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MISSILE AUTOPILOT AERODYNAMICS

1. The motion of a guided missile in flight can be resolved into two types:-

(a) The translational motion of centre of gravity of the missile and

(b) The rotational motion about the centre of gravity of the missile.

2. The forces acting on a missile in flight are generally not applied at the
centre of gravity (c.g.) of the missile. However, each force can be decomposed
into two parts:-

(a) The forces that cause translational motion of c.g. and

(b) The moments that cause rotary motion with respect to c.g.

Forces Acting on a Missile

3. The c.g. moves in flight due to three main forces namely

(a) Engine thrust,

(b) Resultant aerodynamic forces i.e., lift and drag and

(c) Earth’s gravitational force.

4. The forces acting on a missile are pictorially depicted in Fig.1 below:

V is the velocity vector.

T is the engine thrust.

D is the drag force (aerodynamic force component acting opposite to

velocity vector).

L is the lift (aerodynamic force component directed perpendicular to

velocity vector).

G is the gravitational force acting vertically downwards .

Θ is the trajectory angle or angle between velocity vector and horizontal.

ν is the pitch angle or angle between thrust vector and horizontal. This
determines the position of the missile longitudinal axis with respect to
horizontal.

R is the resultant of the aerodynamic forces L and D.

5. Now the forces are resolved into two components namely

(a) The components acting in the direction of flight, FT and

(b) The components acting perpendicular to the direction of flight, FN.

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6. The sum of all the force components acting in the direction of flight is
given by the equation

FT =-G*sinθ-D+T*cosα ____________________(1)

While the sum of all the force components acting perpendicular to the direction
of flight is given by

FN =-G*cosθ+L+T*sinα ____________________(2)

The force FT changes the value of the velocity vector while the force FN changes
the direction of motion of the missile. Hence in order to control the direction of
motion of the missile, it is required to control FN.

7. Since the value of angle of attack during the missile flight is comparatively
small, it can be assumed that sin α=α. Thus equation (2) can be written as

FN =-G*cosθ+L+Tα ______________________(3)

8. For small angles of attack, the lift of the guided missile is given by

L=lαα _______________________________________(4)

Where lα is a constant of proportionality between lift and angle of attack.

9. Substituting for L, eqn.(3) becomes

FN =-G*cosθ+(lα+T)α ______________________(5)

10. The gravity force component –G*cos θ cannot be used as a control force.
Thus the direction of motion of the missile can be controlled by changing the
component (lα+T)α which consists of the lift and thrust components. For a
constant thrust, T, this force FN will be proportional to the angle of attack, α.
Hence it is required to create an angle of attack in order to guide the missile in
flight.

11. The angle of attack can be changed by providing canard or tail control. In
case of canard control, the nose part of the missile is provided with ruddervators
which control the translational (pitch and yaw) (and ailerons for rotary (roll))
motion of the missile with respect to c.g. by changing the angle of attack.

Moments Acting on a Missile in Flight

12. The moments that cause rotational motion of the missile in flight can be
due to:

(a) Control moments of ruddervators and ailerons and

(b) Disturbing and stabilising moments.

13. Control moments of ruddervators and ailerons. The guided missile

aerodynamics consists of two pairs of ruddervators located towards the nose
part which control the pitch and yaw motion of the missile and hence its
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trajectory of flight. The two ailerons located on the trailing edges of the wings
ensure roll angle stabilisation. If the aileron deviates through an angle δ from its
equilibrium position, this creates an angle of attack due to which lift is generated
by the aileron. This is shown in Fig. 2.

(a) Considering that the lift, La, is generated along the Y axis, the
aileron generates two moments, one along the X axis and the other along the Z
axis. The moment along X axis is given by the product of the lift, La, and the
distance between the centre of pressure (c.p.) of aileron and centre of gravity
(c.g.) of the missile along the X axis. The moment along Z axis is given by the
product of the lift, La, and the distance between the c.p. of aileron and c.g. of
missile along Z axis.

(b) The ailerons 1 and 2 are interconnected. Hence any deflection of

one of them creates a deflection exactly opposite on the other, i.e., if one of
them deflects upward, the other deflects downward. Hence when the sum of
moments of lift force of both the ailerons acting on the missile are considered,
the moments along the lateral axis (Z) are opposite to each other and will cancel
out. The moments along the longitudinal axis (X) will add up and equal to 2* La
*lx.

(c) The ruddervators 3 and 4, as well as 5 and 6 are connected in pairs

and turn together but in opposite directions. In a similar fashion to the aileron, it
can be shown that the moments created by any deflection to the ruddervators 3
and 4 creates a resultant moment which acts only along the Z-axis and similarly,
the deflection to the ruddervators 5 and 6 creates a resultant moment which
acts along Y-axis.

(d) The control moments of the ruddervators, Mrud, and that of the
ailerons, Mxd, are proportional to the angles of deflection of the respective
ruddervators and ailerons. Hence,

Mrud=Mδδ kgf-m _____________________(6)

and

Mxd=Mxδδail kgf-m ___________________(7)

where δ and δail are the deflection angles of ruddervators and ailerons. The
maximum angle is limited to 30 degrees. Mδ and Mxδ are proportionality
constants given by

Mδ=mδqSwb kgf-m/deg _______________(8)

and

Mxδ=mxδqSwl kgf-m/deg _________________(9)

where mδ and mδx are efficiency factors of the ruddervators and ailerons,

q is the ram pressure in kgf/m2,

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Sw is the wing area of the missile in m,

b is the mean aerodynamic chord in m and

l is the wing span in m.

Factors mδ and mxδ depend on the geometric sizes of the ruddervators

and their position with respect to c.g. of the missile as well as Mach number
(M=v/a, where v=missile velocity; a=velocity of sound).

(e) Signs and directions of ruddervator deflection.

Direction of Direction of deflection of trailing edge Sign of

turn of missile For For For right ruddervator
ruddervators ruddervators aileron deflection
3&4 5&6
Nose up Down Down - + (plus)
Nose down Up Up - - (minus)
Clockwise turn - - Up - (minus)

14. Disturbing and Stabilising Moments. The missile is subjected to external

disturbances like gust of wind etc. , as also aerodynamic moments due to
uncertainty in design parameters. Aerodynamic coefficients are seen to vary due
to changes in density, height/altitude etc., as the missile traverses different
levels of atmosphere. These disturbing moments tend to turn the missile with
respect to its c.g. which is undesired. Stabilising moments are those moments
which counteract the disturbing moments thus preventing the turning of the
missile and helping it to retain its initial position. This is generally called roll
stabilisation.

15. Stabilising moments can be categorised into the following three types:-

(a) Static stability moments

(b) Damping moments and

(c) Inertia moments.

16. Static Stability Moments. Static stability means that when an external
force is applied the missile automatically comes back to the equilibrium position
at which the sum of moments equals to zero. The missile can be designed to be
statically stable by ensuring that the centre of pressure (c.p.) from where lift and
drag act is positioned aft of c.g. i.e., closer to the tail. Thus if the external force
makes the missile nose to turn upward, the lift force will create a moment which
will force the missile nose downwards and back to its initial or equilibrium
position. Thus the sign of the stabilising moments is opposite to that of the
external disturbing moments.

(a) Since lift is proportional to angle of attack, the static balancing

moment, Ms, will also be proportional to the angle of attack. Thus
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Ms=-Mαα kgf-m ________________________(10)

Where Mα is the proportionality factor given by

Mα=mαqSwb kgf-m/rad __________________(11)

(b) Since the missile body is symmetrical about the longitudinal or X-

axis (axial symmetry), longitudinal stability does not exist under the
consideration that the missile is neutral relative to X-axis.

17. Damping Moments.Damping moments are due to the interaction of air

flowing about the guided missile, particularly when the missile is turning through
an angular rate, ω. The resultant angular rate vector, ω, can be resolved along
the pitch (ωp), yaw (ωy) and roll (ωx) axes. The damping moments which
counteract these components are given by Mpd, Myd and Mxd. Thus the
damping moments can be expressed by the equations

Mpd=Myd=-Mωω _______________________(12)

With regard to the lateral axis (since missile is symmetrical) and

Mxd=-Mxωωx kgf-m ______________________(13)

With regard to the longitudinal axis. Mω and Mxω are coefficients of

proportionality given by

Mω=mωqSwb kgf.m/sec __________________(14)

Mxω=mxωqSwl kgf.m/sec __________________(15)

The factors mω and mxω depend on geometrical characteristics of missile and

Mach number.

18. Inertia Moments. Inertia moments are similar to damping moments and
are caused due to interaction of air flowing about the guided missile. The
difference is that they are caused due to the angular acceleration, dωdt, unlike
the damping moments which are due to the angular rate, ω. Thus inertia
moments are proportional to the angular acceleration component at any given
instant.

(a) In case of lateral axis, the inertia moment is given as

Mi=-Jdωdt kgf-m ______________________(16)

(b) In case of longitudinal axis, the inertia moment is given by the

equation

Mix=-Jxdωxdt kgf-m ________________(17)

Where J and Jx are the guided missile inertia moments.

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In short, inertia moments counterbalance the external disturbance caused

by interaction of air due to angular acceleration caused during the rotary motion
of the missile.

19. The tendency of the missile to rotate or turn, is thus due the sum of the
control and stabilising moments. The above equations can now be combined
together to give a general expression for the moments acting on the guided
missile at any given instant. Thus,

Mrud=Ms+Md+Mi ____________________(18)

and

Mail=Mxd+Mix _________________________(19)

From equations (6) and (7),

Mrud=Mδδ kgf-m _____________________(6)

and

Mxd=Mxδδail kgf-m ___________________(7)

where

Mδ=mδqSwb kgf-m/deg _______________(8)

and

Mxδ=mxδqSwl kgf-m/deg _________________(9)

where q is the ram pressure in kgf/m2,

Sw is the wing area of the missile in m,

b is the mean aerodynamic chord in m and

l is the wing span in m.

20. Substituting for Mrud , Ms, etc., in eqns. (14) and (15), we can rewrite the
equations as

Mδδ=Mαα +Mωω+Jdωdt ______________________(20)

Mxδδail=Mxωωx+Jxdωxdt ________________________(21)

21. From Fig.1, through the geometry of the figure,

ν=θ+α ____________________________________(22)

Also,

ω=dνdt
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dωdt=d2νdt2

ωx=dνxdt

dωxdt=d2νxdt2

Thus the full differential equations for the moments acting on the guided missile
along the longitudinal and lateral axes are given by

Mδδ=Mαα +Mωdνdt+Jd2νdt2 ______________________(23)

Mxδδail=Mxωdνxdt+Jxd2νxdt2 ________________________(24)

22. Hinge Moments of Ruddervators and Ailerons. The lift forces, L,

generated by the ruddervators and ailerons create the control moments and also
the moments with respect to the rotational axes of the ruddervators and
ailerons, which are called hinge moments.

(a) The values of the hinge moments depend on the distance, lp, from
the c.p. to the hinge axis and on the value of lift force, L. The lift and the c.p.
change during the flight since they depend on ram pressure, q, Mach number, M,
the ruddervator turning angle, δ, the aileron turning angle, δail, and the angle of
attack, α.

(b) The ruddervator hinge moments can be expressed as the sum of

two components as

Mh=Mhαα+Mhδδ _________________________(25)

where Mhα is the hinge moment component due to angle of attack, α and

Mhδ is the hinge moment component due to missile turning angle, δ.

(c) The aileron hinge moment is proportional to the turning angle of the
ailerons and given by

Mh=Mhδailδail _______________________________(26)

where Mhδail is hinge moment factor with respect to aileron deflection angle.

(d) The centre of pressures of all the ruddervators are positioned aft of
their hinge axes (closer to the tail). Due to this fact, the hinge moments tend to
set the ruddervators in the zero position (feathering effect). Hence, in order to
deflect the ruddervator through the required angle during flight, the control
surface actuator of the autopilot must overcome the respective hinge moment of
the ruddervator. The moment developed by actuator hence is made higher than
the value of hinge moment so that the travel, σ, of the actuator rod depends only
on the control signal and not on the hinge moment.

(e) Since the hinge moments change with flying conditions, they can be
used for adjusting the control moments by using spring mechanisms arranged
between the rods of the control surface actuators and the corresponding
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ruddervators. Thus as the control moment acting on the missile increases with
ram pressure, this moment is automatically compensated by reducing the
ruddervator deflection angle which is caused by compression of the spring
mechanism under the action of the hinge moment. This ensures a constant
relation between the control signal and the rate of turn of the guided missile
under all conditions of flight of the guided missile.

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS FOR RADIO CONTROLLED FLIGHT OF GUIDED

MISSILE ON KINEMATIC TRAJECTORY WITHOUT STABILISATION

23. The motion of the guided missile with respect to centre of gravity and on
the kinematic trajectory can be shown to be determined by a system of three
differential equations as shown below:-

(a) Equation of Moments

Mδδ=Mαα +Mωdνdt+Jd2νdt2 ______________________(23)

(b) Force Equation

MV dθdt=(yα+T)α__________________________(24)

(c) Geometry (Angles Equation)

ν=θ+α ____________________________________(22)

24. Thus the dependent variables are θ, ν and α or the angular co-ordinates,
while the independent variable is the ruddervator control moment Mδδ. From
eqn.(23), it is seen that θ, ν and α not only determine the position of the missile
but also its velocity vector at any given instant.

25. The relation between the ruddervator deflection angle and the radio
command control signal is called the control law. This is given by the equation

δ=KAPKSPRR_________________________________(25)

Where KAP is the autopilot coefficient, KSPR is the spring coefficient which depends
on hinge moments and R is the radio command control signal.

26. As was previously seen, to ensure stability of the missile, the centre of
pressure is positioned aft of c.g. i.e., closer to tail. Thus the stabilising moment
sign was shown to be opposite to the sign of the external moment applied, i.e.,
static balancing moment,
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Mst=-Mαα kgf-m___________________________(26)

27. Thus any change in the control input signal, R, will result in a
corresponding change in δ. This will result in change in θ, ν and α. The change in
α will be countered by a static balancing moment of opposite sign and will act till
the time the missile comes back to its original α.

28. Thus if the radio controlled flight involves high manoeuvrability i.e.,
change in δ frequently, this will result in a highly oscillating motion of the missile
with respect to c.g. if there is no other stabilisation applied to the missile.
Therefore, if the missile is designed to be highly maneuverable, then it requires
to be stabilised by employing an autopilot.

Note: Mαα is made zero by the stabilising moment. Thus eqn.(23) will have no
constant term thus resulting in a pole at origin. This explains the oscillatory
motion of the missile mathematically.

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS FOR RADIO CONTROLLED FLIGHT OF GUIDED

MISSILE ON KINEMATIC TRAJECTORY WITH STABILISATION

29. The oscillatory motion of the missile when it is not stabilised will cause the
following problems:-

(a) Flying speed is reduced due to oscillatory motion

(b) Guidance process becomes difficult.

(c) The guidance accuracy worsens.

30. Thus there is a requirement for stabilisation or reducing the oscillatory

motion of the missile. Stabilisation can be achieved using an autopilot. The
general principle of working of the autopilot is as given below:-

(a) The autopilot consists of sensing elements which are generally

angular rate sensors. The missile angular rates are quite high during oscillations.

(b) The control surface actuators of the autopilot receive the control
signal from the angular rate sensors. This causes deflection of the ruddervators
at an angle proportional to the angular rate.

(c) Thus the moments of the ruddervators act in a direction opposite to

the direction of angular rate.
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(d) This results in an induced damping moment which prevents the

oscillation of the missile. The higher the autopilot coefficient, the higher is the
angular rate.

(e) The dependence of ruddervator deflection angle on the angular rate

is called the “stabilisation law” and is given by the equation

δ(s)=-KDGKSPRsγ(s) __________________________________(27)

Where KDG is the autopilot coefficient due to the damping gyro (angular rate
sensor).

31. The principle and construction of an autopilot in case of a command

guided missile is as given below:-

(a) The input to the autopilot is the radio control command signal from
the ground radar and the information from the sensing elements of the autopilot
itself.

(b) This control signal is applied to the actuator which converts the
electrical signal into angular displacement of the ruddervator.

(c) Spring mechanisms are provided at the hinges of ruddervator which

provide automatic correction of the ruddervator angle with respect to hinge
moment thus resulting in preservation of the relation between the resultant
control signal and motion of the ruddervator at any given operating condition.

STABILISATION OF GUIDED MISSILE IN LAUNCH PHASE

32. During the launch phase, the missile cannot be radio controlled. This is
because the guided missile is influenced by moments due to the force of wind as
well as due to forces of its aerodynamic asymmetry and disturbances caused as
the missile leaves the launcher. In this case, the autopilot stabilises the missile
trajectory. The autopilot basically ensures that the guided missile flies along a
straight trajectory at a constant angle θ. This stabilisation along a straight
trajectory is required in order to reduce any transient errors introduced during
the launch phase of the missile and ensure that the missile enters the antenna
beam of the radar for its radio control after lock-on.

33. The trajectory angle, θ, is computed in the earth-based system of co-

ordinate axis. This cannot be measured in flight inside the guided missile. Hence
the pitch angle, γ, is used. Pitch angle can be obtained by integrating the angular
turn rate which is measured by the angular rate sensors. Thus the disturbing
moments are counterbalanced by the stabilisation system which uses angular
rate signal and the integral of the angular rate of the missile as it turns with
respect to Y and Z body axes.

34. When the guided missile is launched, the integrating circuit of the angular
rate signal is switched on. The zero position of the ruddervators will correspond
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to the pitch angle of the guided missile on the launcher at the instant of launch.
Thus if there is any deviation from the launch direction after launch, the
ruddervator will deflect proportionally with the change of pitch angle and remain
in that deflected position until the longitudinal axis of the missile returns to its
initial position. Thus the guided missile trajectory is stabilised during launch
phase.

RADIO CONTROLLED FLIGHT

35. During the radio controlled flight, the control signal is composed of the
difference between the radio command control signal and the stabilisation signal
from the angular rate sensor. The stabilisation signal ensures that the transient
processes are rapidly damped and the guided missile follows the trajectory
dictated by the radio control signal quickly.

STABILISATION OF ROLL ANGLE

36. Since command guidance method is used, the missile is required to be

roll-stabilised in angles. The roll angle is measured between the body axis
system and the conditionally stationary system of co-ordinate axes in the lateral
Z-axis plane, using a roll sensor. This can be a free gyro in the autopilot. Any roll
signal causes the displacement of the rod connected to the missile ailerons. Thus
the ailerons are deflected from zero position. The moments caused due to this
deflection turns the missile along its body X-axis until the roll angle reduced to
minimum permissible value.

37. However roll angle stabilisation cannot be achieved only with the
application of the free gyro signal. At times small values of damping moments,
say, due to external disturbance, along X-axis may result in divergent oscillations
which may cause the missile to turn unnecessarily resulting in loss of control.
Hence to ensure steady stabilisation, angular rate sensor signal is also added to
the roll angle signal. The resulting signal causes the ailerons to deflect through
an additional angle which creates a moment for artificial damping of the
oscillations.

38. The roll autopilot ensures that a constant roll angle is maintained with
respect to the conditionally stationary system of co-ordinate axes. Thus the
system of co-ordinate axes of the missile in flight is correlated with the system of
axes of the ground based missile guidance system.
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REFERENCES

1. SIOURIS, G.M.,”TACTICAL MISSILE GUIDANCE AND CONTROL”

2. CHIN, ”MISSILE CONFIGURATION DESIGN”

3. GARNELL, P., “GUIDED MISSILE CONTROL SYSTEM”

4. BLAKELOCK, J.H., “AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT AND MISSILES”