and organization. Thi Sil help un to underand that noucing an TCT to suppor some aspect of olde work wil ot and: of sl ea to he desire ft. Fal researc exploring the elaton between technology ad organization oveoped accounts shich were ‘eter’ thats they assumed ithe that the orfaniation somehow determine which technology can be adopted ce that the adoption of technology determiner what kindof work cn be cae out For example, none ofthe cares studs, Woodward (1968) argued that di ferent ype technology were sosted with ferent forms of organization (then lowe it, considering fren atibute of technologies and their ‘elonsip co ongniring an organizational structares (or example, Pero 1967), These are fered to ae eomengency theories where an ogaization stracture and/or proces ae wen 3 contingem on, oF dependent on the Iype ecology thts wed, Tm His sense, dese aos alo plied a the Telinology determine orenusess particule orm of organization Fr example, itorassopgevted that se more complex and unpredictable the production 9 tem fechnlogy he more Hey were orzanizaions to adopt nga ihe hah ‘mechani stractres (Burns and See, 1961), in stoi of ICT tis wae taken one step forthe, with auhorsasuming tha ICT could “die” once” organiational change ~ so an ongaizs tion adopts Kaosledge Management Sistem (KMS ~ a tp of technology {cused mre fill in Chapter 7), this would led to improvements in the ‘extent fo whi indus would share knowledge. Such a deterministic view ‘technology ery splice and ene seppored By empl evidence. AS NOW ORCANZATONALFORMSTHAT SUFFORTRNOWAEDEWOMK $i Robey and Boadres (1999) point out even the ea that ICT “enable change ‘eproblemti (sometimes might even diabe change). Rather we nec fovognize that there ira comple, dynamic and recpocl casa elstonship terween ICT fr indeed any kind of tecnogy) an onaniaion, with ot omer tha fe emergent and fiat to predic in advance For example 8 Hospital may implementa patient record stem with a view co improving the shanng of information across iferent medical specialiations. However, the ctl effect ofthis may be that people om difeene departments ep aking to ech other ~Beeuse now record are eal ffm a ental reposory and 2 specialist does not therefore need total to his/her oleage to as or the econ This may actully rece coordination and so ukimatly decrease, ther than nce, knowledge sharing. nde, some authors have gone a sep Further by suggesting tha the con- eps of techtology and organization cannot be separted fom eachother tecause they ae actualy mtaly constituted, oe a Orlowski (2007) cls it consituiely entangled. She provides an example ofthe ase of Wacker in 2 smal fie exvronment ln dhs ofce, people came to expect to answer and Send eal 24 hous day, 7 dysa week. But, Orlowski ages itis ot that the Blackberry ecology hss paul socal impact Rather, ecnoogy abd ies wie are cach conte bythe othr ~cach shape and ae shaped nen by the oer "The sumption that technclogy dives organizational change in detrin- ine manner (or indeed that oganivaiona designs dive technolo sien) ‘alo problematic Bese ignores the agency of hams ators insu ‘hose abou both the technology andthe organization (Ch, 1972). Mowe ‘overt ao ignore nseaonal presires and the material propery othe {echnology isle We tr to conser these sues ne >> HUMAN AGENCY AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION, (OF TECHNOLOGY In Chapter 1 we saw how proces peipesies tat knowledge at an ongoing social acorplabment, bing contracted tough ad fom soca interact, Technologie are, in cles, bodes of Kaowledge (Weck, 1990) ~ indeed the “ology in technology refer toa branch of kaowledge or eiming. A sigan tration has developed hen in understanding econ aio a socal co “trocton, These sol conscinst accounts ew technologie tally socal objects (Dike etal, 1987s Weick, 1990), Individuals and ous ‘shape both the design and the adoption of tchnologes depend on thei interest and perspectives (Der eal, 1987) Ths, al echaoginrepeseat the particular set of cots tha desires have made ~ deer make sp tion sou sets ad ow hey wl re the technology, and ti ences the ‘ay they design the technology, Furthermore, ter shape the way technologies [Me actually used in everyday practice Because most technologies canbe ed it tulpe waye~ they are “open sre ine words (Orikowa, 200)- Weick\ersodhissthe inept ety’ fecal aging that celts teat suv beat they ean be epee ad tree o naire ayy ie pple. This as wy ne Sind pou con enact (rat ot) the ome ecology i ert wae Tecnologie coring to en ares be the props on 4 age = ey Canbe poked yp anf wed by deca aor or dierent purposes (an ones Stink Cus ava weapon for esamps}) Orikows 200) argues, then, ht Tile of aint of CTs besser ara pose feats plenetng Sew 1CT oti an ernie wil ot eternal change hnow ger? pce Rake, emacs npr w kate works Sphrprae ager tcinlog nee wayear aro thr nga er Species ae dsebo ne. ome cst, pop ay ena te tchnoogy so tit hey donot ave tw hang i opts en wre ech Weed presaln ode to alate pricice hangs. Thos, poe may spy gore ae oe ony ey mimoaly sori Sand mest ther eaalhed praise expe when Powerpoint wa fw induced 1 teinalogy into an acdemicesonment, many profes coined {6 ihe levered samparency eeogy handing on she af Slates and wings poet to projet on toa en. tok many Stovorsone oss he Roepe eh aimed may Tmo nes, 2 now technology may be we, bt aan se way intended Yor example tt ay eete addons cos few ICT stem tha eae ther tocotine to do workin the way tht hey vy have Jone Ths there ae many expe of pope who download dat fom a ae corporate Isc and slot thio an Easel seats that alow them 0 ‘orn te wy shy ava had pore the plmeaton oe copra wen Tn other cms users may dy upon te ew ecology to subsaaly change thee wrk prc even wae tnt were now sncated by te ‘Eater, For expe unig acto eatonip managemene (CRM) Stam thos ase department may change the mer bat of ol tne prensa! catomer random and nad tae the CRM xem fo ide Sse mos lay t be espe to thir clt and then are po tnovonal freak group wathout any coleaing Ths may, oF ot, Tr more race we of the tne, bt the pon of he rample tha Soot the CRM sen pr tht changes the work practice, bo rte he ty inowledgeslc ond ivenve ectoner Bd ways owe thes Teno sapprt hem in dng tho or conversing ways to voi ing {heen or nd way to ap the ost fo ut the needs), Kaowledge ‘ovten in pala on ve ali, ad the powey, to enact technol vin rye ta ith nee a eee te em the end FS {kien where testy profes were abe o reas ecology that x desgoed wey fo get thes to change prac ga ho wil Tis impo tant role of human agency in enting technologie and innovation processes ee escent theme tronghont his ook ad il be revisited, in particular, inchaper >> INSTITUTIONAL PRESSURES AND THE MATERIAL, PROPERTIES OF TECHNOLOGY tes important tea that the social construction of ecology does 04 Tsar vaccum (Bijber el, 1987) Rater, this proces wl be ners Ahh nana context nttatonal esearch considers the ways in ec (eal and onc forces shape the ations of orgarrations (DiMaggio abd onc 1983) Ovgantion are embedded ina web of values, norm Aes, tebe and ken for granted sumptions (Barley and Tolbert, 1997, . 93), ‘These inmetional nfgences both enable and constrain actin, Tnstational Frnpectve, then, alert ws fo the way i which technologies are embedded Frataplex twa economic and pial networks Ths, pits) economis, Ur ansocicea nsitaions ex in any given coment and inane ‘SRhavaor by constituting rules, defining ey players, and aming tations! (Seon, 1998, p 137} Ths approach ects tention to the wap ia which istintiona inences tape he deg and spon of ecologies, Instat! thers er us {Othe fc thatthe option, or ple of tecogies is rvs by scl pres ‘Src for kestimacy and esp by hs einen slving problems, Once {pureculr technology becomes ery popula, for example, i is har fr an “banzaon (oan india to est wing i without appearing t be ‘out-of thuct An example here eaerise eoutce planing (ERP) stn, which We'TT stems that support busine processes across an enterprise, Work fom age database so that dita theoretical Hows actos work prowess Sct amecesy dopcaton, So, comer information soled by aes Yoon wi be aaa fr thon in matting o servic, witht each Fane on having input their ow customer data (ERP stems are ded nore [lly in Coper 7), ERP tes ae very om toy in al kinds basins ‘vonmena tothe extent that can Be har fora. organiaion to nan Ieptimacy man efficent organization a 0 ade sch assem ~ js ‘stamina toa ob nerve for high-pobe iran jo in jeans and Tocaraist mould undetine the letimacy ofa jo applicant or mo bang 2 ‘Moe pon oot beng on cok when ll one's hers are makes som ‘one not cool” ‘Some innatonal accounts ean be rather deterministic, ignoring how india actos have leibity in eespnding to and indeed shaping thie “hvronment So, wile there may be song presres about whi you wea 19 Sour ty jo inerien, you stil ould tar up in jas and sweatshirt and Therein even a tiny chance dat ou gt jo (plese noe, however, hat we are fe afecating this!) hi, ile siuionlsecouns let ws wo very real Pokaan of der vce preset the atom of india, groups andorganizations, thy may vette how determin these pesres actly {Ge Tn conta ther eon, nobly srr theory Chdns, 1983), in adlon to vecogniig te consrning inlencn of the existing en Toament (Le easy cay poly cat seonomie acters), bo ‘eopize the sity of cto shape these acres emer ne Indeed Proponents oF srctration theory argue thc strctres ex 8 constrains Uru th eaten that st ens ae sacar nthe emgong every Shy, hereby peeping oman agency over sacral eonarane There SMe ongng dete abou the lve nlucae of onl and rar losin eos human agency dba the we ae not going ob able fo ‘Gooch Tower ctining thes debuts Jos highligh he importance ‘Steecopnising the ways in which the desig, fsion and us of al Kinds of {Geno tha can potentially sappre knowledge work te enced by ‘owt ition emronmeat an ako the actions and interactions af fan sto More ety thas ao Ben point neha scons of ho technology fx dogs pte sl wd ave tenet gore materi i phys roprc at bsoningincesingy chara tecoloes are sal otaly ssl an peal (Ortowall and Bae, 2001) sect the py {al propris a ecologies infoence the aye they can Bese. father ‘To tc mater proper of echiolgy bath constran daft For euampe, he taisonal deagn ofthe tephone aterm cosine Se {© pana phy lataoe Beruf the ned for ne seston ‘Folly, mob phone techrlogy fers up the on ofthe phone so ht people ommuneaton Senne mac ls geographically rome. Sch +a Se elec the mata prperts ofthe technology which therefore con Stain fam ble) the pn set designer and er (Ba, 199; ‘rite, 200, 2007) Sor scan othe hckbony eam, Oskows {2oor,p. 1444} wate “The prima ofthe kos socks sap bythe ari com tinge way in wh the Rey serie egne contd, eng Frnsize,Freampl th push oi big mre i the sae anni nthe sven bu come ehangle nih pope's cea acto ep See ‘eed ont cytes al ine oa a thn repeatedly ao pend ‘tn repr, Scheie ony ce he Scrtanc of eas Bee “Sova ped to nl deve, od of thing nerpetaions ad te ‘he ec bound ap wh he con salaecearone menage Ie mo ‘nae fe nly erasing wih he cl, bt of ote entanement “This suggests that in oder to understand the inpct of technology on know ‘ge work we ned to integrate the nlaences of human agency a he poypoe tovhich technology ix being pu, the proce eat its constriction, is Imari propria the iituional core that enables (or disables) #8 ‘esgn and we. Addreing these charcersics~ purpose, procs an conte, in this ee fn relation to technology a8 3 parca for oF knowlege — i 4 recuring theme within ths book We can strat this by considering the Fihnomenon of teleworking >> TELEWORKING Crs potentially allow many knowledge workers to work remotely om ‘the ofc” and as sac, theoretical, 1 be eer ~ eer wo delle When to Wore, howto work her to workands0 on. Its ao longer ccesey tobe piysclly ren he acces to most organizational information an iadcel to bein ontact with other. Emus can be sent to anne From amon ayihere in the world an ier and ater information canbe downloaded to be worked ‘om, spun amom anywhere. So, sofware engine, working on pecs ‘fsgn a new sofware package an be working with team tha geograph tally distbuted eros cotient,commanicating with them wing mail ‘eoconferencing and other groupware technology. Indeed, each member of ‘he tam cold poss be werkig from thei ow Home, or even fom the beach i they Found this a candacie place at which to white software While otal jobs canbe done vitally and mot jobs demand some physical pres tence some of the time eis the case now hat many workers could wor, st Teast part of the ime, fom thee home or some ser remote location of their hoe. This parol theese wih knowledge workers (Peer eta. 2007), We wil reer to this teleworking (odes ell it vital homework ing, e-work or tlecomating) to dings fom vital working, which ‘inplespeson i working with others when they ae 01 ply co-lead ‘but ths nay al ben an onsite work eaizonmen, Thi ian iprcant di tinction because teleworking, not tual working, contravenes the Sepation ‘of ork and home chat has eharcterzed pid employment for may sce the Industrial Revelation TCT are an enable of rach altered work arangements the material prop ves of male technologies me teleworking arate opin. Te, soe ‘People have continued to work fom heme throughout the intial ry fo ‘Example, wontcn working fom home in cottage sss where wor, sac 2 garmentmaking, taken 0 indindeal’ homer fr ompletion. Hower, ‘clopments i ICTs open up ths option toa mach greater eange of ek ‘encoding owedge workers, Nevertheless, the development of ICTs pers ‘dos not rive sch change, Indeed, research ha ended abo tat, despite the fc that development in TCTemake ie potentially pone foe many people torwork t home attest some of the ine the umber who actly do this are ‘ery smal (ley and Kav, 2002), For example, Kote and Cares (2002), ‘eporred that onl 6:1 per cent of worker n Europe resus wok ors home nthe Fite appear 0 be ly coneitet scr cout (eg Seweieer tnd Dunbury (2002) repre a figure of 6 per cent in Canada). More recent ‘he rom Anais sugges tha the mambers might be increasing, wit 30 pe cent of respondents nding tha they a lest cso worked aayfrom thei normal place of work ding business boars (Ausuallan Government, 2008), Nevers, even five tht they were nsdn anybody who ever Werke amy fom ther orl place of work, they sl ound tha 70 percent ‘of wrker ner do th So while ICTs provide the opportunity for knowledge workers to work fiom home at lest some of the time, the evidence suggests that in Bt ery few mate use ofthis opportunity. Moreover, hse the came despite the Tat thar the balance of erfence shows that teleworking. has benefits forthe Indiv, forthe ongazation and fr soe. Hom te perspective of the inlvl, sarc sho tit moe people ke cleworkin, nding that it lows tein o beter lance the demands ofa any anda ob. For example ‘Gajenean and Harrison (2007) found shat teleworking had postive effets ‘on perceptions of autonomy and actually reduced family work confi. From the perspective ofthe onganzaton, there are abo bepeits associated with teleworking. For example fae een suggested that teleworking slows ms torapthe expertise an sl of workers high demand who do not wish 10 te ied to permanent employment and of worker who cannot be physically Present during the normal working day because of other demands on thei ine cspecily chldcre. Teleworking ts alo advocated as way of reducing “pl cont and overbeads (cme fever fies an buildings will be needed ‘people are working from home). Finally, fom the perspective of soceny, {eleworting ir acento be benef becae i redces commuting and all he SSsovted con, especially conte inflation t0 the pollution of the envio nent opi hat high onthe st of rors in many countries igh HOW Iecase of eimate change concen ‘So we ae I with + quetion ~ why bas the proportion of knowledge workers engaged in teleworking said small, sespite the oppoeties ‘Morea by avancemens in ICTs aa despite the obs Benes fr in ‘ius organivations and socetin To adres this quenion we can take an Tnsitariona evel perpetive~ teleworking has not become more widespread [bsause ir challenges exiting noms an practices, In pala, te working, Clllenges exiting norms about contol that ae central within the context ‘ot employment eelations. These mechanisis of contol vary By the type of ‘work Hor cle and factory workers, ther ouput is tangle and 9 easly Imeisurable Ths messrabe tpt means that worker an be realy mon toeed and controlled Hower, manager profesional nd knowedge work ‘eprinarity mental and inerperonal/ social, and ois ful to mono In the stustion, phys presence hasbeen usd sa proxy for produtvi. You. se sud a be working hard iyo work log hours Ths helps to account fa the longhour calre that he become ubgitous in many counties. ‘Moreover, koowladge workers have come to belive that they wil only be promoted if they are vil present in order to be noticed, Saying ate and tung ay ca be particu important inthis respec, even to the extent thot in ome cscs workers use thelr agency to "Bethe system” Dy gong hme but lessing tele work station open ad tei jacket on thei chat, 0 -D eggs that hey est sound and working Give hi ‘gan’ what would EEC onc of working long hows fom hone where no one could see the ‘fron tht was putin? uy managers then, do not appear to tt thei employees 0 work at ont Rarogtat vey ae tv they wil eter les effort. At he same som Torker ae reluctant to work fom home, Dees they Fear that hs wll vapect thee sty and tctefore their potenti for promotion, From the reaiNidwal penpecve, then, teworking a Teas a aubstate for work rae teh ofc’ wl only become more widespread when these deqp seated de ad cata ors change, regards of any advanes in ICTS which apport tleworkings andthe obvi Benes of such an arangement. Fea agency penpenine, knowlege workers may not take advantage of Tatwerting if they peeve tat thi gies them los opportunity to make 2 fod impression wih thelr bos ‘avn th anor tend that toy Wise for knowledge workers can neattwoding fom home, having spent along day atthe ofc! Ti, outset ow the vent of ackbery and other handel mobile ‘Gotu ancacouage 24/7 mental in some contests which eas ind SGI fv stealy expected o band expect to e sate for work aytine Tat Snypice eves when on hela In dng ths some wvkers may wel Be {Shean ote pesenn’ calre even whit ot pala the oie — Sding eas tothe ten t 8 2. in the morning, for example, ca Be + ‘Seve ploy to nse commitment rather than a response to ble work porns fom home. Neverthe, Sing vnable 24/7 arguably makes ‘tage worker es ahr tan more, Ge. This ed Donel (2006-98) tocol, Many hee work ae hyo ems eve’ ie eins eye, ‘Ba ony atl ey sre by the net ete cmpoyet) {pr doar and expan, reteset an ee am ‘Ton Rott cnt Swede woke ean ee wore mayne freer het ban aly >> NEW ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS AND ICTS [As cen above, developments in ICT provide opportunities for new fers of onletige wock They sho open up nc posits For organizational designs fore general ny paral ICTs may enabl the creaon of oganizaonat ‘dose hac prove more supportive environment Fo work thats knowledge {Rehune Ahr alendy been suggested in Chapter 2, knowlege works Dest oct in organi’ and normal sigs, With gala utes ard where foriont as opposed to vert, comsmuniction dina. Soch works ings are very erent to the wadoal bareusratic ‘Top dove forms oF iron advected by Scene Managemen and otined in Chat 1), ‘Mecca npanzainal arms stanly continae to exist uti edenthat new forms of orgaizing ae emerging which are much more Bid and ‘dynamic than hese Wadiona traces "These new Kr of ogni hae lover sretnes which allow ther 10 tbe more lene (Valera, 1998). This rachis by breaking down the ge {ureaverte sacar into suber mols. These smaller unitscan adap tore qucly fo changing circumstanex In over words, even ina complies System theres the potenti for apd evotion, ita stem is broken down Ito ase of stable substetns. ‘These sabes anthem each operate nea Independent ofthe process gong on within other subse 0 that id ‘Shae can be accel. Desompvability or modality us een 3 the solution to manag increasing compen, wth oa networks supported by TCTs tinting tether the ifsc prs, whether intemal oe externally (Castel, 2000) ‘Of eure he mus remember shat ICTS do not themaces adc the rca ofthese new organo ors Indeed ICT ible oars both ‘scented and cere ede of organizing sis stated by the case a th end of thi chapter Harri (2006) abo reminds us that many ganizations ‘chain largly Buren an conrling sd args thatthe wea that we ae {ns pow bureaucratic ca hasbeen overated by sone neat, oganizatons, ‘Sips ty ar ang, have some very bureaucrat sores 5 wel as some ‘nore eible/ modula srctre indeed, his deemed tobe important help [in onganiaton eo be bot exible an innovative nore t espond change {lla beefint There fa iterstre om or example, on the sora “Slextriy of ergaiatons~ organizations at have strictures that allow them to taneous explore and explo knowledge (Rach and Bckinshw, 31008) in ero be oh fet and ene /innovatve at the same te espe these caeats we en nevertheless amber charatestics soit wid mre eae forms of onganiring, lading 1, Decentralization toh the cation of em-atonemons snes wit (BU): Ths alan each BU to fac ona prc markt niche and 0 respond snore ley and adapinely to the noes of the parsicaar market riche 2,‘ ke herarcicalarucuen This hs been scieved dough removing layer of idle manager With ever manager close upevison and on ‘wo a less poe so that power devolved dow the erry, Ng, {vidal ore autonony (or empowerment im ce Work 3. Crnsunctioal projec ram: Rather than ave each function work rele trey depen and pas ehings ‘over the wall to the net Function in ‘he proces, people are rout together to worn ro finctonl teams, dict in Chapter 8, The octet encourage aster sesponse Faces that ead nes, far example on new prot developers af eon siderably reduce 4. Incronpenizasonal neworing, Rather tan attempr to integrate new equi sis and competent into the organizational hierarchy, of izations are increasingly working in colors alances and parent {lupe ther orgamatns orig outsourcing rangement to service fafdclar Internal requires, This etales ongeizations to toate ch moee guy sine they can acess Knowledge and expert tha te ‘ot eld inca These nape beween aerwoting and novation el eenlored farther in Chapter 8 and 9 Goalznion of busines: Orgszations ar increasingly geographical ds tributed working ona glo rather tan 3 naionl bass. Ts as been Sehieved che throng the segution of basnemer ter counties 6 inthe BenkCo tase tn Chap 7), though paerdp argent, ct ‘Seough ineeralintemational growth. This lows them 1 capitalize on (Gobal market opportunites nso potest gow in sz and pofabiy. \While developments in ICTs have not determined the changes outlined above {an eplored further the chapters hat flo) they ave made thes options Inore sila have opened p lob makes for al Kinds of onganization Mel sr oppottuntc for oanizatons to work together inthe dvetopmeat of Innovations For example, Ozcle (2008) describes how nop crgni- ations are sing the Leet oincreas aczs wo inforaton ro widely est ‘hed socholen, to altat teraction wi th takcholdrs ant prove thei fn rasing tons, The Interne, near, allows poten donor to get {ar mote informa about the vations organizations they might give wo than tres previous aaa occ whaling com website Whete oa ‘rations anyuere in the wkd can pst hr sol peojecss or which they ae ooking for aning, Moreonets thee new forms of erzanizing, supported by TC scan be moe conioe Yo knowledge work and othe syppet of know ‘ele work alest leady sen they do no atom ee employes from organizational constrain. “unseen the ele of ICT in clon to thexe new organizational forms al and Fenny (1996) dese tec mpertves for secs lal business = ‘bal efienc, local responsiveness and trae of Fearing ~ and anahse fw ICT can potently have a oe in ration to al thre imperatives, Global ‘Tkincy ine that an organ coordinates and onsite varios Selves so thai achiees econo of eT rege, for example, the Caletion of ompartive performance information fom is operations around the lobe Global ICTs such a ERP systems ~dscused fares in Chapter 7 = Mow this infomation wo be collected in ammo for so that these global ‘fickency decom can be made Local responsvenet implies that organizations mast respond the requirements and dloyncais of ol markets he “ba at needs to be node ost the patel loal conditions whee ics sold for example Pretcton system ICTs which support high yavety are Repl ere. his Pihlosopy fs obriowsly very ferent from ehe eer mas proton ers ‘uted in Chaper Ty whet sg prodets were prodaced with ew options_ and varans: Henry Fond was ported to have once sad “My estomes an have any cloue cara longa 8 Mack "alin elation to knowledge proces, 2 loa busines needs to ensure thar i focseson satin knoe an ering so dat expensive reinvention bb prevemed TCTs such as e-mail and teconerending can help to fiitate ‘ldlogoe among profesional so tht ling sated. Ths is he ai of the Komledge Management iiative a Banko, deibed later in Chapter 7. OF une ths isnot tosy that glbalation, an expdally attempt loli ond nor occur bee development inthe Inert and the World Wide ‘Web. History replete with examples of aon, i moe corporations, temp ing to expand ther plobal empire. Neverteles, lear that advances ICTS fine plied aol im atvancerin the globalization of wort, a welas inthe other fRnure ofthe new ongniational forms dscused above >> FACILITATING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE USING ICT CTs may potently support organizational change in ation wo all three of ‘the ipeatves deine by Fal and Fenny (1996), but we have already consi ‘ced how ICT will ot dety determine o even inet induence change independent of the human store fvolved. We lok tie in thi section at tome waysin which desedonpanizationa lange might be promote. Tn uneraning how ICT oe in knowlege incense organizations we shoud beg by ecogining thats key ature of wxay’s ICT ning KMS, That moet ar packages that sippoe knowledge processes or example, kno ‘ge sharing sos the whole ganization. This rather een trations TCT that was developed to support specie work tasks (the pace of sembly Tne prexiction, for example), Tackages are apted by organizations ‘fT he ‘Shelf o to speak, td can be configures, win speci const jut 32 off thohel suc be sighty modied by tale. The aie, however, ito tor cromize such packages or attempt to completely modify the software to ‘hi the pars oanization (jst et may not be sense to buy an othe Shel suit and them ery and completely redesign). Tis mplemenation without Iosicason refer to au the “ana” te. We dca ths more fal In hoper 7A good example of currently popolr package tha is aimed at Fitting Knowledge proses a ae many oaizations re ying 0 dope issharepoine Shareponnt a Microsoft prodact which ens, accoeling 0 the “Micros website, to provides ingle, imerated location where employees can Cicely colborte wih ea menor find organizational resources, serch faresperts and corporate normation, manage concent and workflow, and ever ‘ge bane insight to make beterinfomed decison “The imegrate nar of a package, lie sharepoint or any eter enterprise: vide system, means that Helly ee representatives ftom dileent pars of the onganiation should be ivole nthe implementation project. However, fen the complesty of seh yen, t's perhaps not surpesing that so many onganizatonsseugge with thee ICT projets ~ the Sash Group (2007) ‘Mime tha 70 per cnt of stare projet al Succesfily implementing Nera’ "knowledge posessing” sytem like sareoin, cherefore, requites “homaging organizational change, Undersanding Bow to effect change hg CIs thretore exes important ‘There are two important pins 10 eee nelson to hi (Wagner and Newel, 2007): 1. Achiesing workable soliton docs not ran tht within an organiation there needs tobe consennar overall ses related to the ICT Rather, the important kau apes tobe cooeiating action ha wl alow bread goals to be achcsd cen this invoes compromise along the wa. Ths because Consens about how to configure an ICT kel to be vey dict gen {heclveray of wee who wl be feted. Dirt grops wil wane dierent things incaded/excade andi conenms sought hi Hel 0 eal toa Stalemate. We wil seth illstrated in he Un case atthe end ofthe chapter. 2. Achieving a woe solution is ore Hey if ete as mpl ees of design (by wich in elton to packaged software, we ean conigration Si petap sone customnation), plementation and we rather tha a the pase of desig llwed by pleentation apd se, Tere area number feos rts 2 Legacy thinking: Esdence suggest tha ses ra it iil during the Cc stages of ogres deiniion to see beyond thee caren prac tees and ankpate ow ngs col be done diferent they had ew tool for expt, to enable more knowledge sharing within and aos Faction, This becuse mock work practices rooted in every ner cone (Sacha, 1997) 0 tha tpg to appdata new way of work ing by jst looking athe techni ytem sic. Aad ehiso the we limited echnical knoe dge (Beth 2nd Okowsi, 1994) andi Becomes Unlerstanatle why, when wer ae volved in the inal configuration / ‘tstomiaton pas thi ain concer that the new ger wll enable them to do hth) did fore witha le change as possible bs, Veils implementations: Packaged sofware does allow configuration ‘options but oly within Ged parameters and the general adic i 10 ‘ov, as fr spoil castonisons tothe pacha. Given hs context, {chops the queton ofthe point of ter avavement if ses are noth tenet bene of the dese fr sya’ implementation? _& Morination: ial prblem daring the pe-implemenation pase at aly geting wer to be lveresed tm paripton, This ask of engage trent isa reecton of human natre where We only become intrested in Something when it salen tour ad when we cn acta bein to earn tout the technology though pectice and paripation (Weng, 1998), ‘Moreover, evn wt sere gency wat to be ivohe, they are often Aiseated by more urgent things tht they ae fed with spec for Tnoweige wore wa at pal very BsGiven these sues it fen any when projet completion i imminent and fhe wal) of new work practices Becomes apparent hat users be to ea isthe new sytem more closely and ase concerns about how the seem has ‘Sen contgurst anor asomied. Thole ene to etance and the need. fox post inplementaon micas. Effeetve resance may be ev28 More tikly where techndloges are aimed at knowledge workers becaae thse Kinds of ‘ocr uly hve more power han exer Kinds of workers. Therefore insta ‘templar se partcpaton daring the pe implementation pase canbe ‘ery help t view technological novation as.an erative proces veling Incrate episodes of den, inplemenation and use, These epaodes, andthe tse of the inet proces whole, ae explored further in Chapter 9. “Toa methodolgies ike ap prooyping canbe sed apart ofthis roves whee rater han tying desig the finshed system engineers gt out IMS iy verona then let user play an rent to fe Ding cose {els the reay ofthe new stem wlcetainy Become salen and Knowledge ‘orer inca become more interested hey Begin to ear om eh ‘Stunted practic. Mom importante daring these trations chat knowl ‘nor wil el ook at what the new system oles and be concerned about Inert me th jb easier or more ical Where the new system seen to mike thr job dieu, as inthe one presented a the end ofthe caper, ‘ere wil be significant sc restance, In her word yng to achive conse $s fre inplementatan about how the recncogy il be wed appears tobe Sr unceasing Rather, amore reise gal may be to provsde people with {pte thax makes thie br not signa more ead tthe ame time proves them wi the pronpec tha they willbe abl to do even more 0 the are ~ knowledge workers, ss knowledgeable actor, wil hen themselves Team co explo the per hey enact the tecnology inthe dly work. ‘Once astm iin wc, one nay of helping knowledge worker understand its potentials 10 provide an offline version where they ca play sround” 10 Henny what happese wen they do certain tings onthe system. THs pe of crs tay be strc the Ive envronment Because of he repercussions if they complete transactions in even way, but inthe ofine sandbox this ‘apenmenttion can help sr ining wld worker, understand he potential (nd weakness) ofthe stem 3 cute dese, >> NEW ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS AND KNOWLEDGE Loss ‘One fn pint to make inthis chapter relates tothe downsies ofthe new ont izatinal forms which can sapport Knowledge work and knowledge Worker, Snissne touched upon bia Chaper 1 More peiealy, while more mod ar onpniatonal forms are more conducive to kaowledgeinteaive work, Patio they also make it moe diff to explo knoe across the Seetched organization, In bureaucratic organiations, ob deseisions, ales procedares andro on wer lly defined snd the hierarchy of oman Peo _ sed a lea pathway for communication. In the newer, ater, organizational Tors there ste potently more opportunites for Knowledge tobe lost or ‘eincnted in ae contents, So, knowledge lst beeen BU, between ore ‘rations invlved infer organizational lanes, across projets and 203s [rosraphical locacions, Moreover since hierarchies have teen fated here Se fener middle manages let who en ac 35 nermediares and ry to coord {ut and provid 2 commiicaton link aes these boundries, Th taorl bureavetieracteres, contol ad information exchange were chive by bang ech monger the earch ony respon foe a sal fomber of ordinates Managers has had lately nara span of contol nt weve able to lonely sper apd contol thee sbordinats. Tey would ‘hen pas on information abot the scaon othe manage aber, who alo had {how san of contol Wit the lstessng of orarzational stoctares the spn ft contol ofeach manager in the erganiationa hierarchy is mich greats. So, stile inthe pat ranger may ave sapere only Seven to fen sorinates, {oxy they maybe seri 80-0 or even mee nth station tno pos ‘Shlew know what each subordinate eacteally doing and 0 ost conto ard ‘moniter atte, The aonates ms thereto con the on ac ‘Sotoamuch lnger eters They ate empowered 9 make tee ovn desons. “As seen in the previous chapters emily appropiate for Knowledge ‘work an knowlege workers which cnnot be ight contol and organized lett toes mean that middle mangers may srl to acts the comm rcaion condas within an cranizuion (the Knowledge intermedi) ~ they {Too know in much deal wha happening within thei parcular sphere of ‘esponiltynor do they neces ave time to engage in sch information fterng atte. oe surpsing, then, that ofen othe intermediates ‘Eonsatants fo example willbe ought into conde dh termedary work {Thus we an sec how new aganztional firme crete chalegss or knowledge ‘vor especialy ith eps oustation)~ challenges tha can hese ge “ate new opportunities for knowledge work ad Rrowiedge workers. Ine, ithas been suggested ht the ese of Business Process Reengineering inthe late Tey 1990s where onanizations were Matened and seaminedatound trans proces acted aan portant recur forthe allowing fil in Koop Management them 1990s (Searboogh and San, 2001) ‘Greanations havin enence, Become so stetched and vita hamper tant opportunites for feo fice soil tteracton have been fost. So 0 3 Stuation where knowledge seen ax peraps se mos aluable eure of con pny organo forms hve been developed o nurture knowledge creation, Fomowr thee very sme ogainational oes a ep o nortre knowledge ‘eston so provide more opportnity So hnowledge los. "Krome Ma gement inate an be seen aan aempe to resolve this pads (although i should lo be ned thi the spread or dfision of Knowledge Managemeat iniatves ba alan been promoted by 2 bandwagon’ effect) We discs these topics in Chapter 7, whoa me lok specie at Knowledge Management ss {ems as welt Enter Sem, both of which are described as syste hatcan tp ongaizatons manage their knowledge. the next chapter we foxes Fee mc process that are invaued in knowledge rato. >> CONCLUSIONS tm ths chapoe we have considered the ways in which advancement in ICTS race nr ap new possiblities forse design of organizations which ae more ceceerr ie inonledge intensive work. However, we have abo seen that Bee nancementr ia ICTs wil noe stomatal or deceit lead ro eSdohdon ot new organizational forms o new arangements for orgnizing, vo soe ines aly asamed. Rater, the way the new ICTS are wed and Bee Ghivencn will depend on comple iterations berwesn technology dno, comet and esr lation to knowledge work, we have shown, PETC ly anrmportant role in shaping, and beng shaped by, purpose Mpteson of knowledge to new ks), inowlege proces (8. Kove Frenne cos geographical locations) and enabling onsets (organzaonal ad TREE Saath We ona the example of teleworking to state cis and dis ‘eee how th plementation apd we of any kindof ICT involved a proces SEcpatron overtime. We examine eis more close’ throngh 2 case sy rescaednen. This ee aboot a university implemeating an ERP spt Freda ERP stemsin Chapter 7, for now ts sunt understand tha Tid an Psyc tht stores data a cenrldtabe wo hata departs EN itn fam the sme data oder to make this wonk al departments we rh and se data in the same way and flow the same proses ‘hing ont thi work CASE STUDY 3.1 UNI UNIVERSITY AND ITS NEW ERP SYSTEM* nthe summer of 1996 Un an te US unkery began dering adminis ‘Barman stems though twoear RF mpementation that was aici ‘MSconcedata pect to bene al conse Uniwasonecof hefatanverties TORU te an cose to wort th Conse Corporation n ero deeop two ‘Sire dul rantsand conte ach. That October te poet 0c atm nd neon tea mere ceted wih co-bsnest and en eg wee Meco few was mety Un mise manages rm Cea ‘SGranenon tre pemanent postions had Been baed othe draon of Fase ataugh sn experenced EP prj ranage al een ie the eet the tcene he communcated ret with Uns ety pte ‘Yee Peden for Face na Admin ‘Src nenay the projet te ound tat Cons'stechical expe were ot cuss at expected, ean ea meee woking with annemplete recte sats and having t mage How the qats and contacts module woul seayoted. wae aout the priests progres ater a year of high! hen: aad ted constant au he enn fhe sow for ceded ‘Bitang’ implementation October 1998 Te findings caused Uni to mody aera tad mutch toa prose Implementation svatey adopting a revsed Sn ray 1999 or th ally integrate ute, Ts date rk he besinning syne 200 fiscal alerts sch represented he dean fr ein con tere a ko he mle bug. Un met ‘Bop dead dat that (Be aemtan Ek wes operational on the fest da fhe ew sl ear but he wer Trece an eporting cocnment request development. The sub emtvccot te ex wa compleates by wer stance othe gots and con TaD ace The academe conuences who had expectations of 2 improved ‘Roting ernment weve unable fo compete cc anaes Focal ‘ett anges inthe Ets design a wal as iter suppor fo hes ais (Rrerinooe world incensed ramatialy in th EP rabid enone For ‘Toren two yeu the poet team was inelved in pstanplementaton dein ‘Tange fore fly cea yin ror the caer comment The cron yar evets apical sete ne blow eee. (aotn the not sections tw cotetous ees that nee aed he deen Uns En? project ave desea, These eptodes have en selected ese ey stat the Kd of ans atone might pica comet contac wih rng loge stare projets here tile stale group and inowldge we a Inweinthelpementan. The st pod oops an intera-xterral perspec ‘he which impart to coment of he owing ee for enact res tori betwen et eguietons and exta experts sich at stare vender ‘Where te second epee concentrates on the goals of knows wore who Sore bony the iver mission tao Rave unique ins, gol and ways oF org >> UNLCONSULTCO CONFLICT “Te Uns ConsltCosrategc pret wae reste to Bent both partis rough {he devsopment of higher diction EP ste Tis produt woul om the bas ‘8 Unis adnatve nrc and woud Help Coste ete ah wtpped Were mare Consatco sought the int experi of Un in det lp re Salwar endor mos th government pute cor RP produto met ue ‘iy ned The rent woul be the creo fnew prot hich bath Usa nate woud conus to eta over tne trough mraono ew eases ‘the product Tough coordinated action Un and Cont wer expecting to ace the commen im beeute tone neler ada he neem sso tea higher eda entre ston, Hwee ding the est to years of he project Cans fae to become vale he poet tothe extent tat Un expected ~bing lage ase om the project ste ad a sense that (Conor aven tf hi hing fr year when shed questions aa cocktal pat e,.haw igi yor sta now? (ea ‘ts up totwo people. They woud catch terse and yn no. Weve ‘got seven ow Then ted evel thing Ike we aged eur et pon ont Unie hee of sures proved Conta werent anda misepresan- ‘aon of ter patnesip agement an rugged to movelorvars base ts without he Cast) ays here swe wrestling losis nd States. an had nen Setup the tem ar geo the econ tat edd tb ade ‘he lck of resources proved by ConsutCo was understandable, gen that Unt Tepreseted one cet within a small vere mart whch had Utes grt ‘pporunites; and they tafe the project to rec this Const approsched development as a modfation to ter goverment pachage which hey waned 0 to Inthe mos tte manner posible so that they could see the highest recur fon vestent gen the mare potent Over ne, those onthe Un team are tora “The thing abut (Consuto} they have mae a conan’ to higher ed but ies much de than they thoogte Kae going to be becuse fey tought tee were much move te goverment than we realy a. Tey ave made an Invest andthe contin to vestin ths matt yo ave wonder how ong theyre going todo that There are ony about SO stuns that compre thes) mare, Incas the eet represented 2 major commitment for nin tersof en and (onures and was stant eat! etme tht ar expected to Bae Fg {emimplaton fr hele operaton and governance A poet ede reflects on ths Te sates delopmentparineship(s rik implementation beats you {dv know wht ye ging to gets pend on tie lene —yre ot ute sure a he at re wee Your parr guint ay soy Tea ny doe of hse etre. ale ng a a plate an youre nt ‘ute sre ether youre going tnd in or Chega, So aca ‘hareng your gt path When the rg October 1998 deadine ave, Cano was si developing ‘ne ofthe modules andl decided to complete redesign the oer. Th absence, ‘Coupe with the tare to produce tng produc, lead Ui tam member 0 fronzethemsdves more dese to one another and smuaeousy reerel ‘he relinship wth Corso, Uni Began cers aerate ways oa ‘goa gen fs rlance on Conta wht id Const want and how bes should Uni notte th them was der tat CarsutCoaded om Un pln expert with resco unr grants management and Uni team mer ter Bogan orale tat thee moderation native as more complex becaine ‘ofthe portershp with Constcadet the vendors need fo rate a mares prosuce ‘Were going to have to nd good ways to wor ager case [Const “amie to ing a preswar grant] sytem. Because ey at to meat tis produto highe edict ttt and prea an np pat of the biones Thste were we fd we hme the est pation bene we ort reeds pears tem [netonal ear member Lined a welespected grants management oe that aise the external faring proces for faa Uni was apy with the caret perations ots fice ‘nd thes accompanying, however they lacked he aby central manage the ‘ry in wich aceon acl Budgeted ad spent the ever dls. 50 le Un ull have prefered oleae pre-ovards out ofthe scope ofthe BP project, ‘hy reatzed tht tey were nan iterdependen retina with Consulta wh sao pre- and posavard ates a para he ame proces, both of which were rnecstay to develop apr 9 Higher cation soliton hat would be solo reearh intone Unt saw the potenti to leverage tel fants management ‘epee order to abspate Cann for repayment to Un semaine the{As Uni began to enter the partnership wth Consult by seeing com promise, the VP deeded to meiate dvegent goals and bets by wing his fpomer and inluence to getting done. The VP bagan by exering fis power Src the project and hited an ener computing exper 25 Tenia Director Adina Sytens whose charge war fo stop wang for ConutCo and “Tamp uth tecnica development te or he Y2K deadine n acdion to ‘locsng the project team trough strong Hades the VP and en Hired ‘rector tat te necessry to give Consultan tur. The Techni {We ren tbsin ate sprog 98, The rants management ice assy nt ‘esting an he ther mse] hadnt even Been dered Ad 08 lear ome ond other tat there as no way we were ging to mat he 99 eae Teen teste ve wer [tn My of Tt the a me. at we Wee ‘ing tel [Crt that weer gong to cekem on rt —that we were ‘ng to come pw an aratestegy Tht weal ave bow od es or them scan tas bow they wate to hs mat So we we tro the spline of king] wht woul we do stag? Ad wes uh mS No del but we wee prepared to do. We ely meant snes i they could cate we ae not gong eta. ‘he VP was nun in achieving concessions om Consult because of his aby {omobitze Uni sources towed serative devopment ates dng 2 cc time when he project we expstencng paras, lrhoue fecal expertise Wat ‘mobi had he getses sing forme. sitet do the deta homens ive them il empowered we cud ate he deepened tote dane. .and tht eq tng the geass Hom oer ose te We ase fea and making app Tene Dect f Admini Systens) Te VP abo made a pron wdt to CongutCo headquarters where he indicated Uta there war indeed note anh’ valle forthe vr but ate hey had th oblition to repay Uni fo Bs content to dendoping the higher eaten rdoct Whe the poet eam geniuses" contined to deeop an aleve so on or gant and kor nent, Conn podced hat they cle essen fontaine fr Un’ al yer 2000 a Ur chose not o drop Corto [1 development partner Th contoue selverent with the ver diy ‘ated to tr teres for robust prodat which ey Understand wl only ‘beacleed they rab oinaene Coat’ beso and development ae Jectay by vsting the vendor and ang vod in pro fanctinalty dion, ‘este he css Ivahed ‘ie sent ea of pop at to Cllr for two weeks i net do eta tesing ‘onthe (nl eons thee appre. Rea tt mane 0 do tha ae icons at of source te bt we tek ht Ws woth in elon rn em wea. ll >> CONFLICT BETWEEN ACADEMIC CONSTITUENCIES AND CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION Dring inpemertation ta members focused on profesonaing the univers ‘Sinisa praccs in crdr to ensue lnstutonal governance and ee ancl and reat ek Ts goal was speheaded by the Prana Manage: sent (ter nde ho pended project members ofthis agen and tough ‘Gordnated scion they papas exduded lguey gars management paces {@ased on» emmitment accounting approach) rm He Entei System design Ipeeence for carprste acount proach based n ne phased busing ieee tre opr. Tissier ede stay wou sy thatthe mentty tat wee had for managing is prime and Feld eon. the comport word ef ny yas go = Many ty ek ‘of thing arnt wrong. We wat to move people ovat a management ‘model where ging oak [em] tpl together ne pase bast ad management lan “The team der went on to en the legacy acon approach to chen psi software progam forthe management penal ances: thoy doit he ye ought fo eee an get eel. a tape Raat for many years = you tow what Hyoue aldo bh, yout nev Fah Goto decide to gt up there and gt it. ee] spersng illo and rls of dls o ge fora nat dpcate wha we Nad [i ees more than copy of cae foreach grate hae 000 grate def that here ay more. man =e jt do ‘The shift story excl the possi of ther vw nour of ning ‘he a was of woking. the eve’ ind eveyone oud be on the sare age sharing common sims or they have no place atthe ny, he content and {one afhismesone mutates ite pec "the erent ews 205 he une hen the EP wa led ou tothe Un community was et ith resance from academic adnate wo were ule to inom hl facut members shout the nancial deta of hi rat and contac aan sing the ness Spproach embeded nthe EP Academic, tum, became desl unhappy Shout the ERP becaut they were unable to recaive te answers hey heeded Ih ‘rder td the fb elect A thi time the poet entered pars beause ‘he projec team vas osble gan polis support ram dhe aadeic depo ‘mene sin hs moment of envowey that all pres invared realize th ack ‘ot common ams and bento cone how they might advance Ue pater Interns dsentng cota eadenhp vce shares hs interpretation o scone rower ‘ie tak an enna ht was compe ad aed evel of carpet tht ‘ne 100 Fld heed wold people Fen aon stone mound te counting system nade do teas. They unestood haw oak cy‘efermatn here and ceil vest formation there ad make them beth ‘ect, But th te cena soma wi Frustrated y ths suston an cognizant of the eased ses el of he ta power oct members reminded he VP fs ol promise thatthe ERP Woks Frorove Unersy admitraeepractees for the ete commun. Faculty 2d the mnie: joined forces and ue Ue power to secre a meting th he Provost VP and re edraip were they gave ar lature esteing tbl {tcl ster na un the ony a dla tees ares the gay funconalty replaced he tne pha pproseh Te iuence sista the nate of {acy sinter | ok the message over to the [poet team, and sil."we have lke ‘eave way of sing the ERD for (ants) aed ts Became eat us hat we feed comments were poied.to create cur wn sem but | woud Tete pret this a2 Univers tue and | want fo kw wheter o nt ou wool Be to Jon us title Boom, boom, boom Al of 2 sen Techappenedvoweights They tad @ wong group tha qty went to ‘Signing esos ste [Asa ret of those meting the proc began to move out of paras THe easy Comnutment scouting tem emai ve and ew, ban tos wee deve ‘ped that caso the ER ptr, otha uy needs wee mt, The expel lon was tht by appeasng ay wth regards to grants management, the RP a 8 the would be more ey sexe "Comprombing en ys fncnaty wa nat something that the projet team tot erioned aving td. Howey, he poet team cre to ele Rat they ‘tcregungtosocessllymovewsersct of shadow ster eninto the negated tno envitnen they were going to have to tomper her harésine approach, The trom this reported te poten dewiopment sts and ceted 3 ‘tno pice of sftare tat was balled ono the ERP sivae >> QUESTIONS, |. What doce the ct urate about eh rors between technology and ‘rzaiton nthe conn of knowlege word 2. Gian tht athe sar there wa cameo gol Beoween Uni and Conia, ‘wy dd the cooperation bre dwn! Wa oos hs tl you about cooperation esween diferen groupe of nowacge workers! 2. Wy di ferent saoldrs within he Unversity fave diferenc undersanding tnd perceptions othe ENP What does thi tl you sbou owe? 4, Doyou think the resus would ave Deon frente the urs ofthe xP hod not bee onledge workars (a eraty profesor)? 5. Wat are some princpleslesont shit you might tke from reading is ase Shout orpezatonal change er tha are based on IT ad ther engact 09 Iowiedge work ‘Summary of ky learning points >> Onpnieions oon te Isto acconmait nolaige war Hows. npc Ich ono wa taney ape rl er >> Keowee wor can unaraen by workers who we gogpialy erbue, ting eT fe le yt ete he re os of ‘othr eleoring are wed owldg wores, > ening canbe bol rb nol war theloowedge rea fan ong sty How ota wi nde gi eee lye Ingres sob coal ef ok (ory rot eal aba wt a ‘armen pore ae pre) eta coat tka eras >> More nr ICTs art opr fr, a fo nt dearly ere, em “rpntaonal lor dar porte fina oat tknoledge toe TNs ser ‘Sproat ihr ore dco eerie bed on tor ing nerorgecen netnorks ane bse 2 Therete rae inert for cent gl srs fice pon rout wart fone a ang ITs cn py 2 lem oe Se, ‘hough thy cabo be elated by eer mess, >> Atioig ont cng por owe woot ough ICT i el — npr wl hen be nc nd denon he posinpenerttin ene ronments cpt a cre > Parton whe new apa frme areconduc tothe pete tld ‘eae worthy sa ne kinre edt rams cm oe hey pe tne oyprunar or tne es Kooi Page ates ce eh Sanatenpt to ee prox— MANAGING KNOWLEDGE CREATION IN TEAMS ‘chepter Outine >> Lesring Oores >> Colaborsin an integration 2 nrodution Meshaniene 33 Theimportance of Colabartonn >> The mprtanc of Tan - the Knows Creation rca hata >> Teamwork and Socal oe >> Detain of rast Intnl Cpt >> Conclusions >> Gating Sper Wain Yams 35a Sty 4.1: Resch Tea >> Problems of Team and Project Work >>. Surmayf ke Lesring Poms >>. Advantages and Diadantage of Tema for Eee Krome Sharing and Koowedge Creton | Learning Outcomes Acihe nd of Copa you bul sl: | |S Unrnd yamesof knoyecreton a kes pe out co + Recopin th robles fore war wl i pent Popa hell of sen roast ote eo. lay he rol firepaan metenars mcg the soacyet of >> INTRODUCTION ‘Chapter 2 fried on mang knowledge workers an eplredsomlaney frm as an example of knowiedge deena oanization whic des wth man aging this type of week ll the ine. Ti igh the growing npextance of nowedge aa oganzasonal ase an considered some ofthe es sce wih the eecve management ofkwledge work and kale wos, In this “hapter we look mote at the mier-pecetes an practice nove in lee wot, focusing on team and projet dynamics, We do tht becase knee ‘eatin span acy tha aecomplbed hough cllestve prcenes| ‘her than by indidals working lone, We lok st why Knowiede ccaton ‘ypc ioe some sor of ealboratve eat an lo cn the problems sirounding sich collboration, Moreover concentating on calabro ‘lige ceaton i inpertant beens, as Gant (2000) observes, most management fences and met "Koowede Management (KM fot win ongaeatons— fave focused an improving the eof exiting Knowle e-hnemladgleplor aon) ier ean ey a gc the roses an pas neces hr the peeration ocean of ew knwedge Some ofthe more cent Commons of Practice Inert (se Chapter 8) does adres knows ‘Getlon, but severthls, there remains more laure on bowed expla "on than knowledge explain, at lest athe KM lest >> THE IMPORTANCE OF COLLABORATION IN THE, KNOWLEDGE CREATION PROCESS. Whether the objective is 0 develop a aew produto serie oF to design and Implement a new organizational technology, nich ae a new ICT system the vaiaity of Knowledge wil be key ~Enowedge of the masts an custom fr, inowledge ofthe aula technologie, knowledge ofthe andar and regultions that wll ap, knowledge of mater, knowledge of tbution proceses and soon. These ferent knowlege bes mos be ought together 50 that new knowledge i created hh len othe development ofthe new Produc, sevice or organizational proces. Typical ths dvr of krone ‘wllncbe known bya sige nil, bt ther wil edt both win ‘the oganzation (cro inctonal groupe or Giptinay depute id {ros organizations 2. knowledge relent othe development of new du, willbe dstibated across doctors working in hom, ents working tn ‘estes, employes pharmaceutical companies and regulators working othe _Rederal Deug Adminstration (FDA) os equiaent) Ths, owledge ee: tions pial or someting tats done bya single person: Rahs, koow ‘ie ration i pial the oatcome of ringing dren types of owe Togethes by iavolving a numberof nds om irr pfs atd > TEAM-WORK AND SOCIAL AND INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL In expanizatonal contexts, bringing together individuals fom diverse bounds wl ofen be done Hough tbe use of projec since projects snd outside erations hierarchical conta, allowing those neve to ave ‘more deen dsreton and astonomy and so more oppoctanity todo things Uiereny 1 prerequiteFr cresting something ne asin tran-scplinary tnowledge genes, We look at project-based forms of organizing fall inthe nest chapter, here we foc specBealy on knowledge creation whi {ears goof many projets hat are sc op by organization. A project eam, tv hive» speiie objective, fe example, to design and implement an ICT {Systm o support information sharing aeros geogeupicaly dispersed busines Unis or to develp a new type of freak cereal that Wil be arate 10 teenages ort reduce the native environmental inact ofan organization’ ives oo fl away to rebrand compaay's peoduct or serves: These ‘ramples detonate tat koowloge ceton eat lea to inangible outputs ‘Svcs tangible outputs The uecel completion ofthese asks wll depend ‘on slcting puoece tam members ith appropiate knowledge, sly and pert, a0 tems idaly wil be chosen ao tat thle members havea mi ‘St nowlage and capable, We can refer to thi asthe intellects capital ‘ofthe group ~ the “knowledge and knowing capably of socal elles” (atapies and Ghoshal, 1998, p, 245), nteletal capital ands mie across the tea, inportant. Moreover, it aio important that howe ile nthe {eam are aware of and undcsand and eespet, the towledge and sls Fhe ‘thers who ate involved, since st poindes baving a team member involved Sto has expert which is impocane but never wed. This hs been rele {o as feam coppon (He et aly 2007) "the mental modes collectively hed ‘bya group of indivduls hat enable ther to acomplia by acing 2-2 Sooninated un Tee unlikely, however, that thowe involved in 3 team wil have all he ee ‘vant knowledge ad expertise neesy, whether to design a new astem, oF ‘Eevelop a ne product or servce por orto ensue that tis acepted and Simplemente by all those or whom iti inended. Rather, team members eed to network wth ange of ether indivi inorder to appropiate the necesery Knowledge swell a communicate convineingy taal those who ‘wl be impacted. This wider group of people who wil be involved inthe Innovation proces ca cll the sakcholer For example, i's project team has been brought together to find ways to redoce an organization’ arbon Foosprint, they wil need ofnd out how energy resources ae curently Deng ted chink erestively about ways to redace thx energy ure and then eo ince people to actully implement she sggested slatons even if some tof the solutions ar actually very simple, sy switching of laptops and PCs father than lating dhem on all night. Ith project team tres to work on the project i soaton they ae likely to not only nore elevane and impor tant information bat alo to have ay solotons idetied nor implemented because thoe that need to change le practcs have not Been involved in the thought process that lad 0 the new solutions at so ae wily ‘inden or bay int the sgested change. Thus the projet tem needs torengage with # range of stakeholder In doing ths they wil be dang ‘pan their collet socal capital, Nahapiet and Ghoshal define soi capa tthe sum of stl and poten resources within, avaiable through, aad ‘exved fom the network of relationships posed ban nvidia social ‘nit (1998p. 243). yo "Nap apd Ghoshal dente typ ofa pital rac cope ana cial Sus saci capa ter othe acta eter ep here Indl, dhoogh which Knowledge psentaly hace We oo ths pect ‘sc capt! moe flyin Cape 8 hen we ean commas of practi. \Copnive oil capital eet te overlap n mer ofrefrence and endertanding, ‘tharillowscomnecedinidal to share rowedge jot ce teres sete ‘onneton ds not ness ean tat pple il be abet hae knowlege ‘eel ce without sme shar understanding comico wl be dieu, ‘eae dis ow in ean to eet yes enw boarasthatcan xt Hewecn ladda, epelly when they come fom dire bacgrous ally lato soal capital aes w whether or ae thos th a eonnecton nae ech otber~ so, aga, there may be aconnecton but the sak oF SEbern he pry then sharing Knowledge wl every’ problemate, We expe Cisse of rt erin par >> CREATING SYNERGY WITHIN TEAMS. Cros fnstionaleam- working within orgarizaton x fen portrayed athe key torent ands estas therenalongadtonnpacholoicl research on team-working demonserasing how the whole maybe mor than the ‘im ofthe part ia other words, how 2 verse range of ini cee, "rough ser leas which go beyond what any sgl nda cout have Prodacedindedualy Sinialy inthe ‘Knowledge: Management Hirt, thee there isa exphass on krowedge testion, calsboraton, inaction {team working ae seen toe eri For exami, the knowlege cretion ‘model developed by Nonaka and Tkeachi(1995) pte heavy emphason soc proces oflnlogueand interaction, Ths. tre ofthe ur Ky proceesin tei SECE model (sociation, exermalizaion, combination and internalization) ‘that depicts how knowledge reste In organizations rag the conversion herween tact and explicit Eowlede involve sacl procencs socalzton, «xtealzaon and combination See Chape 1 fru description ofthe SECL mode) In other words mot ofthe proce that afe decried ia the model ‘pend on dialogue and interaction ove a prolonged pio, Oceana contact, between members of ierent departments, customers or cents snot enous, \ 4 they ane, Beet his dcr not low forthe sharing of tac Krag that X\is een for knowtedge ceston,Tnstea, interactions mst ccur ver 4 ~ prolonged pei within what they describe aan enabling content As wes ‘in Chap 1, Novaka and Konno (1998) cal this enabling content "ba. Ba ‘ay well involve a phic space where fico fee interaction can ocr, an alo inva vital pace (eg. using e-mails, ean, video contrening, ‘Hogs, seca networking) and mos important i inweves developing shared mental space (shared expences, emotions, des). “The chase example provided by Nonaka ofthis need for soc interaction ss of developing ah automatic Bread-making machine. The project tem tho ‘wee t9g to deel thi new technology came ap wth merous prorypes ‘but none of them was actualy very saceafl im creating bres to the Qlity proved by bakers. One member ofthe projet team ten decided tog and Scilly work th 2 maser bread baker to ty and andenand what he did ‘o make quality bead Trom ths, we ae fol the peoeet member cae 10 lndersand how the Bake was "wsting” the dow in a paticla Way and 1s commonication of dhs snght hack to the other project members allowed then to subsequently dep an efecte automate bread maker Though ‘observation and practice (sociation) the project member was abe vo aque fhe tact knowledge ofthe bread-maker thatthe brent-maker wat not abe 10 Himself make exp, 6.\\. The central tea hee, then, is that ctetvty develop fom the iver > won ot people wit dierent knowledge se oF s¢ Dougie) (1992) eal iis a ee on on ee aaa ee eee re eee ae atom omnes, eee eee ee apr crear bree er ee eee ee Sao ee ee opesheneaseenn scan Soa ree en ee eres tere eae ee Saree ee Se eee eee ee ee ree ee es eect teenie cen ete een eer cee ener Sons a ee Seana en Soegeeenene ce Soe aor caren were Serato ceaseemarmnnae ence Sela ee >> PROBLEMS OF TEAM AND PROJECT WORK “Teams ae offen presented as the onganiztonsl panacea that wil cle all the proers of organizational Ii, inlading, as here, knowlege erin, “Teams it hime cn sti both individ neo (eg Tor oabiity ard settactunation) and orgnirasonal nec (efor prodetty and innova Yio). However the erature on rea working, while advocating ts potentialsynergistic fects, aho emphasizes some of the problems of developing and ‘Sining coltrane working ~ problems which ae frequently overlooked in preseepuve seount of the benefits of team-working for krowledge creo, There wow an etesve eaten the poems tat ca oct when peo ‘le work together nen, Thi date back to very ely work by Ringlemann, {1913}, who found that for some ts eg. eapofwar games) there was 2 ‘eduction in indvdl efit the numberof people engaged in callabor ‘ve tah incase. So in a tug-of-war sation the more people there are on ‘ach se the les ffot docs each nda actualy eer. Thi i sometins {eter wo a the socaloaing phenomenon and as been found 0 be more ‘Common wher indvidialcontibution tothe tea eff ctanot be easly Hen tied (Katee eal, 1979). Ar the presen Hane there is 2 whole Ist of tea ‘working proms ce phenomena theca be cited fom he leratare. We no ‘Comide several thar ate pertinent to knowlege sharing and knowledge creston Knowledge boundaries Pethapethe st prominent obstacle inibiting the sharing of knowledge arose 2 mult dcplinary team scented by wld el The somal work, that So lpr to andertand how knowledge cane be baer to Lxowledge shat ‘Sings by Pal Cale 2002, 2001, Cale develops a amework which depts thre kinds of knowledge boundary — stati, samc and pragmatic and hich alo indetes that foes ren boundaries be overcome, ka fdge most be sans, trait and transformed especie a deere blow (ace Figure 4.1) Gwen these tnd brndares, Cale denies boundary objets at an inportant mean for fasting the sharing of kon fige sro spelt knowledge domain (Star and Griese, 1989) Bondary tits can be either conerete objets (ea eprint, ang 3 pro‘erye) fv absract concepts (ea vision + snbel), but tee common andl defining ‘harscterstic tat they contain some nerpresative Heil (Biker et ls ron Prgmatobsndey: Koopa tartan Serer bay oct ron Syma bay roe arte ‘context Knowledge boundary Knowledge process Figure 4.1 ramenerkor rag now nro ours 1987) that allows them tobe used to provide common fame of refrece for > ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TEAN-WORK FOR EFFECTIVE KNOWLEDGE SHARING AND KNOWLEDGE CREATION “the sections above hive demonstrated tat wile working colboratcly roe peer reste synergies so that thos ivoire sare knows an aan echalls tent produce an ontpet which beter an could ave Paar ed bay nda wating lone teams ca abo produceoxtpas aoe sae an sould have been produced by te ost competent amTable A. suman fhe rage nd nde of coaare wak ovantoges Disadvantage Foriegn cee aoe Dd an a ee Sroaerse oe rome sll gon ny the ng our orem net ep non cn ey iy ‘eo pce en ms ‘sore ac sen seat ‘members (Hackman, 1990), a demonsited by the goupthink phenomenon ‘Wes era, (1998) provide well ew of he advantages and dtavanages of team working, Damingon his wor, Table 1 provides a summary of ome of the mow important advantages and disadvantages of collaborative work, >> COLLABORATION AND INTEGRATION MECHANISMS Gran and Sod (1995), ecogriing this problem of axteringeolaborion, fyb of what they deve ineration mechanisms tha they ago, an encourage eperton, They I en sach mechanisms and suggest ha teams aeaconora where the bjs he aint redaction of knowl alle ‘rechansne need ob employed. These nechansms inch acess 0 comin ‘on cannes sexi oorination trol agreed noon proving indivi ‘ith particular ole ad responsis fr lnking nda rogetes, aging Showy and contol go part ndidal, cel section of inv ‘hsune ah appopite mi of il nd expt, and riing incentive sem. ‘More gener here fea whole etre, and accompanying peace, that els wth projet unagement. This erate stress the importance of using fom pees management methodologies tat supose hep to ensre tha ‘hove imolved work ecvly together and share tet knowlege 3 ppp ie, Formal peoject management methodologies focts on 1. Defining sear and exp vision, wth associated gas and objets 2. Defining and fllings formal defined project pan hat sts out milestones td defines roles and respons or al das oles 8. Enmiring that necesry resources are avaiable and allcated as nese a ee ea ote, in sh al pve ow pc ne Stewrstinn ins nomen peepee he ee ‘ican een seting tv ugh calor new Satomi ett teins cree occ heparin amen thought minor pet cet frie nme aes sows tse eo peo he / ‘Sours at hn,naig knoe te ve el or a se (7 ‘Technet eal aoe peste depend es “iif sid mace hh sao wok yee ek Che ope camp a sou te wont fers cig, ‘Satya ions crane cette oes spor coments ome sec lge ula 198199 ae bes nthe sal ots af ceatin and pecans acae cea ad inp ans ne secant ie oso oc heen ofa Memoir caent iiour uneharcaa micancnet et C Tonal tne one ar be me epee ond ees ae Sify Bh ns a ya rh (300) gue at nee cen snng snes east ested ‘even tang he stn Fi ung nous Ent Tees snd tneige ser esa femene Re Mecwan ‘ath ect ftv cation me se se apy es _ abl, lenenc in jodgement and courage, Trust has so been sown to Be important inelatio to knowedge anser between organizations (Facas eC, 7) The aspect of erst terete, seems to becena to Undesanding eam Snowledge sharing and knowlege creation We aed therefore wo look at what ‘mean by trust nd conser how trust can be developed and sstned. >> THE IMPORTANCE OF TRUST IN COLLABORATIVE WoRK Tei argued, then, that ru can lead to, adit 2 nese conton or enabler fer, cooperative behaviour among individ, groupe or onganivtons. High levels of ust are considered necessary in ode to facta the type of cm: munication and dniogue thas needed for peopl to sare tacit knowedge and ‘enerate ering that can lead o knowledge creation. In many aces othe management of iowledge work the importance of tst for knowledge sat Ing and knowledge creation isindeed recognized, In such cones, Knowledge ‘in be crated spontaneous concep insight and practice are merged in {ktion, However, in mont cnc there ile more than 4 inple ttre that “rusts necessary In this setion we comer the sue of wos in moce decal ad ius hat wile rs is indeed important foe owed cretion i ‘lh lil to cabs ~ individ wl not nec “ow to ts cach