Nouns compound nouns countable & uncountable menu - nouns nationalities noun gender plurals use of capital letters

NOUNS
COMPOUND NOUNS Formation
Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The second part identifies the object or person in question (man, friend, tank, table, room . The first part tells us what !ind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is (police, boy, water, dining, bed " What type / what purpose police boy water dining bed What or who man friend tan! table room

The two parts may be written in a number of ways " #. as one word. $%ample" policeman, boyfriend &. as two words joined with a hyphen. $%ample" dining-table '. as two separate words. $%ample" fish tank. There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you !now well as one word, and the others as two words. The two parts may be !"amp#es noun $ noun bedroom water tank motorcycle

printer cartridge rainfall noun $ %erb haircut train-spotting noun $ ad%erb hanger-on passer-by

washing machine %erb $ noun driving licence swimming pool lookout %erb $ ad%erb& take-off drawback greenhouse ad'ecti%e $ noun software redhead ad'ecti%e $ %erb ad%erb $ noun dry-cleaning public speaking onlooker bystander

output overthrow ad%erb $ %erb& upturn input

(ompound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two separate words. Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun (e.g. greenhouse and an adjective with a noun (e.g. green house . )n compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable" a *greenhouse + place where we grow plants (compound noun a green 'house + house painted green (adjective and noun a *bluebird + type of bird (compound noun a blue 'bird + any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun & ,any common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb - adverb or adverb - verb . $%amples" breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-up, hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover.

NOUNS
COUNT()*! (ND UNCOUNT()*! NOUNS
Countab#e nouns are for thin+s we can count

$%ample" dog, horse, man, shop, idea. They usually have a singular and plural form. $%ample" two dogs, ten horses, a man, six men, the shops, a few ideas. Uncountab#e nouns are for the thin+s that we cannot count $%ample" tea, sugar, water, air, rice. They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities. $%ample" knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love. They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. We cannot say sugars, angers, knowledges. !"amp#es of common uncountab#e nouns" money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty, knowledge. We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To e%press a quantity of one of these nouns, use a word or e%pression li!e" some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of... $%amples" There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease. .e gave me a great deal of advice before my interview. They*ve got a lot of furniture. (an you give me some information about uncountable nouns/

0ome nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in $nglish. 0ome of the most common of these are" accommodation news advice progress baggage traffic behaviour travel bread trouble furniture weather information wor! luggage )! C(,!FU* with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountab#e in $nglish" She has long blonde hair )t can also be countab#e when referring to individual hairs" My father's getting a few grey hairs now

0ee also 1djectives - (omparisons of quantity

S!CT-ON M!NU
2oun 3ender The 4lural of 2ouns (ountable and 5ncountable nouns (ompound 2ouns 4roper 2ouns 2ationalities

NOUNS
2ouns answer the questions .What is it/. and .Who is it/. They give names to things, people and qualities. $%amples" dog, bicycle, man, girl, beauty, truth, world.

NOUN 0!ND!,
)n general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in $nglish nouns. .owever, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words. $%amples" Different words" Mascu#ine man father uncle boy husband Different forms" Mascu#ine actor prince hero waiter widower Feminine actress princess heroine waitress widow Feminine woman mother aunt girl wife

0ome nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject" $%amples"

cousin coo!

teenager student

teacher parent

doctor friend leader

relation colleague partner ,ary is a doctor. She is a doctor 4eter is a doctor. He is a doctor. 1rthur is my cousin. He is my cousin. 6ane is my cousin. She is my cousin.

)t is possible to ma!e the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'. $%ample" a female student7 a male cousin 8or professions, we can add the word *woman* $%ample" a woman doctor7 a woman journalist. )n some cases nouns describing things are given gender. $%amples" ) love my car. She (the car is my greatest passion. 8rance is popular with her (8rance*s neighbours at the moment. ) travelled from $ngland to 2ew 9or! on the :ueen $li;abeth, she (the :ueen $li;abeth is a great ship.

NOUNS
T1! P*U,(* OF NOUNS
,ost nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es2

Sin+u#ar boat hat house river

P#ura# boats hats houses rivers

1 noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant ma!es the plural with -ies.

Sin+u#ar a cry

P#ura# cries

a fly a nappy a poppy a city a lady a baby

flies nappies poppies cities ladies babies

There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. 0ome of the most common ones are listed below. $%amples of irregular plurals"

Sin+u#ar woman man child tooth foot person leaf half !nife wife life

P#ura# women men children teeth feet people leaves halves !nives wives lives

loaf potato cactus focus fungus nucleus syllabus analysis diagnosis oasis thesis crisis phenomenon criterion datum

loaves potatoes cacti foci fungi nuclei syllabi<syllabuses analyses diagnoses oases theses crises phenomena criteria data

0ome nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural. $%amples"

Sin+u#ar sheep fish species

P#ura# sheep fish species

aircraft

aircraft

0ome nouns have a plural form but ta!e a singular verb. $%amples" news The news is on at =.'> p.m. athletics thletics is good for young people. linguistics !inguistics is the study of language. darts "arts is a popular game in $ngland2 billiards #illiards is played all over the world. 0ome nouns have a plural form and ta!e a plural verb. $%amples" trousers ,y trousers are too tight. $eans .er $eans are blac!. glasses Those glasses are his. others include" savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

NOUNS
COUNT()*! (ND UNCOUNT()*! NOUNS
Countab#e nouns are for thin+s we can count $%ample" dog, horse, man, shop, idea. They usually have a singular and plural form. $%ample" two dogs, ten horses, a man, six men, the shops, a few ideas. Uncountab#e nouns are for the thin+s that we cannot count $%ample" tea, sugar, water, air, rice. They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities. $%ample" knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love. They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. We cannot say sugars, angers, knowledges.

!"amp#es of common uncountab#e nouns" money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty, knowledge. We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To e%press a quantity of one of these nouns, use a word or e%pression li!e" some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of... $%amples" There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease. .e gave me a great deal of advice before my interview. They*ve got a lot of furniture. (an you give me some information about uncountable nouns/

0ome nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in $nglish. 0ome of the most common of these are" accommodation news advice progress baggage traffic behaviour travel bread trouble furniture weather information wor! luggage )! C(,!FU* with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountab#e in $nglish" She has long blonde hair )t can also be countab#e when referring to individual hairs" My father's getting a few grey hairs now 0ee also 1djectives - (omparisons of quantity

NOUNS
US! OF C(P-T(* *!TT!,S W-T1 NOUNS
(apital letters are used with" Names and tit#es of peop#e a. Winston (hurchill b. ,arilyn ,onroe c. the :ueen of $ngland d. the 4resident of the 5nited 0tates e. the .eadmaster of $ton f. ?octor ,athews

g. 4rofessor 0amuels. Note" The personal pronoun *)* is always written with a capital letter. Tit#es of wor3s4 boo3s etc2 a. War and 4eace b. The ,erchant of @enice c. (rime and 4unishment d. Tristan and )solde Months of the year 6anuary 8ebruary ,arch 1pril ,ay 6une Days of the wee3 ,onday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Seasons 0pring 0ummer 1utumn Winter 1o#idays (hristmas $aster 2ew 9ear*s ?ay 8riday 0aturday 0unday 6uly 1ugust 0eptember Actober 2ovember ?ecember

Bo%ing ?ay

,ay ?ay

Than!sgiving ?ay

0eo+raphica# names... names of countries and continents 1merica (hina 1frica $ngland 4eru $urope 0cotland 1lbania 1sia

names of re+ions4 states4 districts etc2 0usse% 4rovence 8lorida (alifornia Tuscany (osta Brava :ueensland @aud Tyrol

names of cities4 towns4 %i##a+es etc2 Condon 8lorence @ancouver (ape Town Bath Wellington Dome Wagga Wagga 4e!ing

names of ri%ers4 oceans4 seas4 #a3es etc2 the 1tlantic Ca!e Ceman the Dhine the ?ead 0ea Ca!e @ictoria the Thames the 4acific Ca!e ,ichigan the 2ile

names of +eo+raphica# formations the .imalayas the 1lps the 0ahara

(d'ecti%es re#atin+ to nationa#ity nouns 8rance - 8rench music 1ustralia - 1ustralian animals 3ermany - 3erman literature

1rabia - 1rabic writing )ndonesia - )ndonesian poetry (hina - (hinese food Names of streets4 bui#din+s4 par3s etc2 4ar! Cane 3eorge 0treet .yde 4ar! (entral 1venue 0ydney Apera .ouse the $mpire 0tate Building 4all ,all (entral 4ar! Wall 0treet

NOUNS
N(T-ON(*-T-!S
Country" ) live in %ngland2 (d'ecti%e" .e reads %nglish literature. Noun" 0he is an %nglishwoman.

COUNT,5

(D6!CT-7!

NOUN

1frica

1frican

an 1frican

1merica

1merican

an 1merican

1rgentina

1rgentinian

an 1rgentinian

1ustria

1ustrian

an 1ustrian

1utralia

1ustralian

an 1ustralian

Bangladesh

Bangladesh(i

a Bangladeshi

Belgium

Belgian

a Belgian

Bra;il

Bra;ilian

a Bra;ilian

Britain

British

a Briton<Britisher

(ambodia

(ambodian

a (ambodian

(hile

(hilean

a (hilean

(hina

(hinese

a (hinese

(olombia

(olombian

a (olombian

(roatia

(roatian

a (roat

the (;ech Depublic

(;ech

a (;ech

?enmar!

?anish

a ?ane

$ngland

$nglish

an $nglishman<$nglishwoman

8inland

8innish

a 8inn

8rance

8rench

a 8renchman<8renchwoman

3ermany

3erman

a 3erman

3reece

3ree!

a 3ree!

.olland

?utch

a ?utchman<?utchwoman

.ungary

.ungarian

a .ungarian

)celand

)celandic

an )celander

)ndia

)ndian

an )ndian

)ndonesia

)ndonesian

an )ndonesian

)ran

)ranian

an )ranian

)raq

)raqi

an )raqi

)reland

)rish

an )rishman<)rishwoman

)srael

)sraeli

an )sraeli

6amaica

6amaican

a 6amaican

6apan

6apanese

a 6apanese

,e%ico

,e%ican

a ,e%ican

,orocco

,oroccan

a ,oroccan

2orway

2orwegian

a 2orwegian

4eru

4eruvian

a 4eruvian

the 4hilippines

4hilippine

a 8ilipino

4oland

4olish

a 4ole

4ortugal

4ortuguese

a 4ortuguese

Dumania

Dumanian

a Dumanian

Dussia

Dussian

a Dussian

0audi 1rabia

0audi, 0audi 1rabian

a 0audi, a 0audi 1rabian

0cotland

0cottish

a 0cot

0erbia

0erbian

a 0erb

the 0lova! Depublic

0lova!

a 0lova!

0weden

0wedish

a 0wede

0wit;erland

0wiss

a 0wiss

Thailand

Thai

a Thai

The 501

1merican

an 1merican

Tunisia

Tunisian

a Tunisian

Tur!ey

Tur!ish

a Tur!

@ietnam

@ietnamese

a @ietnamese

Wales

Welsh

a Welshman<Welshwoman

9ugoslavia

9ugoslav

a 9ugoslav

2ote" We use the & nationality ad$ective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people of that nationality" 'he (hinese are very hard-wor!ing. 'he Spanish often go to sleep in the afternoon.

NOUNS
N(T-ON(*-T-!S
Country" ) live in %ngland2 (d'ecti%e" .e reads %nglish literature. Noun" 0he is an %nglishwoman.

COUNT,5

(D6!CT-7!

NOUN

1frica

1frican

an 1frican

1merica

1merican

an 1merican

1rgentina

1rgentinian

an 1rgentinian

1ustria

1ustrian

an 1ustrian

1utralia

1ustralian

an 1ustralian

Bangladesh

Bangladesh(i

a Bangladeshi

Belgium

Belgian

a Belgian

Bra;il

Bra;ilian

a Bra;ilian

Britain

British

a Briton<Britisher

(ambodia

(ambodian

a (ambodian

(hile

(hilean

a (hilean

(hina

(hinese

a (hinese

(olombia

(olombian

a (olombian

(roatia

(roatian

a (roat

the (;ech Depublic

(;ech

a (;ech

?enmar!

?anish

a ?ane

$ngland

$nglish

an $nglishman<$nglishwoman

8inland

8innish

a 8inn

8rance

8rench

a 8renchman<8renchwoman

3ermany

3erman

a 3erman

3reece

3ree!

a 3ree!

.olland

?utch

a ?utchman<?utchwoman

.ungary

.ungarian

a .ungarian

)celand

)celandic

an )celander

)ndia

)ndian

an )ndian

)ndonesia

)ndonesian

an )ndonesian

)ran

)ranian

an )ranian

)raq

)raqi

an )raqi

)reland

)rish

an )rishman<)rishwoman

)srael

)sraeli

an )sraeli

6amaica

6amaican

a 6amaican

6apan

6apanese

a 6apanese

,e%ico

,e%ican

a ,e%ican

,orocco

,oroccan

a ,oroccan

2orway

2orwegian

a 2orwegian

4eru

4eruvian

a 4eruvian

the 4hilippines

4hilippine

a 8ilipino

4oland

4olish

a 4ole

4ortugal

4ortuguese

a 4ortuguese

Dumania

Dumanian

a Dumanian

Dussia

Dussian

a Dussian

0audi 1rabia

0audi, 0audi 1rabian

a 0audi, a 0audi 1rabian

0cotland

0cottish

a 0cot

0erbia

0erbian

a 0erb

the 0lova! Depublic

0lova!

a 0lova!

0weden

0wedish

a 0wede

0wit;erland

0wiss

a 0wiss

Thailand

Thai

a Thai

The 501

1merican

an 1merican

Tunisia

Tunisian

a Tunisian

Tur!ey

Tur!ish

a Tur!

@ietnam

@ietnamese

a @ietnamese

Wales

Welsh

a Welshman<Welshwoman

9ugoslavia

9ugoslav

a 9ugoslav

2ote" We use the & nationality ad$ective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people of that nationality" 'he (hinese are very hard-wor!ing. 'he SNOUNS

T1! P*U,(* OF NOUNS

,ost nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es2

Sin+u#ar boat hat house river

P#ura# boats hats houses rivers

1 noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant ma!es the plural with -ies.

Sin+u#ar a cry a fly a nappy a poppy a city a lady a baby

P#ura# cries flies nappies poppies cities ladies babies

There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. 0ome of the most common ones are listed below. $%amples of irregular plurals"

Sin+u#ar woman man child tooth foot person leaf half !nife wife life loaf potato cactus focus fungus nucleus syllabus

P#ura# women men children teeth feet people leaves halves !nives wives lives loaves potatoes cacti foci fungi nuclei syllabi<syllabuses

analysis diagnosis oasis thesis crisis phenomenon criterion datum

analyses diagnoses oases theses crises phenomena criteria data

0ome nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural. $%amples"

Sin+u#ar sheep fish species aircraft

P#ura# sheep fish species aircraft

0ome nouns have a plural form but ta!e a singular verb. $%amples" news The news is on at =.'> p.m. athletics thletics is good for young people. linguistics !inguistics is the study of language. darts "arts is a popular game in $ngland2 billiards #illiards is played all over the world. 0ome nouns have a plural form and ta!e a plural verb. $%amples"

trousers ,y trousers are too tight. $eans .er $eans are blac!. glasses Those glasses are his. others include" savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits panish often go to sleep in the afternoon. Passi%e active<passive equivalents form -past function get<have something done, % needs doing

T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!

P(SS-7! T!NS!S (ND (CT-7! !8U-7(*!NTS
2otice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is the same as the tense of the main verb in the active voice. $%ample" to keep

T!NS! / 7!,) FO,M

(CT-7! 7O-C!

P(SS-7! 7O-C!

Simp#e present

!eeps

is !ept

Present continuous

is !eeping

is being !ept

Simp#e past

!ept

was !ept

Past continuous

was !eeping

was being !ept

Present perfect

have !ept

have been !ept

Past perfect

had !ept

had been !ept

future

will !eep

will be !ept

Conditiona# present

would !eep

would be !ept

Conditiona# past

would have !ept

would have been !ept

present infiniti%e

to !eep

to be !ept

perfect infiniti%e

to have !ept

to have been !ept

present particip#e/+erund

!eeping

being !ept

perfect particip#e

having !ept

having been !ept

$%ample sentences" (cti%e" ) keep the butter in the fridge. Passi%e" The butter is kept in the fridge. (cti%e" They stole the painting. Passi%e" The painting was stolen. (cti%e" They are repairing the road. Passi%e" The road is being repaired. (cti%e" 0ha!espeare wrote .amlet. Passi%e" .amlet was written by 0ha!espeare. (cti%e" 1 dog bit him. Passi%e" .e was bitten by a dog.

T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!

P(SS-7!4 FO,M
The passive voice in $nglish is composed of two elements " the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' - the past participle of the verb in question"

Sub'ect The house

%erb 9to be9 was

past particip#e built ...

$%ample" to clean

Sub'ect Simp#e present

%erb 9to be9

past particip#e

The house

is

cleaned every day.

Present continuous

The house

is being

cleaned at the moment.

Simp#e past

The house

was

cleaned yesterday.

Past continuous

The house

was being

cleaned last wee!.

Present perfect

The house

has been

cleaned since you left.

Past perfect

The house

had been

cleaned before their arrival.

Future

The house

will be

cleaned ne%t wee!.

Future continuous

The house

will be being

cleaned tomorrow.

Present conditiona#

The house

would be

cleaned if they had visitors.

Past conditiona#

The house

would have been

cleaned if it had been dirty.

NOT!" *to be born' is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense" I was born in 1 !". #hen were you born$ B5T" %round 1&& babies are born in this hospital every week.

-nfiniti%e form" infinitive of *to be* - past participle" (to' be cleaned

This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by an infinitive, e.g. 9ou have to be tested on your $nglish grammar 6ohn might be promoted ne%t year. 0he wants to be invited to the party.

0erund or :in+ form being - past participle" being cleaned

This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund $%amples" a. ,ost film stars hate being interviewed. b. ) remember being taught to drive. c. The children are e%cited about being taken to the ;oo. NOT!" 0ometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of the verb to be( a. .e got arrested for dangerous driving. b. 'hey're getting married later this year. c. )*m not sure how the window got broken.

T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!

P(SS-7!4 FUNCT-ON
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that e%periences an action rather than the person or object that performs the action, e.g. )he passive is used ..." We are interested in the passive, not who uses it. )he house was built in 1"*+" We are interested in the house, not the builder. )he road is being repaired" We are interested in the road, not the people repairing it.

)n other words, the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence. 0ometimes we use the passive voice because we don*t !now or cannot e%press who or what performed the action" I noticed that a window had been left open ,very year people are killed on our roads. )f we want to say who or what performs the action, we use the preposition by" -% .ard /ay's 0ight- was written by the 1eatles ,) was directed by 2pielberg The passive voice is often used in formal or scientific te%ts" % great deal of meaning is conveyed by a few well-chosen words. 3ur planet is wrapped in a mass of gases. #aste materials are disposed of in a variety of ways.

T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!

0!T / 1(7! SOM!T1-N0 DON!
This construction is passive in meaning. )t may describe situations where we want someone else to do something for us. $%amples" a. I must get * have my hair cut. b. #hen are you going to get that window mended$ c. #e're having the house painted. )f the verb refers to something negative or unwanted, it has the same meaning as a passive sentence" d. 4im had his car stolen last night. (+ 6im*s car was stolen e. )hey had their roof blown off in the storm. (+ Their roof was blown off in the storm The construction can refer to the completion of an activity, especially if a time e%pression is used" f. #e'll get the work done as soon as possible. g. I'll get those letters typed before lunchtime. )n all these sentences, we are more interested in the result of the activity than in the person or object that performs the activity.

9;9 N!!DS DO-N0

)n the same way, this construction has a passive meaning. The important thing in our minds is the person or thing that will e%perience the action, e.g. a. )he ceiling needs painting (+ the ceiling needs to be painted b. 5y hair needs cutting (+ my hair needs to be cut

Possessi%e with 9s and 9 possessive

T1! POSS!SS-7! FO,M OF NOUNS

The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. *Belonging to* or *ownership* is one of the relationships it e%presses " 6ohn owns a car. (*6ohn* is the possessor or owner' )t is +ohn's car. 1merica has some gold reserves. (*1merica* is the owner They are merica's gold reserves. )t can also e%press other relationships, for e%ample" where someone wor!s or studies or spends time" 6ohn goes to this school. This is +ohn's school. 6ohn sleeps in this room. This is +ohn's room. a family relationship" +ohn's mother 'he ,ueen's daughter qualities" +ohn's patience. 'he politician's hypocrisy.

Form To form the possessive, add 's (*apostrophe -s* to the noun. )f the noun is plural, or already ends in :s, just add"9 (an apostrophe . For names endin+ in :s )n spea!ing we add the sound <E ;< to the name, but in writing it is possible to use either 's or just '. The 's form is more common. e.g. 'homas's boo!, +ames's shop. $%amples" The car of 6ohn + +ohn's car. The room of the girls + 'he girls' room. (lothes for men + Men's jobs. The sister of (harles + (harles9 sister. The boat of the sailors + 'he sailors' boat. There are also some fi%ed e%pressions where the possessive form is used "
Time e"pressions a day9s wor! a fortnight's holiday a month's pay today's newspaper in a year's time Other e"pressions 8or -od's sa!eF a pound's worth of apples. the water's edge a stone's throw away (+ very near at death's door (+ very ill in my mind's eye (+ in my imagination

The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job title of the owner. $%amples" the grocer's, the doctor's, the vet's, the newsagent's, the chemist's, Smith's, the dentist's, 'ommy 'ucker's, !uigi's, Saint Mary's, Saint +ames's. a. 0hall we go to !uigi's for lunch/ b. )*ve got an appointment at the dentist's at eleven o*cloc!. c. )s Saint Mary's an all-girls school/

,e#ati%e C#auses defining relative clauses introduction non-defining relative clauses prepositions in relative clauses

,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
D!F-N-N0 ,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
1s the name suggests, these clauses give essential information to define or identify the person or thing we are tal!ing about. Abviously, this is only necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved. $%ample" ,lephants who marry mice are very unusual. )n this sentence we understand that there are many elephants, but it is clear that we are only tal!ing the ones who marry mice. Punctuation (ommas are not used in defining relative clauses. ,e#ati%e pronouns The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses"

Person Sub'ect Ob'ect Possessi%e who<that who<whom<that<G whose

Thin+ which<that which<that<G whose

P#ace

Time

,eason

where

when

why

Notes <2 The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun. This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence"

The woman 2oun, subject of main clause

who/that

spo3e at the meetin+

was %ery 3now#ed+eab#e2 verb - rest of main clause

relative pronoun verb - rest of relative clause referring to *the woman*, subject of *spo!e*

=2 #ho, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common in spo!en $nglish. >2 The relative pronoun can be omitted (G' when it is the ob6ect of the clause" )he mouse that the elephant loved was very beautiful. 37 )he mouse the elephant loved was very beautiful. Both of these sentences are correct, though the second one is more common in spo!en $nglish.

The mouse 2oun, subject of main clause

that/? relative pronoun, referring to *the mouse, object of *loved*

the e#ephant #o%ed verb - rest of relative clause

was %ery beautifu#2 verb - rest of main clause.

(9ou can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is normally followed by another subject - verb. @2 #hose is used for things as well as for people. $%amples" )he man whose car was stolen. % tree whose leaves have fallen. A2 #hom is very formal and is only used in written $nglish. 9ou can use who/that, or omit the pronoun completely " The doctor whom*who*that*. ) was hoping to see wasn*t on duty. B2 )hat normally follows words li!e something, anything, everything, nothing, all, and superlatives. $%amples"

There*s something that you should know. )t was the best film that )'ve ever seen. $%amples"

1 clown is someone who makes you laugh. 1n elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries. The plums that were in the fridge were delicious. ) have eaten them. Where are the plums Cthat/ ) put in the fridge/ .as anyone seen the book ) was reading/ 2othing that anyone does can replace my lost bag. Cet*s go to a country where the sun always shines. They live in the house whose roof is full of holes.

,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
0ee also 4ronouns. There are two different types of relative clause" 1 .definin+. or identifying clause, which tells us which person or thing we are tal!ing about. 1 .non:definin+. or non-essential clause, which gives us more information about the person or thing we are tal!ing about. This !ind of clause could often be information included in brac!ets (...

$%ample" The farmer (his name was 8red sold us some potatoes. The farmer, whose name was 8red, sold us some potatoes. )t is important to see the difference between the two types of clause, as it affects" a2 the choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause, b2 the punctuation - you must use commas with a non-defining clause.

,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
NON:D!F-N-N0 ,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
The information in these clauses is not essential. )t tells us more about someone or something, but it does not help us to identify them or it. (ompare" #. ,lephants that love mice are very unusual. (This tells us which elephants we are tal!ing about . &. ,lephants, which are large and grey, can sometimes be found in 8oos. (This gives us some e%tra information about elephants - we are tal!ing about all elephants, not just one type or group . '. 4ohn's mother, who lives in Scotland, has " grandchildren. (We !now who 6ohn*s mother is, and he only has one. The important information is the number

of grandchildren, but the fact that she lives in 0cotland might be followed with the words Hby the wayH - it is additional information . Punctuation 2on-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The commas have a similar function to brac!ets" 5y friend 4ohn has 6ust written a best-selling novel. (.e went to the same school as me' 9 5y friend 4ohn, who went to the same school as me, has 6ust written a best-selling novel. ,e#ati%e pronouns in non:definin+ c#auses

Person Sub'ect who Ob'ect who<whom Possessi%e whose Notes

Thin+ which which

P#ace

where

#. )n non-defining clauses, you cannot use $that$ instead of who, whom or which. &. 9ou cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause" .e gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope. .e gave me the letter, which I read immediately '. The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause, e.g. )his is 2tratford-on-%von, which you have all heard about. This pattern is often used in spo!en $nglish, but in written or formal $nglish you can also put the preposition before the pronoun" e.g. 2tratford-on-%von, about which many people have written is 2hakespeare$s birthplace. I. 2on-defining clauses can be introduced by e%pressions li!e all of, many of relative pronoun" Person all of any of 0a/ few of both of each of : whom : whom : whom : whom : whom Thin+ : which : which : which : which : which

either of half of many of most of much of none of one of two of etc1 $%amples"

: whom : whom : whom : whom : whom : whom : whom : whom

: which : which : which : which : which : which : which : which

a. There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom ) had !nown for years. b. .e was carrying his belongings, many of which were bro!en. J. The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative clause, can refer to all the information contained in the previous part of the sentence, rather than to just one word. a. (hris did really well in his e%ams, which was a big surprise. (+ the fact that he did well in his e%ams was a big surprise . b. 1n elephant and a mouse fell in love, which is most unusual. (+ the fact that they fell in love is unusual . $%amples" a. ,y grandmother, who is dead now, came from the 2orth of $ngland. b. ) spo!e to 8red, who explained the problem. c. The elephant loo!ed at the tree, under which she had often sat. d. We stopped at the museum, which we1d never been into. e. 0he/s studying maths, which many people hate. f. )/ve just met 0usan, whose husband works in !ondon. g. .e had thousands of boo!s, most of which he had read

,!*(T-7! C*(US!
W1!,! TO PUT T1! P,!POST-T-ON -N ( ,!*(T-7! C*(US!
There are often prepositions in relative clauses, and the relative pronoun is the ob6ect of the preposition. This means that the preposition can sometimes be omitted. The preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause" )s that the man (who you arrived with$ ?o you !now the girl (that 6ohn is tal!ing to$

)n formal or written $nglish, the preposition is often placed before the relative pronoun, and in this case the pronoun cannot be omitted" )he person with whom he is negotiating is the ;hairman of a large company. It is a society to which many important people belong. .owever, this is unusual in spo!en $nglish.

$%amples" The jungle the elephant lived in was full of strange and unusual animals. .e was very fond of the mouse that he lived with. The tree under which they had their home was the largest and oldest in the jungle. )n the middle of the jungle was a river that all the animals went to every day. )t was the stream in which the elephant and the mouse preferred to swim.