Programming Paradigms

Programming languages A Programming language is a notational system for describing tasks/computations in a machine and human readable form. Most computer languages are designed to facilitate certain operations and not others: numerical computation, or text manipulation, or I/O. More broadly, a computer language typically embodies a particular programming paradigm. Characteristics of a programming language: Every language has syntax and semantics: Syntax: The syntax of a program is the form of its declarations, expressions, statements and program units. Semantic: The semantic of a program is concerned with the meaning of its program. Which programming language? Since a task can be solved in different ways (paradigms), the language used to describe the solution differs in abstractions, structures due to the way in which the problem is solved.
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 There is no theory that dictates the best paradigm to solve a particular problem. Efforts by Sebesta in his Concepts of Programming Languages book: o He based his evaluation criteria on three factors and 9 characteristics. o The three criteria (R,W,R) are: Readability Writability Reliability o The nine characteristics are: Simpilicity/orthogonality(R,W,R): - Orthogonality in a programming language means that a relatively small set of primitive constructs can be combined in a relatively small number of ways to build the control and data structures of the language [Sebesta] - Relatively small set of primitive constructions combined in a number (of logically consistent) ways to provide the required control and data structures. - The concepts of a programming language do not interfere with each other: different methods of passing parameters. - Non-orthogonality: means exceptions to the general language rules, which make it harder to learn. It means that you cannot combine language features in all possible ways. - Examples of non-orthogonal languages: Arrays in Perl4 can't contain other arrays. In C, parameters can be passed by value, unless they are arrays, in which case they are passed by reference.

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 In C++, we start a Switch statement by using the Switch keyword, followed by the expression that we would like to evaluate. This expression is just a single variable or a complex expression that must evaluatge to an integral type (that is, char, short, int, long, or enum). Floating point variables and other non-integral types may not be used here. o Good Orthogonality: Functional languages (Lisp, ML,etc.): everything is a function. o Given a programming language: m options on x axis n options on y axis Total number of possible interactions: mn interactions Total number of basic facts to learn: m+n facts Total number of exceptions: e exceptions Basic elements of the language: m+n+e facts and exceptions to be learned Total number of features: mn-e Objective: m+n+e << mn-e Control structures (R,W,R) Data types and structures (R,W,R): o Adequate data types help increase the readability of a programming language. o Example: Boolean data type:
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 How do you interpret the followingstatement: visited = 1; o Is this an assignment or a conditional statement? Syntax design (R,W,R): o Special words which is easier to read: braces or ifend if provided by Ada? Braces or Begin..end provided in Pascal. Support for abstraction (,W,R): o Ability to hide detail o Abstraction is an important factor in the writability of a language. o Two types of abstraction: process and data Process: subprograms and modules Data: structures, records, objects Expressivity (,W,R): o Programming languages with poor support for abstraction and weak primitives will have poor writability. o Short circuit evaluation for Boolean expressions: Ada uses and then and or else Java uses: && and || (regular operator for and and or operators & and | for short circuit evaluation Type checking (,,R) Exception handling (,,R) Restricted aliasing (,,R): o example: (C)
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int salary, *p_salary; salary = 98000; p_salary = &salary; salary and *p_salary are aliases.

Maintainability o Factoring: The ability to group related features into a single o

Cost o Programmer training o Software creation o Compilation o Execution o Compiler cost o Poor reliability o Maintenance Others: portability and generality
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 Programming paradigms The paradigms are not exclusive, but reflect the different emphasis of language designers. Most practical languages embody features of more than one paradigm. Classification:
Imperative/ Algorithmic Declarative Functional Programming Lisp Haskell ML Miranda APL Logic Programming Prolog Object-Oriented

Algol Cobol PL/1 Ada C Modula-3

Smalltalk Simula C++ Java

Imperative paradigms It is based on commands that update variables in storage. The Latin word imperare means to command. The language provides statements, such as assignment statements, which explicitly change the state of the memory of the computer. This model closely matches the actual executions of computer and usually has high execution efficiency. Many people also find the imperative paradigm to be a more natural way of expressing themselves.

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 Functional programming paradigms In this paradigm we express computations as the evaluation of mathematical functions. Functional programming paradigms treat values as single entities. Unlike variables, values are never modified. Instead, values are transformed into new values. Computations of functional languages are performed largely through applying functions to values, i.e., (+ 4 5).

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 Logic programming paradigms In this paradigm we express computation in exclusively in terms of mathematical logic. While the functional paradigm emphasizes the idea of a mathematical function, the logic paradigm focuses on predicate logic, in which the basic concept is a relation. Logic languages are useful for expressing problems where it is not obvious what the functions should be. For example consider the uncle relationship: a given person can have many uncles, and another person can be uncle to many nieces and nephews. Let us consider now how we can define the brother relation in terms of simpler relations and properties father, mother, and male. Using the Prolog logic language one can say:
brother(X,Y) /* X is the brother of Y */ /* if there are two people F and M for which*/ father(F,X), /* F is the father of X */ father(F,Y), /* and F is the father of Y */ mother(M,X), /* and M is the mother of X */ mother(M,Y), /* and M is the mother of Y */ male(X). /* and X is male */

The Object-Oriented Paradigm OO programming paradigm is not just a few new features added to a programming language, but it a new way of

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thinking about the process of decomposing problems and developing programming solutions Alan Kay characterized the fundamental of OOP as follows: Everything is modeled as object Computation is performed by message passing: objects communicate with one another via message passing. Every object is an instance of a class where a class represents a grouping of similar objects. Inheritance: defines the relationships between classes. The Object Oriented paradigm focuses on the objects that a program is representing, and on allowing them to exhibit "behavior". Unlike imperative paradigm, where data are passive and procedures are active, in the O-O paradigm data is combined with procedures to give objects, which are thereby rendered active. Concurrent programming Improve performance Multiprogramming systems attempt to utilize resources that would otherwise be wasted, by running two or more jobs concurrently. Multiaccess systems extend this principle, allowing many jobs to be run, each on behalf of a user at an interactive terminal. Concurrency can be classified into:

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o Apparent concurrency: single processor (interleaved execution of concurrent tasks) o Real concurrency: multiprocessor environment Issues: o How to synchronize the interactions among concurrently executing processes to maintain the internal data integrity. o Another problem is to schedule the racing processes for a limited set of shared resources.

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