English

as a

Second Language

K9

Guide to Implementation
Kindergarten to Grade 9

ESL
2007

Xz|{
AS A

SECOND LANGUAGE

Guide to Implementation

Kindergarten to Grade 9

2007

ALBERTA EDUCATION CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Alberta. Alberta Education. Learning and Teaching Resources Branch. English as a second language (ESL) : guide to implementation kindergarten to grade 9. ISBN 9780778563891 1. EducationAlbertaCurricula. 2. English language Study and teaching (Elementary)AlbertaForeign speakers. 3. English languageStudy and teaching (Secondary)Alberta Foreign speakers. 4. English languageStudy and teaching (Elementary)Alberta. 5. English languageStudy and teaching (Secondary)Alberta. 6. English languageStudy and teaching as a second languageAlberta. I. Title. PE1128.A2.A333 2007 372.6521

For further information, contact: Learning and Teaching Resources Branch 8th Floor, 44 Capital Boulevard 10044 108 Street NW Edmonton, Alberta T5J 5E6 Telephone: 7804272984 in Edmonton or toll-free in Alberta by dialing 3100000 Fax: 7804220576

A PDF version of this resource is available on the Alberta Education Web site at http://education.alberta.ca/teachers/co m/esl/resources.aspx Copies of this resource are available for purchase from the Learning Resources Centre. Order online at www.lrc.education.gov.ab.ca/ or telephone 7804272767.

Several Web sites are listed in this document. These sites are listed as a service only to identify potentially useful ideas for teaching and learning. The responsibility to evaluate these sites rests with the user. The primary audience for this document is: Teachers Administrators Students Parents

Copyright 2007, the Crown in Right of Alberta, as represented by the Minister of Education. Alberta Education, Learning and Teaching Resources Branch, 10044 108 Street NW, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T5J 5E6. Every effort has been made to provide proper acknowledgement of original sources. If cases are identified where this has not been done, please notify Alberta Education so appropriate corrective action can be taken. Permission is given by the copyright owner to reproduce this document, or any part thereof, for educational purposes and on a nonprofit basis, with the exception of materials cited for which Alberta Education does not own copyright.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alberta Education gratefully acknowledges the many teachers, other individuals and groups who contributed to the writing and/or provided suggestions, feedback and validation over the course of the development of the English as a Second Language (ESL) Guide to Implementation, Kindergarten to Grade 9. Learning and Teaching Resources Branch staff involved in the development, production and distribution of this guide include: Raja Panwar Stella Shrum Greg Bishop Jennifer Jackson Kim Blevins Esther Yong Dianne Moyer Sandra Mukai Director Acting Director Assistant Director, Resource Development Program Manager, Primary Programs and ESL Document Production Coordinator Desktop Publishing Desktop Publishing Copyright

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Acknowledgements / iii 2007

iv / 2007

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Understanding ESL Learning
Defining English as a Second Language Purpose of the Guide ESL Students in Alberta ESL Policy and Funding Learning English as a Second Language Understanding Second Language Learning Factors Influencing Second Language Learning Developing Communicative Competence The ESL Learning Team

1
1 2 3 4 6 7 9 10 12

CHAPTER 2 Getting Started

Intake Procedures Welcoming New Students Initial Assessment The Adjustment Period

21
21 24 26 31

CHAPTER 3 Establishing the ESL Program

Cultural Considerations ESL Students with Special Education Needs Comprehensive ESL Program Delivery Organizing for Instruction Models of Program Delivery Models of Language Instruction Characteristics of Second Language Learning Creating a Successful ESL Environment

35
35 37 38 40 43 46 49 52

CHAPTER 4 Teaching and Learning Strategies

Identifying the Literacy / Language Levels of Individual Students Integrating Language and Content Other ESL Teaching Strategies

63
63 75 84

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Table of Contents / v 2007

Lesson and Activity Ideas Level 1: Pre-beginner Level 2: Beginner Level 3: Intermediate Level 4: Advanced Strategies for Students with Special Needs ESL Students and Technology in the Classroom

91 91 93 98 105 107 113

CHAPTER 5 Differentiated Instruction for ESL Students

Introduction to Differentiated Instruction Differentiating Content Differentiating Process Differentiating Product

119
119 121 123 128

CHAPTER 6 Assessment of ESL Students

Assessment of ESL Students Principles of ESL Assessment Assessment Tools ESL Evaluation Reporting ESL Students Learning to Parents

133
133 135 141 147 148

APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Personal Profile Appendix 2: Understanding Cultural Differences in Student Behaviour Appendix 3: General Language Characteristics of ESL Students Appendix 4: Learning Strategies Appendix 5: Graphic Organizers Appendix 6: Sample List of Text Forms Appendix 7: Vocabulary Tools Appendix 8: Examples of General Accommodations

153
155 157 159 165 169 207 209 211

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

213 223

vi / Table of Contents 2007

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

CHAPTER 1
Understanding ESL Learning
Chapter Summary
Defining English as a Second Language Purpose of the Guide ESL Students in Alberta ESL Policy and Funding Learning English as a Second Language Understanding Second Language Learning Factors Influencing Second Language Learning Developing Communicative Competence The ESL Learning Team

Defining English as a Second Language

English as a Second Language (ESL) students are students who first learned to speak, read and/or write a language other than English and whose level of English language proficiency precludes them from full participation in learning experiences provided in Alberta schools. ESL students may have recently immigrated to Canada or may have been born in Canada and live in homes in which the primary spoken language is not English. Albertas schools have always included students for whom English is a second language. Children and their families immigrate to Alberta from every corner of the world. Many students who come to Canada from other countries speak languages other than English and have varying levels of English language proficiency. Canadian students of Aboriginal, Francophone and other cultural descents, whose families have lived in Alberta for many generations, may still learn to speak English as a second language. Linguistic and cultural diversity is characteristic of schools and communities throughout the province. In the past, some students, particularly younger ones, learned English informally and went on to participate fully in workplaces and communities throughout Alberta. When the seniors of today were in school, a Grade 6 or Grade 8 formal education was often considered an adequate level of literacy for employment. Today the situation is quite different; students learning English as a second language need targeted instruction and structured opportunities to develop language proficiency and literacy.

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 1 2007

Literacy is
the ability to understand and employ printed information in daily activities, at home, at work and in the communityto achieve ones goals, and to develop ones knowledge and potential.
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and Statistics Canada 1995, p. 3)

Young people entering post-secondary institutions or seeking employment generally require senior high school diplomas. There are few jobs available that do not require advanced levels of many kinds of literacy and most employers will consider only those applicants who have completed senior high school, even for entry-level positions. When ESL students are integrated with their English-speaking peers, they are able to work on language and concept development in all subject areas. English language proficiency, however, is not a by-product of other classroom learning. Specific, formal instruction in speaking, reading and writing in English is essential.

Purpose of the Guide

The purpose of the guide is to provide:
an understanding of who ESL students are and basic information about second language acquisition suggestions for the reception, placement and orientation of elementary and junior high school ESL students information and sample strategies for establishing ESL programming and creating a successful ESL learning environment effective instructional strategies, lessons and activities specific to ESL students with varying levels of language proficiency suggestions for the assessment and evaluation of student learning and progress.

In this resource, the term parents refers to both parents and guardians.

2 / Chapter 1 2007

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

ESL Students in Alberta

Canadian-born ESL Students
First Nations, Mtis and Inuit (FNMI) students
may speak English, French, a First Nations, Mtis and Inuit (FNMI) language or a combination of languages in their homes and communities have cultural and language diversity between Nations and regions have skills in their first language that range from minimal to fluent may use culturally specific nonverbal communication and have specific cultural values and beliefs regarding listening and speaking, passing of stories and sacred relationships come from within the province or from other areas of Canada may enter English-speaking schools at any age or may be learning English as a second language in a Francophone school attend school within their communities and learn English to access outcomes of the Alberta programs of study have religious and cultural concerns in their communities that strongly influence the selection of instructional strategies and teaching materials have parents who may not speak English, limiting family support in schooling may attend an immersion program in their first language and have delays or deficits in their English language skills may, in some cases, move to their parents home country, only to return for schooling in Alberta at some later time

Francophone students Hutterite, Mennonite or students in other religious groups Canadian-born children of immigrants

Foreign-born ESL Students

Recently arrived immigrants
make up a large group of ESL students in Alberta may arrive at any time in the school year and may be at any grade level have usually attended school on a regular basis in their home countries and may have already studied English, although this typically involves only a basic introduction to the language have all the needs of regular immigrants, as well as issues relating to war, disaster, trauma, disorientation and loss of freedom may not have wished to leave their home countries may be worried about family members left behind may have received little or no formal schooling and have complex needs that go beyond learning English as a second language may qualify for additional assistance from the federal government on arrival may require assistance from government, social and community agencies for several years Chapter 1 / 3 2007

Refugees

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Fee-paying and funded international visa students

are attending Alberta schools in increasing numbers usually live in home-stay situations without their families or with unfamiliar members of extended family (may cause separation anxiety issues) may feel pressure to excel in their studies, especially those who must meet re-entrance standards upon returning to school in their home countries are usually in Canada for one to two years

ESL Policy and Funding

The current K12 Learning System Policy, Regulations and Forms Manual and the Funding Manual for School Authorities are available on the Alberta Education Web site at www.education.gov.ab.ca/reading/policy.

Policy 1.5.1
Alberta Education sets, develops and approves policies through a consultative approach that gives direction to school authorities on providing the best possible education for all Alberta students. The English as a Second Language policy states: Policy: To facilitate the integration of the student into the regular school program at the earliest possible opportunity, Alberta Education will assist school boards in providing English as a second language programs to Alberta students who were born in Canada but who are not fluent in English, and to those who have recently arrived in Canada and whose first language is not English. According to the policy: 1. Boards shall develop, keep current and implement written policy and procedures consistent with provincial policy and procedures for: (1) curriculum and instruction; and (2) receiving, assessing, placing, monitoring and evaluating ESL students. 2. Boards are responsible for making available appropriate English language instruction to meet the needs of all their resident students. This responsibility entails: (1) the identification and linguistic assessment of students who require ESL; and (2) the provision of special assistance, including (a) the development, implementation and assessment of appropriate instructional programs and curricular guidelines for grades 1 to 12, in which attention is given to the linguistic, cultural and academic needs of students, (b) courses or parts of courses and instructional materials as prescribed, authorized or approved by the Minister under section 39(1)(a), (b) and (d) of the Act, and 4 / Chapter 1 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

(c) priority being placed on assistance that encourages the rapid

integration of students into the school and community environment.

3. Alberta Education may provide funding for ESL programs subject to the terms and conditions described in the Funding Manual for School Authorities.

Funding
ESL funding is provided to assist students who are residents of Alberta and who have insufficient fluency in English to achieve grade level expectations in English language arts and other subject areas. Funding is provided for each eligible ESL funded child/student in Kindergarten to Grade 12. Funded children/students may be Canadian-born (Code 303) or foreign-born (Code 301). There are two enrollment counts taken for funding both Canadian-born and foreign-born ESL studentsSeptember 30 and March 1. Funded children/students eligible for ESL funding: a) come from homes in which the primary spoken language is not English b) speak minimal English or are non-English speaking. Coding of an eligible ESL funded child/student must also be supported by an annual assessment of the students language proficiency in English. This assessment documentation must be kept on file at the school and made available upon request. After three years of ESL instruction, it is expected most students would have sufficient fluency in English to access regular programming, although some students may require additional time. Funding is provided for a maximum of seven years for eligible ESL funded children/students. ESL funding is also provided for children between the ages of 3 years 6 months and less than 4 years 6 months old that have insufficient fluency in English. Note: Please refer to the current Funding Manual for School Authorities, available on the Alberta Education Web site at http://www.education.alberta.ca/admin/funding/manual.aspx. Funded students enrolled in home education, blended programs, outreach programs or online programs are not eligible for funding.

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 5 2007

Learning English as a Second Language

Language development is the responsibility of all teachers. Subject-area teachers teach the specialized language and forms of each subject. English language arts teachers have a special role because their focus is on language, its forms and functions. They help students develop and apply strategies for comprehending, composing and responding in a variety of situations. The experience of ESL students differs, in significant ways, from that of English-speaking students who are learning another language. ESL students are learning English out of an immediate need to communicate, learn and participate in a society that, in most cases, is as new to them as the language itself. For these students, the learning experience is complicated by several factors. Some of these factors are advantages for ESL students; others present students with unique challenges.

Advantages for ESL Students

What students are learning is relevant and applicable in their everyday lives. The importance of learning English provides strong motivation as well as a rich context for learning. Students are learning English to function in society, establish and maintain relationships, communicate and explore concepts. Students are surrounded by all forms of English language in school and in the community. Students are exposed to written and spoken English every minute of the school dayin classrooms, hallways, the gymnasium and on the playground. Students have ample opportunities to interact in English and rich sources of language on which to draw. Students have knowledge of at least one other languagetheir home or community languageand the knowledge and understanding of the world that they gained prior to arriving in Alberta schools. Fewer concessions are made to second language learners in the school and community than to young children learning their first language. Students may struggle to find ways to express their knowledge in a new language, gather information and pursue new concepts in an unfamiliar language. Students are exposed to varied informal uses of English, e.g., slang, that are difficult to integrate with only a basic understanding of formal English. Students are in an environment where they are expected to acquire ever more sophisticated and complex knowledge and understanding of the world around them. Students are expected to express that knowledge and understanding with a level of English language that is comparable to that of their native English-speaking classmates. Students must often learn the full Alberta curriculum while learning English. Many students will experience value and cultural conflicts between their home language and culture and the English language and culture in which they are immersed.

Challenges for ESL Students

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ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Understanding Second Language Learning

Whether ESL students come into classrooms in Kindergarten or Grade 9, they already have an established first language for communicating. Depending on their age and/or background, English may be the second, third, fourth or even fifth language they will learn. The term second language refers to a language that is learned after the first language is relatively well-established. By the age of five, children have control over most of their first language grammar. Any language they learn subsequently is filtered through their previously learned language(s). In this way, second language learning is qualitatively different from the first language learning process. Nonetheless, both first and second language learning are developmental processes in which the learner actively tests hypotheses about the new system being learned.

First and Second Language Learning Principles

An overview of first and second language learning principles reveals that the two processes have similarities.

First Language Learning Principles

Learning and language growth are interwoven. Meaning is central to language learning. Language learning builds on what learners already know about and can do with language. Language is learned from demonstrations of language in use. Language learning is enhanced through interaction. Language is learned in supportive environments. In and of itself, language can be a source of satisfaction and delight.

Second Language Learning Principles

Language and concepts are developed together. Focus is on meaning versus form. Second language learning builds on previous knowledge and experience. Students learn more effectively when they use language for a purpose. Language is learned through social interaction. A supportive environment is key to learning a second language. In and of itself, language can be a source of satisfaction and delight. Language must be adjusted so students can understand what is being communicated. Language skills develop gradually.

While many of these principles parallel one another, there are differences in terms of implications for the ESL student. An understanding of second language learning principles and their implications is crucial for informed teaching and assessing of ESL students.

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 7 2007

Second Language Learning Principles and ESL Students

Language and concepts are developed together.
Language is best learned in a functional, experiential context, not in isolation as an end in itself. Second language learning, like first language learning, takes place within and across subject areas, as students use language to think and learn. Childrens cognitive development proceeds similarly across cultures; ESL students are ready to explore the same concepts that their age group is exploring, barring any clinical-developmental delays.

Focus is on meaning versus form.

In language learning, the processes of listening, speaking, reading and writing are interrelated and mutually supportive. The mastery of one is not necessary before encouraging development of the other three. A persons second language, like the first, develops holistically, not linearly in a specific sequence of structures and vocabulary. ESL students must be engaged in meaningful learning activities with native English-speaking students in which students talk with one another, pose questions and solve problems together. ESL students are highly motivated to seek meaning in their learning experiences so that they can learn to communicate with others to establish relationships.

Second language learning builds on previous knowledge and experience.

ESL students come to the second language learning process with a functional language already in place and previous learning experiences to share. Successful second language learning is dependent on the continual maintenance of first language literacy that is achieved when family or friends listen to, read and talk about stories in the first language. ESL students develop second language competence at individual rates that are influenced by their first language background, previous literacy and school experiences and own abilities.

Students learn more effectively when they use language for a purpose. Language is learned through social interaction. A supportive environment is key to learning a second language.

Becoming communicative and academically competent involves the practical understanding of turn taking and rhetorical conventions of the English language. Such understanding is developed through implicit and explicit demonstrations that are provided by the interaction of ESL students with teachers and peers. Second language students are not expected to keep up with a class reading group but need opportunities to read material at their level. Writing activities need to be closely integrated with conversation and reading. Second language learning takes place most effectively in an integrated setting in which ESL students interact with native English speakers on a daily basis. A structured, cooperative group learning environment, characterized by groups working together with mutual trust and respect, encourages second language students to take risks, explore and experiment with conversational and academic language. Independent second language learning is facilitated when second language learners are given initial support and ongoing monitoring of their linguistic, academic, cultural, emotional and physical needs.

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ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

In and of itself, language can be a source of satisfaction and delight. Language must be adjusted so students can understand what is being communicated. Language skills develop gradually.

The acknowledgement of first languages, in oral and written forms, is important to all ESL students and their classmates. Enhancing awareness of the richness and diversity of other languages and instilling the value of maintaining a first language is beneficial for all students. Second language students, especially beginners, need language presented in conjunction with visuals, objects, gestures, body movements or facial expressions to facilitate comprehension. Modified teacher talk or comprehensible input immediately engages ESL students in learning and boosts their self-confidence. Like learning a first language, second language learning takes time. ESL students do not have five years to learn English before they enter school, as they had with their first language. They are older, cognitively more mature and under tremendous pressure to acquire, as soon as possible, new vocabulary, sentence structure, an understanding of body language and the subtle complexities of the new language and culture.

Factors Influencing Second Language Learning

The rate at which students develop the second language proficiency needed for success in the regular curriculum is influenced by the following factors.

Factors Influencing Second Language Learning

Personal/Individual Factors age and time of entry into the second language learning environment personality and learning style attitude and motivation to learn the new language a natural talent for learning languages language abilities in the first language physical and emotional health the similarity of the first language to the second language Experience Factors previous educational background previous exposure to and experience in the second language and culture Environmental Factors adjustment and attitude of the family toward the new language and culture community interest, resources and parental involvement in school programs the perceived respect for and acknowledgement of the home language and culture by the new community maintenance of students first languages in and out of school supportive learning environments and skilled teachers who use a wide range of appropriately applied strategies

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 9 2007

Developing Communicative Competence

Students who are communicatively competent can speak English, using correct grammar and appropriate vocabulary. They know when to speak and when not to, what to talk about with whom, where to talk and in what manner. Such competence implies control over grammar, vocabulary (conversational and academic), turn-taking skills, timing, directness and the ability to use ones voice and body language in culturally and socially acceptable ways. Regardless of how and when ESL students learn to become proficient English speakers, they must develop the skills required for communicative competence.

Communicative competence is
the concept that speakers of a language must have more than grammatical competence to be able to communicate effectively in a language. Speakers must also know how language is used by members of a speech community. There are four aspects of communicative competence: grammatical competence (vocabulary and rules) sociolinguistic competence (appropriateness) discourse competence (coherence) strategic competence (strategies to use when communication starts to fail; e.g., rephrasing, coming at a topic from another point of view) (Walter 2004).

Basic Communication versus Academic Language

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) Generally, after two years in an integrated Canadian classroom, where they learn in a cooperative environment with English-speaking peers, ESL students develop functional language skills for carrying on everyday, basic conversations. These Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) make them appear to have mastered many aspects of English. They are able to discuss, joke and socialize with classmates. Often, they can write independently and read narrative stories fairly well. However, when expected to deal with more demanding content-area material, e.g., reading expository text or writing research reports, their BICS are insufficient. There is a considerable difference between the language required for academic purposes and that required for daily conversation. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) Research indicates that acquiring sound Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) takes five to seven years for most second language students. In terms of program planning, it is important to realize that adolescent second language learners in schools will take five to eight years, on average, to become as proficient in using English in an academic context as their peers for whom English is a first language. This does not mean that these learners should be placed only in an English language learning program until they are fully fluent, nor does it mean that they should be placed in immersion situations without support and assistance with their language learning. Research and teacher observations are reminders that language learning is a complex process that takes time. 10 / Chapter 1 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)

After two years in an integrated classroom, in which ESL students learn in a cooperative environment with Englishspeaking peers, students develop functional language skills for carrying on everyday, basic conversations. BICS refer to the social language first used by English language learners. It is often referred to as playground English or survival English. BICS make students appear to have mastered many aspects of English. Students are able to discuss, joke and socialize with classmates. Students can write independently and read narrative stories fairly well. BICS are insufficient when students are expected to deal with more demanding content-area material; e.g., reading expository text or writing research reports. There are considerable differences between the language required for academic purposes and that required for daily conversation. Acquiring sound Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) takes five to seven years for most second language students. CALP refers to the academic language students use in school. When students acquire CALP, they are as proficient in using English in an academic context as their peers for whom English is a first language. Language learning is a complex process that takes time. ESL students in immersion situations need support and assistance with their language learning to achieve CALP; however, ESL students need not remain in an English language learning program until they are fully fluent.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

(Cummins, 1989)

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 11 2007

The ESL Learning Team

While classroom teachers accept primary responsibility for their own classrooms, they often work with other educators and auxiliary school personnel in determining and organizing alternative programming for ESL students.

Members of the ESL Learning Team

Teachers Students Teacher Assistants Parents ESL Consultants and Teacher Specialists Interpreters and Cultural Liaison Workers Volunteers

Teachers
Because of the wide-ranging needs of ESL students, most teachers use a collaborative approach, involving: interpreters depending on the language skills of the students and parents community assistance depending on the experiences of the families educational specialists depending on the training and experience of the teachers. Teachers are often the first significant contact that ESL students make with English speakers and the ESL students perception of the school and culture is mediated by this contact. ESL teachers serve many roles, requiring a variety of competencies and strategies that facilitate learning and focus on the development of the whole child.

Teachers Roles
As nurturers, teachers establish an atmosphere of acceptance, tolerance and empathy in situations where students of varied linguistic and cultural backgrounds are integrated. As observers, teachers are careful and sensitive observers of students as they interact and become accustomed to linguistic and cultural differences. As participants, teachers share the challenges of learning while acknowledging the frustrations of ESL students. As facilitators, teachers act as interpreters for students as they construct their own understanding of the new language. As learners, teachers continually become more knowledgeable about language development and how ESL students cultural backgrounds affect their school experience.

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

As evaluators and communicators, teachers communicate effectively on an ongoing basis with students and their parents, using interpreters as necessary, and seek to bridge the language barrier to facilitate communication between students. As planners and managers, teachers modify activities and resources as necessary to reflect accessible language levels and cultural awareness. As role models, teachers accept, respect and celebrate the varied cultural, physical, racial, religious and socio-economic backgrounds of all students and their families.

Students
Students are both learners and teachers in the classroom. Teachers should initially construct opportunities for English-speaking students to interact with their ESL peers. Typically, this involves school tours, classroom buddies and homework partners. Through activities such as peer tutoring, ongoing interaction can foster friendships and increase feelings of belonging. Appropriate peer tutors are academically strong, genuinely interested and have leadership qualities. It is more effective, whenever possible, to place ESL students with same-gender, older students. As continuity is important, an ESL student should work with no more than two different tutors and tutoring time should follow a regular schedule. ESL students are usually the recipients of sharing, but teachers should find ways for ESL students to, in turn, share their developing knowledge and language skills. For example, when subsequent ESL students enroll in the school, ESL students who are already established in the environment can work alongside English-speaking students to welcome and support new students and potentially act as interpreters. It is important, however, to be aware of how relationships are being formed. Although ESL students may find comfort in relationships with other ESL students, it is important for them to integrate and form relationships with a variety of classmates.

ESL students learn best when they:

are involved in identifying what works best for them; e.g., how they are integrated into the class and what types of support are provided are made aware of available resources and given the choice of materials; e.g., a range of books to choose from are given realistic expectations are acknowledged for their continued growth by teachers and peers are in an environment where risk taking is valued and where incremental growth is valued as highly as the attainment of goals experience a sense of self-confidence within their new peer group and competence with day-to-day communication have opportunities to interact both with English-speaking peers and those with a shared first language understand the new culture, clearly, and show respect for its values while maintaining and valuing their own culture are both learners and teachers, individuals and group members.

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 13 2007

Teacher Assistants
Teacher assistants help implement programming and supports for ESL students under the supervision and direction of certificated teachers. If ESL students are primarily taught in pull-out situations, e.g., students are removed from classes or peer groups for one-on-one or small group instruction, it is important that teachers be aware of any growing dependencies on the part of ESL students and foster independence and encourage interaction with other students and school staff.

Teacher assistants:
understand how ESL students learn best demonstrate cross-cultural awareness and empathy express themselves clearly in English and are skilled in rephrasing ideas in ways that enhance understanding use students strengths to help them work through or around their weaknesses establish relationships that foster active learning and celebrate successes use language to interpret and give meaning to student experiences in school and community environments.

Parents
Most parents of ESL students speak English as a second language themselves and with proficiency as varied as that of ESL students. Their childrens teachers may be their first contact with the local school system and limited proficiency in English and/or a lack of knowledge about the educational system may deter parents from participating in their childrens schooling. Cultural differences, varied backgrounds and experiences and language differences can all create barriers to strong homeschool connections that have a positive impact on their childrens learning. Establishing communication with parents who are not comfortable or fluent in English presents extra challenges. School districts often have supports in place to assist with translation and maintain cultural sensitivity. Since all parents have a right to know and understand the progress of their children, schools have to take an active role in making this possible.

14 / Chapter 1 2007

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Tips for Involving Parents

Welcome parents and children to the school. Spend time with the family in an informal interview. Answer any questions they may have and assure them that personal information will be treated confidentially. Tour the school with parents and their children. Speak clearly in a normal tone and at a natural speed when conversing with a new family; e.g., not too fast but not slowly or loudly. Arrange for interpreters, if necessary, through a settlement organization (e.g., Calgary Immigrant Aid Society, New Home Immigration and Settlement) or suggest parents bring an English-speaking family member or friend to meetings at the school. Follow up initial interviews with subsequent meetings and telephone calls as orientation continues. Invite parents to visit the school and watch a class in action (more appropriate in Division I than in Division II or III). Provide basic information about the school; e.g., address, weekly/class schedule and yearly calendar of holidays and special events, names and contact information of teachers and the principal. Provide a form with the names of any contact teachers and their schedules and include written instructions to parents for student absences from school. Encourage parents to speak their first language at home with their children and assure them that doing so will enhance learning English as a second language. Find out if there are cultural holidays or customs that will keep the child away from school, or affect his or her participation in regular activities, so the school can make accommodations as necessary. Instruct parents about the importance and process of advising the school of student absences. Rewrite information letters regarding school meetings or upcoming events in simple English (this can be a task that involves the ESL student and a teacher assistant working together) or have the letters translated with the help of a settlement organization or an interpreter. Contact Immigration Canada and/or local settlement organizations for background information on various cultures that teachers and administrators would find helpful. Consider putting together a newcomer kit for parents and students. For more information, see Welcoming New Students, Chapter 2, p. 24.

The following page is a sample handout for parents of ESL students.

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Chapter 1 / 15 2007

Helping Your Child Learn English

There are several ways you can help your child learn English.

Read to your child:

One important activity you can do is read to your child. It does not matter whether it is English or your first language. Read anythingstories, articles, poems. Ask family members or friends to help. Continue to speak your first language at home with your child. The stronger the first language, the better your child will progress in English studies.

Use your first language:

Allow your child to speak your first language. Your child is intellectually and emotionally developed beyond what he or she can express in English. Your child will eventually catch up in English. In the meantime, he or she will be less frustrated if allowed to use your first language.

Help your child acquire English through planned activities; e.g., trips to the park, movies, a neighbourhood sports event or other activities. New words and structures will be learned and reinforced.

Plan activities:

Share stories:

Share common fairy tales and stories with your child in your first language and in English, either by reading together or watching videos. Share your family stories and history with your child. Teach your child about your culture and homeland.

Listen to your child read:

Discuss what your child is doing in English. Accept that errors are fine when learning a language. It is more important in the early stages that your child express himself or herself.

Find a translator: Provide the school with the name and telephone number of a relative or close family friend who speaks English and whom the school can contact in an emergency, to pass on important information to you or act as a translator in confidential situations. Be patient:
Recognize that, even in an immersion situation, it will take five to seven years for your child to develop English skills to the same level as his or her first language.

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ESL Consultants and Teacher Specialists

Depending on the number of ESL students in a school district, ESL consultants and specialist teachers trained and experienced in teaching ESL may be available to provide leadership in the design and delivery of ESL programming. The role of the ESL consultant and teacher specialist varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

Consultants and specialists, when necessary, may:

suggest appropriate placement, programming and service delivery alternatives in consultation with classroom teachers and administrators observe classroom interaction and advise teachers on how to differentiate instruction team-teach with classroom teachers to model and facilitate the development of effective instructional strategies use diagnostic assessments and provide diagnostic feedback in a variety of areas recommend student-specific programming adaptations and supports supply or recommend translation dictionaries, modified curricular materials and other resources to accommodate ESL students provide screening, interpretation, translation and liaison services for ESL students and families assist in parentteacher conferences provide interpretation of foreign educational records assume the role of case managers for ESL students with special needs, including keeping records of their background, support by specialists and progress help resolve behavioural problems that arise from cultural misunderstandings advise or provide referrals for students who may be under extreme pressure, suffering trauma or at risk for other reasons arrange for or deliver professional development in-services to staff on 1 ESL teaching or cultural issues.

Other consultants, including multicultural workers, speech and hearing or language development specialists, occupational therapists, behaviour consultants, social workers, school counsellors, early literacy consultants, psychologists and special education teachers or program aides can offer advice and services to students, parents and teachers.

Interpreters and Cultural Liaison Workers

Interpreters and cultural liaison workers provide a valuable initial connection between students and parents and school administrators and teachers. There may be bilingual individuals in the community who can be of assistance to schools when students and families first arrive. Even if they cannot completely overcome the language barrier, they may help ease the difficulties in making a transition to a new culture.

1. Adapted with permission from Marilyn Whitehead, Supporting Language Learning: An ESL Resource Book for Classroom Teachers (Nanaimo, BC: Nanaimo/Ladysmith School District No. 68, 1995), p. 18.

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Agencies that provide services to immigrants are another source of support for language and cultural transition. These agencies have experience working with newly arrived families and helping them settle into the community. They often maintain lists of people who speak various languages.

When working with interpreters or cultural liaison workers:

Try to locate an interpreter who is familiar with the educational system in Canada as well as that of the students country of origin. Families and students generally have many questions about their new schools. They often make assumptions, based on their experiences elsewhere, that are not relevant to schooling in Alberta or they have expectations (with regard to programming) that the school system cannot meet. Try to ensure that the language and dialect of new students and the interpreter are the same. For example, not all speakers of languages that originate in China speak the same language or dialect. Be clear about the time involvement and the rate of pay for various services. If the school is unable to pay for the services, try to organize another way of recognizing the contribution of time and talent these people are making. They may be taking time off work to be of assistance.

Note: Bilingual students can help new students become accustomed to their new surroundings. It is not appropriate, however, to ask a students peer to interpret at information-gathering interviews, subsequent parentteacher interviews or conferences dealing with discipline or attendance issues. In addition to confidentiality, there may be issues related to the cultural roles of young people.

Volunteers
Volunteers can make valuable contributions to the classroom. With appropriate guidelines, they can allow for more individualization and provide expertise and skills in specific areas. Volunteers can help strengthen relationships between the school and community and, if the volunteer is a parent, between the school and home. The assistance of volunteers, parents and other students can often make a significant difference in how quickly and efficiently ESL students learn the language. The extra time and effort devoted to activities specific to language learning can help students in a variety of ways. Some of the benefits for students include: involvement in more, and perhaps a greater variety of, meaningful language learning activities more English-speaking models to whom they can relate additional assistance with regular classroom work that has been adapted to meet their needs.

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Organizing and Developing a Volunteer Program

When organizing and developing a volunteer program, consider the following. Determine what needs the volunteer program will address. Compile a list of possible duties for volunteers. Recruit efficiently by: sending newsletters home to parents recruiting students from within the school submitting advertisements to the volunteers section of the community newspaper and in local church bulletins. Define, clearly, the role of volunteers. Outline details of the tasks volunteers may perform as clearly and positively as possible. Ensure that volunteers do not take on inappropriate tasks; e.g., evaluation and discipline. Encourage the principal or administration team to: brief school staff and seek their support familiarize volunteers with the school procedures they are expected to follow provide working space for volunteers and a place for resources promote team spirit among volunteers, students and staff ensure volunteers feel they are contributing members of the school.

Activities for Volunteers Field Trips Games and Crafts

Visit other parts of the school during student orientation (school tours). Visit various locations in the immediate community. Visit other communities. Read to students. Read chorally with beginning students. Listen to students reading and offer support. Assist students with assignments. Review work already covered by the teacher. Supervise use of the Internet, CDROMs and other technologies. Make slide shows or movies of classroom activities and field trips and have students use them to write descriptions of the events. Assist students in developing learning strategies; e.g., editing and rewriting skills. Teach and play games with students; e.g., sports, bingo, card games. Help out as ESL students teach traditional games of their home countries. Assist students as they bake or cook traditional holiday foods and help students record the steps involved. Teach traditional crafts and help ESL students teach crafts from their home countries.

Reading

Individual and Small Group Work Writing

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CHAPTER 2
Getting Started
Chapter Summary
Intake Procedures Welcoming New Students Initial Assessment The Adjustment Period

Intake Procedures
Reception
In Alberta, the reception process for ESL students varies from one school district to another. In the majority of districts, welcoming, orienting, assessing and determining placement for students is the collaborative responsibility of many people.

Reception procedures for welcoming ESL students include:

gathering and validating documentation collecting registration background information assessing and placing students welcoming and orientating students and families.

School staff refer to district mandates to determine:

what information is required who is responsible for various parts of the procedure how the information is recorded and organized how decisions about initial placement are made.

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Documentation
Immigrant, refugee and international students cannot be accepted into Canadian schools without proper documentation. Some students do not have birth certificates but the date and place of birth should be recorded on their documentation. If the exact date of birth is not known, the date stated in the documentation is accepted as the legal date. In some cases, the childrens information is included in their parents papers. Bilingual personnel may be required to translate or interpret educational documents or previous report cards. Refugee students may have no education records due to the situation in their home countries. It is recommended that all students be placed in age-appropriate grade placement.

Canadian-born ESL Students

Canadian-born ESL students may not require the same level of support as immigrant, refugee and international students during orientation and do not require any additional documentation. These ESL students, however, may be so adept at fitting in to an English-speaking society that their reception and orientation needs may be overlooked. Consider contacting local resources, e.g., cultural organizations, for advice and support when introducing these students to the school and making them feel welcomed.

Registration
The registration procedure can be a stressful time for ESL students and their parents. Like any new student, ESL students arrive at schools or district sites with mixed feelings of excitement, anxiety and fear of the unknown. It is possible students from war-torn countries have never been to school or perceive school as a dangerous place. The foreign language and strange environment may be overwhelming. In rare cases, students may be resistant to the new environment, culture and language. It is common to have an English-speaking relative or family sponsor accompany students to the initial meeting at the school. It is important to have students speak for themselves, if at all possible, to get an initial impression of their comprehension, oral abilities and attitude toward schooling and school staff. Gathering background information before ESL students enter the classroom helps both students and teachers. Students can be better prepared for the process of adjusting to new surroundings and staff are better able to provide a productive learning environment for students. This initial contact with the school should establish positive relationships. The time taken to gather information ensures an educational program that is directly relevant to ESL students backgrounds and learning needs.

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Registration Information

Family/Home Country Information

place of birth; e.g., as per birth certificate, immigration papers status; e.g., immigrant, temporary resident, home-stay participant, refugee, First Nations, Mtis and Inuit (FNMI), Canadian-born language(s) the student speaks, reads and/or writes language the student learned first language(s) spoken at home language(s) most frequently used at home language(s) the parents use to communicate with the student names and ages of siblings date of arrival in Canada, if applicable sponsor, if available name of an emergency contact person who preferably speaks English transit country and time spent there time spent in a refugee camp primary caregiver bilingual contact (interpreter)

Educational Information
name and address of previous school, type of school; e.g., academic, vocational, private, religious number of years of formal education periods of no schooling (gaps) type and duration of exposure to English; e.g., formal, informal, oral, written report cards from former schools (request several years of report cards to examine the pattern of performance in the first language and country) special assistance received in former schools grades repeated academic strengths and weaknesses academic goals

Health Information
Alberta Health Care number immunization records (copies to community/school nurse) medical history of concern to the school; e.g., developmental history, fevers, illnesses, allergies, vision, hearing doctors name and telephone number

Some points on this page are adapted, with permission from the Province of British Columbia, from English as a Second Language Learners: A Guide for ESL Specialists (pp. 1314). 1999 Province of British Columbia. All rights reserved.

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Intake Information
Gathering intake information is the process of collecting information about ESL students and making judgements about oral and written language proficiency to plan appropriate programming. This process usually occurs shortly after students arrive in Canada. The stress and dislocation of moving, and possible effects of jet lag, may interfere with obtaining an accurate picture of students skills. As well, many students approach assessment situations with anxiety. Students often do not understand the purpose of gathering intake information and fear that if they do not do well, they will not be allowed to enter school. Parents are also often nervous. Provide as much information as possible in the language students and parents understand. It is important to carefully explain the purpose and nature of informationgathering procedures. Explain that this is an information-gathering exercise to assist the school in providing appropriate programs for students. It is essential to be clear about the types of support and learning environments the school can provide.

Tips for Gathering Intake Information

Set aside a quiet space for gathering intake information. If possible, do not gather all the information at once, as this can be an exhausting process for students. Provide school orientation at a different time than during the intake information sessions. Finding their way around the school, determining where lunch is eaten and learning school hours and timetables can be confusing and stressful for students.

Welcoming New Students

Once enrollment and the initial assessment are completed, there are a few things teachers can do to make the first days easier for ESL students. Prepare newcomer kits for students that contain supplies they will need over the first few weeks. In schools that regularly enroll ESL students, these packages could be put together in advance and made available to teachers. Such kits could include the following items: a map of the school, with classes and other personally relevant locations marked a list of the names of teachers, administrators and office staff school and class schedules school rules and calendar (holidays marked) lock and locker assignment Canada flag stickers or items with school logos basic school supplies a map of the community around the school a bus schedule and a route map.

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Although the following suggestions may be applied in many classroom situationsa congregated English as a second language class, an English language arts class, a content area class, an elementary or junior high school classsome are more appropriate for some situations than others.

A Formal Introduction
It is less stressful for new ESL students if the same adult, if possible the adult who has been involved in the registration process, escorts students to classrooms to meet and be introduced to new teachers. This may occur early on the first day of classes or on the day before, prior to the arrival of the other students. Teachers can then ask questions to discover the information needed to introduce new students to the class. At the elementary school level, introduce ESL students to the class. Keep class introductions brief. Take care to pronounce ESL students names correctly. Explain to the class where the new students are from, what language(s) they speak and how long they have been in Canada. At the junior high school level, prepare the peer group in advance and simply allow ESL students to blend in. Before ESL students arrive, discuss how classmates can best help ESL students feel comfortable and manage the first few days.

Peer Ambassadors
Arrange, in advance, for student volunteers to act as peer ambassadors who take ESL students on tours around the school and point out the washrooms, office, gymnasium, library and location of other classrooms. Peer ambassadors should also be responsible for escorting ESL students to new classes, as necessary, for the first few days. This is important at the junior high school level, where subjects may be taught in different rooms. A map of the school that includes both icons and written labels, and on which ESL students can make notes, will help them learn their way around the school. Although it may be an advantage if peer ambassadors speak the same language as ESL students, it is not necessary. In a class with several ESL students, the last to arrive often makes an empathetic guide and benefits from the opportunity to share what he or she has learned.

Peer ambassadors can be responsible for explaining:

location of washrooms water fountains lunch locks and lockers school hours and timetables school rules expectations for behaviour in the classroom homework how and where to use the telephone.

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Peer Support
Peer support involves establishing support programs for specific situations in which it is expected that ESL students may have difficulty academically or socially. In these situations, it is best to choose students who are academically or socially strong and who are compatible with ESL students. Avoid having ESL students always partner with other ESL students, even if they speak the same language. Pairing students to work on subject assignments only works well if monitored. Peer support should be put in place for a finite amount of time; e.g., for a class or specific project. The goals and expectations for both students should be stated at the beginning. Consult with both students before assigning peer support and consider acknowledging student volunteers in some way. Buddying can also help ESL students begin to interact with classmates. It is important to have ESL students partner with as many different students as possible. This usually leads to friendships or working relationships within the class. Monitor the stress this may put on either student and be culturally sensitive and aware that not all ESL students, especially those at the junior high school level, are comfortable working with students of another gender.

Kindergarten Students
It is important for teachers of ESL Kindergarten students to understand that the anxiety often felt by students who are starting school for the first time is increased when they are surrounded by people who do not speak their language. Kindergarten may be the first time these children have experienced linguistic isolation. Provide support by matching ESL students with older students or siblings who speak their language. During the initial settling-in period, a translator may be necessary.

Initial Assessment
Language Proficiency Profile
Develop a profile of ESL students proficiencies in the English language. Use a range of strategies to learn about their oral and written language proficiencies. Assessment strategies that may be appropriate for students who have studied English for six years will not be appropriate for students who have never been exposed to formal English instruction. If students appear to have no previous experience with English and are unable to answer basic questions or write responses to simple questions, the assessment will be fairly brief. Classroom teachers can begin by completing checklists, collecting work samples and writing anecdotal notes. Consider that the results of initial assessments may be skewed due to the stress and dislocation students are feeling. It is important to observe ongoing classroom performance to most accurately gauge students abilities. If possible, have multilingual staff conduct interviews and assessments to obtain valuable information.

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Consider coordinating language assessments with other schools in the jurisdiction that have ESL students. Meet with other teachers to discuss strategies and procedures for assessing language proficiencies.

Oral Language Proficiency

The purpose of assessing ESL students oral language proficiencies is to gather information about how well they both understand what is said and can make themselves understood. Record students spoken English in response to any of the following activities to provide a record of their initial competencies. Listen to the recording later for specific information about students language problems. Personal Interview Conduct a basic information-gathering interview. This interview should provide ESL students with an opportunity to demonstrate both listening comprehension and the ability to use English appropriately. Allow for a variety of responses, depending on students language levels; e.g., students could: point at graphics and/or words give one word or short responses give open-ended and longer responses give responses that demonstrate knowledge of specific language structures. Questions should be age-appropriate; e.g., What is your name? Who do you live with? Where do you live? Tell me about your family. What was your school like? What was your familys trip to Canada like? What do you want to know about schools in Canada? Change this statement into a question: He came to school today.

See Appendix 1 for a Personal Profile that could be administered as an oral survey.

Picture Prompts Use pictures of familiar activities and topics; e.g., a family eating a meal at home. Ask students to talk about the pictures. Recorded Prompts Listen to a recorded sample of oral English. Play the recording two or three times, then ask comprehension questions. Use recorded prompts with a group of students or individually. Video Prompts View part of a videotape or television show. Ask questions about the segment. Ask students to describe what they saw and prompt with vocabulary, if necessary. An educational documentary works best because television shows often contain cultural references that may interfere with or complicate the assessment. ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Reading Proficiency
The purpose of assessing students written language proficiencies is to gather information about how well they read and comprehend written English and write in English. Informal Reading Inventories An informal reading inventory is designed to identify the reading levels of students whose first language is English. It usually consists of a graded word list and a series of graded passages that are to be read aloud. It may be used to obtain approximate reading levels of students who are able to read English at some level. The Burns and Roe Informal Reading Inventory is an assessment tool that measures students sight word vocabularies and passage-level reading comprehension, providing a grade level of reading ability. This inventory is administered one-on-one by reading specialists, special education teachers and/or trained classroom teachers.

Writing Proficiency
Writing proficiency assessments are used to gather information about students abilities to write in English. Writing tests are typically more informal than reading tests and generally focus on qualitative assessment. Free Writing Free writing provides students with an opportunity to demonstrate their written English. Typically, during the oral interview, students identify topics of interest; e.g., favourite sport. Have them write about a topic of interest, a short letter of introduction or a short story about a personal experience; e.g., coming to Canada. Begin with general conversation on the topic and then have students begin writing with prompts; e.g., I like because My name is and I On the way to Canada I In my culture, we celebrate

Personal Inventories and Questionnaires Depending on their proficiency, having students fill out questionnaires can provide profiles of their interests and experiences as well as writing samples.

See Appendix 1: Personal Profile for a sample questionnaire.

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Picture Prompts Picture prompts can work well when assessing writing skills. Selecting an appropriate picture is importantthe picture must depict something that fits within students cultural, political and geographical frameworks. Have students write descriptions of the pictures or stories. Begin by discussing students ideas and writing vocabulary on the board, then have students write independently. Graphic Stories For students with limited English, ask them to draw pictures of their families, favourite pastimes or their communities in their homelands or in Canada. Once the pictures are drawn, have students write a few words, phrases or sentences to accompany the pictures. Video Prompts Show a video segment of an educational documentary. Discuss the background to the segment and note vocabulary. Ask students to write a few words, phrases or sentences about what they have seen.

Standardized Tests
Standardized tests for English-speaking students are based on linguistic and cultural norms that are not appropriate for ESL students. It is possible, however, to make judicious use of some standardized tests in conjunction with other forms of assessment. Standardized tests should be used and interpreted with caution. Tests designed for ESL students should also be used with the knowledge that linguistic and cultural backgrounds may affect results. Standardized tests can provide a more detailed analysis of English language ability, especially if test results are used for placement and programming purposes. The following tests can be administered by classroom teachers trained and experienced in the use of individually administered assessment instruments. Each publisher outlines the minimum requirements for administering a specific standardized assessment tool.

The Stanford English Language Proficiency Test (Stanford ELP) Assesses language proficiency in listening, reading, writing and speaking used in academic and social situations. This test can be used at the beginning of the school year to determine programming, e.g., level of aide support, and at the end of the year to evaluate and document language acquisition. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVTIII) Measures receptive (hearing) vocabulary and verbal English language proficiency in students for whom English is not a first language. Expressive and Receptive One-word Picture Vocabulary Tests (EOWPVT, ROWPVT) Measures expressive and receptive vocabulary skills by having students name objects, actions or concepts depicted in illustrations and identify illustrations that depict a given word or phrase.

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Oral and Written Language Scales (OWLS) Measures receptive language by having students identify illustrations that depict a given word or phrase and answer questions, complete sentences or generate their own sentences in response to questions or illustrations. Canadian Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) Reading Comprehension Component Measures students vocabulary and reading comprehension through multiple choice questions. The test includes a number of levelled booklets that each provide a score at a range of grade levels. It is completed by students independently and scored by classroom teachers. GatesMacGinitie Reading Test Measures students vocabulary and reading comprehension through multiple choice questions. This test includes a number of levelled booklets and is completed by students independently and scored by classroom teachers.

ESL Student Placement

ESL students should be in age-appropriate grade placements, regardless of their language abilities. The general guideline for grade placement by age is for students to be enrolled in the designated grade for their current age. Age-appropriate grade placement is considered to be the most beneficial scenario because ESL students academic and social development are fostered when they are able to take part in the learning process with their peers. Larger, urban school districts typically have a number of designated ESL sites with congregated or partially integrated second language classrooms. Parents should be made aware of the range of available placement options so they may make informed decisions in the best interests of their children. The results of initial assessments provide teachers with information they need to plan for placement and differentiated instruction, determine appropriate teaching strategies and/or modify materials to meet the needs of ESL students in the regular classroom.

When interpreting assessment results, consider students:

background knowledge about the topics used in the assessment experience with the types of tasks used in the assessment experience using precise English vocabulary, including subject-specific terminology associated with mathematics, science and music exposure to literature and genre exposure to the English language cultural background; e.g., cultural norms for child-to-adult communication, 2 response times.

All initial assessment results should be reviewed carefully, bearing in mind that preliminary screening and ongoing assessment results may differ significantly over a short period of time. Be prepared to make necessary adjustments to ESL students programming.3
2. Adapted, with permission from the Province of British Columbia, from English as a Second Language Learners: A Guide for ESL Specialists (p. 21). 1999 Province of British Columbia. All rights reserved. 3. Ibid.

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Ongoing Monitoring of ESL Students

It is not always obvious at first which students need ESL support. It is sometimes difficult to recognize that students who have acquired some communicative competence in English, and who may have been in our school system for several years, may still require additional second language support. These are often younger students whose first language, the language of the home, is not English. Teachers must consider the varying rates of development among students and their proficiency in all modes of learning. These students may not experience difficulties until reading and writing are introduced or they may develop behavioural problems as a result of the frustration they are feeling about their circumstances. Another group that may emerge in junior high school consists of Canadian-born students whose Canadian education has been interrupted to follow the cultural traditions of their families and communities. The need for ESL support usually becomes apparent from the formative assessments of classroom teachers. It is important that these language difficulties are not confused with learning disabilities or behaviour disorders. Teachers and other school staff should be particularly sensitive to cultural differences and issues when informing parents of perceived needs. It may be judicious to consult with cultural liaison workers, where possible, before consulting with the parents.

The Adjustment Period

For some ESL students, the adjustment process takes much longer than for others. Regardless of whether ESL students are new to Canada or born in Canada, upon entering school they experience a myriad of changes that affect the way they learn and adapt to new situations.

Changes ESL students may experience include:

language environment traditions and ways of celebrating socio-economic status and social network social, cultural and personal expectations family relationships and peer support ability or opportunity to express self-identity food and recreational activities rural and/or urban living conditions expected routines, rules and behaviour at school learning and instructional styles and types of school programs.

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When ESL students experience these changes, they may exhibit a variety of behavioural, physical and emotional responses that may be confusing and frustrating for classroom teachers. In turn, the frustrations of ESL students can affect their academic performance and sense of self. Each ESL students transition into the new culture and language is as different as each individuals unique life experience. It is important to remember that the process of adjustment to a new culture varies with each child and it may take weeks, months or years before the ESL student feels reasonably comfortable in the classroom and community. Teachers need to consider the causes of any changes in behaviour, consult with the student and the parents and monitor the student, intervening whenever possible or appropriate. Sometimes it may be necessary to recommend counselling with a multicultural worker and involve interpreters in parentschool communications. All of these efforts help create a climate conducive to positive cultural adjustment and learning.

Stages of Cultural Adaptation

Note: These stages apply to ESL students who have moved to Canada, not Canadian-born ESL students.

Stage One
Often called the honeymoon stage

Students are: curious about their new culture and dedicated to learning the new language enthusiastic about becoming familiar with school routines and making friends somewhat anxious about the future optimistic about their new surroundings, new country and new opportunities excited, idealistic and eager. Feelings of excitement and elation are especially prevalent in refugees who have finally arrived safely in North America. Even though families experience the greatest stress following their initial move, they are also provided the greatest amount of resources and support at this time.

Stage Two
Occurs between 6 and 12 months after moving to a new country

Students: begin to notice significant differences between their own culture and Canadian culture and often experience homesickness enter a period of confusion, loss and disorientation that often results in depression often feel I dont really understand them and they dont really understand me experience confusion and anxiety feel depressed and isolated demonstrate withdrawal, alienation and, in some cases, aggressive behaviour avoid contact with the mainstream culture or community.

Stages of Cultural Adaptation is adapted from the Ontario Ministry of Education, The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 18: English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development: A Resource Guide (p. 8). Queens Printer for Ontario, 2001. Adapted with permission. Also adapted from The More-Than-Just-Surviving Handbook nd (p. 58), 2 edition, by Barbara Law and Mary Eckes. 2000 by Barbara Law and Mary Eckes. Adapted by permission of Portage and Main Press, 18006679673.

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In some instances, students become less competent academically and socially, compared with their initial arrival, and tend to withdraw. This stage is often characterized by: complaining wanting to be only with others who speak their language rejecting anything associated with the new culture; e.g., food, people, new language feeling depressed, irritable or angry having headaches or feeling tired all the time.

Stage Three
A period of reconstruction

Students: have more constructive attitudes and feel less anxious speak better English and understand more try new behaviours and test limits work toward resolution of their feelings and their sense of being torn between the new and the old. Students: feel that their emotional equilibrium is restored show humour and trust are able to value both old and new cultures feel that Canada is their home and accept they are here to stay.

Stage Four
May be years in coming and for some will never take place

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CHAPTER 3
Establishing the ESL Program
Chapter Summary
Cultural Considerations ESL Students with Special Education Needs Comprehensive ESL Program Delivery Organizing for Instruction Models of Program Delivery Models of Language Instruction Characteristics of Second Language Learning Creating a Successful ESL Environment

Cultural Considerations
Each ESL students culture and life experiences differs from those of other ESL students and their new classmates. In preparing to welcome new students to the school, school staff should find out as much as possible about students linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Many countries have complex linguistic environments; e.g., students from India may use two or three languages regularly. In some countries, language is a cause of political strife between people; e.g., the language of government or industry may give people access to power in some multilingual countries. In such cases, languages can be a highly charged issue. It may be a mistake to assume that because two students come from the same general geographical area, they have language and culture in common. They may have quite different backgrounds, experiences and beliefs. Sensitivity to political issues is also important. People who have been on opposing sides of political disputes in the past may now be living side-by-side in Canada. Usually they leave their political differences behind but, in some cases, long-standing rifts can affect the way people regard and interact with one another. Avoid stereotypical thinking about students backgrounds, abilities and preferences. Every country, culture and language group has diversity within it. It is important to learn from students and their families about their previous experiences, goals, expectations and abilities. Inquire and listen with an open mind.

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The Role of Culture in Second Language Learning

Impact on Communication Learning a second language often involves learning a new culture. By the time a child is five years old, the first culture is already deeply rooted. The first culture of ESL students influences their way of communicating in and learning the second language. Some ESL students avoid direct eye contact when speaking with teachers because to do so is disrespectful in their cultures; e.g., many Asian and First Nations, Mtis and Inuit (FNMI) students are not comfortable making direct eye contact. Gestures and body movements convey different meanings in different cultures. The physical distance between speaker and listener, when conversing, is an important factor in some cultures. Some students may stand close when speaking, while others may back off if they think you are too close. As the significance of even a friendly or encouraging touch is open to different cultural interpretations, it should be used cautiously if not avoided altogether. Learning how to interpret body language, facial expressions, voice tone and volume in a new language and culture takes time on the part of the learner and patience and understanding on the part of the teacher. It may take awhile before students learn the cultural cues that help them communicate more effectively and appropriately in nonverbal ways. Some ESL students may only be comfortable with same-sex teachers, depending on their customs and experiences. ESL students may not have previously studied in classrooms or schools with both male and female students. Prior knowledge of this and discussion with parents and students will help them feel more comfortable. Impact on Learning Styles Like all students, ESL students have differing personalities, cognitive abilities and educational and life experiences that influence their abilities and approach to learning. Some students take a systematic or analytical approach to second language learning. They want to know more about how the language works; e.g., rules governing grammar and spelling. These students may need longer conversational silences as they want to use language that is grammatically correct. These students tend to be shy and reserved and have difficulty making mistakes and accepting and asking for assistance. Other students are holistic in how they learn language, focusing more on getting their message across than on its delivery. These students tend to be outgoing and willing to take risks when trying to communicate. They are typically comfortable with making mistakes, receiving feedback and asking for assistance. However, they may be satisfied with lower literacy levels and require motivation to develop greater clarity in their language use. Other Learning Impacts Class discussion and participation may be foreign concepts to students of other cultures who might view volunteering answers and information a bold and immodest practice. ESL students may be shocked by the spontaneous and outspoken behaviours of their peers. They have to adjust to new teaching styles and turn-taking rules in the classroom. Students who come from schools with populations larger than those in Alberta may have learned to disappear in a large group but now feel as if their every move stands out in a 36 / Chapter 3 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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room with fewer students. It may take them some time to become comfortable in a new learning environment with new expectations and teaching styles. ESL students may be making the transition from rote memorization of facts to analytical problem solving or from total dependence to self-reliance. Discovery, trial and error and a questionanswer style of learning can be strange to students who may have been taught to believe teachers are the sole source of information and learners must accept information and not question it or volunteer opinions. Experience-based instruction with field trips may not be taken seriously by students and parents whose views of learning differ from ours. Many parents of ESL children expect their children to do a great deal of homework. Good homeschool communication is necessary to ensure mutual understanding regarding expectations.

See Appendix 2: Understanding Cultural Differences in Student Behaviour.

ESL Students with Special Education Needs

Students with special education needs have individual profiles of strengths, needs and learning styles. Some students are able to master the grade-level outcomes of the programs of study with differentiated instruction and appropriate supports and accommodations. Others have complex learning needs and require modified programming in which the learning outcomes are significantly different from the provincial curriculum and specifically selected to meet their special education needs. Students special education needs can affect language learning in a variety of ways and have a variety of implications for classroom planning and instruction. For example, these students may be less likely to participate in classroom discussion, may have difficulty formulating and expressing ideas and may find the task of writing difficult and stressful. On the other hand, these students may have strengths in other areas and may benefit from the use of accommodations; e.g., preferential seating, modifications to materials, graphic organizers, visual cues or differences in how they are expected to access information or demonstrate learning. Every student identified as having special education needs must have an Individualized Program Plan (IPP) as described in the Standards for Special Education, Amended June 2004. This IPP, usually coordinated by the students classroom teacher, contains information about the students strengths and needs, relevant medical history, coordinated support services, educational goals and objectives for the year, required accommodations and strategies and plans for transitions. A students IPP provides information for planning and adapting instruction in the classroom. Any significant modifications of curriculum are documented in the IPP. For example, a student with a severe disabling condition may have long-term goals, e.g., initiating peer and adult interactions, and would focus on short-term objectives that lead to the achievement of these communication goals. On the other hand, a student with a reading disability may be able to achieve the outcomes from the grade-level program of studies in most areas of the curriculum but may require additional support to achieve outcomes related to reading.

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IPPs also include required accommodations. An accommodation is a change in the regular way students are expected to learn, complete assignments or participate in classroom activities. Accommodations include special teaching or assessment strategies and equipment or other supports that remove or lessen the impact of students special education needs. The goal of accommodations is to give students with special education needs the same opportunities to succeed as other students. Once students are identified with special education needs, accommodations should be considered to ensure that they can access the curriculum and learn and demonstrate new knowledge to the best of their abilities. When engaging in educational planning for students with special education needs, for whom English is a second language, it is important to include an ESL specialist teacher on the IPP team. The ESL specialist teacher provides feedback on students individual needs, strengths and progress and how target goals for ESL learning can be addressed in the classroom. It may also be necessary to have a bilingual individual on the team to facilitate the homeschool liaison.4

Comprehensive ESL Program Delivery

When providing English as a Second Language (ESL) programs, school boards should recognize that an ESL program is transitional in nature. Its function is to facilitate the integration of the student into the regular school program at the earliest possible opportunity.
Alberta Education Policy 1.5.1, 2003

How ESL students are supported depends on the nature of a schools program and the number of ESL students in the school. ESL students in elementary and junior high schools are generally placed in age-appropriate classrooms with their peers. This general practice does not limit the many ways that schools and school jurisdictions organize or provide services for ESL students. School staff, based on their knowledge of ESL students in the school, determine the best ways to plan ESL programming. ESL support should be adjusted on the basis of an ongoing review of student performance. If the review determines that a student is functioning at the appropriate age and grade level, given commensurate abilities, the student may no longer require ESL services. This does not preclude the student receiving ESL services in the future should the need arise. Over time, it is expected that support levels will diminish as students progress successfully in a fully integrated program. When a student is not progressing toward independence in the curriculum, a more extensive assessment of student needs should occur; e.g., being tested in his or her native tongue. Providing a comprehensive ESL program is a whole-school responsibility designed to promote ESL students academic and communicative competence in English. The needs of ESL learners are best met when teachers work collaboratively to differentiate or modify programs, provide explicit ESL instruction and create an environment of cultural competence.

4. Adapted, with permission from the Province of British Columbia, from English as a Second Language Learners: A Guide for Classroom Teachers (p. 22). 1999 Province of British Columbia. All rights reserved.

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Components of a comprehensive ESL program include:

differentiated instruction explicit ESL instruction cultural competence.

Program organization and delivery vary considerably among Alberta schools, depending on such factors as: students levels of proficiency students previous learning experiences and knowledge students network of support for learning the number of ESL students in the school the resources available in the school, within the school jurisdiction and in the community.

Differentiation
Differentiation takes place when teachers attend to the outcomes outlined in the Alberta programs of study but alter the assessment tasks, learner tasks or teaching strategies to reflect the unique needs of ESL students. Teachers also include effective, well-established ESL and language strategies that involve ESL student participation and facilitate academic success. (For more information, see Chapter 5: Differentiated Instruction for ESL Students.)

Explicit ESL Instruction

Explicit ESL instruction refers to the intentional teaching of language form, function and vocabulary. Explicit ESL instruction addresses aspects of language arts that are especially problematic for ESL students; e.g., fluency, pronunciation, construction and activation of background knowledge. Explicit ESL instruction can be a part of the school day when teachers are intentional in the shaping of lessons, groupings, learning activities or one-on-one interactions to reflect the specific language and conceptual understandings unique to young second language learners. Explicit ESL instruction should take place in authentic contexts and promote communicative competence. Academic competence refers to the ability to engage in cognitively challenging, developmentally appropriate learning tasks aligned with Alberta programs of study. To achieve academic competence, ESL students English language proficiency must extend beyond Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) to include Cognitive and Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

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Organizing for Instruction

ESL students are generally placed in age-appropriate classrooms. If the school has several classrooms at the same grade, principals consider the best placement for ESL students, based on teacher training and experience, the composition of the receiving classroom and the scheduling of additional personnel. The first priority is to place ESL students with peers. Within that framework, classroom teachers, either independently or collaboratively with other teachers, teacher assistants or volunteers, differentiate or modify programs, provide explicit ESL instruction as required and create an environment that supports cultural competence. Consider the following steps when organizing for instruction at all grade levels.

Step 1: Know the students

Collect information about ESL students, as described in Chapter 2.

Step 2: Gather resources

Resources include both materials and personnel. Personnel at the school and within the jurisdiction may be called upon to assist teachers in providing appropriate programming for students. The need for additional personnel support may be apparent when students first arrive or at a later date. There is no wrong time to ask for support. Resources are available for specific subject areas. A list of resources reviewed and authorized by Alberta Education for senior high school is available at http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/ESL/default.asp. The list includes student basic and support resources and authorized teaching resources. Some of the teaching resources provide useful information for teachers of Kindergarten to Grade 9 ESL students. Depending on the language levels of students, consider using and modifying resources already available in the subject areas. Most resources in Division I are equally effective for ESL and non-ESL students. Materials adapted for ESL learners of junior high school age are more appropriate than using Division I materials. There are, however, some visuals that may be appropriate if younger children are not included in the illustrations. Teachers of adolescent students must be particularly sensitive to their reactions to using resources from earlier grades. Visuals, audio and tactile resources are valuable when working with students with minimal language skills at any grade level. All resources in the school should be reviewed for gender, racial and cultural bias on a regular basis. Resources should reflect the cultures and backgrounds of students in the school. When possible, allocate budget funds for the purchase of inclusive resources.

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When selecting materials for ESL learners, consider:

themes and topics are developmentally appropriate content is interesting and stimulating language level is slightly above the students language proficiency level material is appropriately sequenced natural, authentic-sounding language is used consistent language patterns and structures are presented idiomatic and colloquial language are avoided pictures and illustrations support and enhance the text material reflects Canadas cultural and ethnic diversity countries, cultures and traditions are presented accurately without stereotyping.

Step 3: Organize the information

Organize the information collected in Step 1. Some teachers use charts to organize information about ESL students, the school and the community, such as the sample chart provided on the following page. This information should travel with students as they move through the grades.

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ESL Student Information

Considerations
How are students grouped: by proficiency level in mixed proficiency levels in ad-hoc groups, as necessary?

Students Name:

Comments

What language proficiency levels are represented?

What are students previous educational experiences: in their countries of origin in Canada in this school?

What other subject areas are students participating in?

What resourceshuman, print, media, technologyare available in the school?

What space is available in the school?

What community resources are available: educational programs and resources in other community institutions organizations (museums, zoos, environmental organizations, libraries)? What collaborative possibilities are available?

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Models of Program Delivery

The style of program delivery favoured by individual schools varies according to funding, the supports coded ESL students require, the nature of the school and the resources available. Schools with larger populations of ESL students will have, through time, acquired the staff and resources to support new ESL students. Even if there is only one ESL student in a school, it is the responsibility of the school staff to determine and provide the most effective help available.

Consider these factors when setting up a program delivery model:

English language level of students family support and English language level of parents number of ESL students in the school availability of trained ESL teachers, teacher assistants and specialists availability of resources and materials availability of appropriate instructional space.

ESL programs must be flexible and responsive to meet the ever-changing needs of current ESL populations. The number and demographics of the ESL student population affect programming choices schools and jurisdictions make.

Inclusion
Inclusion is a method of program delivery that follows the inclusion model, also called inclusive education, in which students work alongside their same-aged peers but may receive extra support or be provided with accommodations and/or program modifications.

Self-contained Classes
Self-contained classes are methods of program delivery where students are grouped according to ability or need and work collectively on a modified program with levels of support that differ from those in mainstream classes.

Organizing an Inclusive Program

Inclusion, the placement of ESL students in age-appropriate grades and classrooms, is the model of ESL program delivery most commonly used in Kindergarten to Grade 9 in Alberta. This model allows students to progress academically and socially while learning the English language. Support systems are established to ensure ESL students are able to experience success regardless of their placement. Research shows that students acquire language readily when they are fully involved in all learning activities in the classroom. In an inclusive environment, teachers provide accommodations that allow ESL students to experience success with the regular curriculum and, in situations where that is not enough, provide modified (adapted) activities, lessons, resources and assessment strategies. Students require varying lengths of time and levels of support to acquire the English-language skills necessary to progress independently through the regular program. In inclusive programs, teachers ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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must think about ways to meet the individual needs of ESL students in the classroom within the context of teaching the regular program. It requires collaboration and communication among staff and between staff and the families of ESL students.

Suggestions for Successfully Including ESL Students

Stress accommodation over modification; e.g., maintain the original concept or intent of the lesson but focus on the minimum content you would like the ESL student to learn. Identify specific skills, concepts and processes that the ESL student could learn or participate in. Select relevant vocabulary that the student must understand. Make activities meaningful and lessons simple and sequential. Design related learning activities at the students ability level. Plan time for individual and small group work as part of every class. You and/or other students can then provide assistance to the ESL student in a way that does not disrupt the flow of a lesson or activity. Organize ongoing, self-directed activities, e.g., vocabulary practice, quiet reading, books on tape, for the ESL student to work on when the rest of the class is moving on to activities and lessons involving more complex language.

Pull-out support, one-on-one and small group instruction apart from the rest of the class are common additions to inclusion. They are appropriate for students who show progress in the grade-level program but require assistance to reinforce their language and/or cognitive development. Although pull-out classes are more common at the elementary grades, more are appearing at the junior high school level as the number of ESL students increase in schools. The amount of support depends on student needs and school resources.

Organizing a Self-contained Program

Self-contained programs are typically cross-graded, with students across two or three grades working together for all or part of the school day. To provide opportunities for students to maintain social connections with their English-speaking peers, it is important to locate the classrooms close together and integrate students whenever possible. ESL students should be able to participate in nonacademic classes, school spirit activities and field trips alongside their English-speaking peers. Allowing students to leave self-contained classes in their grade groups provides blocks of time ESL teachers can dedicate to working directly with the other grade groups in the class. It is unusual for ESL students in Division I, II or III to be placed in self-contained classes on a full-time basis. This is especially true for ESL students in Kindergarten and Grade 1, where their English-speaking peers also receive direct instruction in reading and the basics of writing. It is important to remember, however, that ESL students who enter Canadian schools at an early age often need specific language supports because they have not learned the formal rules of their first language or developed an extensive vocabulary they can translate as they learn English. In the other grades, it is typical for ESL students to receive explicit language instruction for part of the day, in a self-contained setting or pull-out situation, and to learn language implicitly through interaction with their peers during nonacademic classes. 44 / Chapter 3 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Suggestions for Establishing a Successful Self-contained Class

Create an environment that looks like other classrooms and contains the same furniture and resources as other rooms in the school. Focus on differentiated instruction for students based on language/academic competence rather than age/grade placement. Provide real/natural opportunities for integration into mainstream classes and be open to flexible scheduling for integration. Foster an atmosphere of community and mutual support by planning whole-class activities and experiences.

The goal, over time, is to have students fully integrate with their same-aged, Englishspeaking peers. Teachers can help to ease the transition process by increasing integration as students English language skills develop. Integration into academic classes can, and likely should, happen on a subject-by-subject basis. ESL students with strengths in particular content areas should be integrated in those classes first. A common example of this is the strengths that many students have in mathematics, especially in Division III. Once ESL students are comfortable with the English language around them, they should be able to experience success with content in the regular classroom. Partial integration can be organized in a variety of ways. One option is to establish a revolving-door scenario in which the ESL class changes throughout the day as students in each grade move in and out for academic and nonacademic courses. This scenario can be quite effective as it allows for integration in manageable pieces, although its transitory nature may be unappealing for some teachers. Other options include having students spend half-days with their grade groups or be integrated for particular activities but not necessarily for all nonacademic classes. Class sizes and subject schedules are important considerations in schools where congregated classes are integrated on a part-time basis. In situations where integration is difficult or impossible, ESL teachers have the added responsibility of organizing self-contained classes in ways that allow for differentiated instruction within the group and opportunities for students to interact with English-speaking children in other settings.

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Models of Language Instruction

Explicit Instruction
Explicit instruction is a teaching model that focuses on systematic language instruction with direct teaching of the rules of language structure and usage. Explicit language instruction also addresses fluency and pronunciation.

Implicit Instruction
Implicit instruction is a teaching model that relies on incidental, or embedded, language learning. It is expected that students will learn to speak, read and write in English as a by-product of participation in general learning experiences.

Explicit Instruction
There is a time, place and need for explicit language instruction within self-contained and inclusive age-appropriate classrooms. When there are recurring problems in an ESL students English language development, the general approach is to provide explicit language instruction. Explicit ESL instruction can be a part of the school day when teachers intentionally shape lessons, groupings, learning activities or one-on-one interactions with ESL students to reflect the specific language and conceptual understandings that are unique to young second language learners. Explicit ESL instruction should take place in authentic contexts and promote communicative competence. Not all ESL students require explicit instruction in all areas. Explicit instruction should be provided only in those areas where students show a need. For example, some ESL students do not need instruction on the use of pronouns as the patterns in their first language are similar to English. Other ESL students may need formal instruction, as well as practice, to use and understand pronouns.

Making Explicit Language Instruction Possible in an Integrated Setting

Create language learning centres where, after an initial introduction, students can work through language development activities in a self-directed manner. As a review, plan language-based games in which English-speaking students will enjoy participating but that will also serve as learning experiences for ESL students. Work one-on-one with ESL students while the rest of the class works on independent tasks. Be creative with parent volunteers and peer-support opportunities.

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Division I
Compared to older ESL students, students in Division I have less of a gap between language and academic learning. Canadian-born ESL students have even less to learn and adapt to. It is often assumed their progress is automatic and they do not require formal instruction on the part of teachers. This is not the case. There may be little need for formal ESL instruction but there may be a greater need for enrichment and support to make up for minimal experiences with language and culture. Cultural differences may be the most significant area of learning for foreign-born ESL students in Division I. Teachers must be sensitive to how students cultures and personalities affect learning. Ongoing communication with parents, through an interpreter if necessary, is important to ensure the optimum learning environment for ESL students and the other students in the classroom. The most common practice in Alberta is for homeroom teachers to provide the assistance and modifications necessary to meet the needs of ESL students and the curriculum. Classroom teachers may have classroom assistants who provide in-class or pull-out assistance for students on a limited basis.

Division I Explicit Language Instruction

In Division I, language instruction is incorporated in all learning and most ESL students do not require additional assistance. Often extra instruction, if needed, is provided in a pull-out class.

Division II
In Division II, the needs of ESL students become a combination of both language and course content. The more similar an ESL students educational and cultural background is to the education and culture in Alberta, the less assistance and support the student will need. If, however, a student has limited or no previous schooling and no exposure to English, more program support may be required. Some Alberta school districts with larger ESL populations operate orientation centres or provide the services of onsite ESL teachers or consultants who will work with students. Other districts provide support for teachers through in-servicing or school visits. When scheduling pull-out time, consider how important it is for ESL students to be part of English language arts classes, even if their work is differentiated or modified. They are able to learn much from the language modelling of teachers and students whose first language is English. Research indicates that the first year of English study is the most effective and scheduling pull-out time during other subjects or option times is recommended. ESL students should be included in any noncore subject area that is hands-on; e.g., art, music or physical education. It is often easier for ESL students to be successful in English language acquisition if they are strong in other areas. ESL students may also excel early and achieve easily in nonacademic subjects with minimal second language involvement. Although it is expected that program outcomes will need to be adjusted, these activities provide a fertile base for language acquisition and social interaction.

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Consider the implications of scheduling pull-out time at the beginning or end of the school day. It is important for ESL students to have time to connect with peers in homeroom class. This is usually the time of general school and class announcementsinformation ESL students need to function as members of the classroom.

Division II Explicit Language Instruction

In Division II, ESL students, depending on their previous education, may or may not require explicit language instruction in addition to what is already in the curriculum. Classroom teachers, whenever possible, should use materials developed for students grade levels, rather than materials from Division I.

Division III
Depending on the organization of the junior high school and the junior high school program, many of the practices in Division II also apply to Division III. The challenges are the increasing use of language specific to the curriculum, as opposed to conversational English, and the specific course content of the curriculum. ESL students with an equivalent education in their first language have a large subject-specific language base to acquire. ESL students with limited education must acquire not only the language but the concepts they are studying. There is a growing need for explicit ESL instruction at this level. The amount and nature of this instruction varies from district to district and school to school. The number and needs of ESL students in the jurisdiction or school determine the particular programming model that is used. Schools with few ESL students often use a pull-out or tutorial type of assistance, depending on the English and educational levels of students. Jurisdictions and schools with larger numbers of ESL students may have schools designated as ESL centres that have classes taught by ESL teachers for explicit ESL instruction. Other districts may have itinerant ESL teachers who provide classes in several schools. Other schools, by nature of their location (e.g., colony schools) or population (e.g., inner city schools), may have ESL programming built into their core curriculum. It is important to recognize that ESL instruction is the responsibility of all subject teachers, not just English language arts or ESL teachers. Each teacher is responsible for modifying the curriculum and learning and using specific teaching strategies to meet the needs of ESL students. The most effective program is one that is developed and delivered by all teachers collaboratively. Division III is also a time when cultural and social issues may become more relevant to ESL students and their families. Open communication among teachers, parents and members of the community facilitate tolerance and understanding.

Division III Explicit Language Instruction

In Division III, the need for explicit language instruction will become apparent quickly and can be used to support learning in all content areas.

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Implicit Instruction
Teachers can plan for and enhance incidental language learning through careful selection of resources and the planning and delivery of lessons. Teachers with ESL students, or others who struggle with literacy, should select resources carefully to provide a range of materials that are accessible to all students and plan lessons that include opportunities for language development. In implicit instruction, emphasis is placed on: the appropriate use of language rather than the ability to form grammatically correct sentences understanding the general communicative intent of the speaker or writer teaching language in a way that reflects how language is used in real-life communication.

Planning for Implicit Language Instruction

Teach vocabulary as part of lessons. Create a print-rich environment with word walls, posters and other displays. Create a multilevelled classroom library with reference and reading materials that reflect curricular topics. Plan for mediated reading experiences; e.g., support student reading of texts through read-alouds, group-guided reading.

Explicit instruction focuses on the phonology, morphology and syntax of the English language, whereas implicit instruction focuses on how to use English in meaningful and realistic ways. In terms of communicative competence, which is the ultimate goal of ESL students, implicit instruction is crucial for developing students abilities to use language appropriately, both receptively and productively, in real situations.

Characteristics of Second Language Learning

Language plays a significant role in learning and personal development and is integral to our cultural identities.

ESL students need to:

develop English language competence through meaningful activities that build on what they already know and can do in their first language or their previous study of English learn to use language to think and learn within and across content areas and in an environment enhanced by interaction with others develop an understanding of the cultural meanings inherent in the English language.

Regardless of their previous education or language backgrounds, all second language learners undergo similar characteristics when learning a new languagesome more apparent in conversation, others in written language.

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Silent Period
When learning a new language, students need to spend a period of time listening and internalizing the new system. Some students prefer to stay silent for a period of anywhere from one to six months before they are ready to speak. During this silent period, although it is best to refrain from forcing children to talk or read orally, every effort should be made to have students give minimal responses or respond in one-on-one situations with teachers. Some students may begin speaking right away, depending on their personalities and previous language experiences.

Interlanguage
Like children learning English as a first language, second language learners must experiment with new structures in English and learn from their mistakes. Their English will constantly change as they try to approximate native proficiency. Grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary errors are a natural part of second language learners unique and continually evolving language (their interlanguage) and should be accepted. It is common that the first words and phrases learned in a language are expletives because of the emotional impact of these expressions and the frustration experienced by second language learners.

Interference
Errors students make during second language development may be directly attributed to the influence of the structure and vocabulary of their first languages. It is natural to use knowledge of the first language system to work out patterns in the second language. Interference can occur in pronunciation, sentence structure or vocabulary choice; e.g., I will take a bus, when the intended message is, I will take a bath. (Japanese has no /th/ so /s/ is substituted.) That person is sensible, when the intended message is, That person is sensitive. (The French word for sensitive is sensible.)

Interference occurs more often when students try to translate from the first language to English, or vice versa, or when students try to use more complex second language structures to express abstract feelings and ideas. This indicates that students are relying on what is already known about structures from the first language. This is a natural, positive aspect of second language learning.

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Entrenched Errors
Some students, depending on their age, first language background and language learning environment, may continue to make errors that have been repeatedly corrected, even when they become fluent speakers of English. Their errors have become so automatic that they are entrenched. Such errors are not likely to change without explicit language instruction and extensive practice and correction. This is a natural phenomenon of second language development.

Code Switching
Sometimes, students switch from English to their first language, or vice versa, in mid-conversation or mid-sentence. This may occur initially in the second language acquisition process or later on, depending on what the student is trying to say, to whom and in what situation. This can be common in second language development and should not be interpreted as confusion of the two languages. In fact, code switching often indicates facility with both languages.

See Appendix 3: General Language Characteristics of ESL Students

Role of the First Language

Current research supports the notion that maintaining students first languages assists cognitive development and second language learning. When students have already developed concepts in the first language, it is easier for them to map this knowledge onto the second language than to learn new concepts in addition to a new language. For example, a student who already understands the concept of worldview will only have to learn the English terminology. Conversely, a student who is unfamiliar with the concept first has to decipher the unfamiliar academic language and then try to understand the concept. Such a complex task often breaks down along the way and results in the student failing to understand. First language assistance should be provided, whenever possible, through same-language peer tutors, bilingual classroom assistants, volunteers, bilingual books and dictionaries. While many second language errors can be attributed to a first language, this type of interference does not slow down student progress. In the past, students were often discouraged from using their first language in school and were encouraged to use the second language as much as possible, including at home. This practice negates childrens cultural and linguistic backgrounds and implies learning can happen only in English. Fortunately, students are now encouraged to continually utilize and develop their first language, as this supports age-appropriate cognitive development.

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By promoting first language use, teachers can enhance second language learning. They can:
ensure that as much first-language support is available as possible in the form of same-language buddies, dual language books and bilingual dictionaries promote a positive attitude toward the languages of all students in the class by finding opportunities to share ESL students first languages and cultures in the classroom make the classroom multilingual and reflect cultural and linguistic diversity in signs and pictures around the room encourage students to write in their own language at the beginning stages of learning and later when writing something for which they lack English educate colleagues and administrators as to the role of first languages and try to dispel the notion that minority language children fail because they do not speak English outside the school environment assure parents that their children should continue to speak the first language at home. Some parents may think they help their children by speaking only English at home, even though they are more comfortable and fluent in their first language. This may result in providing a limited model of English to the child. Parents should be encouraged to use their first language at home to discuss content learned at school.

Creating a Successful ESL Environment

To create a supportive environment, teachers need to consider both the emotional and academic needs of ESL students. While people often think of young children as being highly adaptable, ESL students are dealing with many dramatic changes. They must adjust to a new culture, new educational and social system, foreign physical environment and, very likely, a different socio-economic status. International or non-Canadian students may arrive with strong first and second language literacy backgrounds or may have experienced educational gaps, due to war or trauma in their home countries. Some ESL students, e.g., students in home-stay programs, may have to cope with these issues without family support. Junior high school ESL students have not only these changes to deal with but also the maturation process. They are dealing with issues related to self-identity, sexuality, long-term goal planning and social skill development. ESL students whose family values, lifestyles, cultures and behaviour patterns differ from the larger Canadian society may experience conflict and anxiety due to peer pressure. ESL adolescents often take on adult responsibilities, especially if their English language proficiency is greater than their parents. Junior high school ESL students also, more commonly than their peers, either work outside of the home to provide financial support for the family or help siblings as parents struggle with issues at home.

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Creating a supportive learning environment enables ESL students to develop and maintain their sense of self-worth and preserve pride in their heritage, while learning English and other subjects and becoming part of the school community. A classroom organized to promote second language learning is crucial. Such a classroom considers both physical and psychological factors, from different types of desk arrangements to different ways of participating in group work. Settling-in Time ESL students need a period of time to watch, listen and absorb the new world around them before becoming active participants. Seat new students toward the front of the room but not in the first row. ESL students should be seated where they can best see and hear the teacher. Close proximity also allows teachers to be more aware of the progress and needs of ESL students. ESL students also need to be able to observe other students for clues as to what they should be doing. Provide Individual Attention New ESL students need a little time with the teacher each day until they have made connections with their peers. Students with little spoken English may need the assistance of ESL specialists, resource room teachers or teacher assistants. The older the student and the less English and previous education, the greater the need for additional assistance. Teach the student some survival phrases; e.g., Where is ? May I ? Hello Goodbye I do not understand.

Make sure students know their telephone numbers, addresses and how to get home safely.

Becoming Culturally Sensitive Educators

A safe and caring school environment reflects respect and appreciation for all cultures. Staff and students work together to ensure the physical setting is a welcoming place for all students and parents. In an inclusive school community, the message is clear that cultures of ESL students are valued and important. Such a message is vital to reinforcing students sense of self-concept and belonging. This can be accomplished a number of ways.

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Strategies for Creating a Welcoming School Environment

Find out as much as possible about the cultures represented in the classroom and community. Ensure that the school is culturally inclusive visually. Displays should represent various backgrounds, cultures, religions and lifestyles. Emphasize the everyday rather than the exotic; e.g., display pictures of a family celebrating Diwali in a Canadian context or a mosque with a city skyline in the background. Bilingual and first-language books and dictionaries, and books written by authors from different cultures, should be part of the school library. Review materials in the school library regularly to ensure they are culturally appropriate. Seasonal, holiday and artistic displays in the classroom and school should reflect the cultural composition of the school. If cultural and faith celebrations are honoured within the school, they should be inclusive of all members of the school community. Encourage school staff members to decorate their workspace with items that reflect their cultural background.

Developing Cultural Competence

Cultural competence is
the ability to work effectively across cultures in a way that acknowledges and respects the culture of the person or organization being served. culture is defined as the integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes thoughts, communication, action, customs, beliefs, values and instructions of a racial, ethnic, religious or social group.
Hanley 1999, pp. 910

Becoming a culturally sensitive teacher and creating a supportive learning environment are the first steps to incorporating multiculturalism in everyday teaching practices. Respect for other cultures is a set of beliefs and practices that pervades everything from policy, philosophy, action plans and hiring practices to curriculum content and classroom practice.

Cultural competence is evident when:

there are strong partnerships with parents of ESL learners ESL students feel validated and accepted in the learning environment the learning community values cultural and linguistic diversity and embodies principles of equity.

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In classrooms, respecting diverse cultures can help create culturally thoughtful students. This process begins by focusing on developing and reinforcing self-esteem and positive self-concept in all students. The following objectives can be integrated across the curriculum.

Culturally competent students are able to:

demonstrate pride by sharing information about their cultures show an interest in learning about other cultures identify different cultural groups in the community and in Canada and describe the similarities and differences among these groups apply critical skills to solve problems in the school and community caused by stereotypical thinking and prejudice.

Achieving these objectives requires carefully planned teaching experiences and classrooms in which students work together in a cooperative learning environment, using a culturally inclusive curriculum. Teachers in all subject areas can reflect the cultures of all students in some way. The English language arts program should contain literature that introduces culturally diverse characters and a variety of perspectives. Authors from various Canadian traditions and from around the world should be included. Music and musical instruments from a variety of traditions should be incorporated into the music program. Games and sports from various cultures should be part of physical education. Art should reflect a variety of styles from around the world.

Organizing for Success in the Classroom

Organizing the classroom to provide maximum opportunity for interaction is important for all students and is especially so for learning a second language. ESL students learn how to communicate successfully through purposeful interaction with peers. ESL students need opportunities to practise language in a wide variety of contexts and in all content areas.

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The following suggestions are important components for developing a rich learning environment.

Strategies for Developing Language-rich Environments Organize for collaboration and interaction. ESL students need purposeful
interaction with English-speaking peers in order to learn English. This occurs during pair or group work when students work together to solve problems in experiential, hands-on learning situations. Plan for student interest. Plan activities that consider students interests, learning styles and diverse educational and cultural backgrounds. Students are interested and motivated when they can bring something they already know to new learning experiences. Incorporate previous experience and abilities (linguistic, social, cultural). ESL students bring diverse linguistic, social and cultural experiences to their learning. Teachers need to facilitate students use of these experiences. For example, when students are examining communities in the world in social studies class, ESL students with little oral proficiency can share photographs and artifacts from their countries of origin. Offer a variety of meaningful choices. Provide students with a variety of forms of collaboration, activities with different purposes and topics appealing to diverse student experiences. Organize a range of familiar and novel experiences to use and augment the previous cultural experiences of students. ESL students can learn to communicate successfully across a wide variety of social settings only if they learn language through exposure to and practise of communication in diverse settings. Use key ideas across the curriculum. Language and concept development occur simultaneously when teachers use integrated learning activities in the classroom. In this manner, language and concepts are continually introduced and reinforced in a connected way, providing continuity of learning for all students as well as necessary reiteration for ESL students. Provide support. ESL students require structured support to help them cope with the language demands of learning in a school context. Teacher assistants or volunteers can be helpful. Team planning and collaboration with ESL specialists or resource teachers can also provide useful support.

Special Considerations
In planning instruction, teachers work to ensure that all ESL students make smooth and timely transitions into regular programming. Classroom teachers need to be aware of circumstances of ESL students that may affect English language learning. Refugee students may have suffered extreme hardship and trauma before arriving in Canada. This may affect their learning and adjustment to the school situation. These students may have no formal education. The entire family may be dealing with issues of loss and dislocation. Teachers should consider making referrals to appropriate social agencies. Teachers can usually get assistance in this area from administrative or district staff.

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Be sensitive to community practices, whether working in urban or rural areas or with students and families of various religions. While the ESL program must help students meet the outcomes of programs of study, teachers should choose vocabulary and materials that meet community expectations. Teachers of First Nations, Mtis and Inuit (FNMI) and Francophone students should consider using textbooks and activities that reflect their unique cultures and histories. When other materials are being used, they should be reviewed for cultural bias. Keep in mind that international students may be away from their families for the first time. They may be living with paid guardians and may miss their families and homes. In larger urban areas, ESL classes may consist of one cultural group or many different groups. Teachers are not expected to know everything about each cultural group but to be sensitive and respond to the needs of all ESL students.

Use of the First Language

ESL students first languages should be valued in classrooms to help students maintain their confidence and sense of self-worth. Encouraging students to share their languages with Canadian-born peers is important. ESL students can demonstrate their writing systems, teach calligraphy or read from first-language literature books. Teachers and students can share stories and readers theatre from different cultures. Continued maintenance of first languages is critical. Students who have a strong cognitive base for their own language can more easily transfer concepts to the new one. Parents should be encouraged to use the first language at home in meaningful discussions with their children. They need to know that they are not disadvantaging their children if they do not speak English at home, especially if their knowledge of English is limited.

Develop Language Routines and Encourage Involvement

ESL students start to feel more comfortable as soon as they have learned a few simple greetings and understand simple instructions. Introduce new learning activities in structured ways. In daily lessons, use consistent language patterns and cues when conducting opening routines; e.g., the date, weather conditions or general greetings. The same routines that help all the students in class will help ESL students. Maintain consistency as much as possible. It is not necessary to repeat the exact same sentences every day. A variety of forms will help ESL students understand more of the language outside the classroom.

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Tips for Communicating with ESL Students

Be conscious of your oral language. Slow down your speech slightly and use longer, but still natural, pauses. Focus on speaking clearly, enunciating naturally and using the natural rhythm and flow of language. Focus on using intonation, volume and pauses to enhance meaning. Modify the content. Use shorter, less complex sentences and names rather than pronouns. Be aware of any idioms or slang you use and explain them. Embed new language, ideas and concepts in a familiar context. Repeat and paraphrase key ideas, emphasizing essential information. Use visuals that support communication. Use concrete materials; e.g., manipulatives, diagrams and real-life objects. Use nonverbal communication; e.g., gestures, pantomime and facial expressions. Set a positive tone. Encourage students to communicate and interact with others. Build on what students already know and encourage them to make positive connections to their prior knowledge and experiences. Be enthusiastic, understanding and patient, making students comfortable with taking chances and experimenting with language.

A well-designed classroom with specific displays enriches the learning of ESL students. Labelling everyday objects in an elementary class helps all students in the class but such labelling in a junior high school class may embarrass ESL students. Bilingual picture dictionaries may replace the need for labelling common classroom objects. Older students may carry bilingual dictionaries with them from class to class to translate key words or phrases. It is important that students do not always attempt to translate word-for-word from their first language to English or vice versa, as this seems to slow progress in the immersion situation. Encourage students to use their first languages in journals, dictionaries, word lists and for making notes until they feel comfortable with English. Using their first language creates a foundation of knowledge and skills upon which to build English proficiency.

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To encourage student involvement, ensure:

language is used in a natural way, in real and practical contexts classroom activities regularly provide opportunities for listening and speaking learning activities integrate the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing opportunities for acquiring new vocabulary are always available and are related to curriculum areas opportunities for interesting conversation with English-speaking peers are provided on a regular basis mistakes are accepted as part of learning the purpose of various oral communication, reading and writing tasks is clear to the learner students are given time to process the new language and are not expected to speak it until they are ready (but are encouraged to respond even with improper grammar).

General Tips for Teachers of ESL Students

Use comprehensible input.
Facilitate the learning process by providing modified teacher talk or comprehensible input. Comprehensible input is language that is just a little beyond the learners current level of understanding. Strategies for using comprehensible input follow. Modify the way you speak but not to the point where you speak unnaturally slow or in fragmented English. Choose simple, straightforward words that are in everyday use and avoid complex structures and idioms. Repeat the same sentence pattern when giving instructions or asking questions. Use short, affirmative sentences (no negatives) as they are easiest for new learners of English to understand. Complex sentences and passive verb constructions pose a greater challenge. For example, instead of saying, The homework must be completed and handed in by Friday, it would be better to say, You must finish the work and give it to me on Friday. Reintroduce new words in a different context or use recently learned words to introduce or expand a concept. Gestures, facial expressions and mime help learners grasp the meaning of what you are saying. Be aware, however, that some gestures, e.g., pointing, may have negative meanings in some cultures.

Many of the General Tips for Teachers of ESL Students are adapted, with permission from the Province of British Columbia, from English as a Second Language Learners: A Guide for Classroom Teachers (pp. 1820). 1999 Province of British Columbia. All rights reserved.

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Employ different vocalizations, vary volume and intonation, be aware of your manner of delivery in terms of clarity and speech and pause to allow processing time for listeners. Provide additional wait time for students to hear, understand and formulate responses to questions. Write key words on the board and use visual and other nonverbal cues, wherever possible, to present key ideas. Concrete objects, charts, maps, pictures, photographs, gestures and facial expressions form an important complement to oral explanations for ESL students.

Teach the language of subject areas.

In some subjects, students not only encounter specialized vocabulary but also language structures that occur with high frequency in that subject. Passive construction, though not frequently used in everyday discourse, is extensively used to describe processes in subjects such as science and social studies; e.g., the experiment was carried out, the logs are felled and floated downstream, the ballots are counted. Subject-specific vocabulary also includes many words that have difficult meanings in specific contexts; e.g., mass has more than one meaning, including its specific and precise meaning in physics. ESL students need to have these words explained in context. The dictionary generally lists common meanings of words first, which may increase the learners confusion.

Rephrase idioms or teach their meaning.

ESL students often translate idiomatic expressions literally; e.g., if a teacher says, Run that by me again, ESL students may be confused by the literal interpretation. If someone uses an expression like this, rephrase it so that ESL students can attach meaning to it. Post a list of the weeks idioms for students.

Clearly mark transitions during classroom activities.

To avoid confusing ESL students when changing topic or focus, explicitly signal the changes; e.g., First we will, Now its time for Articulate explanations and expectations explicitly and completely.

Give clear instructions.

Number and label the steps in activities. Reinforce oral instructions for homework and projects with written outlines to help students who may not be able to process oral instruction quickly enough to understand fully.

Periodically check to ensure ESL students understand.

ESL students may be reluctant to ask for clarification or to admit they do not understand something when asked directly. To check for understanding, focus on students body language, watching for active listening behaviours or for expressions or posture that indicate confusion or frustration.

Provide written notes, summaries, instructions and prereading.

ESL students may not be able to process oral information quickly enough to make their own meaningful notes. Provide notes that highlight key ideas, new words and written instructions when assigning homework or major projects.

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Use students first languages to check comprehension and clarify problems.

If teachers or classmates speak the first languages of ESL students, use the first language to clarify instructions, provide translations of key words that are difficult to explain in English and discover what the students know but cannot express in English. Most ESL students only need this additional support for a limited time or in rare situations. Research indicates that the more highly developed students first languages, the more successful they will be in acquiring a second language. In fact, bilingual learners who continue to develop their first languages have more success than those who focus entirely on acquiring English. There are also many benefits for students self-esteem in knowing their primary languages are valued.

Communicate interest in students linguistic development and set expectations.

Recognizing that all students use language to both grasp and formulate ideas, let ESL students know that their progress in learning English is important. Evaluate and provide feedback on this learning as well as on other aspects of their learning related to particular subjects.

Respond to students language errors.

When students use incorrect grammar or pronunciation, rephrase their responses to model correct usage without drawing specific attention to the errors. For example, in responding to students written errors, focus on consistent errors of a specific type, e.g., lack of plural endings, and concentrate on modelling or correcting only those errors. If each and every error is targeted, students may become confused and overwhelmed. Focus on content first.

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CHAPTER 4
Teaching and Learning Strategies
Chapter Summary
Identifying the Literacy / Language Levels of Individual Students Integrating Language and Content Other ESL Teaching Strategies Lesson and Activity Ideas Level 1: Pre-beginner Level 2: Beginner Level 3: Intermediate Level 4: Advanced Strategies for Students with Special Needs ESL Students and Technology in the Classroom

Identifying the Literacy / Language Levels of Individual Students

In teaching ESL students, the big picture is the same as it is for all students. Teach every student based on his or her developmental level and identify and address the needs of each student. Teaching students based on their developmental levels involves determining their current levels of functioning and then structuring instructional programs at those levels. Test results help determine students levels of functioning but are not an exact science. Determining students levels of functioning often comes down to the best guess of the professionals involved. Instructional programs should be adjusted through trial and error. It is important to try a variety of strategies and activities and repeat and expand on those with the greatest effectas with any teaching practice. Use of strategies should not be based on age but on students language development in 5 both first and second languages. ESL students can be loosely grouped into four levels.

5. The charts and levels on the following pages (pp. 6475) are adapted from the Ontario Ministry of Education, The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 18: English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development: A Resource Guide (pp. 2831, 3336, 3841). Queens Printer for Ontario, 2001. Adapted with permission.

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Level 1: Pre-beginner
Pre-beginner ESL students are not ready to begin intensive instruction in speaking, reading and writing English. They require orientation into the new environment and culture and time to acclimatize as listeners and observers.

DIVISION I Listening

Students
begin to recognize that the new language has a musical shape follow simple directions, with support from visual cues respond briefly to short, simple questions begin to put waves of sound into comprehensible units speak little English share personal information; e.g., name, address express basic needs, using single words identify familiar names, objects and actions speak with sufficient clarity for teacher comprehension recognize the alphabet in print know the direction of English print read pictures and use picture clues begin to use phonetic and context clues and sight recognition to understand simple texts; e.g., pattern books, chart stories, songs, chants, rhymes recognize familiar words and repeated phrases in plays, poems, stories and environmental print begin to dictate labels, phrases and sentences to a scribe print the English alphabet in upper- and lower-case letters copy written information, following left-to-right and top-to-bottom progression complete sentence patterns, based on familiar and meaningful context and vocabulary

Speaking

Reading

Writing

DIVISION II Listening

Students
have great difficulty understanding spoken English follow simple directions, with support from visual cues respond to short, simple questions respond to familiar conversational topics, using single words and short phrases respond to familiar words, names, phrases, tones of voice and basic classroom instructions, when spoken slowly and clearly use short, patterned questions to seek information share personal information and experiences express basic needs identify familiar names, objects and actions answer specific questions, using single words or short phrases speak with sufficient clarity for teacher comprehension

Speaking

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Reading

recognize the English alphabet in both print and script begin to apply sight-recognition, phonetic, predictive and contextual reading strategies recognize frequently used classroom vocabulary begin to identify the main ideas of simple passages, with familiar vocabulary and supporting visual cues follow brief written instructions use beginner and bilingual dictionaries read simple sentences produce the English alphabet in legible cursive and printed form, using left-to-right progression and writing on the line copy information accurately begin to apply knowledge of common writing conventions; e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization

Writing

DIVISION III Students Listening

have great difficulty understanding spoken English begin to recognize that the new language has a musical shape become familiar with English intonation patterns, stress and rhythm; e.g., can distinguish question patterns from statements follow simple directions, with support from visual cues respond to short, simple questions respond briefly to short, simple stories, songs and poems respond to familiar conversational topics, using single words and short phrases respond to gestures, courtesies, tones of voice and basic classroom instructions practise, internally, ways to say things use short, patterned questions to seek information share personal information and experiences express basic needs identify familiar names, objects and actions answer specific questions, using single words or short phrases speak with sufficient clarity for teacher comprehension imitate some English stress and intonation patterns recognize the alphabet in both print and script apply sight-recognition, phonetic, predictive and contextual reading strategies recognize frequently used classroom vocabulary begin to acquire English vocabulary in all subject areas identify the main ideas of simple passages, with familiar vocabulary and supporting visual cues follow brief written instructions use learner and bilingual dictionaries

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Writing

produce the English alphabet in legible cursive and printed form, using left-to-right progression and writing on the line copy blackboard notes and text accurately begin to apply knowledge of basic writing conventions; e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization begin to use simple verb tenses, questions, plurals and common prepositions of location, direction and time write short, coherent, patterned compositions, e.g., short journal entries, lists, on personally relevant topics begin to use acceptable notebook formats appropriate to subject areas, using titles, dates, charts and graphs

Level 2: Beginner
Beginner ESL students are ready to begin intensive instruction in speaking, reading and writing in English.

DIVISION I Listening

Students
understand spoken English, as long as it is slow and limited in complexity start to hear individual sounds in words and match them with comparable sounds in their first language participate in simple conversations on familiar topics understand key vocabulary and concepts related to a theme/topic request clarification, when necessary respond to direct questions, frequently used commands, courtesies and some humour respond to nonverbal signals in familiar contexts begin to respond to unseen speakers; e.g., radio, telephone, public-address system identify main ideas in visually supported oral presentations containing familiar vocabulary speak English with pronunciation and/or grammatical errors ask simple questions participate in social discussions, using short phrases and short sentences participate, with prompting, in academic discussions, using short phrases and short sentences initiate and maintain face-to-face conversations recount familiar events, stories and key information give simple directions or instructions and communicate simple observations express personal opinions and emotions speak with sufficient clarity and accuracy for listener comprehension use reading strategies to assist in deriving meaning from text; e.g., predicting; rereading; phonics; recognition of cueing systems, repetition and word families understand familiar vocabulary in age-appropriate stories, poems, scripts, environmental print and computer text select main ideas in short, familiar passages from a variety of genres use some correct phrasing and rhythm when reading familiar material aloud

Speaking

Reading

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Writing

compose short, simple, patterned sentences, based on learned phrases and classroom discussion write some common and personally relevant words use capital letters and final punctuation begin to use basic sentence structures; e.g., statements, questions use appropriate formats to write for a variety of purposes; e.g., lists, signs, labels, captions, cards, stories, letters, journals use the writing process with assistance; e.g., participate in structured prewriting activities, make some changes between the initial and final draft use computers to begin to develop word-processing skills

DIVISION II Listening

Students
begin to respond to unseen speakers; e.g., telephone interpret, correctly, frequently used verb tenses participate in social conversations on familiar topics request clarification when necessary respond appropriately to body language, tone of voice, pauses, stress and intonation understand key vocabulary and concepts related to specific subjects or themes understand main ideas in visually supported oral presentations containing familiar vocabulary ask questions participate in social and academic discussions, using short phrases and short sentences recount familiar events, stories and key information rephrase key ideas from written or oral texts, with support give straightforward directions or instructions express personal opinions and emotions speak with sufficient clarity and accuracy for listener comprehension speak at almost the pace of first-language speakers, showing some control of stress, timing and rhythm use reading strategies to assist in determining meaning; e.g., predicting; deducing; inferring; rereading; phonics; recognition of cueing systems, repetition and word families understand short, simple phrases and sentences, instructions and brief notes in a variety of print media, with familiar vocabulary and context identify main ideas and key information in texts begin to extract information, with assistance, from textbooks, resources and dictionaries, using headings, margin notes, indexes, glossaries and graphic organizers begin to show some fluency in oral reading begin to make notes, with assistance begin to use common tenses, spelling, capitalization and punctuation, with some accuracy use conventional spellings for common and personally relevant words write appropriate responses, using short sentences, phrases or graphic organizers, to written questions, based on familiar academic content begin to use a variety of forms of writing; e.g., short journal entries, notes, dialogues, poems, narratives, reports Chapter 4 / 67 2007

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use the writing process, with assistance, to produce a final edited copy that is changed from the first draft use computers to begin to develop word-processing skills

DIVISION III Students Listening

participate in conversations on familiar topics respond to vocabulary, questions and instructions in a familiar context request clarification, when necessary respond appropriately to body language, tone of voice, pauses, stress and intonation understand key vocabulary and concepts related to specific subjects or themes understand main ideas in visually supported oral presentations containing familiar vocabulary ask questions participate in social and academic discussions, using short phrases and short sentences recount familiar events, stories and key information give straightforward directions and instructions express opinions, emotions, wishes and needs speak with sufficient clarity and accuracy for listener comprehension speak at almost the pace of first-language speakers, showing some control of stress, timing and rhythm use reading strategies to assist in deriving meaning; e.g., predicting; deducing; inferring; rereading; phonics; recognition of cueing systems, repetition and word families begin to use vocabulary-acquisition strategies; e.g., recognize changes caused by the addition of prefixes and suffixes, hypothesize the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary in a familiar context, use an English dictionary and thesaurus understand short, simple phrases and sentences, instructions and brief notes in material with familiar vocabulary and context identify main ideas and key information in text extract information from textbooks, resources and dictionaries, using headings, margin notes, indexes, glossaries and graphic organizers begin to show some fluency in oral reading begin to make notes, with assistance begin to use common tenses, spelling, capitalization and punctuation, with some accuracy use conventional spellings for common and personally relevant words write appropriate responses, using short sentences, phrases or graphic organizers, to written questions, based on familiar academic content begin to use a variety of forms of writing; e.g., short journal entries, notes, dialogues, poems, narratives, reports use the writing process, with assistance, to produce a final edited copy that is changed from the first draft use computers to begin to develop word-processing skills

Speaking

Reading

Writing

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Level 3: Intermediate
Intermediate ESL students are gaining competence but still require direct instruction in reading and writing in English, alongside their regular studies.

DIVISION I Listening

Students
respond to discussions and conversations identify key information in most contexts, with the aid of some repetition respond appropriately to body language, nonverbal signals, tone of voice, pauses, stress and intonation respond to unseen speakers; e.g., radio, telephone, school public-address system follow a series of simple instructions initiate and maintain conversations participate in discussions, based on classroom themes make short, effective oral presentations in an academic context speak with clear pronunciation and enunciation begin to self-correct simple grammatical errors use their voice to indicate emphasis through pacing, volume, intonation and stress begin to follow written instructions describe story components; e.g., character, plot, setting read and understand grade-appropriate text, with minimal assistance use grade-appropriate resources that provide some visual or contextual support; e.g., graphic organizers, class word lists, theme-book collections, environmental print, picture dictionary, table of contents write short compositions, making some use of appropriate verb tenses, prepositions, simple and compound sentences and descriptions, and begin to use new vocabulary and idioms use conventional spellings for most common and personally relevant words write to record personal experiences and thoughts, narrate stories and convey information begin to write independently in all subject areas use the stages of the writing process, with support; e.g., prewriting, producing drafts, publishing write collaboratively with peers

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DIVISION II Listening

Students
respond to unseen speakers; e.g., radio, telephone participate in sustained oral discussions and presentations in small groups identify main ideas and supporting details in short oral presentations respond appropriately to formal and informal speech respond appropriately to vocabulary, statements, questions and directions in class respond to intonation patterns; e.g., implied commands and tones indicating surprise, emotion follow a series of simple instructions express opinions, basic needs and requests clearly in most contexts use conversational strategies; e.g., acknowledgement, reply, agreement and disagreement participate in discussions, based on classroom themes make short, effective oral presentations begin to self-correct grammatical errors begin to use conditionals and adverbial and adjectival phrases use appropriate gestures to convey meaning use their voice to indicate emphasis through pacing, volume, intonation and stress skim and scan for key information in reading materials with familiar vocabulary and context summarize a story, identifying the main idea and some details read and interpret text at a grade-appropriate level, with some visual support, using context and punctuation clues, phonics and recognition of familiar vocabulary and word families choose appropriate materials for research purposes from a variety of sources read on a regular basis for personal enjoyment use academic vocabulary, including subject-specific language, with support use English and bilingual dictionaries find and use print and media resources, with some support organize and sequence ideas write messages, captions and short notes, with few errors make notes in some detail on familiar topics produce prose, using appropriate verb tenses, connectors and subjectverb agreement, with some accuracy begin to use variety in vocabulary and sentence structure use paragraphs when writing descriptions and narratives respond to questions in writing write short, original compositions on topics of personal or academic interest or knowledge use the stages of the writing process, with assistance

Speaking

Reading

Writing

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DIVISION III Students Listening

participate in sustained oral discussions and presentations in small groups identify main ideas and supporting details in short oral presentations respond appropriately to formal and informal speech respond to new vocabulary, statements, questions and directions in class respond to intonation patterns in speech respond to unseen speakers; e.g., radio, telephone follow a series of instructions take notes from lessons presented orally, using a supplied written outline as a guide identify key ideas in a variety of media works use conversational strategies; e.g., acknowledgement, inquiry, reply, agreement and disagreement participate in discussions, based on classroom themes give instructions and directions, with some detail make short, effective oral presentations speak clearly enough to be easily understood by peers and teachers begin to self-correct grammatical errors begin to use implication, figurative language, passive voice, conditionals and adverbial and adjectival phrases use gestures and voice to indicate emphasis through pacing, volume, intonation and stress skim and scan for key information in reading materials with familiar vocabulary and context predict, summarize and make judgements about class texts use some vocabulary-acquisition strategies read and interpret visually supported text at a grade-appropriate level use academic vocabulary, including subject-specific language, with support use English and bilingual dictionaries show developing fluency in oral reading locate and evaluate library materials for research purposes, with support organize and sequence ideas effectively make notes in some detail on familiar topics produce prose, using appropriate verb tenses; connectors; subjectverb agreement; noun, adjective and adverb phrases and clauses and conventional spelling, with some accuracy begin to use variety in vocabulary and sentence structure use paragraphs when writing descriptions and narratives respond in writing to questions on personal and academic topics write short, original compositions, summaries and reports on topics of personal and academic interest or knowledge use the stages of the writing process, with assistance

Speaking

Reading

Writing

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Level 4: Advanced
Advanced ESL students have English competence and their language skills will continue to develop naturally as they progress through school with their same-aged peers.

DIVISION I Listening

Students
participate in most social and academic discussions respond to complex sentences understand age-appropriate expressions and idioms use most language structures appropriate to the grade level speak with fluency and clarity in group situations self-correct common grammatical errors make academic presentations use idiomatic and colloquial language appropriately respond independently to written instructions recall and retell a written story determine meaning in texts that may be unfamiliar and unsupported by visual context and that contain challenging vocabulary and sentence structures read a variety of print materials begin to use independent research skills in the classroom and school library choose and enjoy materials for personal reading that are similar in scope and difficulty to those being read by peers begin to write competently in all subject areas contribute to cooperative class writing use a variety of forms of writing write short, original compositions, using all stages of the writing process observe most conventions of punctuation

Speaking

Reading

Writing

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DIVISION II Listening

Students
identify ideas in oral presentations on a variety of topics, using grade-appropriate vocabulary respond to spoken English used in social, academic, formal and informal situations, including some idioms, relevant cultural allusions and conversational nuances; e.g., teasing, irony, flattery take notes from lessons, using a supplied written outline as a guide use English appropriately in a range of situations; e.g., to describe, narrate, argue, persuade, summarize, converse give accurate, detailed instructions and directions speak with grade-appropriate vocabulary and sentence structure speak with fluency and clarity in a large group express a point of view and explain it in some detail in group discussions self-correct common grammatical errors make academic presentations use idiomatic and colloquial language appropriately analyze unfamiliar text to determine meaning identify elements of a story use vocabulary-acquisition strategies determine unfamiliar vocabulary in a familiar context use independent research skills to gather information; e.g., from library resources, community resources, print media, computer resources choose and enjoy materials for personal reading that are similar in scope and difficulty to those being read by peers use grade-appropriate vocabulary; e.g., spell, understand and use vocabulary from all subject areas produce reports, paragraphs, summaries and notes on a variety of topics, with few grammatical or spelling errors use the stages of the writing process use verb tenses effectively use word-processing and graphics programs for publishing

Speaking

Reading

Writing

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DIVISION III Students Listening

identify ideas in a variety of oral presentations, on a range of topics, using gradeappropriate vocabulary respond to complex sentence structures in discussions respond to spoken English used in social, academic, formal and informal situations, including some idioms, relevant cultural allusions and conversational nuances; e.g., teasing, irony, flattery, humour, sarcasm take notes from lessons, using a supplied written outline as a guide use English appropriately in a range of situations; e.g., to describe, narrate, argue, persuade, summarize, converse give accurate, detailed instructions and directions speak with grade-appropriate vocabulary and sentence structure speak with fluency and clarity in a large group express a point of view and explain it in some detail in group discussions self-correct common grammatical errors make academic presentations, using resources use idiomatic and colloquial language appropriately analyze unfamiliar text to determine its meaning use vocabulary-acquisition strategies understand and respond to extended text selections use the various parts of a textbook to find information; e.g., glossary, margin notes, table of contents, index use independent research skills to gather information; e.g., in the library and community choose and enjoy materials for personal reading that are similar in scope and in level of difficulty to those being read by peers identify elements of a story use grade-appropriate vocabulary; e.g., demonstrate knowledge of derivations and word families; formulate definitions; spell, understand and use vocabulary from all subject areas produce reports, editorials, paragraphs, summaries and notes on a variety of topics, with few grammatical or spelling errors use the stages of the writing process; e.g., prewriting activities, revising, editing, conferencing, publishing

Speaking

Reading

Writing

The lessons and activities in this chapter are organized according to these levels. Each group represents a developmental stage that most ESL students will work through. Teachers identify the levels at which ESL students stand. They then select strategies and activities listed for students at that level and progress through each of the other levels. The strategies and activities included in this chapter can be used to teach students English and/or to help ESL students learn content.

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Integrating Language and Content

For ESL students, especially those in Divisions II and III, the challenge is to learn content-area material before they are functionally fluent in English. Content instruction must begin before students appear ready. Research indicates that simultaneously learning content and the language needed to understand that content is far more effective than learning language and content separately. The key objective of language-through-content teaching is to help students comprehend and express knowledge across a variety of topics, tasks and situations. The goal for ESL students is to simultaneously gain academic knowledge and cognitive academic language proficiency. The goal for teachers is to integrate explicit language instruction in their content lessons. The following lists identify connections ESL students should make between their developing English language proficiency and the content of their other school studies.

In mathematics, students:
read and restate problems interpret graphs and charts make lists and charts gather and organize data ask questions make generalizations communicate mathematical ideas present ideas document solutions and processes use appropriate group behaviour paraphrase.

In science, students:
record data formulate questions for inquiry classify information compare and contrast information recognize relationships; e.g., sequence, cause and effect express data in charts, graphs and maps explain generalize summarize and communicate findings make decisions establish criteria work in groups.

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In social studies, students:

locate, gather, interpret and organize information state issues synthesize, evaluate and analyze information express and present information and ideas speak, demonstrate and write interact with others propose solutions to problems make decisions write persuasively use reference materials use context to gain meaning read for a variety of purposes recognize relationships; e.g., sequence, cause and effect.

In English language arts, students:

use language to talk about language use appropriate language for the audience, purpose and situation write to clarify and share talk to organize, interpret and communicate experience use reading strategies appropriate for particular purposes write letters, reports, narratives, arguments and reflective essays.

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Tips for Integrating Language and Content

Focus on Content
The focus of the language-through-content approach is on content, not language. However, language must be the instructional objective used for talking about content. In the content classroom, teachers make a conscious effort to include language objectives in their plans. Students bring varying background knowledge to their studies that may enhance or limit their abilities to comprehend content. Ensure that ESL students background knowledge is built into the units of study and linked with new experiences. Be aware of the language levels of students and use strategies that ensure vocabulary and content material is accessible and understandable to ESL students. Extensive use of visuals helps link language and content by lowering the language barrier. Teaching learning strategies helps students learn conscious processes and techniques that facilitate the comprehension, acquisition and retention of new skills and concepts. When students are taught specific strategies to access content materials, they become independent learners.

Recognize Role of Background Knowledge Use Comprehensible Input Incorporate Learning Strategies

For a list of learning strategies, see Appendix 4: Learning Strategies.

Incorporate Thinking Skills

As students study specific content, they have opportunities to use thinking skills; e.g., observing, labelling, following directions, making decisions, classifying, explaining, predicting and evaluating. When using thinking skills, ESL students may require explicit instruction, modelling and practice as they may come from instructional backgrounds where rote learning is common. Content classes should emphasize a problem-solving approach, rather than a solution-oriented approach, where students learn to question, analyze and find solutions to problems, rather than being told how to fix them. This is particularly important for ESL students who may come from cultural backgrounds where problem-solving approaches are not emphasized. Teach specific skills that enable students to read the expository texts they encounter in the content classroom. They need to be able to use language for academic purposes. Use a theoretical framework to ensure that a range of thinking skills and requisite language structures are incorporated into thematic content lessons for all students.

Incorporate Problem-solving Skills Emphasize Reading and Writing to Learn Use a Theoretical Framework

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Knowledge Framework
There are many approaches to planning for the integration of language and content. A theoretical framework developed by Mohan (1986) provides one example of a system teachers can use for integrating language and content. This approach, known as the knowledge framework, is currently being implemented by various school districts in Canada at elementary, junior high and senior high school levels. The knowledge framework helps teachers organize and present the content of any subject area by structuring the information in a way that integrates language and content objectives. The underlying premise is that all textual information can be broken down into one or more of six major knowledge structures: Classification Description Principles Sequence Evaluation Choice.

The Knowledge Framework Thinking Skills Classification

classifying categorizing defining

Principles
explaining predicting interpreting data and drawing conclusions developing generalizations: causeeffect, rules, means-ends, reasons hypothesizing

Evaluation
evaluating judging criticizing justifying preferences and personal opinions recommending

Description
observing describing naming comparing contrasting

Sequence
relating: time between events sequencing: spatially, steps in process

Choice
forming personal opinions making decisions

Once the knowledge structure of a piece of text is determined, teachers can cover an entire range of thinking skills from describing and classifying to hypothesizing and evaluating. This ensures that students develop the requisite critical thinking skills outlined in most curricula. The six knowledge structures and their accompanying thinking skills also help determine the linguistics structures necessary to speak or write about a given topic.

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Linguistic Structure Examples for Each Knowledge Structure Classification

verbs of class membership: to be verbs of possession: to have possessives: his, her, your, their, my generic nouns: fruit, animals, music specific nouns: apples, bear, jazz nouns of measure: kilogram, litre

Principles
cause: is due to, is the result of condition and contrast: if then, unless generalization: in short, for example words of general or inclusive meaning: everything, most scale of amount: all, none, every predicting: must, ought to, should stating probability: is likely, maybe

Evaluation
describing emotions: is satisfactory / unsatisfactory, like / dislike stating preference: prefer, would rather stating standards: is good/bad, right/wrong stating viewpoint: that is their opinion

Description
noun phrase + be + noun phrase/adjective prepositional phrases relative clauses adjectives demonstratives articles possessive pronouns adverbs of comparison

Sequence
prepositions and prepositional phrases of time, cause and purpose clauses of time, condition and reason sentence time relators: first, next, earlier, later tenses: reported speech, imperatives

Choice
modals: can, will, may, must, ought, should, would In my opinion I think that I choose

In the knowledge framework planning chart that follows, a topic of study, All About Spiders, illustrates how the knowledge structures, thinking skills and linguistic structures are connected. For example, if the basic structure of the text is chronological, the related knowledge structure will be sequence. Students need to be able to understand and control the language of sequencehow to express the time relations between events and describe the steps in a process. The example of sequence in the chart is the life cycle of the spider. When such a process is described in a textbook, it is often inaccessible to ESL students who need more context and visual cues to decipher the content-specific vocabulary and the often complex sentence constructions of academic prose.

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THE KNOWLEDGE FRAMEWORK WITH LINGUISTIC STRUCTURESAll About Spiders

Knowledge Structure Thinking Skills Classification
classify, categorize, define What is a spider? Classify different spiders according to habitat. What does a spider eat? Determine the spiders place in the animal kingdom.

Principles
explain, predict, interpret, generalize, hypothesize Determine what would happen if we exterminated all spiders. Understand how an antivenom works. Explain how a spider spins a web. condition and contrast: if then, unless cause: is due to, is the result of generalization: in short, for example predicting: must, ought to, should If we exterminated all spiders, then we would be overrun by other insects.

Evaluation
evaluate, judge, criticize, justify, recommend Recognize that some people have a fear of spiders and generate solutions to the problem. Recommend that spiders be used as alternatives to insecticides in farmers fields. describe emotions: like/dislike state preference: prefer, rather; give viewpoints If someone were afraid of spiders, you could tell them all about the good things spiders do. You could have a guest speaker bring a pet tarantula to class Dear Mr. Agriculture Minister, I think you should consider using spiders to get rid of crop-destroying insects.

Linguistic Structures

specific nouns, generic nouns, verbs of class membership A spider belongs to the arachnid family. The funnel-web spider lives in Australia and prefers wet, damp places, such as drainpipes, while the black widow spider lives in North America and prefers warm, dry places.

Knowledge Structure Thinking Skills

Description
observe, describe, name, compare, contrast types of spiders physical characteristics compare spiders with other insects compare different types of webs relate, sequence

Sequence

Choice
form personal opinions, make decisions express personal opinions about spiders In my opinion I think that I like/dont like I choose modals: must, should I didnt like spiders before but now I know how useful they are and how harmless, if we leave them alone.

the life cycle of the spider steps in spinning a web the reproductive cycle of the spider prepositions and prepositional phrases of time, cause and purpose; clauses of time, condition and reason; verb tenses Before they emerge from their sacs, spiderlings undergo a molt to shed their first skin and emerge in true spider form. Then they tear the sac and parade into the open

Linguistic Structures

noun phrase + be + noun phrase/adjective, relative clauses, adjectives, demonstratives, articles, adverbs of comparison The tarantula is the biggest spider there is. The black widow spider has eight legs, a black or brownish body and furry legs.

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Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers, also known as key visuals or cognitive organizers, are formats for organizing information and ideas graphically or visually. Graphic organizers make student thinking visible, an invaluable tool for ESL students who have limited vocabulary and language structure. All students can use graphic organizers to generate ideas, record and reorganize information and see relationships. They demonstrate not only what students are thinking but also how they are thinking as they work through learning tasks.

When teaching students how to use graphic organizers:

use graphic organizers to plan and introduce lessons choose graphic organizers that best represent the ideas or texts being studied show examples of new organizers and describe their purpose and form within the content of the lesson use easy or familiar materials to model how to use organizers model organizers on the board, overhead or chart paper, using a think-aloud format give students opportunities to practise using the format with easy material coach students at various points in the process share final products, discuss what worked and what did not and give students an opportunity to revise information provide students with many opportunities to practise using graphic organizers use graphic organizers with a range of topics and issues encourage students to evaluate which organizers work best in which learning situations.

For ESL students, graphic organizers provide a visual link between language and content. They organize information and explicitly develop ideas and the underlying relationships among those ideas. Using organizers reduces the text with which ESL students may be struggling, while maintaining the concept of the lesson. Graphic organizers help ESL students understand the concept and reduce the load on short-term memory. Having the concept displayed visually enables students to focus on language development. Graphic organizers link language and content, often forming a bridge to knowledge that students may already have in their first languages. Using a graphic organizer to teach new concepts is an effective way to engage students in discussion and have them learn the essential vocabulary in a meaningful context.

See Appendix 5 for blackline masters of graphic organizers.

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Graphic organizers can support the knowledge framework. The following chart demonstrates how each knowledge structure lends itself to certain types of graphic organizers. Graphic organizers are used to explicitly develop ideas and the underlying relationship among those ideas. They can represent the actual structure of the concept.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS FOR KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES

Classification webs trees tables graphs databases Description tables diagrams pictures plans/drawings maps Principles diagrams graphs tables cycles Sequence tables with numbered steps flow charts cycles time lines action strips Evaluation rating charts grids mark books

Choice decision trees flow charts

The following table presents appropriate graphic organizers for the knowledge structures addressed in the All About Spiders unit. Note the sequence structure box. The flow chart of the spiders life cycle visually represents a cycle. This visual representation is more easily understood than reading a paragraph about the sequence of events.

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GRAPHIC ORGANIZERSAll About Spiders Classification

Food

Principles
Human disturbs spider Spider injects venom Human becomes ill Human dies Human gets antidote Human recovers No. of people afraid of spiders

Evaluation

Spiders

20 15 10 5 Room 1

Folklore

Habitat

Bar graph (results of survey of classrooms)

Map of world with spiders highlighted

Description
A spiders anatomy Comparison Chart Spiders
eight legs two-part body no wings no antennae

Sequence
Life cycle of spiders Insects
six legs three-part body wings antennae spiderlings remain in sac balloon to new environment courtship dance of male to attract female spiderlings break through sac mating occurs and the male dies female lays eggs and encases them in silk sac

Choice
Class survey results of reasons why I like/dislike spiders because . . . they are fuzzy they are beautiful they bite they are ugly they . . .

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Other ESL Teaching Strategies

Cooperative Learning
Structuring cooperative learning opportunities and planning lessons that incorporate predictable routines and structures are integral to creating a supportive learning environment. While cooperative learning is important for second language learning, it can often be an uncomfortable or even threatening experience for ESL students. Group work can be isolating for ESL students, especially beginners. They may not be accustomed to expressing personal opinions publicly and may not have the complex language necessary for discussions. Structured cooperative learning, in which teachers carefully assign specific instructional and language tasks, ensures students produce and receive language, allowing for equal participation and individual accountability. The characteristics of a structured cooperative learning environment are: students work together toward a group goal cooperation versus competition is emphasized ideas and materials are shared individual accountabilityeach member of the group is recognized. To ensure cooperative learning works optimally for all students, consider these organization criteria. Carefully select groups so that ESL students have strong language models and feel supported emotionally and academically. Working with peers who speak the same first language is important in certain situations but teachers need to take an active role in rotating group membership so that clustering of ESL students does not occur repeatedly. Plan group work that is task- and role-specific so students understand exactly what is required and who is to carry out each part of the assigned task. Include an instructional goal and language assignment. Each ESL student needs to be able to contribute to the group in a specific way, depending on the linguistic development. Beginners may need to draw or act out their contribution to the group assignment. Model and coach group skills and processes. Present instructions carefully, both orally and in writing. Provide visual and linguistic support in the form of pictures, posters, charts and reference books, along with a prepared set of questions, with language structures and vocabulary to guide the individual and group learning processes. With these specific structures in place, individual accountability is facilitated. Structure group tasks in ways that encourage interaction and discussion while considering the linguistic abilities of ESL students. Provide different alternatives to oral participation.

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Benefits of Cooperative Learning

While all students are enriched by group work, there are benefits specific to ESL learners. ESL students: develop positive interdependence, learning from the language models and interpersonal and group skills of their peers, allowing them to confirm their understanding through observation can demonstrate knowledge of their cultures and own areas of expertise. Even beginning students can contribute to the group at their own levels of ability, developing self-confidence in a noncompetitive situation profit from the natural redundancy created by asking and answering questions and by working together to solve problems.

Questioning
Questions create opportunities for ESL students to think about and formulate responses. ESL students may often know answers conceptually but cannot readily understand the questions or find the words to respond. The interactive process of questioning and answering can be greatly facilitated by asking the right questions. The way in which ESL students are questioned can determine how they will respond, depending on their particular stage of oral language development.

Levels of Questioning Level 1 Level 2

Asking yes/no questions: students need to respond yes or no; e.g., Do you want a new book now? Asking either/or questions: students need to respond with one word; e.g., What is Bonnie painting? Answer: Dog. If no answer is forthcoming, provide choices; e.g., A dog or a cat? Asking where/what questions: students need to respond with one word or phrase; e.g., Where is Yusuke sitting? Answer: Over there. Asking questions requiring a content vocabulary answer: students can respond in complete sentences; e.g., Why do you like that book? Answer: I like it because it is about dogs.

Level 3 Level 4

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In addition to these four levels of questioning, consider the types of questioning. To ensure students respond to meaning at various levels of abstraction and conceptual difficulty, plan to ask different types of questions; e.g., Literal Questions: reading the lines Interpretive Questions: reading between the lines Applied Questions: reading beyond the lines. Asking students the right questions, based on their level of language, promotes risk-taking, self-confidence and pride in being able to communicate. Remember that ESL students need time to conceptualize answers and then formulate or translate them into English.

Positive Corrective Feedback

Be aware of when and how to correct ESL students spoken English. In the initial stages of second language learning, try to correct students only when the meaning is unclear and results in communication breakdown. Model the appropriate utterance in a natural way; e.g., Student: I want to sit in this house (pointing to a spot on the floor). Teacher: You want to sit in this place? Student: Yes, this place.

Strategies for Positive Corrective Feedback

Check for confirmation Clarify requests S: Yesterday, I come late because I see tooth doctor. T: You came late yesterday because you saw the dentist. OR Yesterday, you went to the dentist so you were late. S: T: S: T: S T: T: S: Correct by focusing on the message (its meaning and intelligibility) S: T: S: T: S: I go tomorrow for doctor. Oh, you will go to the doctor tomorrow. I can no see the the the chart board? No, that thing. The board? Which one? Show me. (The student gets up and points.) Oh, the poster! You cant see the poster. Can you see it now? Yes. Now I see. I want know more library (heard as I want no more library). You dont want to go to the library? No. I want. I dont know library? You want to know more about the library? Yes. Can you help me?

Rephrase and expand Give extra chances pauses, prompts, self-rephrasing, probe for more information

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Pronunciation
Pronunciation is an important feature of communicative competence. Being understood by other English speakers helps ESL students gain confidence and be more willing to take part in conversations and classroom discussions. Knowing when, how and if pronunciation is to be corrected is a sensitive issue. In addition to the individual sounds of vowels and consonants (segments), students need to learn about the suprasegmental features of the English languagestress, rhythm and intonation. Firth (1992) describes the zoom principle of teaching pronunciationteachers take the widest view by looking first at the suprasegmentals and then moving into more specific aspects. The amount of difficulty or phonetic interference depends to a large extent on the pronunciation patterns of students first languages; e.g., students who speak a first language with few final consonants tend to drop word-final consonants in English.

Possible Phonetic Interferences of First Languages in Learning English

First Language/English
Language Vietnamese Sound k/kl s/sh -/f -/th s/th f/th b/v r/l b/p b/v s/sh t/th t/d Example cass/class sue/shoe kni/knife ma/math sum/thumb baf/bath biolin/violin fry/fly baber/paper balentine/valentine sip/ship tink/think bat/bad Explanation these initial consonant clusters do not occur in Vietnamese limited number of final consonants in Vietnamese [th] does not exist in Mandarin no labiodental sounds [f/v] in Korean [l] does not exist in Japanese voiceless stops are voiced in Arabic before vowels no labiodental [v] in Spanish [sh] does not occur in Cree [th] does not occur in Serbo-Croatian consonants are devoiced in word-final position

Mandarin Korean Japanese Arabic Spanish Cree Serbo-Croatian Polish

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Practising Pronunciation
Conferencing Meeting one-on-one with ESL students during conferencing is a way to privately work on isolating sounds that are causing difficulty. They can be practised within the context of reading words, phrases and sentences in both familiar and new texts. Reading Aloud Within the context of the classroom, readers theatre is another useful way for ESL students to practise pronunciation because they are not singled out. Choral reading allows for repetition and consistent exposure to English stress and intonation patterns that are crucial in conveying an accurate and natural sounding message. Students can also read along with audiotaped books at home or at school. Peer Conversation In structured, cooperative learning situations, ESL students converse with English-speaking peers. Through these interactions, ESL students note when their pronunciation causes misunderstanding and they learn to respond to their peers feedback cues, acquiring the self-monitoring skills necessary for working on their specific pronunciation problems.

Speech-language Intervention
Many ESL students are unnecessarily referred to speech-language pathologists because of problems that are directly attributable to first language interference. It is important to be aware that it takes students time to learn to hear new sounds before they can pronounce them properly and use them in conversation and when learning to spell. However, if a student stutters or stammers, or has prolonged problems with pronouncing certain sounds, it may be necessary to find out if these problems are also evident in the students first language. To determine whether ESL students require speech-language intervention, listen to students speaking their first languages with peers, discuss students speech with their parents or request assessments in students first languages, when possible.

Spelling Suggestions and Strategies

Using Invented Spelling

Many ESL students are concerned about spelling words correctly right from the start. As with English-speaking students, there should be a gradual movement away from invented spellings toward conventional spellings, over a period of one or two years. ESL students have not had the prolonged exposure to English print in the environment that their English-speaking classmates have had; they often feel pressured to catch up with classmates. Asking beginning ESL students to sound out as a strategy to spell words is often frustrating because sounds in students first languages may not have corresponding sounds in English. This makes it impossible for students to recognize the sounds and find the soundsymbol correspondence. It takes time for students to learn to hear the differences so that they can eventually use sounding out as a spelling strategy.

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ESL students can use invented or temporary spelling approximations quite successfully with initial support from teachers and peers. Picture-word dictionaries; word banks; labelled classroom objects; rhymes, songs and chants on wall charts and plenty of reading all help ESL students develop awareness of how our spelling system works and provides a jump start to spelling and writing. It is best to encourage invented spelling after scribing students dictated stories and working with them during several writing sessions so that they understand the process and trust you to accept their invented symbols and spelling. Students may be encouraged to use straight or wiggly lines to mark whole words or parts of words they cannot spell. They can also be encouraged to write one letter for a sound they can hear. They may also want to write the word in their first language or use rebus pictures. If possible, have same-language friends or parents translate their stories. Teaching Conventional Spelling Conventional spellings should be provided during editing time. Once oral language fluency and comprehension develop, ESL students become more confident with spelling and may want explicit strategies to help them catch up with their peers.

Encourage and teach ESL students to:

look for patterns: word families, e.g., look, book, took or common combinations -ough, -ight structural patterns doubling consonants before adding such endings as -ed, -ing use resources: dictionaries, thesauruses, theme words, stories in journals, personal word lists, room resources; e.g., charts consider context: with such homonyms as theyre, their, there.

Spelling words can be pulled from:

words students are using in their daily writing content words being used in all subject areas function and signal words; e.g., unfortunately, because, although, however students personal lists of spelling words, including words especially difficult for them to hear teacher-written passages that include examples of specific spelling patterns or rules age-appropriate spelling lists.

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Organizing Effective Lessons

Research on characteristics of lessons that work well for ESL students indicates that periods of direct teaching and recognizable, daily routines are effective. These characteristics include: formal mini-lessons with clear objectives and recognizable beginnings and endings, marked with cues; e.g., Lets begin with Lets conclude with What we are going to do now is . regularly scheduled events marked by changes in location and props, such as a scheduled time and place for activities; e.g., discussion time on the carpet, reading corner, science table clear plans for grouping (who is to participate), tasks (what is to be done and learned), materials, physical arrangements and locale clear instructions with logical sequencing and written on chart paper, the board or transparencies clear and fair turn-allocation procedures for student participationmany turns for each student in small groups, peer editing, community of readers systematic turn-allocation used at least some of the time (when teacher-directed or in a reciprocal teaching situation) a variety of response types invited or elicitedstudents may respond through written, oral or multimedia texts.

See Appendix 6 for a sample list of text forms.

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Lesson and Activity Ideas

Level 1: Pre-beginner
Special Considerations for Pre-beginner ESL Students
When instructing limited-literacy students on how to complete a task, be willing to mime actions and provide or perform a number of examples to ensure they understand what is expected. When creating learning materials with print, e.g., picture cards with the words printed below, print neatly in standard form or use a sans serif font on the computer, e.g., comic sans, century gothic, and avoid capital letters wherever possible (initially). As a general rule, identification activities should precede discriminatory activities. Focus on the creation of sounds in situations where the physical movements required to produce sounds in English are not used in the first language; e.g., the tongue-to-teeth action to produce the th sound.

Pre-beginner ESL Student Learning Strategies

Interpret and use a variety of nonverbal clues to communicate. Acknowledge being spoken to. Use words from the first language to get meaning across. Indicate lack of understanding verbally or nonverbally. Imitate sounds and intonation patterns. Mimic what the teacher says. Memorize new words by repeating them silently or aloud. Repeat words or phrases in the course of performing a language task. Understand that making mistakes is a natural part of language learning. Monitor level of anxiety about learning tasks and take measures to lower it if necessary; e.g., deep breathing, laughter. Use social interaction skills to enhance group learning activities.

For a complete list of learning strategies, see Appendix 4: Learning Strategies.

Pre-beginner Student Accommodations

Use basic (preschool level) resources. Provide access to first-language-to-English picture dictionaries. Use electronic resources that include voice-over. Provide regular quiet times and/or periods in which students can be immersed in a language rich environment but not forced to speak or understand; e.g., completing projects in art class.

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Lesson and Activity Ideas

Alphabet Activities
Alphabet activities teach students to identify the names and sounds of letters in the alphabet and should be done as part of other language learning. (Alphabet knowledge should not be considered a prerequisite for participating in other activities.) It is important to acknowledge the sound of each letter but to do so within meaningful contexts as early as possible; e.g., sounds as part of words as soon as some words are known. Letter Sorts Collect plastic letters or print letters on squares of paper and have students identify the letters in the alphabet (by naming or by pointing to when prompted).

Auditory Discrimination
Auditory discrimination activities require students to consider and identify sounds in words. With ESL students, auditory discrimination activities can be used to introduce oral language. Find the Right Sound Create or purchase index cards of objects with the names written below. Instruct students to listen to the words as you read them and listen for a particular sound as you read each card. Have students collect only those cards that contain the right sounds. Students should take the cards and put them in the right piles, repeating the words as they do so. If students make mistakes, simply take the cards, point to the words and repeat them. Then, say the vowel sound on its own and move on. Sort the Sounds Create or purchase index cards of objects with the names written below. Instruct the students to listen to the words as you read them and decide in which sound categories they belong. Students should take the cards and put them in the right piles, repeating the words as they do so. If students make mistakes, simply take the cards, point to the words and repeat them. Then, say the vowel sound on its own and place the cards in the correct piles.

Word Analysis (Level I)

Word analysis activities should involve only basic vocabulary; e.g., words in the students oral vocabulary. These activities should focus on visual patterns in words, e.g., common beginning letters, but can also involve making soundsymbol connections at the single-letter level. Find the Right Word Create word cards with particular patterns or letter strings. Instruct students to look at each word as you read it and decide if it has a particular letter string. If students make mistakes, simply take the cards, read them again as you point to the letter string in the word and move on. Sort the Words Create word cards with particular patterns or letter strings. Instruct students to look at each word as you read it and decide in which spelling category it belongs. Students should take the cards and put them in the right pile, repeating the words as they do so. If students make mistakes, simply take the cards, read them again as you point to the letter strings in the words and place them in the correct piles. 92 / Chapter 4 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Mediated Reading (Level I)

Collect a variety of age-appropriate books with limited vocabulary. As a rule, use stories in simple picture books and pattern books with younger students and begin with lower-level nonfiction books with older students. Read the books slowly, pointing at words as you read and commenting on graphics that you point to. If and when students are comfortable, ask them to name items in the graphics in their first language and provide the English word for them to repeat. Encourage students to begin matching words in this manner to develop the habit of translating as they begin to read. Return to the same books for repeated readings or with varied approaches until students progress to the next level or become disinterested in the books.

Building Sight-word Vocabulary

Most sight-words are learned through meaningful experiences; e.g., reading, environmental print, but it is useful to spend some time working with words on cue cards. Initially, cue cards should display words and associated pictures side-by-side but progress to having pictures on the backs of cards and later to no pictures at all. An alternative activity is to have students match word cards with picture cards. Cue cards are often used to teach nouns but can also be used for verbs and adjectives with some success. They may be used to teach high-frequency words but not in isolation, as meaningful context is essential.

Word Building (Level I)

Collect plastic letters or print letters on squares of paper to spell basic three-letter words. Provide accompanying picture cards; e.g., have the letters d, o, and g for dog along with a picture of a dog to associate meaning with sound. In the order they occur, point to each letter, make its sound and slide it into place until the word is formed. Repeat this action a few times, speeding up each time until the sounds run together and you are close to saying the word normally. Have the student repeat your actions as they make the letter sounds.

Level 2: Beginner

Special Considerations for Beginner ESL Students

When creating learning materials with print, e.g., picture cards with the words printed below, print neatly in standard form or use a sans serif font on the computer, e.g., comic sans, century gothic, and avoid capital letters wherever possible (initially). As a general rule, identification activities should precede discriminatory activities. Identify inconsistencies in speech patterns that may interfere with correct pronunciation; e.g., in the first language, it is common to drop the ends of words. Identify and work with sounds that ESL students find difficult to distinguish; e.g., then versus than.

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Beginner ESL Student Learning Strategies

Repeat words or phrases in the course of performing a language task. Ask for confirmation that a form used is correct. Use words from the first language to get meaning across; e.g., use a literal translation of a phrase in the first language, use a first language word but pronounce it as in the second language. Self-correct if errors lead to misunderstandings. Associate new words or expressions with familiar ones, either in the language being learned or in the first language. Repeat new words and expressions occurring in conversations and make use of the new words as soon as appropriate. Experiment with various forms of expression and note their acceptance or nonacceptance by experienced speakers. Make personal dictionaries. Attend to and/or use words visible in the immediate environment. Participate in shared reading experiences. Reread familiar self-chosen texts to enhance understanding and enjoyment. Use illustrations to aid reading comprehension. Use knowledge of the soundsymbol system to aid reading comprehension. Make connections between texts and prior knowledge/personal experience. Use resources to increase vocabulary. Use previously acquired knowledge to facilitate a learning task. Seek opportunities outside class to practise and observe. Reduce anxiety by using mental techniques; e.g., positive self-talk or humour.

For a complete list of learning strategies, see Appendix 4: Learning Strategies.

Beginner ESL Student Accommodations

Provide electronic translators. Use modified programs that focus primarily on building literacy skills. Use basic resources. Use electronic resources that include voice-over; e.g., books on tape.

Lesson and Activity Ideas

Word Walls
To create an environment rich in language directly related to and reflective of the literacy growth of ESL students in class, create a word wall of developing vocabulary. Post the words in a way that allows them to be removed for reference or reorganization. Use the word wall as part of regular language learning activities; e.g., add words whenever students ask for the meanings of unfamiliar words or seek words to help express themselves. Organize and reorganize the wall, based on instructional focus; e.g., organize by spelling pattern, phonemes, rhyme, meaning, usage. Fun with Fonts Allow students to use computers to print words for the word wall. Encourage students to experiment with a variety of fonts and style to generate the best depiction of the word.

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Portable Word Pockets Create an extra copy of each word posted on the word wall and store the extra copies in an envelope or pouch under the correct heading (letter on the word wall). The words are then available for students to grab for sorting activities or use for spelling reference during writing activities.

Word Analysis (Level II)

Word analysis activities should be based on relevant vocabulary collected from reading, conversations or environmental print. These activities should focus on visual patterns, e.g., common letter strings, in words but can also involve making soundsymbol connections at a phoneme level (smallest unit of sound made by single or multiple letters; e.g., ch). Word Sorts Provide students with words that fit clearly into two different categories, based on spelling patterns, and have students sort the words, reading each one as they come to it (add graphics to the word cards, if necessary). Over time, the number of categories and complexity of the words can be increased. Pocket charts and magnet boards are useful for sorting activities. Initial word sorts should focus on physical and/or sound similarities but can progress to sorting for meaning; e.g., sort colour words from object words. Advanced variations could include identifying words that do not fit within a given pattern; e.g., sorting words with short vowels into categories and getting rid of long vowel words. Word Families Help students generate lists of words with similar patterns; e.g., consonant-vowelconsonant words that share the same vowel sound, and read the different words. This activity links well with rhyming games and activities. Transformations Guide students to manipulate words by switching, adding and taking away letters and see how the changes affect sound, usage and meaning; e.g., cat becomes bat, cat becomes cats, cat becomes cot. Focus on a single pattern of changes each time to avoid confusion.

Word Building (Level II)

Base word-building activities on relevant vocabulary collected from reading, environmental print or content-area learning. Take the letters from a longer word and scramble them. Students should rearrange the scrambled letters to create smaller words that they record as they try to figure out the big word. Once a number of words are generated and the big word has been put back together, students can use the words they generated in the word-analysis activities.

Cloze Activities
Cloze activities involve omitting letters in words or words in sentences. Students have to figure out what letters or words are missing. Cloze activities promote comprehension skills and require students to reflect on the rules of language; e.g., I know the word and to fill in the missing sound, I need to add the letter a; this sentence doesnt make sense unless I put the word and in it. Avoid having too many blanks initially and begin by blanking-out the same type of letter or word consistently; e.g., long vowel sounds, adjectives.

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Letter-level Cloze Select high-frequency words from students oral vocabulary, classroom word walls or from reading and reproduce them with key letters missing. Begin by following a consistent pattern; e.g., remove the short vowel from single-syllable words, remove the ending consonant. Students should know what word they are trying to make, either because it has been vocalized or because it is within a familiar context; e.g., sentence from a story. As students become more adept, focus on English words that are easily confused; e.g., then and than. This works well as part of a mystery message written on the board each morning as a do-now activity. Word Prints Word prints are spatial representations of missing letters that help students progress from letter-level to word-level cloze activities. Word prints are sets of boxes that represent the shape of each letter and, together, represent the shape of a word. Word prints allow students to become familiar with visual strategies to assist with spelling. Small square boxes represent vowels and consonants that sit on the line, rectangular boxes that hang below the line represent descending consonants and rectangular boxes that stand tall represent ascending consonants; e.g.,

Word-level Cloze Select sentences from students reading or language-experience stories, e.g., short pieces of writing dictated by students, and reproduce them with key words missing. Begin by following a consistent pattern; e.g., remove adjectives. Students should be able to use the context of the sentence to figure out a word that makes sense. Early on, it is advisable to provide students with a bank of possible words to choose from with no distracters; e.g., words that will not be used.

Sentence Building
Sentence-building activities should be completed in context; e.g., rearrange words to create familiar sentences that match ones given orally or match sentences to pictures. Initially, activities should involve rearranging words into short sentences with limited or no variation. Later, students can progress to selecting words from banks and freely constructing sentences. Finally, experiment with manipulating words to create variations of a single sentence. Cause, Sequence or Contradiction Generate a list of simple sentences to describe events in a story, real experiences or depicted by a picture. Students should combine the sentences in a way that makes sense, using sequence, cause or contradiction connectors; e.g.,

CAUSE: because, so, as a result CONTRADICTION: but, instead SEQUENCE: then, next, afterwards, before The cat ran under the fence because a dog walked down the street. The dog walked down the street but the cat ran under the fence. The dog walked down the street and then the cat ran under the fence.

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Word Games
Once students have developed a level of comfort with the new language and environment, word games can be an effective way to learn new vocabulary, reinforce concepts and assess literacy skills. Any activity that involves competition and/or interactivity can be considered a game. It is important to develop a variety of games that: involve the whole class, small groups, partners and individuals require teacher direction allow students to manage play independently.

Mediated Reading
Collect a variety of age-appropriate, simple chapter or nonfiction books. Read the books with students, experimenting with teacher read-aloud, paired reading and choral reading techniques and stopping to discuss and/or translate, when necessary. Stress the need to use context to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words, when possible. Allow students to access translation resources. Use the books content in other activities; e.g., word-analysis activities, cloze activities.

Directed ReadingThinking
Help students predict, improve comprehension and retain information through a scaffolding strategy; e.g., the Directed ReadingThinking Activity (DRTA). In a DRTA, three questions are asked. What do you think this story is about? What do you think will happen next? Why do you think so?

Show students the title of a story and ask them to make predictions. Move through the story a few sentences at a time, asking the students to make predictions throughout. This is valuable for ESL students who have had little experience making predictions and inferences. This strategy enables teachers to assess and build on the background knowledge of students.

Guided Writing
Have students tell a story or other type of dictation for you to write down. Then, have students copy the words/sentences on their own. Students should be able to progress to finishing open-ended sentences, writing sentences to match pictures and writing sentences in response to specific questions.

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Level 3: Intermediate

Special Considerations for Intermediate ESL Students

Introduce rules slowly and strategically; e.g., introduce each rule only when it is relevant to other learning. Identify similarities and differences in sound rules between first and second languages; e.g., what makes a vowel sound short or long. Introduce rules of spelling that relate to pronunciation; e.g., when two vowels go walking, the first does the talking. Lead students to consider and identify commonalities between the rules of the first language and newly-learned rules of English in a way that allows them to use translation as a tool for word-building; e.g., in French the ment ending works similarly to the English ly ending. Avoid introducing words that are exceptions to the rule until a firm understanding is established. Avoid having students work edited or marked by peers. Avoid or limit the scope of written projects. Avoid using cursive writing for notes on the board or assignments. Use thoughtful seating placement in class; e.g., proximity to teacher or student support.

Intermediate ESL Student Learning Strategies

Make personal dictionaries. Find information, using reference materials; e.g., dictionaries, Internet, multimedia, textbooks, grammars. Use available technological aids to support language learning; e.g., audio recordings, computers. Use word maps, mind maps, diagrams, charts or other graphic representations to make information easier to understand and remember. Place new words or expressions in context to make them easier to remember. Use induction to generate rules governing language use. Seek opportunities outside class to practise and observe. Perceive and record unknown words and expressions, noting their context and function. Listen or read for key words. Initiate or maintain interactions with others. Participate in shared-reading experiences. Seek the assistance of a friend to interpret text. Reread familiar self-chosen texts to enhance understanding and enjoyment. Use a range of fillers, hesitation devices and gambits to sustain conversations; e.g., Well, actually. . . Where was I? Compensate for lack of vocabulary by providing a description rather than the actual word; e.g., The thing you hang clothes on, for hanger. Repeat part of what someone has said to confirm mutual understanding; e.g., "So what you are saying is ..."

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For a complete list of learning strategies, see Appendix 4: Learning Strategies.

Intermediate ESL Student Accommodations

Allow electronic translators. Provide photocopies of notes. Allow students to work with partners for assistance. Extend time lines, when necessary. Provide time outside class for students to get help and encourage them to do so. Let students know ahead of time which text pages to read so they can prepare in advance. Have students participate in group activities but omit the detailed write-ups other students might be expected to complete. Pick through assignments and have students complete only certain questions or sections (avoid higher-level questions). Make provisions for the use of a reader or scribe in testing situations. Provide books on tape.

Lesson and Activity Ideas

Rules of Sound
Plan activities in which students learn rules that govern the sounds that letters and letter strings make; e.g., effect of a silent e on other vowels, silent consonants, such as gh, first vowel dominance when vowels are paired, such as ea. Introduce rules directly and walk students through reading and spelling examples. Then, have students apply what they have learned. These rules can help students with reading and spelling, but it is important to introduce rules slowly and strategically. Consider having students identify similarities and differences in sound rules between their first and second languages.

Spelling Activities
Spelling is best taught within the context of real writing tasks; however, some students benefit from direct instruction in the general rules of English spelling, along with related strategies. Spelling words can be pulled from: words students use in their daily writing content words used in different subject areas function and signal words; e.g., unfortunately, because, although, however students personal lists of spelling words, including words that are difficult for them to hear teacher-written passages that include examples of a specific spelling pattern or rule age-appropriate spelling lists. Spelling Folders Make and laminate individual folding cards. Inside each card, have students write words they find difficult. Then, have students practise, using the look, say, cover, write, check strategy. ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Spelling Rules Introduce rules incrementally. Set aside regular time, and bulletin board space, for the task. Provide examples of words that are consistent with a rule and have students complete word-level activities to reinforce the rule. Introduce words that are exceptions to the rule only when students have a firm understanding of the rule. Word Banks/Personal Dictionaries Have students record words they are learning to read or write. Their personal dictionaries should be organized alphabetically. Entries should include a translation in the first language, along with examples of correct usage.

Word Analysis (Level III)

Word analysis activities should be based on relevant vocabulary collected from reading and content-area learning. These activities should focus on word usage and meaning. Roots and Affixes Guide students through the process of modifying words by adding prefixes and suffixes. Teach them to recognize root words and/or word roots and identify the common meaning/relationship between words that share these roots. Teach or refer back to spelling rules related to word affixes but place the most focus on word class and meaning changes related to word affixes. Word Relations Word relations can be explored through activities in which students consider varied words and relationships between words and recognize the need to select vocabulary carefully to communicate the intended message. Translation confusions are common because a single word with multiple meanings in English may translate into a number of different words in the first language. Synonyms in English also may not translate as synonyms in the first language. Focus on words with multiple meanings, synonyms and antonyms.

Cloze Activities
Cloze activities involve omitting words in sentences or passages. Students have to determine which words are missing. For students with developing literacy, cloze activities should focus on comprehension skills and require students to reflect on the rules of language. Cloze activities are also a useful tool for reinforcing content-area learning in a way that reinforces related language. Reader Response Cloze When students answer questions in response to reading or are asked to summarize what they have read, cloze activities provide a framework for finding the correct information and reinforce correct sentence structure. Providing students with the question, as well as the cloze frame for their response that repeats the format of the question, helps them learn effective questionanswer techniques. Summary Cloze Summary cloze is an activity in which students fill in the missing words in a passage that summarizes information. When summarizing information, ensure the cloze passage has direct correlations to the original material learned; e.g., presented in the same order, using the same vocabulary. For more complex material, provide a bank of words.

Grammar
Grammar is most effectively taught within the context of speaking, reading and writing; however, some students benefit from direct instruction in the general rules of English grammar. Lead students to consider and identify commonalities between the rules of the first language and newly learned rules of English. 100 / Chapter 4 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Word Function and Type In word-function and type activities, students learn about parts of speech and the role each type of word plays in a sentence. Students should be able to name and define the parts of speech, identify/classify words in sentences and use all the parts of speech correctly in oral and written English. Sentence-level Grammar In sentence-level grammar activities, students learn and apply rules of sentence structure by making a variety of sentence types, both orally and in writing. Ensure students have a firm understanding of basic sentence requirements before providing instruction in specific sentence formats.

Sentence Building
Sentence-building activities reinforce rules of grammar and provide a forum for focusing on subtle meaning changes that can be created by manipulating sentence structure. Manipulating Words and Phrases Students can benefit from activities in which they manipulate words and phrases to build grammatically correct sentences. Students can experiment with creating sentences with varied meanings, using a bank of words and phrases and discussing the rules they follow when making correct word-order choices. Dictate sentences for students to create. For students needing more support, provide a framework; e.g., cloze-style. Ordering Phrases Have students manipulate phrases to modify sentences. Lead students to experiment with rearranging clauses to vary sentence structure and/or create effect. Avoid having students manipulate clauses until their simple-sentence structure is solid. Ordering Sentences Have students manipulate sentences to create a logical, well-organized passage in which one sentence leads naturally into the next.

Reading Strategies
ESL students can quite easily fall into a pattern of selecting inappropriate reading materials that are well above their literacy levels and developing ineffective or poor reading habits by accepting partial understanding of text. It is important to promote effective reading habits, especially in students who were not strong readers in their first language. Book Selection Techniques Guide students to select books that are appropriate for their language level, e.g., those that can be read without requiring more than five translations per page, and are personally relevant or otherwise appealing. Establish collections of high-interest/lowvocabulary books and simple nonfiction texts as well as books intended for younger audiences. Many ESL students who are motivated to learn the new language are willing to read whatever text is available to develop their reading vocabulary. Self-monitoring Teach and reinforce self-monitoring strategies to ensure students play an active role in improving their reading skills. Through reading aloud or maintaining careful awareness while reading silently, students notice and correct reading miscues. Initially, pair students with English-speaking peers or program aides for support in reading and provide opportunities for reading aloud in nonthreatening situations. Next, teach students to notice and correct reading errors that affect the meaning of a passage. By visualizing or ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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playing the movie in their minds as they read, students should be able to notice confusions and rewind to fix the problem. Have students employ metacognitive strategies to make connections between new information and existing knowledge or memories. Initially, it is almost impossible for ESL students to do any self-monitoring for meaning as they are in a constant struggle to translate as they read. Much support is required. Learning Word Meaning through Context Guide students to use context clues to determine the meanings of unfamiliar words. When they encounter a word they are unfamiliar with, provide the correct pronunciation for them to repeat but have them continue on to the end of the sentence. Stopping at the end of the sentence to consider the word within the context of the sentence, passage and any graphics on the page helps students guess at the meaning of the word. Initially, it is crucial that texts that make this possible be carefully selected or created. Guided Reading Guided reading, a procedure developed by Manzo (1975), reinforces strategies for monitoring for meaning. Group children according to reading levels, each with a copy of the same book. Children read aloud, taking turns or reading together as they monitor one anothers reading and model reading strategies by stopping to correct one another when things do not make sense. Interpreting Figurative Language/Colloquialisms Provide interpretations of nonliteral terms/phrases as they are encountered in reading. Structure activities in which students consider both literal and figurative meanings of phrases; e.g., split-page pictures where students draw the literal meaning of an idiom on one side and the figurative meaning on the other. Prereading Strategies Advance organizers and structured overviews are prereading strategies that introduce new knowledge required for reading. Advance organizers organize the cognitive information into a manageable package for students. They may be in the form of outlines, key visuals, summary charts, data retrieval charts or synthesized paragraphs that reveal what the upcoming reading is about.

Developing Reading Comprehension

Build sufficient background information by discussing titles, pictures, vocabulary and settings so ESL students can begin to understand material. Try to determine whether or not students have adequately developed receptive and expressive vocabulary to read texts. Encourage prediction before and during reading. Teach story structure: setting, problem, action, resolution. Ask different kinds of questions after the initial silent reading that involves specific details, sequence, inference, main idea, drawing conclusions and vocabulary. Help students to become more aware of key words in questions; i.e., who, what, when, where, why, how. Make sure that comprehension is first developed at the literal level before advancing to interpretive and applied levels. Teach students to recognize transition words that signal causeeffect, contrastcomparison and sequential happenings. Provide opportunities for paired reading activities in which ESL students can benefit from the modelling of English-speaking peers. Assist and encourage students to form strong visual images about what they read. ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Guided Writing
Begin with language-experience stories in which students write about personal experiences or topics of interest. Then, have them branch out into new and more creative topics; e.g., writing in response to reading. By working through the process of planning, drafting, revising and editing, teachers can address vocabulary and grammar concerns specific to each student, within the context of real writing. This is especially important for students with limited instruction in writing in their first language. Initially, all students need to get their intended message down on paper without being overly concerned about mechanics. When the intended meaning is obscured by incorrect grammar and misspelling, teacherstudent conferencing during rewritings is necessary to help students communicate more clearly and develop products that can be a source of pride. With ESL students, it is important to limit the focus of error correction to one or two points at each stage in the revision process. Too much correction is overwhelming. Once the organization and intent of writing is clear, attention can be given to grammar, especially verb tenses, that takes a long time to master. Selecting the most appropriate vocabulary may be the next priority, followed by refining the use of articles and prepositions. Spelling errors can be left until the final stages. Most of students explicit learning about grammar and spelling arises from writing conferencing time. This is also the best time to point out positive aspects of students work. Note: Avoid or limit the scope of written projects in the early stages. Focus on teaching rules of writing through editing short pieces written as part of other tasks; e.g., editing students answers to post-reading questions.

Writing Starters
Retell stories students have read in class or stories, folktales or fables from their own culture. This requires a fair amount of creativity and manipulation of complex linguistic structures. Write sequels to books or chapters or rewrite conclusions. Coauthor joint stories with other ESL students or willing English-speaking peers. Write letters to friends or relatives in the home country or to pen pals in another class or school who speak the same language. Use cloze-type paragraphs or stories, based on books students have already read, so they can fill in familiar patterns. Reflect or relate to reading, using printing prompts; e.g., I think I feel The story reminded me of

Guided Writing and Workshops Students should be taught to write in a variety of forms, especially those that may be needed in later life; e.g., letters, expository text. Focus on the importance of developing an effective and repeatable process as the key to quality products and as a means of applying rules of language.

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Open Endings In open-ending activities, students complete or extend a piece of writing. This is often used as a technique to focus on specific parts of writing, in the beginning stages of writing or when investigating and experimenting with variety in writing. Before students can extend a piece of text, ensure they understand the content of the existing portion of the text. Students need to understand that there is not a single correct way to complete a text.

Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers provide a visual link between language and content. They organize information and explicitly develop ideas and the underlying relationships among those ideas. Using these organizers reduces the text ESL students may be struggling with, while maintaining the concepts of lessons. Graphic organizers help ESL students understand concepts and reduce the load on short-term memory. Having concepts displayed visually enables students to focus on language development. Graphic organizers can link the language and content, often forming a bridge to knowledge students may already have in their first languages. Using graphic organizers to teach new concepts is an effective way to engage students in discussion and have them learn essential vocabulary in a meaningful context.

Vocabulary Development
Students familiar with the core vocabulary integral to a text have a greater chance of understanding the new concepts presented. Students may have difficulty with both content words and noncontent words; e.g., a chapter in a science text may contain content words like mass, volume and density and noncontent words like submerge, measure and weight. Identify these key words prior to the lesson and introduce them for the benefit of all class members. No more than 12 new words should be introduced in one session.

see Appendix 7: Vocabulary Tools for two sample vocabulary organizers.

Guessing Game Have students work in pairs, alternating the role of guesser each time. Guessers must keep their backs to the board. Write a vocabulary word on the board. The guessers partner has to give hints about the word until the guesser says the correct word. Students may compete to see who guesses first or accumulate points by guessing the word within a given time limit.

Word Games
Students with developing literacy are typically ready for advanced or structured game-like activities that reinforce language skills, build vocabulary and relate to the content they are learning. Word Search and Crossword Puzzles Create word puzzles on the computer, using software from office supply stores or free software downloaded from the Internet. 104 / Chapter 4 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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File Folder Games

Paste word-work pages, e.g., mystery messages/break-the-code activities, into file folders and laminate them. They can be reused with overhead pens to turn simple worksheets into fun activities students can work on during free time. Nonagram Use a bulletin board to display a nine-letter word scrambled in a three-by-three grid. During the week, when students have free time, they can create as many small words as they can using the letters in the grid and compete to figure out the nine-letter word.

Published Games
Games that develop literacy skills are available at toy and department stores. Games of any kind are a great forum for developing social skills and oral literacy and should be used often.

Level 4: Advanced

Special Considerations for Advanced ESL Students

Focus on developing efficient and effective strategies for learning and studying across content areas. Provide opportunities for students to prepare in advance for upcoming learning; e.g., reading chapters ahead, learning vocabulary. Avoid using cursive writing for notes on the board or assignments. Use thoughtful seating placement in class; e.g., proximity to teacher or student support.

Advanced ESL Student Learning Strategies

Experience various methods of language acquisition and identify one or more that is particularly useful, personally. Assess their own information needs before listening, viewing or reading. Prepare questions or a guide to record information found in texts. Use graphic organizers for note taking and research. Use skimming and scanning to locate key information in texts. Distinguish between fact and opinion when using a variety of sources of information. Formulate key questions to guide research, make inferences and identify and justify the evidence on which their inferences are based. Develop criteria for evaluating their own work. Summarize the point reached in a discussion to help focus the talk. Work with others to monitor their own learning and take responsibility for planning, monitoring and evaluating learning experiences.

For a complete list of learning strategies, see Appendix 4: Learning Strategies.

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Advanced ESL Student Accommodations

Make textbooks available for purchase to allow students to mark up the text; e.g., with translations, margin notes. Allow electronic translators. Continue literacy activities.

Lesson and Activity Ideas

Advance Organizers
Introduce advance organizers to students before they learn the material itself. Advance organizers bridge the gap between what learners know and what they need to know before they can successfully learn the task at hand. They also help teachers organize and convey large amounts of information as meaningfully and efficiently as possible. KWL Charts KWL charts are typically used to find out what students already know about a particular topic or concept. Students begin by creating a chart with three columns. In the first column, students record the information they already Know about the topic. In the second column, students write a list of information they Want to learn about the topic. (These questions provide the focus for reading.) In the third column, students record the information they Learn about the topic.

Note Taking
Note taking involves reading and critical-thinking processes and provides students with a physical structure that helps them determine which details to record and how to record them logically. This allows ESL students to focus on language issues connected to note taking. Experimenting with different strategies for note taking helps individual students discover what works best. Graphic Organizers Graphic organizers provide a physical structure into which students can put information and maintain a common, repeatable format for collecting and recording information. Split-page Notes Using the split-page note-taking strategy, students fold paper in half vertically and record notes from class in the left column and related information from reading, research and vocabulary in the right column. This way they can collect and synthesize information about a particular concept. For ESL students, the split-page format is beneficial because there is space to include translations.

Content-area Reading
Content-area reading focuses on word identification, vocabulary development and comprehension within the context of prior learning. Prereading Students engage in discussions and activities that prepare them in advance for reading and new knowledge. Discuss topics, introduce vocabulary and provide an overview of upcoming material before students begin reading.

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Mediated Reading Students are supported as they read by participating in guided or shared reading with their peers or by having the teacher read aloud and paraphrase materials. Text Structures Draw students attention to page-layout features and text structures aimed at guiding readers and aiding comprehension; e.g., headings, subheadings, boldface text. Accessing Vocabulary Students continue to participate in activities that focus on looking for units of meaning within multisyllabic words and to use context clues to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words as they read. Metacognitive Strategies Metacognitive strategies skills are developed and reinforced through interactive reading experiences. Students consider and discuss what they already know about topics and synthesize new information with existing knowledge as they read, identifying and seeking answers to questions that arise. Give students guided practice in identifying main ideas and supporting details as well as in paraphrasing and summarizing information. SQ3R Formulated by Robinson (1961), the Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review method is typically used when accessing expository text structures. Students pick out key information by Scanning headings, asking mental Questions about each heading, Reading to answer their questions and Reciting (or recording) answers to their questions. Students then Review the information they have learned to see how much they can remember without accessing the text.

For various organizers for note taking, problem solving and other processes, see Appendix 5: Graphic Organizers.

Strategies for Students with Special Needs

Strategies for Students with Attention Difficulties
Attention is the ability to focus on and encode relevant information, sustain focus and carry out two or more tasks simultaneously. Attention also affects regulation of mental energy and alertness. Students experiencing difficulties with attention may: miss instructions respond with answers unrelated to the questions look attentive and focused but have trouble understanding and responding appropriately be easily distracted have difficulty inhibiting responses be impulsive move around or fidget have problems doing two tasks simultaneously; e.g., listening and taking notes.

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Consider the following sample strategies for supporting students with attention difficulties.

Create structure to focus attention.

Provide study carrels, earphones, desks (located in a quiet part of the classroom) or other physical accommodations to reduce extraneous stimuli. Encourage students to use a bookmark, ruler or sheet of paper to cover the rest of the page when reading or reviewing directions. Limit materials on desks or workspaces. Keep instructional-group size as small as possible. Limit the number of oral instructions given at any one time and follow up with printed instructions that include visual cues.

Reduce problems when shifting attention.

Keep tasks short and specific, giving only one instruction at a time; e.g., say, Read the first paragraph, and after it has been read, say, Now answer question one. Provide a list of tasks and have students check off each task as it is completed. Provide cues when there is a shift in activity; e.g., when speaking to the class, stop and indicate information students should write down.

Allow times for appropriate movement.

Provide stretch or movement breaks as needed or make them part of the classroom routine. Arrange an area in the classroom where students can move around without distracting others. Give students the option of going to this area when they need a stretch break. Have students do regular errands in the classroom, e.g., passing out papers or putting materials away, so they can move in the classroom in appropriate, helpful ways. Arrange nondistracting ways for students to move while involved in work; e.g., replace students chairs with large balls. Students can bounce gently at their desks and still get work done. Small inflatable cushions also provide students with opportunities to move in their seats without distracting others.

Manage the environment to maintain focus and mental energy.

Provide periodic verbal prompts or visual cues to remind students to stay on task; e.g., set a watch alarm to go off at specific intervals as a reminder to focus or use tape-recorded messages to remind students to check their work. Create guidelines for good listening skills and review them frequently; e.g., Show me listening. Eyes on speaker. Pencils down. Hands on desk. Reinforce listening skills and behaviours for all students by commending students who demonstrate these skills and describing what they are doing to be successful listeners. Place visual cues, e.g., stickers or check marks, at specific spots on worksheets that signal students to take a break. Use auditory cues, e.g., bells or egg timers, to provide cues for when to take a break or return to work.

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Place a time limit on homework. If elementary students are typically spending more than one hour a night on homework, this may be counterproductive and cause problems at home.

Use low-key cues to correct inappropriate behaviour.

Post reminders on students desks. When possible, have students design and make reminder cards. Simply walk by and point to the reminder. This works for such skills as: asking politely for help focusing on work taking turns. Collaborate with individual students to identify physical cues you can use to indicate a behaviour is interfering with learning. Cues should be unobtrusive and simple; e.g., a hand on the shoulder. This works for minor behaviours; e.g., interrupting or talking off-topic. Use coloured file cards with key messages; e.g., Talk in a low voice or Keep working. If students need reminders, lay the cards on their desks, without comment. After five minutes, if behaviour has improved, quietly remove the card. If the behaviour continues, add a second card.

Encourage students to attend to instructions.

Enforce a No pencils in sight rule during class instruction and discussion times. Teach students to fold over their worksheets so only the directions show. This will physically slow students down and encourage them to attend to directions. Ask students to repeat directions, in their own words, to a partner or the teacher. Ask students to work through a few questions and then check their work; e.g., say, Do the first five and then raise your hand so we can check them together to make sure you are on the right track. Hand out worksheets one at a time, when possible. Make a graph for certain tasks, e.g., spelling vocabulary words, and have students record the number of correct answers (versus the number of completed answers). This will benefit students who might be more focused on quantity than quality.

Strategies for Students with Memory Difficulties

Memory is the ability to record new information, retain information for a short time, consolidate and use new knowledge and skills and store information in long-term memory. Memory also involves retrieval and the efficient recall of stored ideas. Students experiencing difficulties with memory may: be unable to remember colours and shapes despite repeated instruction be unable to recall information despite extensive studying frequently lose their belongings have problems remembering daily routines despite regular exposure have problems recalling facts and procedures; e.g., new vocabulary words or verb conjugations.

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Consider the following sample strategies for students with memory difficulties.

Use instructional techniques that support and enhance memory skills.

Provide one instruction at a time until students can remember two consecutive instructions. Provide two instructions at a time until students can remember three. Provide opportunities for students to see directions and other information; e.g., take time each day to write the daily schedule on the board and discuss it. Write down the main points on an overhead or on the board, when giving verbal instructions. Present concepts concretely. Real-life examples add meaning and relevance that aid learning and recall. Concepts are easier to learn and retain when presented in familiar or authentic contexts. Assess student learning frequently and on shorter units of work. Use quick, short evaluations rather than formal, longer tests. Use language that is familiar. Provide cues that will help students recall details.

Integrate memory aids into each learning activity.

Provide regularly scheduled reviews of procedures and concepts; e.g., start each day by reviewing previously learned skills and ideas, present new skills and ideas and, before students leave for home, review the new information. Teach students to regularly make lists of reminders and note dates and assignments on a calendar. Teach mnemonics for recall when concepts or facts are presented; e.g., use an acronym to recall how verbs are conjugated.

Provide multisensory cues to make information and skills easier to remember.

Teach soundsymbol associations when introducing new vocabulary words. While looking at a picture of a word, say the name of each letter, its sound and a word that starts with that letter. Trace the letter on the desk, in the air or in a sand tray. Use visual cues; e.g., colour coding, photograph and drawing sequences, charts and videos. Use auditory and kinesthetic cues in combination. Combine songs with movement and dance patterns. Music and physical routines linked to fact learning can help students memorize faster and act as a cue for retrieving specific information. Incorporate hands-on learning experiences and demonstrations. Students learn and remember more effectively when they have opportunities to see and try out new information and skills in a variety of settings and contexts. Use skipping to help students learn numbers. In groups of five, students jump rope counting; e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4 ; 2, 4, 6, 8 ; 3, 6, 9, 12 .

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Set up classroom organizational systems and routines for easier access of information and materials.
Label class supplies and class work. Encourage students to use folders and binders with different colours, or labels with pictures, to separate subject work or materials for each class. Ensure students have their names prominently displayed on all personal supplies. Assist students with daily and weekly organization of their desks and work spaces by providing time to clean desks and organize homework at school. Build procedures into the day for recording information in agendas or assignment books. Provide memory aids for frequently used information. Key vocabulary words can be kept in a pocket on the side of desks. Schedules should be posted on the board or on the wall. Students can keep personal copies in their desks or notebooks. Tape simple cue cards of daily class routines on students desks.

Teach students strategies for memorizing specific pieces of information.

To learn and practise specific vocabulary for a topic or a theme, students can use a fold-over strategy. 1. Fold a paper to make three columns.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Paste pictures of objects in the first column. Write the English words for each of the objects in the second column. Fold the first and second column together so the words and pictures are not visible. Sketch the objects and label them with correct English word. Check for correctness by looking at the first and second columns.

Strategies for Students with Listening Difficulties

Listening plays a crucial role in language acquisition. Listening for specific information helps ESL learners internalize the rules of language. Learners also need frequent opportunities to use language by taking on the roles of listeners and speakers. This provides opportunities for social interaction where students can make and clarify or confirm meaning, test hypotheses about language and receive feedback. ESL learning is best supported when regular classroom practice provides opportunities for interactive listeninglistening that requires students to take an active role by requesting clarification or providing feedback to ensure successful communication. All students benefit from the development of effective listening strategies but these strategies are particularly important for students who already have specific difficulties related to listening. Consider the following sample strategies for supporting students with listening difficulties.

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Provide students with appropriate expressions to clarify meaning and confirm comprehension:
Could you repeat that please? I dont understand. Pardon me? mean? What does Could you say that again please? What do you mean? Could you explain that another way?

Present information in a listener friendly way:

reduce distractions communicate expectations clearly provide advanced organizers at the beginning of class consistently review and encourage recall of previously presented information use cue words and phrases to signal important information use transitional phrases to cue and signal the organization of information highlight important information vary volume, tone of voice and rate of speech to emphasize important ideas and concepts present information in many different ways repeat important ideas and concepts by rephrasing and using multiple examples write important ideas, key concepts and vocabulary on the board use visual aids and objects to support concepts and information presented provide examples and nonexamples of concepts check, frequently, for understanding provide opportunities to discuss concepts with partners or small groups provide opportunities to work with and/or practise new skills and concepts allow time reflection at the end of the class review, briefly, important concepts at the end of the class and preview what will be happening next class.

Model and practise active listening strategies in class.

Strategies for Students with Reading Difficulties

Research indicates that a students first language is always present in his or her mind during second language learning. The second language knowledge being created is connected in all sorts of ways with first language knowledge. Mental reprocessing of second language words, phrases or sentences into first language forms is a common cognitive strategy for language learners (Kern 1994). First language understanding is also used in more complex ways to think about and process what is being read in the second language. Students who have difficulty reading in their first language may be at a disadvantage when attempting reading in a second language. Many students with special needs read below grade-level expectations and need accommodations in this area. Recent research related to reading focuses on the use of reader strategies. In one study, students who experienced difficulty with language learning relied more extensively on phonetic decoding, while more successful students used strategies that called on general background knowledge; e.g., inferences, predictions, elaborations (Chamot et al. 1999). 112 / Chapter 4 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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This research indicates that teachers can help students become effective second language learners by helping them become flexible with their repertoire of first-language reading strategies and more effective at monitoring and adapting their strategies. Consider the following sample strategies for students with reading difficulties.

Create extra support for students with reading difficulties.

Pair readers who are less able with competent readers and have them read and complete assignments together. Provide students with picture dictionaries to help them find and remember vocabulary. Photocopy reading material for students with reading difficulties and use whiteout tape to cover new or difficult words. Write simpler or previously learned vocabulary on the whiteout tape. This is also effective when reading materials that contain idioms, metaphors or unfamiliar figures of speech.

Teach students specific reading strategies.

Use textcontent strategies before, during and after reading to identify, learn and understand ideas. Textcontent strategies include making connections to previous knowledge or experiences, making predictions about what will happen and asking questions about the text. Use decoding strategies, such as highlighting different parts of a sentence in different colours, e.g., nouns in green, verbs in yellow, to help break down and decode sentences. Use cognitive and metacognitive strategies to monitor comprehension; e.g., pausing after each sentence or paragraph to ask, Does this make sense to me? Use strategies for dealing with unfamiliar vocabulary; e.g., the following Read Around strategy: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Skip the word and read to the end of the sentence. Go back and read the whole sentence again. Look at the beginning of the word for lettersound clues. Think: What word would fit here? Try out the word in the sentence. Does this word sound right? Does this word make sense? Does this word match the letter clues? 6. Look at the picture for a clue (if there is one). 7. Ask someone.

ESL Students and Technology in the Classroom

ESL students should have opportunities to develop competence in using computers and other technologies. Many ESL students bring with them a wide range of technological experiences but some may have had none.

Views about the use of technology vary across cultures. Teachers need to ensure that the use of technology is culturally appropriate for their students.

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The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Kindergarten to Grade 12 Program of Studies provides a broad perspective on the nature of technology, how to use and apply a variety of technologies and the impact of technology on self and society. Although the ICT curriculum is intended to be infused within core courses and programs, it can provide guidance to ESL teachers on technology outcomes that enhance second language learning. Using computers for a variety of purposes engages students in gathering, interpreting and communicating information in problem solving and decision making and in experimenting with creative uses of language. ESL pedagogical practices that benefit from computer technology include: writing composition individualized learning content-based language instruction interaction and collaborative learning task-based learning and assessment.

Technology and Individualized Learning

Computer technology is well-suited to variations in learning styles, proficiencies and preferences. Multimedia software allows for comprehensive, individualized instruction in all of the language strands simultaneouslylistening, speaking, reading and writing. Many programs include testing and record-keeping capabilities to track individual student progress. While it is possible to have students access technology tools independently, teachers may offer assistance by suggesting strategies for their use, interpreting computer-scored assessments or providing supplemental language practice. Internet Safety Students are encouraged to take advantage of the Internets benefits while at the same time being aware of the risks associated with Internet use. Educators have a responsibility to be well-informed of their school jurisdictions technology policies (and of the latest computer threats) and should integrate Internet safety into their teaching. Web-Based Resources on Internet Safety (Accessed July 11, 2007): Media Awareness Network. Web Awareness for Teachers. http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/teachers/wa_teachers/index.cfm GetNetWise. Online Safety Guide. http://kids.getnetwise.org/safetyguide/ GetNetWise. Safety Tips for Kids. http://kids.getnetwise.org/safetyguide/kids Cybertipline. Dont Believe the Type: Know the Dangers. http://tcs.cybertipline.com/knowthedangers.htm

Content-based Language Instruction

A variety of software supports the blending of content and language instruction and is applicable for multiple proficiencies and various grade levels. Most combine video sequences, animation, graphics, sound effects and text and offer remedial support to students lacking background knowledge. 114 / Chapter 4 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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Research skills are applicable to all subject areas. The ability to choose and limit research projects, take notes and organize and synthesize information from various sources is aided by access to electronic resources. Technologies designed for the general education student population are beneficial in supporting ESL students in developing a second language. It is important for teachers to understand how general and assistive technology can support student learning of a second language. ESL students can be supported by technology tools that provide: multiple means of representation to give them various ways of acquiring information and knowledge multiple means of expression to provide them with alternatives for demonstrating what they know multiple means of engagement to tap into their interests, offer appropriate challenges and increase motivation.

USING GENERAL AND ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY WITH ESL STUDENTS Multiple Means of Representation
Audio Supports Audio tools, e.g., digital books, talking books, e-books, books on tape, music CDs, radio, sound files and telephone, allow ESL students to practise listening to a wide range of voices with little context and develop an ear for the language. Video tools, e.g., television broadcasts, movies, video files and documentaries, allow ESL students to experience speakers with different styles of nonverbal behaviours. Video images give context to the audio, making it easier to decipher meaning. Transcripts, captions and audiovisual descriptions provide access to content for students with experience in a language other than English as they will be able to read along for better understanding or further clarification. This will have further advantages as language translation programs provide better accuracy. Text-to-speech software programs read the text in any given document or application and often include other assistive features; e.g., word prediction and spell check. Some text-to-speech software programs have built-in scanning functions to convert print into a digital format. Students are supported by having the text highlighted as they listen to it being read. Other supports often built into text-to-speech software programs include speech feedback, screen reading, a phonetic spell checker, word prediction, a thesaurus, study skills and research tools. Some programs promote writing by including symbols and text together. Graphic Supports Content can be presented with picture symbols to support reading development. Boardmaker is a communication and learning tool containing over 4500 Picture Communication Symbols (PCS). It is a tool teachers can use to enhance the language and learning process for students of all levels. This software enables the creation of printed, symbol-based educational materials with PCS, and other pictures and graphics, in 42 languages. Chapter 4 / 115 2007

Video Supports

Transcripts, Captions

Text-to-speech Scan and Read Software

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Multiple Means of Expression

Word Processing Word-processing tools allow ESL students with poor handwriting skills to create neat, easy-to-read documents. Word-processing tools help writers focus on: generating and clarifying meaning managing ideas and information structuring texts in a variety of ways using a variety of fonts revising, editing and improving style targeting presentation for particular needs and audiences. Some word-processing programs provide additional supports; e.g., customized word or sentence banks. Some provide the opportunity for teachers to add graphic supports to these banks. These programs allow students to see and hear words and phrases prior to choosing them for their writing. These supports may allow students to use vocabulary at a complex level. Blogs Blogs allow students to share their thoughts and ideas and meet and interact with people around the world, exposing them to authentic uses of the language. Several tools can help ESL students who have difficulty spelling, including hand-held devices and software applications or features within writing programs. Some programs with spell checking offer additional supports. These include: homonym support talking spell checkers a spell checker linked to a dictionary phonetic-based spell checkers. Word Prediction Sometimes students know what they want to write but have difficulty forming the words or thinking of new words to use. Word-prediction programs are used with word processors to provide an efficient way to produce written work. These programs predict what words users intend to write, based on the first letters typed, rules of English grammar and frequency of use. Users can type the first letter or first few letters and choose from a list of predictions, instead of typing the whole word. Other features of these programs may include spell checking as students type, spoken feedback and hot keys for frequently used words.

Spell Checkers

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Layout and Design

Software applications allow students to organize information in a variety of ways. Students can add interest and further information, and convey meaning with fewer words, by incorporating graphics, charts and diagrams. Technology plays an important role in making connections for understanding; e.g., graphic organizers constructed with Inspiration serve as a visual tool to help students see the relationships among concepts and how they connect to one another (Crandall et al., 2002). Visualization allows students to become active researchers and comprehend abstract concepts. One of the advantages of using technology is the opportunity to provide visual context.

Electronic Dictionaries

Electronic dictionaries are written especially for ESL learners. There are two typesonline dictionaries (with helpful illustrative sentences and extensive definition entries) and pocket automatic bilingual dictionaries that are completely portable. Some electronic dictionaries reference grammar, pronunciation and common errors and allow students to: click a word or phrase to have it repeated see related pictures or video clips read related texts. Electronic dictionaries also have helpful features, e.g., cross-referencing and word and spelling games, that are faster to use than print dictionaries.

Multiple Means of Engagement

World Wide Web The World Wide Web allows students to access culturally relevant information that may not be available in a library; e.g., stories translated from native languages, news articles related to native cultures. Some Web site content may not be appropriate or may be at reading levels that are too advanced. Students should be reminded to be selective of content found on the Internet. Teachers should follow the Internet protocols of their schools. Text-to-speech software can support students using Web sites. Using computers and Internet connections, students can practise writing and communication skills with e-mail pen pals. Several Web sites help to connect students and support use of this medium. Using digital photos or video-editing programs, students can create multimedia projects. When students are engaged in activities like these, they are constructing their own knowledge, with the teacher acting as facilitator. Software that provides an avenue for artistic expression, e.g., drawing programs, music-creation programs and graphic-design programs, may also be helpful in supporting students with diverse learning styles.

E-mail Pen Pals

Multimedia

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CHAPTER 5
Differentiated Instruction for ESL Students
Chapter Summary
Introduction to Differentiated Instruction Differentiating Content Differentiating Process Differentiating Product

Introduction to Differentiated Instruction

While individual students learning English as a second language may require specific accommodations in the classroom, teachers can support the learning of all students by incorporating elements of differentiated instruction. The term differentiation embraces a variety of instructional strategies that recognize and support individual differences in student learning. Differentiated instruction maximizes learning by considering students individual and cultural learning styles, recognizing that some students require adjusted expectations and offering a variety of ways for students to explore curriculum content and demonstrate learning. With differentiated instruction, teachers create learning situations that match students current abilities and learning preferences and that also stretch their abilities and encourage them to try new ways of learning. Differentiation can occur in the content, processes and/or products of classroom instruction.

Program Planning for Differentiation

Teachers can use a framework, e.g., the one described in the following steps, to plan for differentiation that will support students learning English as a second language.

Identify underlying concepts.

Identify the concepts all students should understand by the end of a lesson or unit. It is important to separate concepts from the content used to develop these concepts. Different content may be necessary for students with varying levels of skill; however, at the end of a learning activity, all students should have a similar understanding of the concept, taking into consideration the level at which they are working.

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Choose instructional strategies.

Present concepts in such a way that all students are able to gain an appropriate degree of knowledge. Consider the following strategies for differentiating instruction. Present new material in short periods of time through varied activities. Use materials at a variety of difficulty levels for the whole group. Begin instruction at individual students current levels of functioning. Stand close to students who need extra help. Modify the pace of instruction. Simplify instructions. Write instructions on the board. Ask students to repeat instructions or paraphrase what has been presented. Demonstrate, model or act out instructions. Complete the first example with students. Use a multisensory approach. Present concepts in as concrete a way as possible. Use pictures and concrete materials. Use different coloured chalk and pens. Break information into steps. Provide additional time to preview materials and/or complete tasks. Adapt level of questioning. Use advanced organizers.

For general ideas on adaptations for ESL students, see Appendix 8: Examples of General Accommodations.

Choose strategies for student practice.

Use a variety of practice activities and, wherever possible, provide students with choices for their mode of practice. This may require adapting how students participate, providing adapted materials or adapting goals for individual students. Each student should have the opportunity to participate meaningfully according to his or her level of skill. The following chart shows examples of different modes of student practice.

Verbalize

Write

Create

Perform

Solve

oral report panel

discussion debate games brainstorming oral questions and answers interviews

research paper poems essays stories diaries plays cookbooks

diorama collage painting model pictograph mural bulletin board games inventions

simulation role-play drama pantomime puppet show radio commercials

puzzles problems riddles games brainteasers charades

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Choose strategies for assessment and evaluation.

Identify a variety of ways students can demonstrate their mastery of objectives and their understanding of concepts. The criteria for evaluation should take into account students needs and abilities.

Differentiating Content
Content is the text and information prescribed by the curriculum. Differentiating content involves modifying the nature of informational resources used in the classroom and adjusting the scope of the content that is directly taught to each student. For students who struggle with language, reduce the amount of information and simplify activities to address only what is essential. Collect various materials that contain essentially the same content as the main resources used in the classroom. Every classroom should have multiple texts and nonfiction library books that mirror or expand on content in the basic textbook but are presented at a modified reading level. These resources can include a variety of text types; e.g., news articles, picture books, journal entries and Web pages. When creating differentiated content, look for opportunities to plan and share resources with other teachers who teach the same subject. Work together to create resources, or divide the core units for the year, and then create and trade resources. Ways to simplify content include: rewriting text reducing the amount of text increasing the number of explanatory graphics; e.g., pictures changing a paragraph to a diagram or chart. The following page shows an example of text and an activity that have been adapted for students reading at a grade 45 level but who are working on a Grade 8 science program.

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Example of Grade 8 Science Content at a Modified Reading Level

Part F: What are gears and how do they work?
Gear A gear is an object that looks like a wheel with teeth around the rim (outside edge). Gear Train A gear train is when two or more gears are used together. When gears work together, the teeth of the first gear fit in between the teeth of the other gear, so when one turns, both turn. Driver Gear The driver gear is the gear that is in front of a gear train. The driver gear turns because it is attached to a handle or a motor. Follower Gear The follower gear comes after the driver gear. The follower gear moves because the driver gear is moving and the teeth of the two gears mesh together.

Use the information above to fill in the blanks in the passage below. A gear is shaped like a
1

and has
2

around the
3

. , the
5

When two or more

4

work together in a together. The front gear in a

7

of the different gears

6 8

is called the
9

gear and the next gear. The gear usually

11

gear is called the

10

moves because it is attached to a

12

or a
13

. The of the gears

gear moves because the

14 15

together and when the

16 17

gear moves, the other gears

do too.

Part F: What are gears and how do they work? is reproduced with permission from Edmonton Public Schools, Grade 8 Student Study Guide Mechanical Systems. Success in Science Series (Edmonton, AB: Resource Development Services, Edmonton Public Schools, 2004), p. 14.

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Differentiating Process
Differentiating the process means varying learning activities or instructional strategies to provide appropriate opportunities for all students to explore new concepts. This may require developing a number of different ways students can participate or providing adapted equipment or materials. Examples of differentiating process that allow all students, particularly ESL students, to be active participants in the classroom, include: collaborative learning activities learning centres learning logs individual goal setting changing the pace and/or delivery of instruction using verbal and verbal cueing.

Instructional Processes that Promote Differentiation

Instructional Models Implications for ESL Students

Concurrent Students work on a variety of activities, or on the same activity but in different ways, while the teacher supervises and facilitates. Rotational While the teacher gives direct instruction to one group, the other students work independently or in small groups on their own tasks. Peel-off Direct teaching begins with the whole class but groups of students are peeled off to continue other work when the extent of their coverage of the topic is reached; e.g., they complete a follow-up assignment as the teacher carries on with the rest of the students. ESL students work within the context of the whole group and receive instruction with the whole class but get focused support. ESL students are included with other students who need extra support or with students who are strong enough to provide informal support. ESL students work on modified materials and seek teacher support when needed.

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Sample Learning Scenarios that Promote Differentiation

Sample Learning Scenarios
Independently . . . working by oneself in a self-directed and fairly self-sufficient manner. Interactively . . . working within the context of other students but on different activities.

Implications for ESL Students

ESL students work on modified materials. ESL students interact with other students but do not meet the same expectations. ESL students are included with students who are strong enough to provide informal support. ESL students work within the context of the whole group.

Interdependently relying on other students ... to provide instruction, assistance or assessment. Collaboratively . . . working collectively to develop and/or demonstrate understanding of a concept.

Common Instructional Strategies Used to Facilitate Differentiation

Do-now ActivitiesMost Suited For: Divisions I, II and III
Establish activities that students do immediately upon entering the classroom as a way to reinforce self-directed behaviour and provide opportunities for teachers to initiate adapted activities with individuals or small groups of students; e.g., reading journaling problem-solving booklets vocabulary activities. Implications for ESL students ESL students do-now activities could focus on skill development; e.g., spelling practice.

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Anchoring ActivitiesMost Suited For: Divisions I, II and III

Establish ongoing activities that students do whenever they are finished an assignment and waiting for the next class activity to begin. Activities should address student skill development or build on strengths. They can be similar to do-now activities. Implications for ESL students ESL students anchoring activities could focus on skill development; e.g., vocabulary building.

Tiered AssignmentsMost Suited For: Divisions I and II

Tiered assignments have different sections that allow students to address the same content but with different levels of support, challenge or complexity; e.g., a problem-solving booklet in which the problems gradually become more difficultsome students complete only the first section, some the last section and most only the middle section. Implications for ESL students ESL students may be assigned the portion of the assignment that does not rely heavily on language skills. If extra time is needed for completion, ESL students may be assigned a smaller portion of the assignment.

Adapted AssignmentsMost Suited For: Divisions I and II

All students work on the same content but complete the assignment in different ways; e.g., instead of answering questions with complete sentences, some students complete cloze activities. Implications for ESL students ESL students can demonstrate their understanding of content without being penalized for less-developed writing skills.

Reading SupportsMost Suited For: Divisions II and III

Students are provided with support in reading, clarifying and interpreting written content. Examples of accommodations include: partner reading guided reading in small groups recordings; e.g., books on tape, podcasts text-to-speech software. Implications for ESL students ESL students are provided with language support to allow them better access to content within their grade-level range. ESL students could use these types of reading supports as their do-now anchoring activities or as independent activities at learning centres.

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Learning CentresMost Suited For: Divisions I, II and III

Learning centres are organized, self-contained collections of resources and materials that complement curricular topics. Examples of learning centres include: skills-based games; e.g., spelling, basic mathematics facts, matching content review; e.g., crossword puzzles, flash cards manipulatives; e.g., fraction puzzles, models. Implications for ESL students ESL students could work in centres focused on addressing specific language skills; e.g., vocabulary building or translation games.

Flexible GroupingMost Suited For: Divisions II and III

Students are grouped according to similar or complementary abilities in ways that change over time and across subject areas. Examples of grouping strategies include: homogeneous groups (students with similar skill/ability levels) heterogeneous groups (students with randomly varied skill/ability levels). Implications for ESL students ESL students gain a variety of learning opportunities, including working with teachers in small-group settings and with peers.

Assistive Technology for TranslationMost Suited For: Divisions II and III

These electronic and online resources and software address concepts and skills that complement topics of study. Examples of assistive technology include: electronic translators reading pens. Implications for ESL students ESL students can use electronic translators and/or reading pens when accessing more difficult texts. ESL students could use assistive technology as their do-now and anchoring activities. ESL students could use assistive technology in learning centres.

Adjusted QuestioningMost Suited For: Divisions I, II and III

During whole-group discussions, teachers ask questions selectively, based on student ability and comfort level. Implications for ESL students ESL students receive opportunities to participate in whole-class activities.

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Supported Note TakingMost Suited For: Divisions I, II and III

Teachers provide printouts of notes rather than having students take notes during class. This allows students to concentrate on listening. Teachers explicitly teach skills for note taking; e.g., identifying key words. Implications for ESL students ESL students use notes for continued reading practice and focus on paraphrasing information.

Reviewing Quiz and Test QuestionsMost Suited For: Divisions II and III
Students work collaboratively to determine correct answers when reviewing quizzes and tests. This promotes talk, encourages students to verbalize their thought processes and is useful for formative assessments. Implications for ESL students ESL students have opportunities to talk with other students and hear how they think and make decisions about different types of questions.

Personal ProjectsMost Suited For: Divisions II and III

Create personal projects on which students work when time allows. These projects could be specific to a subject area or be cross-curricular. Implications for ESL students ESL students projects could focus on skill development, e.g., vocabulary development, or capitalize on strengths, interests or backgrounds.

PretestsMost Suited For: Divisions II and III

Teachers establish a routine of assessing students prior to introducing a new unit. This allows teachers to determine the needs of individual students and the class as a whole and to gauge the amount of time and type of instructional strategies that will be most helpful. Implications for ESL students ESL students develop literacy skills and content knowledge at differing rates. Ongoing assessments provide information for planning instruction and grouping ESL students for cooperative activities.

Compacted CurriculumMost Suited For: Divisions I, II and III

Compacting the curriculum involves pretesting basic concepts and providing alternative or more advanced activities for students who have already mastered curriculum content. Implications for ESL students ESL students may have areas of strength on which to capitalize. If students have mastered grade-level outcomes in one area, this creates more instructional time to work intensively on other skill areas; e.g., writing or reading. Chapter 5 / 127 2007

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Differentiating Product
Differentiating products means varying the type and complexity of products students create to demonstrate learning. Students working below grade level may have different or reduced performance expectations from their grade-level peers; e.g., they may answer questions with drawings instead of written sentences. Allowing choices for demonstrating knowledge can accommodate differing student abilities, interests and learning preferences.

Examples of Differentiating Product by Curricular Outcome

DIVISION I
Grade 1 15.2 Compare and contrast colours, using terms such as lighter than, darker than, more blue, brighter than. Typically addressed through activities in which students show and explain what they observe about colour variances. Differentiated Product ESL students create and organize colour samples on a spectrum or in a chart, without words.

Division I Science Division I Social Studies

Grade 2 2.S.1 Develop skills of critical thinking and creative thinking: distinguish between a fictional and a factual account about Canadian communities. Typically addressed through reading/listening activities, using a selection of books about a specific community. Students use prior knowledge, language and sense-making skills to determine which account is more likely to be factual. Differentiated Process Provide ESL students with modified versions of each account, written in basic English. With translation support, students read each account. Differentiated Product ESL students complete a split-page illustration, using key words and pictures to show the differences between the two accounts.

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Division I Mathematics Division I Language Arts Division II Science Division II Social Studies

Grade 1 Statistics and Probability (Data Analysis), 4 Pose oral questions in relation to the data gathered. Typically addressed through gathering and graphing data and posing questions to peers to check comprehension. Differentiated Product ESL students create pictorial graphs to analyze sets of objects, then complete questions using stems or cloze activities provided by teachers; e.g., ___ out of ___ of the blocks are red. Kindergarten 1.1 Discover and Explore; Express ideas and develop understanding Talk about ideas, experiences and familiar events. Typically addressed through the sharing of personal holiday stories with the class in small books, with photographs accompanied by simple sentences. Differentiated Product ESL students tell stories about holiday experiences by showing photos with one- or two-word captions.

DIVISION II
Grade 4 45.10 Develop a flow chart for a consumer product that indicates the source materials, final product, its use and method of disposal. Typically addressed through researching and organizing information and graphics. Differentiated Process Provide ESL students with a set of graphics and verbally explain what each shows. Differentiated Product ESL students create flow charts with graphics and work with peers to add key words and phrases.

Grade 5 5.3.5, fifth bullet How is the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms a symbol of Canadas emerging identity? Typically addressed through reading and discussing implications of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and creating symbols that reflect important aspects of the Charter. Differentiated Process ESL students use electronic translators to understand key points of the Charter. Differentiated Product ESL students create meaningful symbols.

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Division II Mathematics Division II Language Arts Division III Science Division III Social Studies

Grade 6 Patterns and Relations (Patterns), 2 Summarize a relationship, using everyday language in spoken or written form. Typically addressed through writing sentences to prove mathematical understanding. Differentiated Product ESL students speak their sentences to buddies who help write the sentences.

Grade 4 2.3 Understand Forms, Elements and Techniques; Experiment with language Recognize how words and word combinations, such as word play, repetition and rhyme, influence or convey meaning. Typically addressed through exploring fun uses of language in picture books and poetry and practice playing with language in writing. Differentiated Product ESL students complete basic rhyme recognition activities, e.g., circle the rhyming words in a poem, and then think of more rhyming words.

DIVISION III
Grade 8 Unit E Skill (Performing and Recording) Select and integrate information from various print and electronic sources or from several parts of the same source (e.g., summarize information on a river basin). Typically addressed through research projects in which students have library and computer lab time to complete written summaries. Differentiated Process ESL students receive one or more informational passages, written in basic English. Differentiated Product ESL students use their science knowledge and language sense-making skills to complete cloze activities, using facts from reading. Students follow up by making drawings or graphic representations of each fact.

Grade 7 7.2.2 Recognize the positive and negative consequences of political decisions. Typically addressed through reading, listening and viewing to learn about a political decision. Students complete cause-and-effect graphic organizers. Differentiated Product ESL students receive basic text to cut and paste into the cause-and-effect chart.

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Division III Mathematics Division III Language Arts

Grade 7 Shape and Space (Measurement), 4 Research and report how measurement instruments are used in the community. Typically addressed through research and creating brochures with text and graphics. Differentiated Product ESL students take photographs or draw measurement instruments and create labelled diagrams to explain how they are used.

Grade 9 2.2 Respond to Texts; Experience various texts Compare and contrast own life situation with themes of oral, print and other media texts. Typically addressed through reading novels and highlighting similarities and differences between elements of the stories and elements of students lives. Differentiated Product ESL students read basic texts or use text-to-speech software to read assigned novels and fill out graphic organizers to compare and contrast elements of the stories with elements of their own lives.

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CHAPTER 6
Assessment of ESL Students
Chapter Summary
Assessment of ESL Students Principles of ESL Assessment Assessment Tools ESL Evaluation Reporting ESL Students Learning to Parents

Assessment of ESL Students

There are various challenges to assessing ESL students; e.g., the need for unique types of assessment tools, modifications to standard forms of evaluation and difficulties reporting student learning to parents. When ESL students arrive at school, information is gathered about English language proficiency, academic achievement and recent experiences that can affect schooling. This information is used to place students in appropriate grades and determine the types of support provided. Classroom teachers, in consultation with ESL teachers, assess student achievement and growth, provide feedback to students and parents, evaluate student achievement for report card purposes and determine when students require more or less programming support.

Assessment
Assessment involves gathering information and evidence about student performance, e.g., collecting data or work samples, or recording observations. This information is collected in a variety of ways, both formal and informal. This is an ongoing process that should be used routinely each day. Teachers assess learning and make planning decisions, based on daily observations, anecdotal notes and interactions with students.

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Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of summarizing and valuing and the making of judgements and decisions, based on the interpretation of evidence gathered through assessment and standards that have been set. Evaluation reflects students levels of development and achievement. Self-evaluation is an important process for both teachers and students.

Reporting
Reporting occurs when student information is synthesized, interpreted and communicated, along with evaluative comments. A variety of reporting formats can be used as long as clear communication and a better understanding of students abilities and needs are the ultimate goal.

Purpose of Assessment, Evaluation and Reporting

Assessment, evaluation and reporting provide valuable information for students, families and teachers.

For students, assessment and evaluation information:

enhances metacognition, helps students make judgements about their own learning and provides them with information for self-monitoring helps students set goals for learningmost learners organize their efforts more purposefully if they know that on a specific date they will be asked to perform to a certain standard helps students solidify their learning before moving to the next instructional unit. At the end of a unit, assessment can help integrate and reinforce learning. At the end of a year, it can provide a symbolic act of completion (Pratt 1994).

For families, assessment and evaluation information:

helps them become more knowledgeable about their childrens progress and learning needs.

For teachers, assessment and evaluation information:

indicates whether student learning activities need to be modified or enriched or if outside intervention is needed provides feedback about the success of instruction and programming through assessment, teachers learn which elements of their instruction were successful and which need to be improved provides a profile of student aptitudes and future learning potential, based on performances, progress and growth over a period of time screens and identifies students with special education needs within the second language learning situation.

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Principles of ESL Assessment

Teachers most difficult assessment challenge is how best to assess ESL students so that their true abilities and potentials are not compromised. Assessment builds on student strengths and specific educational needs, rather than focusing on weaknesses and perceived deficits. It is important to remember that constant focus on student weaknesses or inferred deficits seriously undermines students self-esteem, risk-taking abilities and confidence in their learning abilities. All assessment procedures must be considered within the context of ESL students cultural backgrounds and experiences.

Assessment should:
provide information about how well students are progressing toward English language proficiency and how well they are doing in the subject areas of the curriculum meet the requirements of the school and jurisdiction include a record of students accomplishments, samples of work, evaluations, summaries of achievement to date and goals for further learning indicate patterns of error and gaps or strengths in language and literacy acquisition so they can be addressed during future instruction provide information about process, product and attitude.

Developing Appropriate Assessment

Accurate assessment of ESL students can be difficult because of variations in their English language skills, along with the other growth and development variations of their age. To be effective, assessment must recognize the diversity of learners and allow for differences in styles and rates of learning. Such developmentally appropriate assessment calls for the use of a range of assessment strategies because ESL students are often unable to represent their understanding in conventional ways. The weaker the language skills, the more important it is to adopt techniques other than pencil and paper tasks. Developmentally appropriate assessment takes into account what students are trying to do and supports the risk taking that is an essential part of learning.

Tips for Appropriate Assessment

Focus on meaning rather than on language errors; e.g., grammar mistakes. Grade a combination of processes and products for all students. Explain what and how you grade. Show examples of good work, using rubrics with clear criteria (involve students in developing criteria, if possible). Have grades reflect a variety of performances; e.g., participation projects, portfolios and oral explanations. Adapt tests and test administration by giving students more time, having readers read the questions, administering the test over two seatings or reducing the number of questions that evaluate the same outcome.

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Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is ongoing assessment that monitors student strengths, weaknesses, attitudes, interests and ability to work independently. It provides feedback to students and teachers about student growth and the next steps in learning. Students use feedback from formative assessment to improve their learning. Teachers use it to improve their teaching. There should be ongoing monitoring of students English-language proficiency, based on: periodic samples of unedited writing, completed assignments, tests related to comprehension of content that has been taught, notes of parent interviews or conferences and teacher observation of oral performance students understanding of subject-specific content, as demonstrated periodically through an array of classroom activities periodic samples of unedited keyboarding.

Summative Assessment
Summative assessment is usually conducted at specific timesafter students have had opportunities to practise, at the end of a unit or semester or at the end of a reporting period. Summative assessment provides information to students and parents about how well students are achieving relative to curriculum outcomes. Many schools and school jurisdictions require summative assessment to determine report card grades, provide helpful comments and set learning goals.

Summative assessment can be done through:

paper and pencil tests standardized tests unit tests grading of student assignments, presentations and projects grading of student portfolios.

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Sample Formative Assessment Criteria Oral Assessment (Speaking)

Communication Initiates communication with peers Speaks on a specific topic Shares anecdotes or tells a story Participates in two-way conversations using turn-taking skills Expresses personal ideas, points of view Communicates intent Grammar and Vocabulary Varies sentence type and construction Attends to grammatical features; e.g., word order, tense Attends to word forms; e.g., prefixes, suffixes Demonstrates a repertoire of word choices Fluency and Pronunciation Demonstrates stress, intonation, rhythm Uses standard hesitation and pause strategies Speaks comprehensibly Body Language Communicates through facial expressions and gestures Understands the use of social space Communication Follows directions Asks for clarification Paraphrases and/or retells Demonstrates understanding by performing tasks Writes orally dictated passages or notes Oral Fluency Attends to phrasing Reads with stress, intonation and rhythm Sounds out unfamiliar words Self-corrects Predicts Comprehension Links to prior knowledge Predicts, retells, infers Recalls main ideas and supporting details Understands sequence and structure Uses pictures, graphs, charts, diagrams Communication Writes for a variety of audiences Writes on a specific topic Writes for a variety of purposes Demonstrates a variety of purposes Demonstrates a variety of written forms Follows the writing process; i.e., plans, drafts, shares, responds, revises and
publishes

Aural Assessment (Listening)

Reading Assessment

Writing Assessment

Grammar, Vocabulary and Mechanics Manipulates verb tenses Varies sentence construction Attends to agreement, number, word order, parts of speech Attends to word forms; e.g., prefixes, suffixes Demonstrates a repertoire of word choices Attends to conventions of punctuation and spelling Uses words and choices
Sample Formative Assessment Criteria is reproduced with permission from the work of Karen Roth and Anne OByrne, Calgary Board of Education (Calgary, Alberta).

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Assessment Activities
Oral/Aural Activities
oral interviews picture-cued descriptions and stories records of student interactions radio broadcasts and video clips information gap story/text retelling oral reports debates audio and video tapes improvisations, role-plays, puppet plays, readers theatre and interviews slide, overhead and PowerPoint presentations retellings response journals anecdotal records comprehension questions reading strategies checklists reciprocal teaching student-made dictionaries think-alouds miscue analysis running records reading logs rubrics rating scales student manipulation of information; e.g., unscrambling pictures, sentences story mapping learning logs dialogue journals summaries unedited, student written work copies of student-produced notes standard dictation cloze procedures copies of works-in-progress (writing process); e.g., letters, poetry, creative writing samples of completed work from a variety of sources; e.g., lab reports, poetry, interviews, graphic organizers

Reading Activities

Writing Activities

Assessment Activities is reproduced with permission from the work of Karen Roth and Anne OByrne, Calgary Board of Education (Calgary, Alberta).

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The context in which assessment takes place, whether formative or summative, should model the integration of language and content learning assumed in the inclusion model of language instruction. The ESL program should assess language proficiency while students demonstrate knowledge, skills and attitudes related to subject-area learning.

Assessment activities should:

focus on communicative approaches relate to student interests and the content of academic subject areas involve complex language competencies include listening, speaking, reading and writing activities take place in a variety of contexts be meaningful with a purpose be performance-based address the outcomes of the programs of study.

Content-area Assessment
Because language and content are highly interdependent in most subject areas, the main challenge for teachers is to determine if ESL students understand the concepts and procedures integral to the subject area, even though they are still learning English. Three general procedures can be used to adapt content-area assessments to the needs of ESL students. Scaffolding: reducing language demands whenever possible by giving contextual cues for meaning Differentiated scoring: providing separate scores on written passages for language conventions and for content knowledge Using visible criteria: providing students with information on how their work will be scored before assessments are carried out.6

6. Adapted, with permission from the Province of British Columbia, from English as a Second Language Learners: A Guide for ESL Specialists (p. 25). 1999 Province of British Columbia. All rights reserved.

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Modifying Assessment for ESL Students

Pre-beginner ESL Students
(up to six months in an English-speaking classroom with ESL support) Have students point to pictures of correct answers (limit choices). Have students circle correct answers (limit choices). Instruct students to draw pictures illustrating concepts. Instruct students to match items. Have students complete fill-in-the-blank exercises with the word lists provided. Reduce choices on multiple-choice tests. Give open-book tests (provide the page and paragraph where the answer can be found). Test students orally in English or in their first language. Allow extra time to accomplish tasks. Instruct students to match items. Have students complete fill-in-the-blank exercises with the word lists provided. Give open-book tests. Ask students to retell/restate (orally and in writing). Instruct students to define/explain/summarize orally in English or their first language. Use cloze procedures with outlines, charts and time lines. Allow for more time if students need it. Instruct students to explain how answers were achieved (orally and in writing). Have students complete fill-in-the-blank exercises. Ask students to retell/restate (orally and in writing). Instruct students to define/explain/summarize (orally and in writing). Have students compare and contrast (orally and in writing). Use cloze procedures with outlines, charts and time lines. Have students analyze and explain data (orally and in writing). Instruct students to express opinions and judgements (orally and in writing). Have students write essays.

Beginner ESL Students

(up to two years in an English-speaking classroom with ESL support)

Intermediate ESL Students

(up to five years in an English-speaking classroom with ESL support)

Modifying Assessment for ESL Students is adapted with permission from Pamela Wrigley, The Help! Kit: A Resource Guide for Secondary Teachers of Migrant English Language Learners (Oneonta, NY: ESCORT, State University of New York at Oneonta, 2001), p. 146.

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Increasing Students Roles in Assessments

The gradual increase of student responsibility for assessment is part of developing students autonomy as lifelong learners. The goal is to decrease students dependence both on teacher comments for direction in learning and on marks for validation of accomplishments.

Suggestions for Increasing Students Roles in Assessments

Encourage students to suggest alternative assignments to demonstrate their learning. Involve students in developing assessment rubrics; e.g., a class preparing oral presentations may develop a rubric in several stages. Brainstorm ideas on the qualities of an effective presentation. Refine criteria after viewing simulated or videotaped presentations. List criteria in order of priority and assign values. Use tools for student reflection and self-assessment at every opportunity; e.g., learning logs statement of goals self-reflective captions on portfolio items self-assessment rubrics. Remove the mystery from assessment. Explain the scoring criteria for performance-based tests prior to the tests and provide students with exemplars of various performance levels. Students need a clear sense of what constitutes mastery of each proposed task. Students also find scoring criteria and descriptors useful in assessing their own work and setting goals.

Assessment Tools
The following assessment tools are useful when working with ESL students in all subject areas. Most can be easily modified to the English skill level of ESL students. To ensure a fair, accurate and ongoing assessment of students overall progress, use a variety of assessment tools and strategies.

Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal records are dated, written accounts that briefly describe occurrences, behaviours or interactions. This form of recorded observation focuses on what students can do and provides an ongoing collection of documented events. When collected over time, these records provide a total picture of individual students that can assist in planning for individualized instruction. Teachers may choose to structure their observations to observe students at regular intervals to provide information on student work patterns. There are many ways of keeping anecdotal records; e.g., observation binders, file cards and sticky notes.

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Checklists
Checklists are an efficient and helpful way to gather information on students development. Teachers or other observers write dates, check marks and/or notes next to specific skills, behaviours or concepts. Checklists can be found in many resource materials or teachers can create them to meet their own needs.

Self-assessment
Encourage students to reflect on their learning. They can set personal goals on their own or in partnership with teachers or parents. Students benefit from learning the language of self-assessment through oral discussion and teacher modelling. A trusting relationship between teachers and students enhances students dispositions and abilities to reflect on learning. Self-assessment improves learning and provides valuable insights into other assessment strategies; e.g., journals and portfolios. The formats may include informal comments, scribed notes, checklists or drawings.

Conferences
Conferences with individual students allow teachers to gain insight into students interests, strengths, characteristics, progress and learning needs. Conferences can also be held with small groups of students to help shape their learning or foster cooperation and collaboration. Dated notes on the conversations can be kept in binders, record books or in students files.

Observations
Watching students in action is an important way to know and understand them as individuals. Focused observation aids in planning for students who may need special assistance, attention or extra stimulation. Observations provide a way of gathering information that may not be picked up through conversations. Information gained through observations helps when communicating with students families. Observing students can help teachers become more aware of their own thoughts, reactions, feelings and instructional effectiveness.

Portfolios
Portfolios are purposeful, organized collections of materials or artifacts from students classroom activities. Artwork, journals, samples of work, tape recordings or photographs are included to provide a meaningful picture of students progress throughout the year. The pieces are selected over time by students and teachers and tell a story of what students are learning and how that learning is taking place. Each selected sample is dated and may include a brief explanation as to the reason for inclusion. To have enough materials to choose from, it is important to keep a large number of artifacts at school or take photographs of those special ones sent home. Portfolios serve to document the knowledge, skills and attitudes students have developed over the year. They provide a self-portrait of students as learners.

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Portfolio assessment is ideal for ESL students because:

it is a systematic approach for focusing information gathered from alternative and standardized assessment to make specific instructional decisions it shows student growth over time and reveals student interests and strengths in a variety of learning/social situations it helps classroom teachers and ESL specialists or resource teachers make decisions regarding program placement, the extent of student progress and specific instructional objectives to be implemented it is a continuous, collaborative and comprehensive assessment that includes information from many sources.

The ongoing collection of information for ESL students portfolios is vital to the consistent monitoring of student progress. A portfolio assessment may include a record of classroom observations and conferences, samples of student work and norm- and criterion-referenced tests. Classroom teachers, in cooperation with ESL specialists or resource teachers, can provide portfolio assessments that are tangible records of student progress in language and content areas. Information collected in portfolios can be used for collaborative interpretation by classroom teachers, ESL specialists or resource teachers, and possibly students, to make mutual decisions for future planning. Students can see what has been learned and what areas need more work. After a year of learning English, students can provide self-assessments with appropriate questions from teachers. From this information, learning strategies can be identified and corresponding changes made in instruction.

Portfolio contents include:

a cover page or file folder to personalize portfolios a table of contents a statement of student goals items that represent student understanding of concepts in various fields items that illustrate the process of learning, which could include excerpts from learning logs and journals, and samples of work in all stages from conception to final product, along with student commentary discussing decisions made along the way performance items that demonstrate students application of concepts and skills items required by teachers items freely chosen by students rubrics, including self-assessments of the portfolios themselves captions with each selectionstudents identify the pieces, explain the contexts in which they were produced and discuss reasons for choosing them. This can form the table of contents; e.g., My Best Handwriting, My Most Challenging Project, My Best Progress.

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Other possibilities include:

pieces written in the first language pieces chosen from students work by classmates, with captions explaining why they considered the pieces valuable additions to the portfolios keyboarding samples showing progression of skill development pieces from other subjects that relate to portfolio subjects; e.g., a mathematics portfolio may contain an application of mathematics to social studies, in the form of graphs artifacts from outside the school that demonstrate the transfer of concepts and skills; e.g., plans for work at home, letters letters or student profiles written by parents.

Effective portfolios not only reflect the goals of programs of study but also the unique interests and abilities of students. No two portfolios look the same.

Types of Portfolios
Progress portfolios

are commonly assembled a few weeks before the first reporting period and shared with parents at conferences are updated before subsequent conferences and at the end of the year consist of a collection of pieces that are already graded and contain baseline samples of students work (their first pieces in each type of work required; e.g., their first sentences written in cursive script) to observe students progress are assessed as a whole by teachers and students together help teachers and students become acquainted with one another are put together by students and display a selection of products, e.g., photographs, badges, drawings, about themselves, their interests, accomplishments, travels, families and cultural backgrounds can include pieces that demonstrate a variety of learning styles contain students work from all subject areas invite junior high school students to explore connections between disciplines allow students, teachers and parents to see students as a whole contain two samples that students choose to illustrate their progress throughout the year (a baseline sample from early in the year and a best sample from later) to send to their classroom teachers for the following year showcase students best work from one grade to the next

Personal archives portfolios

Integrated portfolios

End of year miniselection portfolios

Multiyear portfolios

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Rubrics
Rubrics, or scoring guides, are composed of various performance levels in the form of charts. They identify what counts for teachers and students. Criteria in rubrics evaluate student learning through products or written/oral performances. Rubrics are evaluation tools that provide clear targets of instruction and evaluate student knowledge, understanding and skills.

Things to Consider when Developing a Rubric

What should students know and be able to do at the end of a lesson or unit? What are the criteria for evaluating the product or performance? Is the language user-friendly? Were students involved in developing the rubric? Did students identify meaningful descriptors? Are the performance levels attainable? Are the outcomes of the activity evaluated? Would students benefit from exemplars of various performance levels? Are too many outcomes evaluated at once?

Journals
Journals can be tools for self-expression that students can use to collect and submit questions and concerns or reflect on their new environment. Journals should be used for assessment only if that is the original intent and that intent is understood by students.

Tests
Standardized tests are series of tasks or questions that follow administration and scoring formats and are designed to measure student performance. They should be interpreted in context with information gathered in other ways. Teachers must ensure that tests reflect the programs of study and that test items are authentic. In standardized tests, the role of language and culture in test performance is not recognized.

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ESL Test Checklist Test Checklist

Items are clearly written.
Directions are clearly written and understood. Examples of how to respond are provided. The reading level of the test is easier than expected at the grade level of the student. The test moves from easy to more difficult, with the majority of the items being of average difficulty. The test has logical groupings. The test has three to five items for each curricular objective. Items that require higher-order thinking skills are included. The evaluation tool used is appropriate to the task. The test stresses important concepts, not trivia. Items do not require cultural knowledge. Test results will help students learn and help teachers plan for instruction. The test is criterion-referenced. Teachers score short-answer and narrative responses based on students meaning, not grammatical errors. The test is not too long for the time allowed.

Good

Could be improved (explain)

ESL Test Checklist is adapted with permission from Judith H. Jameson, Enriching Content Classes for Secondary ESOL Students Study Guide (National Edition) (McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems Co., 1998), pp. 161162 and from the Florida Department of Education, Empowering ESOL Teachers: An Overview (Revised Version), Section IX.3, Handout 10, (Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Education, 1995), pp. 9394.

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ESL Evaluation
Evaluation is the making of judgements and decisions, based on information gathered through assessments. Ideally, evaluation reflects student achievements and the success of teaching strategies. However, when teachers use materials and teaching strategies designed for English-speaking North American students, the results for ESL students may reflect limited English skills, an unfamiliarity with teaching strategies and differences in cultural interpretation. Classroom teachers must be aware of these issues and take them into account when interpreting student achievement. To counter these concerns, teachers should use a wide range of evaluation instruments and recognize the value of teacher observation, anecdotal notes and student work samples as observable measures of progress.

Diagnostic
Information provided by diagnostic evaluation is used to determine students programs and levels of understanding. It may also be used for anecdotal reporting. Diagnostic evaluation occurs at the beginning of a theme, project or year to assess student skills and knowledge. It can be informal and continual and often used where there is evidence that students are struggling. ESL students with limited English should only be given diagnostic evaluations, if necessary, by ESL specialists. Even if specific ESL instruments are used, they should be interpreted by trained or experienced ESL specialists.

Formative
Formative assessment provides continuous information about students and helps teachers plan and modify programs. It can help focus the efforts of teachers and students. When students receive information about their strengths and weaknesses, based on the outcomes to be achieved, they can develop effective learning strategies. This type of evaluation is ongoing throughout the year, with the purpose of improving teaching and learning. Formative assessment is the most practical form of evaluation to use when ESL students are acquiring English language skills. The more limited the students language skills, the more necessary it is to use a wide variety of assessment tools. Formative assessment is also used to assess students knowledge and understanding of the content of subjects they are studying.

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Summative
Summative evaluation encourages teacher reflection and program evaluation. It is used with formative assessment to determine students achievement and forms part of the evaluation that is used for reporting. Summative evaluation takes place at the end of a period of time, unit or project. Summative evaluation is one of the most difficult and challenging concerns of teachers of ESL students. It is difficult to evaluate all areas of language development. It is even more difficult to evaluate students comprehension and knowledge base when they have limited English. Often teachers report on ESL students ongoing progress rather than final levels of achievement. Grades should not be assigned to ESL students if they are not able, due to their levels of language proficiency, to follow the provincial curriculum.

Jurisdictional and Provincial

Some jurisdictions in Alberta formally evaluate student achievement in specific areas, e.g., English language arts, mathematics, social studies or science, to examine student achievement in a particular year and compare it from year to year. ESL students may or may not be included in this assessment. Provincial achievement tests in grade 3, 6 and 9 are tools for evaluating the achievement of Alberta students in a specific year. Classroom teachers, as well as developing their own assessments, participate directly in the development of provincial achievement tests. This helps ensure achievement tests are age-appropriate and aligned with the gradelevel curriculum. Superintendents of schools have the authority to excuse students from provincial achievement tests if it is deemed that they are not capable of responding to the test or that participation would be harmful to them. ESL students may be given up to twice the allotted time to write achievement tests. This accommodation does not require superintendent approval or identification on test answer sheets. Part A of grade 3 and 6 mathematics is the exception. The General Information Bulletin provides information on provincial achievement tests, including accommodations. It is updated regularly and is available on the Alberta Education Web site at http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/testing/achievement.

Reporting ESL Students Learning to Parents

Teachers have the same requirements to report ESL students progress to their parents as for all other students. This section includes general information about report cards as well as conferencinga method of reporting that invites parents into partnerships with schools. This may be novel to many parents but works for the benefit of ESL students because it enables parents to see not only what their children have learned but also how the learning takes place.

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Teachers can facilitate and enhance communication with parents by:

talking informally telephoning parentspersonally or through interpreters encouraging parent visits to the classroomdrop-in and invitation having conferenceswith or without translators providing written reportstranslated as necessary sending notes hometranslated as necessary providing comments in students agendas communicating with English-speaking sponsors, family or community members, with parents permission.

The process of assessing, reporting and conferencing has changed from a teacherdirected approach to a collaborative ongoing process designed to support and enhance learning. Within the process, teachers, parents and students become active participants in reviewing and communicating progress and offering recommendations to encourage further growth and development. The report card is only one component of the reporting process.

Report Cards
Throughout the school year, teachers observe and record student learning and progress in relation to the outcomes in the programs of study. At certain times throughout the year, teachers evaluate and gather this information into reports that can be shared with parents. These reports reflect the needs of students and parents and the requirements of school authorities. The intent is to maintain ongoing communication between home and school by providing written and/or oral feedback so parents learn more about their childrens progress and achievements. Formats for written reports vary and may be developed by individual teachers or as a school- or authority-wide project. Whatever the reporting format, the main criteria is that parents are given information about what their children know and can do in relation to the programs of study and how their children are progressing. It is important to give ESL students some measure of their progress. However, in the early stages of language learning, actual letter or number grades do not reflect the amount of learning that is happening. Students are learning the language and culture as well as content material. A lack of language skills may make it difficult to assess learning. Most schools accept comments, anecdotal records and student work samples as more accurate reflection of progress than marks. All schools do require final year marks, either letters or percentages. Teachers must indicate those students identified as ESL and who receive modified programs of instruction. Without this identification, marks may be misinterpreted in the next grade or school.

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Conferences
Conferences provide opportunities to exchange information about students while working to strengthen relationships between the home and school. Students interests are always kept at the forefront of conferences. Conferences are traditionally held between teachers and parents. Involving students places the focus directly on student growth and learning needs. In conferences with parents of ESL students, interpreters may be required. Interpreters may be staff members, family members or sponsors. Some districts employ interpreters on a full-time basis. If other people are used, teachers should only bring up concerns or negative situations with the permission of parents. Family confidentiality must be honoured. For the same reason, use of student translators is discouraged. Teachers should be aware of culturally sensitive issues that could arise during conferences. These include such things as the participation of female students in some school activities, the studying of certain subjects or the eating of certain foods. Teachers should also recognize that parents may not be comfortable or experienced in meeting with teachers of their children. Parents may feel anxious about speaking English themselves.

Types of Conferences
ParentTeacher Conferences The traditional type of conference is between teachers and parents who discuss the progress of students, issues, questions or concerns. Students may or may not be present. StudentParentTeacher Conference Studentparentteacher conferences provide an opportunity for sharing information and discussion. These conferences may be held throughout the school year, depending on the needs of students, parents or teachers. Student-led Conferences In student-led conferences, students lead their parents through a specific agenda that highlights student growth and learning during the time prior to the reporting period. Students are the centre of the demonstration of learning and actively participate with their parents in a variety of experiences that reflect their school day.

Teachers should help ESL students take part in student-led conferences. Although some modifications to expectations may be required, the results, both in the communication and pride of accomplishment of students, make it worthwhile.

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Teachers have the primary responsibility for evaluation in the classroom. No one piece of information gathered through assessment is sufficient in itself and teachers must look at a collection of evidence from different sources. When teachers examine assessment information, they need to interpret it and make judgements or decisions about student performance and how they might best support and extend student learning. Whenever possible, a cooperative partnership between classroom teachers and ESL specialists or resource teachers is one of the best ways of monitoring student progress. ESL specialists or resource teachers can provide consultative knowledge and support regarding the best strategies, approaches and assessment schemes to use to enhance instruction and learning for ESL students in the classroom.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Personal Profile Appendix 2: Understanding Cultural Differences in Student Behaviour Appendix 3: General Language Characteristics of ESL Students Appendix 4: Learning Strategies Appendix 5: Graphic Organizers Appendix 6: Sample List of Text Forms Appendix 7: Vocabulary Tools Appendix 8: Examples of General Accommodations

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Appendix 1: Personal Profile

Name Country of origin Date of arrival in Canada

Age

Class

New resident / home-stay participant Residing with Grade last attended Years of English language training Spoken English Reading level Written English Uses electronic translator: yes / no Works with private tutor: yes / no Academic strengths Other information

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Appendix 2: Understanding Cultural Differences in Student Behaviour

When working with newly arrived ESL students, be aware that they may sometimes respond in unexpected ways to particular classroom situations or events due to cultural conditioning or different cultural values and beliefs. The following chart identifies possible cultural explanations for behaviours ESL students sometimes exhibit.

Perceived Behaviour
The student avoids eye contact.

Possible Cultural Explanation

Keeping the eyes downcast may be a way of showing respect. In some cultures, direct eye contact with a teacher is considered disrespectful and a challenge to the teachers authority. A smile may be a gesture of respect that children are taught to employ to avoid being offensive in difficult situations. There may be taboos on certain types of physical contact; e.g., some Buddhists regard the head and shoulders as sacred and would consider it impolite to ruffle a childs hair or give a reassuring pat on the shoulder. There are also significant differences among cultures with respect to personal space. Some students may be unaccustomed to eating with anyone but members of their own family. Cooperative group work is never used by teachers in some cultures. Students may view sharing as giving away knowledge and may see no distinction between legitimate collaboration and cheating. In some cultures, schooling involves a strict formality. An informal classroom atmosphere may seem chaotic and undemanding and teachers with an informal approach may seem unprofessional. Such students may also be uncomfortable with process-oriented learning activities and prefer activities that yield more tangible and evident results. Extracurricular activities may not be considered part of learning or may even, along with some physical education activities, be contrary to a students religion or cultural outlook. Some students may also work during after-school hours. In some cultures, the learning process involves observing and doing or imitating rather than listening and absorbing; e.g., note taking.

The student tends to smile when disagreeing with what is being said or when being reprimanded. The student shrinks from or responds poorly to seemingly inoffensive forms of physical contact or proximity.

The student refuses to eat with peers. The student does not participate actively in group work or collaborate readily with peers on cooperative assignments. The student displays uneasiness, expresses disapproval or even misbehaves in informal learning situations or situations involving open-ended learning processes; e.g., exploration. The student refuses to participate in extracurricular or various physical education activities; e.g., swimming, skating, track and field. The student seems inattentive and does not display active learning behaviours.

This appendix is adapted, with permission from the Province of British Columbia, from English as a Second Language Learners: A Guide for Classroom Teachers (pp. 810). 1999 Province of British Columbia. All rights reserved.

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Perceived Behaviour
Performance following instructions reveals that the student does not understand the instruction, even though he or she exhibited active listening behaviours that suggested understanding and refrained from asking for help or further explanation. The student is unresponsive, uncooperative or even disrespectful in dealing with teachers of the opposite gender.

Possible Cultural Explanation

In some cultures, expressing a lack of understanding or asking for help from the teacher is considered impolite as these expressions are interpreted as suggestions that the teacher has not been doing a good job of teaching.

Separate schooling for boys and girls is the norm in some cultures and the expectations for males and females are quite different. The idea that males and females should have the same opportunities for schooling and play roles comparable to educators runs contrary to some students cultural conditioning. In some cultures, it is considered inappropriate to openly challenge anothers point of view, especially the teachers. In some cases, there may be value attached to being prepared, knowledgeable and correct when one opens ones mouth. To put oneself in the limelight for individual praise is not considered appropriate in some cultures, where the group is considered more important than the individual. Some students may be culturally predisposed to see reading as essentially an oral activity and will read aloud automatically. For others, reading aloud is associated with memorization.

The student appears reluctant to engage in debate, speculation, argument or other processes that involve directly challenging the views and ideas of others. The student exhibits discomfort or embarrassment at being singled out for special attention or praise. The student fails to observe the conventions of silent reading.

These situations indicate the need for teachers to revisit assumptions about the meaning of ESL students behaviour and adjust their own responses accordingly. Often teachers most effective response is to be clear and explicit about their own expectations or those prevalent in Canadian society. These situations also indicate that, as ESL students become part of the mainstream class, everyone in the class must be prepared to adapt and broaden their understanding. There are times when the adjustments made to address the needs of ESL students affect and make demands of their Englishspeaking peers.

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Appendix 3: General Language Characteristics of ESL Students

The following charts provide a brief overview of the general language characteristics of ESL students as they progress from the survival-English stage, to everyday conversational fluency, to cognitive academic language proficiency. The charts provide characteristics for four different areas: listening and understanding, speaking, reading and writing. Knowledge of this continuum of language development may be helpful for establishing appropriate expectations for ESL student learning, reviewing portfolios of student work and communicating with others about student achievement and growth. The characteristics in the different levels are meant to serve as general guidelines. It is important to keep in mind that not all students will progress linearly along this continuum. ESL students of all ages and grades may be placed anywhere along the continuum. Generally, the level of listening and speaking is higher than that of reading and writing. There are some students, however, whose whole English experience has been textual, who rank higher on reading and writing. The objective for ESL students is to acquire the language and skills to perform on par with their peers. The lower the level of English ability and the older the student, the greater the need for support for ESL students and classroom teachers. The charts were compiled by Christine Laurell and Hetty Roessingh based on their experience with teaching ESL students, their knowledge of ESL research and their review of a variety of documents, including some from other countries. .

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General Language Characteristics of Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced ESL Students for Listening and Understanding
BEGINNER INTERMEDIATE ADVANCED

The student: listens by watching actions of the teacher blends waves of sound into comprehensible units, understanding basic commands; e.g., Sit down, Take out your pencil, Lets go understands familiar repetitive oral language; e.g., greetings may not appear to retain vocabulary or structures may become completely lost during group discussions understands, with repetition, visual and concrete aids and the gist of poems, songs and short stories with familiar vocabulary.

The student: follows simple instructions easily follows most routine classroom instructions but may rely heavily on visual input understands most small-group discussions on everyday topics may begin to take notes in group lessons but relies on peers for better comprehension in content-area lessons where language is topic-specific and abstract retains some information from large-group lessons listens for details/sequence in order to retell stories understands tag questions, e.g., Didnt they?, and negative questions; e.g., Dont you want to come?

The student: relies more on aural than visual input in group lessons understands most peer-group discussions understands most of a content-area film, retains the information and relates it to own experience to help predict and infer can better understand jokes, television shows with cultural references, teasing and sarcasm requires fewer repetitions of complex instructions discerns prejudice, bias, intent and emotion comprehends formal, idiomatic and colloquial English on familiar topics of personal relevance or interest.

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General Language Characteristics of Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced ESL Students for Speaking
BEGINNER INTERMEDIATE ADVANCED

The student: may experience silent periods may respond in the first language or may not respond verbally at all uses body language to convey messages may use simple repetitions or memorized functional expressions; e.g., Hello, Thank you may repeat phrases in choral-reading/ speaking situations often labels, This is a uses visuals and objects to express needs or describe immediate experiences asks simple questions to fulfill immediate needs; e.g., Go washroom?

The student: narrates events, using picture cues or a series of linked sentences to show present, past, future time begins to develop Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), employs simple sentence structures and basic vocabulary to communicate on a limited number of everyday topics, describes familiar objects and events begins to express opinions on concrete topics, using I like ____, I think ____ uses language literally uses common phrases and expressions in appropriate situations and gives simple instructions asks questions for clarification and about homework may not be able to express ideas clearly in content-area discussions converses one-on-one about familiar topics conducts brief interviews with peers and teachers.

The student: initiates and sustains class discussion initiates and involves others in conversation presents/defends own point of view in different situations is more interactive and productive in group work functions in a variety of social settings demonstrates increasing control over grammar; appropriately uses synonyms, descriptive words, idioms, slang and complex sentence structures speaks confidently and fluently on everyday topics; is moving toward acquiring the vocabulary and rhetoric needed for discussing content-area issues; i.e., acquiring Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

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General Language Characteristics of Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced ESL Students for Reading
BEGINNER INTERMEDIATE ADVANCED

The student: looks at pictures in books and environmental print may need to learn English print directionality (left to right), depending on first language background may read dictated labels and phrases from personal writing journal may read along in group/buddy/shared reading situations recognizes soundsymbol relationships recognizes alphabetical order develops basic sight vocabulary of everyday words in the environment rereads stories constructed from personal experience (languageexperience approach).

The student: reads short passages of new material for which the student has background knowledge may read and understand storybooks/short novels slightly below or at grade level integrates all cueing systems (pictures, syntax, phonetics) with reasonable success has difficulty comprehending content-area material (textbooks, resource books, magazines, encyclopedias); comprehension may be limited due to the specificity and abstract nature of academic language uses context clues to predict meaning reads cloze paragraphs successfully uses a dictionary to determine exact meanings identifies main ideas, key vocabulary uses word analysis skills to gain meaning uses textual features to support reading.

The student: may read stories and novels at grade level may exhibit less facility with and comprehension of expository text reads beyond the printmakes inferences, reaches conclusions, detects bias reads for enjoyment, independently reads for information shifts from narrative to expository prose shifts from learning to read, to reading to learn.

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General Language Characteristics of Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced ESL Students for Writing
BEGINNER INTERMEDIATE ADVANCED

The student:
observes subjectverb agreement uses simple present, present continuous, simple past, future and will of common verbs. may draw pictures of self, family, friends (labelled in first language, when able, or with one-word English labels that the student may copy from the teachers model) may write from right to left, depending on first language background may copy words from charts, books or friends journals participates in guided and group writing makes lists. writes simple narrative compositions; e.g., personal letters may use a combination of invented and conventional spellings develops strategies for accurate spelling of unpredictable words begins to exert more control over aspects of grammar; e.g., verb tense and increasingly complex sentence structures may rely heavily on copying to write research reports. gains more control over different types of writing for a variety of purposes requires guidance, modelling and intervention with academic report writing starts to develop a sense of personal style approximates native-like command in some areas of grammar; e.g., verb tense, complex syntactic structures.

writes complete sentencesaffirmative and negative statements writes most question forms.

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Appendix 4: Learning Strategies

Language Learning Strategies
Cognitive Learning Strategies
Students: listen attentively perform actions to match the words of songs, stories or rhymes learn short rhymes or songs, incorporating new vocabulary or sentence patterns imitate sounds and intonation patterns memorize new words by repeating them silently or aloud seek the precise term to express meaning repeat words or phrases in the course of performing language tasks make personal dictionaries experiment with various elements of the language use mental images to remember new information group together sets of things, e.g., vocabulary, structures, with similar characteristics identify similarities and differences between aspects of English and their first language look for patterns and relationships use previously acquired knowledge to facilitate learning tasks associate new words or expressions with familiar ones, either in English or in their first language find information using reference materials; e.g., dictionaries, textbooks and grammars use available technological aids to support language learning use word maps, mind maps, diagrams, charts or other graphic representations to make information easier to understand and remember place new words or expressions in context to make them easier to remember use induction to generate rules governing language use seek opportunities outside class to practise and observe perceive and record unknown words and expressions, noting their context and function.

Metacognitive Learning Strategies

Students: check copied writing for accuracy make choices about how to learn rehearse or role-play language decide in advance to attend to learning tasks reflect on learning tasks with the guidance of teachers make a plan in advance about how to approach language learning tasks reflect on the listening, speaking, reading and writing processes decide in advance to attend to specific aspects of input listen or read for key words evaluate own performance or comprehension at the end of tasks keep learning logs experience various methods of language acquisition and identify one, or more, that is personally useful be aware of the potential of learning through direct exposure to language know how strategies may enable coping with texts containing unknown elements ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
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identify problems that might hinder successful completion of tasks and seek solutions monitor own speech and writing to check for persistent errors be aware of own strengths and weaknesses, identify own needs and goals and organize strategies and procedures accordingly.

Social/Affective Learning Strategies

Students: initiate or maintain interaction with others participate in shared reading experiences seek the assistance of friends to interpret texts reread familiar self-chosen texts to enhance understanding and enjoyment work cooperatively with peers in small groups understand that making mistakes is a natural part of language learning experiment with various forms of expression and note their acceptance or non-acceptance by experienced speakers participate actively in brainstorming and conferencing as prewriting and post-writing exercises use self-talk to feel competent to do tasks be willing to take risks and try unfamiliar tasks and approaches repeat new words and expressions occurring in own conversations and make use of these new words and expressions as soon as is appropriate reduce anxiety by using mental techniques; e.g., positive self-talk or humour work with others to solve problems and get feedback on tasks provide personal motivation by arranging own rewards when they are successful.

Language Use Strategies

Interactive Learning Strategies
Students: use words from their first language to get meaning across; e.g., use literal translations of phrases in their first language, use first language words but pronounce them as in English acknowledge being spoken to interpret and use a variety of nonverbal cues to communicate indicate lack of understanding verbally or nonverbally; e.g., say, Pardon me? I dont understand, and shrug their shoulders ask for clarification or repetition, when necessary use other speakers words in subsequent conversations assess feedback from conversation partners to recognize when messages have not been understood start again, using different tactics, when communication breaks down use simple words, similar to the concepts to convey, and invite correction invite others into discussions ask for confirmation that the forms used are correct use a range of fillers, hesitation devices and gambits to sustain conversations use circumlocution to compensate for lack of vocabulary repeat part of what someone has said to confirm mutual understanding summarize the point reached in a discussion to help focus the talk ask follow-up questions to check for understanding use suitable phrases to intervene in discussions self-correct if errors lead to misunderstandings; e.g., I meant to say .

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Interpretive Learning Strategies

Students: use gestures, intonation and visual supports to aid comprehension make connections between texts and prior knowledge and personal experience use illustrations to aid reading comprehension determine the purpose of listening listen or look for key words listen selectively, based on purpose make predictions about what they expect to hear or read, based on prior knowledge and personal experience use knowledge of the soundsymbol system to aid reading comprehension infer probable meanings of unknown words or expressions from contextual clues prepare questions or guides to note information found in texts use key content words or discourse markers to follow extended texts reread several times to understand complex ideas summarize information gathered assess own information needs before listening, viewing or reading use skimming and scanning to locate key information in texts.

Productive Learning Strategies

Students: mimic what the teacher says use nonverbal means to communicate copy what others say or write use words that are visible in the immediate environment use resources to increase vocabulary use familiar repetitive patterns from stories, songs, rhymes or media use illustrations to provide detail when producing own texts use various techniques to explore ideas at the planning stage; e.g., brainstorming or keeping a notebook or log of ideas use knowledge of sentence patterns to form new sentences be aware of and use the steps of the writing process; i.e., prewriting (gathering ideas, planning the text, researching, organizing the text), writing, revision (rereading, moving pieces of text, rewriting pieces of text), correction (grammar, spelling, punctuation), publication (reprinting, adding illustrations, binding) use a variety of resources to correct texts take notes when reading or listening to assist in producing own texts proofread and edit the final versions of texts use circumlocution and definition to compensate for gaps in vocabulary apply grammar rules to improve accuracy at the correction stage avoid difficult structures by rephrasing.

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Appendix 5: Graphic Organizers

Ideas and Concepts

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Collecting My Thoughts How to Use a Web Brainstorming Web 1 Brainstorming Web 2 Five Senses Wheel Idea Builder How to Use Venn Diagrams Venn Diagram A Day in the Life

Collecting Information
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Draw What You Know, Wonder and Learned How to Use KWL Charts KWL Chart Five Ws and HI Triple T-chart

Problem Solving and Decision Making

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. How to Use PMI Charts PMI Chart What I Have, What I Need Discussion Web Problem Solving Basic Problem Solving Flowchart Advanced Problem Solving Flowchart No Solution?

Writing
23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Paragraph Planners Paragraph Planner II Basic Five-paragraph Essay Planner Advanced Five-paragraph Essay Planner Compare and Contrast Essay Planner Report Planner Story Planners Story Planner I Story Planner II
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32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

Story Planner III Debate and Argument Preparing to Debate Developing Your Argument Responding to the Other Side

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Graphic Organizer 1 Collecting My Thoughts

Name Here is everything I know about Date

Here are some pictures of

Here are some questions I have

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Graphic Organizer 2 How to Use a Web

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Identify your topic and use it as the title. Write it in the centre of your web. Identify categories of information and label each of the outer bubbles. Brainstorm and write down ideas in each category.

Ideas

Ideas

Ideas

Topic

Ideas

Ideas

Ideas

Newer versions of Microsoft Word have a web-building option listed under Diagram on the Insert menu that lets you create your own web electronically.

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Graphic Organizer 3 Brainstorming Web 1

Name ____________________ Date _____________________

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Graphic Organizer 4 Brainstorming Web 2

Name ____________________ Date _____________________

This organizer is reproduced from Edmonton Public Schools, Thinking Tools for Kids: Practical Organizers (Edmonton, AB: Resource Development Services, Edmonton Public School, 1999). p. 178. Reproduced with permission from Edmonton Public Schools.

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Graphic Organizer 5 Five Senses Wheel

Name Date

Topic

smell

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Graphic Organizer 6 Idea Builder

1. Key idea

Name Date 3. Facts

2. Draw it 4. Sample sentence

5. Examples

6. Non-examples

7. Definition

This organizer is reproduced from Edmonton Public Schools, Thinking Tools for Kids: Practical Organizers (Edmonton, AB: Resource Development Services, Edmonton Public Schools, 1999), p. 178. Reproduced with permission from Edmonton Public Schools.

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Graphic Organizer 7 How to Use Venn Diagrams

Characteristics or features that are unique to one item.

Characteristics or features that are unique to another item.

Characteristics or features that are the same for both.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Label each side of the diagram with the name of each item you are comparing. Think about all the unique features of the first item and write them down in the left part of the diagram. Think about all the unique features of the second item and write them down in the right part of the diagram. Think about all the features they share and write them down in the middle of the diagram.

Step 4

Newer versions of Microsoft Word have a Venn diagram option listed under Diagram on the Insert menu that lets you build your own Venn diagram electronically.

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Graphic Organizer 8 Venn Diagram

Name Date

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Graphic Organizer 9 A Day in the Life

Name Date

_________________

__________________

__________________

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Graphic Organizer 10 Draw What You Know, Wonder and Learned

Name Date

Topic

K
(Draw what you know)

W
(Draw what you wonder about)

L
(Draw what you learned)

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Graphic Organizer 11 How to Use KWL Charts Step 1

Think about what you already KNOW about your topic. List those facts in the first column.

For example, if your topic is French Settlers in Canada, you may come up with these ideas.
What I know
Farmers in Qubec and fur traders in the North The Acadians lived in the Maritimes Lived with Mtis people Fought the British

What I want to find out

What I have learned

Step 2

Think of the kinds of information you WANT to find out. List specific questions in the second column.
What I want to find out
When and where did the first French settlers arrive? What is the link between the Acadians and the United States? When and where did they fight with the British? Who won?

What I know
Farmers in Qubec and fur traders in the North The Acadians lived in the Maritimes Lived with Mtis people Fought the British

What I have learned

Step 3

LEARN the answers to your questions. List that information, and anything else that you learn about your topic, in the third column. Microsoft Word allows you to create your own chart electronically, using the options in the Table menu.

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Graphic Organizer 12 KWL Chart

Name Date

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

What I know

What I want to find out

What I have learned

182 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 13 Five Ws and HI

Name Date

Fill in the chart with questions on your topic to which you want to find answers.

Who?
List questions about people.

What?

List questions about things and events.

Where?

List questions about places.

When?

List questions about times and dates.

Why?
List questions about reasons, causes and purposes.

How?

List questions about the way things happen.

If?
List questions about what might happen.

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Graphic Organizer 14 Triple T-chart

Name Date Title / Topic Looks like Sounds like Feels like

184 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 15 How to Use PMI Charts

Step 1

Plus: think about all the advantages and good reasons for
making the choice.

Step 2 Step 3
Example:

Minus: think about all the disadvantages and the downside

of making the choice. List any information that is neither positive nor negative as

Interesting.

a PMI chart that shows the advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet as a research tool

Using the Internet as a Research Tool

Plus Minus Interesting Information

There is a lot of information. You can look at a number of different sources in a short period of time. You can do your research in the comfort of your home or classroom.

If you do not know how to search well, it can take a long time to find what you need. There is no guarantee that the information you find is accurate or of good quality. The reading level of factual and historical information may be high.

Most teenagers know more about using the Internet than adults! Anybody can post information on the Internet; e.g., there are no rules to follow and no licenses. Therefore, you need to be cautious in your Internet use.

Microsoft Word allows you to create your own chart electronically, using the options in the Table menu.

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Graphic Organizer 16 PMI Chart

Name Date

Title Plus Minus Interesting Information

186 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 17 What I Have, Name What I Need

Date Whats my problem?

What are my choices? A.

B.

C.

What choice would best meet my needs?

What resources do I have? 1. 2. 3.

What resources do I need? 1. 2. 3.

Step-by-step plan 1. 2. 3.

How can I check my decision?

This organizer is reproduced from Edmonton Public Schools, Thinking Tools for Kids: Practical Organizers (Edmonton, AB: Resource Development Services, Edmonton Public Schools, 1999), p. 232. Reproduced with permission from Edmonton Public Schools.

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Graphic Organizer 18 Discussion Web

Name Date

Issue
No Yes

What is your conclusion?

I think

because

188 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 19 Problem Solving

Step 1

Identify the problem or issue. Think of possible solutions.

Step 2

Compromise
Compromise is when both sides in a dispute make changes (meet halfway) so that a problem can be solved. Often, the best solution is when both sides agree to give up something or change something.

Step 3

Identify the consequences of each solution.

Consequences
Consequences are the positive and negative results that happen because of an action. Often, there are short-term consequences (right away) and long-term consequences (over time).

Step 4

Decide on the best solution (most positive results).

No Solution?
Some problems have no acceptable solution. If you cannot think of a reasonable solution, skip ahead to the No Solution? chart (see p. 192).

Step 5

Follow through with a plan of action.

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Graphic Organizer 20 Basic Problem-solving Flowchart

Name Date

Issue / Problem

Solution 1

Solution 2

Possible Consequences

Possible Consequences

The best solution is _____________________ because

190 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 21 Advanced Problem-solving Flowchart

Name Date

Issue / Problem

Solution 1
Short-term Consequences Long-term Consequences

Solution 2
Short-term Consequences Long-term Consequences

Solution 3
Short-term Consequences Long-term Consequences

Solution 4
Short-term Consequences Long-term Consequences

The best solution is

because

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Graphic Organizer 22 No Solution?

Name Date

Use check marks and provide proof to show why the problem has no solution. Each solution has only negative consequences. Proof / Explanation

Each solution will cause more problems later on. Proof / Explanation

Each solution is too complicated or impossible. Proof / Explanation

The people on both sides are unwilling to compromise. Proof / Explanation

192 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 23 Paragraph Planners

Name Date

Topic / Intro

Support

Support

Support

Closing

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Graphic Organizer 24 Paragraph Planner II

Introduction
Key words or linking words to use

Name Date

First Point
Key words or linking words to use

Second Point
Key words or linking words to use

Third Point
Key words or linking words to use

Closing
Key words or linking words to use

194 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 25 Basic Five-paragraph Essay Planner

Name
Introductory Paragraph
Identify the topic and why it is important.

Date
Topic

Body Paragraph One

Identify the first key idea related to the topic, with supporting details.

First key idea

Examples / supporting details

Body Paragraph Two

Identify the second key idea related to the topic, with supporting details.

Second key idea

Examples / supporting details

Body Paragraph Three

Identify the third key idea related to the topic, with supporting details.

Third key idea

Examples / supporting details

Closing Paragraph
Sum up your topic and remind your readers of your key points.

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Graphic Organizer 26 Advanced Five-paragraph Essay Planner

Introductory Paragraph
Identify the topic and the three key ideas related to the topic.

Name Date

Topic Key ideas

Body Paragraph One

Expand on the first key idea with supporting details and then link to the next key idea.

Expansion of first key idea Supporting details Transition to next key idea Expansion of second key idea Supporting details Transition to next key idea Expansion of third key idea Supporting details Link to the conclusion

Body Paragraph Two

Expand on the second key idea with supporting details and then link to the next key idea.

Body Paragraph Three

Expand on the third key idea with supporting details and then link to the conclusion.

Closing Paragraph
Think of three ways you could end your essay and choose the best one, when you have finished your first draft.

Conclusion option 1 Conclusion option 2 Conclusion option 3

196 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 27 Compare and Contrast Essay Planner

Main Topic

Name Date

Subtopic / Issue 1

One way of looking at the issue

Another way of looking at the issue

Subtopic / Issue 2

One way of looking at the issue

Another way of looking at the issue

Subtopic / Issue 3

One way of looking at the issue

Another way of looking at the issue

Conclusion

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Graphic Organizer 28 Report Planner

Name Topic

Date Title

Introduction

Topic A

Topic B

Topic C

Conclusion

198 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 29 Story Planners

Name Date

Step 1

Identify your topic or genre and title.

Step 2

Fill in information in each category.

Step 3

Use the planner to guide your work.

Step 4
Genre

Look back at the planner after you have finished to make sure you have not left anything out. Title Setting Characters

The problem / conflict

Attempts to solve the problem

Why the first attempts fail

The solution or how it will turn out

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Graphic Organizer 30 Story Planner I

Name Date

Genre
Introduction
Identify the characters and describe the setting. Explain how the story begins.

Title
Characters

Setting

Initial incidenthow it begins

Main Events
Identify the first big event that happens. List the other main events. Identify the most exciting part or the turning point.

The first main event

Other main events that will happen

Climax

Conclusion
Explain how it will end. Will there be an extra scene at the end to wrap it all up?

Falling actionhow the climax will turn out

Denouementthe final outcome or wrap-up

200 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 31 Story Planner II

Name Date

Genre

Title

Break the plot down into five major eventsone for the introduction, three for the main events and one for the conclusion.

5 2

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Graphic Organizer 32 Story Planner III

Name Date

Genre

Title

Setting

Characters

The problem / conflict

Attempts to solve the problem

Why the first attempts fail

The solution or how it will turn out

202 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 33 Debate and Argument

Debate
To debate means to argue one side of an issue, using logic, persuasion and proof. A debate is a discussion in which two teams argue opposite positions on an issue.

Before you debate an issue with another person, you must first develop a good argument. A good argument depends on logic, persuasion and proof.

Logic

uses good judgement and reasoning uses sensible, rational ideas

Persuasion

has clear points is delivered with confidence convinces others to agree

Proof

includes statistics, graphs, pictures, charts, quotes and facts that support the position

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Graphic Organizer 34 Preparing to Debate

Tip!
You do not have to debate with another person to use this process. You can write your argument in a report or article instead of presenting it in front of an audience.

Step 1

Research your topic. Research and analyze the issue you are going to discuss. Use the tool Issue Analysis to investigate both sides of the issue. Choose a side. Decide your position on the issue.

Step 2

Step 3

Find proof that supports your argument. Think about why you feel the way you do. Look for statistics, graphs, pictures, charts, quotes and facts that support your position.

Step 4

Organize your argument. Use a graphic organizer to organize your argument; e.g., Graphic Organizer 35: Developing Your Argument. Consider how people will argue the other side of the issue. What statistics, graphs, pictures, charts, quotes and facts will they have to support their position? How will you respond to their argument? How will you defend your position?

Step 5

204 / Appendix 5 2007

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Graphic Organizer 35 Developing Your Argument

Name Date

Issue

Research and collect proof to support your argument to help you complete this chart.

My position (opinion)

Reason 1 (with proof)

Reason 2 (with proof)

Reason 3 (with proof)

Conclusion (summary / restatement of your position)

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Graphic Organizer 36 Responding to the Other Side

Name Date

The other side of the issue (the opponents position)

Their Reason and Proof 1.

Your Rebuttal (response)

2.

3.

4.

5.

206 / Appendix 5 2007

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Appendix 6: Sample List of Text Forms

Written Texts
Advertisements Biographies, autobiographies Brochures, pamphlets, leaflets Catalogues Dictionary, grammar items Encyclopedia entries Folk tales, legends Forms Instructions, other how-to texts Invitations Journals, diaries, logs Labels, packaging Lettersbusiness, personal Lists, notes, personal messages Maps Menus Newspaper and magazine articles Plays Poetry Programs Questionnaires Recipes Reports, manuals Short stories, novels Signs, notices, announcements Stories Textbook articles Tickets, timetables, schedules

Oral Texts
Advertisements Announcements Ceremoniesreligious, secular Debates Formal and informal conversations Interviews Lectures Messages Oral stories, histories Plays, other performances Reports, presentations Songs, hymns Telephone conversations

Multimedia Texts
Comic strips Computer and board games Movies, films Slide / tape and video presentations Television programs Web sites

This appendix reproduced from Alberta Learning, The Common Curriculum Framework for International Languages, Nine-year Program (Grade 4 to Grade 12): Western Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Basic EducationAlberta Version (Edmonton, AB: Alberta Learning, 2001), p. 95.

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208 / 2007

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Appendix 7: Vocabulary Tools

Name Date Word Definition

Vocabulary Organizer I

Translation

Level of difficulty for me Definition

Word

Translation

Level of difficulty for me Definition

Word

Translation

Level of difficulty for me Definition

Word

Translation

Level of difficulty for me Definition

Word

Translation

Level of difficulty for me Definition

Word

Translation Level of difficulty for me

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Name

Vocabulary Organizer II
Definition Examples Definition

Date
Examples

Word

Word

Translation

Translation

Definition

Examples

Definition

Examples

Word

Word

Translation

Translation

Definition

Examples

Definition

Examples

Word

Word

Translation

Translation

210 / Appendix 7 2007

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Appendix 8 Examples of General Accommodations

Methods of Instruction

Task/Response (contd)

Materials (contd)

Reinforcement Systems
(contd)

Vary amount of
material to be learned. Vary amount of material to be practised. Vary time for practice activities. Use advance organizers. Cue student to stay on task; e.g., private signal. Facilitate student cueing (student providing cues to the teacher). Repeat directions or have student repeat directions. Shorten directions. Pair written instructions with oral instructions. Use computerassisted instruction. Use visual aids in lesson presentation. Other ________________ Task/Response

Use strategies to
enhance recall; e.g., cues, cloze. Provide student with a copy of notes. Accept dictated or parent-assisted homework assignments. Provide extra assignment time. Permit student to print. Provide a student buddy for reading. Other ________________ Materials

Increase print size in

photocopying. Use daily homework assignment book. Other ________________ Organization for instruction The student works best: in large group instruction in small group instruction when placed beside an independent learner with individual instruction with peer tutoring with cross-aged tutoring using independent self-instructional materials in learning centres with preferential seating with allowances for mobility in a quiet space within the classroom. Other ________________ Reinforcement Systems Provide immediate reinforcement. Give verbal praise for positive behaviour. Use tangible reinforcers. Send notes home. Complete progress charts.

Allow special activities. Instruct student in

self-monitoring; e.g., following directions, raising hand to talk. Other _________________ Assessment and Testing

Adjust the test

appearance; e.g., margins, spacing. Adjust the test design (T/F, multiple choice, matching). Adjust to recall with cues, cloze, word lists. Vary test administration (group/individual, open book, make-up tests). Record test questions. Select items specific to ability levels. Vary amount to be tested. Give extra test time. Adjust readability of test. Allow recorded reports for essays and/or long answers. Read test questions Allow use of a scribe or reader. Allow oral exams. Other _________________

Modify text materials

(add, adapt or substitute). Make materials self-correcting. Highlight important concepts and information and/or passages. Use a desktop easel or slant board to raise reading materials. Prepare recordings of reading/textbook materials, tasks. Provide an extra textbook for home use. Allow use of personal word lists, cue cards. Increase use of pictures, diagrams, concrete manipulators. Break materials into smaller task units.

Reduce or substitute
required assignments. Adjust level of in-class assignments to academic level. Break long-term assignments into shorter tasks. Adjust amount of copying.

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212 / 2007

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Long, Michael and Jack Richards, eds. Methodology in TESOL: A Book of Readings. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle, 1987. Lund, Darren E. Diversity Toolkit. (n.d.). http://www.ucalgary.ca/~dtoolkit/ home.htm (Accessed May 30, 2007). Lund, Randall J. A Taxonomy for Teaching Second Language Listening. Foreign Language Annals 23, 2 (1990), pp. 105115. Manitoba. Manitoba Education and Training. Success for All Learners: A Handbook on Differentiating Instruction. Winnipeg, MB: Manitoba Education and Training, 1996. Manzo, Anthony V. Guided Reading Procedure. Journal of Reading 18, 4 (1975), pp. 287291. Mbugua, Tata et al. Authentic Learning: Intercultural, International, and Intergenerational Experiences in Elementary Classrooms. Childhood Education 80, 5 (2004), pp. 237245. Meyers, M. Teaching to Diversity: Teaching and Learning in the Multi-ethnic Classroom. Scarborough, ON: Irwin Publishing, 1993. . In Our Classrooms: An Educators Guide to Helping English Language Learners with Curriculum. Toronto, ON: MainStreams Publications. 2001. Miller, Paul Chamness and Hidehiro Endo. Understanding and Meeting the Needs of ESL Students. Phi Delta Kappan 85, 10 (2004), pp. 786791. Mohan, B., C. Leung and C. Davison, eds. English as a Second Language in the Mainstream: Teaching, Learning and Identity. Toronto, ON: Longman/Pearson, 2001. Nation, I.S.P. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2001. . Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New York, NY: Newbury House Publishers, 1990. Nation, Paul, ed. New Ways in Teaching Vocabulary. New Ways in TESOL Series: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1994. Ndura, Elavie. ESL and Cultural Bias: An Analysis of Elementary through High School Textbooks in the Western United States of America. Language, Culture & Curriculum 17, 2 (2004), pp. 143153. Nelson, Marie Wilson. At the Point of Need: Teaching Basic and ESL Writers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann-Boyton/Cook, 1993. Nero, Shondel J. Language, Identities, and ESL Pedagogy. Language & Education 19, 3 (2005), pp. 194212.

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Norton, B. Identity and Language Learning: Gender, Ethnicity and Educational Change. Toronto, ON: Longman, 2000. Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle, 1998. Nunan, David and Lindsay Miller, eds. New Ways in Teaching Listening. New Ways in TESOL Series: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1995. Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Education. The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 18: English as a Second Language and English Literacy Development: A Resource Guide. Toronto, ON: The Queens Printer for Ontario, 2001. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and Statistics Canada. Literacy, Economy and Society: Results of the First International Adult Literacy Survey. Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada, 1995. Pennington, Martha, ed. New Ways in Teaching Grammar. New Ways in TESOL Series: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1995. Peregoy, Suzanne and Owen. F. Boyle. Reading, Writing and Learning in ESL: A Resource Book for K12 Teachers. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2004. Perrotta, Blanche. Writing Development and Second Language Acquisition in Young Children. Childhood Education 70, 4 (1994), pp. 237242. Peyton, Joy Kreeft and Leslee Reed. Dialogue Journal Writing with Nonnative English Speakers: A Handbook for Teachers. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1990. Pratt, David. Curriculum Planning: A Handbook for Professionals. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1994. Reid, Joy M., ed. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. New York, NY: Heinle and Heinle, 1995. Robinson, Francis Pleasant. Effective Study. Rev. ed. New York, NY: Harper, 1961. Schoen, Sharon Faith and Alexis Ann Schoen. Action Research in the Classroom. Teaching Exceptional Children 35, 3 (2003), pp. 1622. Scovel, Tom. Learning New Languages: A Guide to Second Language Acquisition. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle, 2001.

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Seda, Milagros M et al. Bridging Literacy and Social Studies: Engaging Prior Knowledge through Children's Books. TESOL Journal 8, 3 (1999), pp. 3440. Serving Diverse Needs: A Selected Bibliography of ESL and Multicultural Resources. Calgary, AB: Calgary Board of Education, 1996. Shameem, Nikhat and Makhan Tickoo, eds. New Ways in Using Communicative Games in Language Teaching. New Ways in TESOL Series II: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1999. Short, Deborah, ed. New Ways in Teaching English at the Secondary Level. New Ways in TESOL Series II: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1999. Sims, Jane E, ed. Education Systems of Immigrant Students. North York, ON: North York Board of Education, 1990. Sinclair Bell, J. The Relationship Between L1 and L2 Literacy: Some Complicating Factors. TESOL Quarterly 29, 4 (1995), pp. 687704. Smallwood, B. A. The Literature Connection: A Read-aloud Guide for Multicultural Classrooms. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1991. Spangenberg-Urbschat, K. and R. Pritchard, eds. Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1994. Stevick, Earl. Working with Teaching Methods: What's at Stake? Pacific Grove, CA: Heinle and Heinle, 1998. Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1995. Swan, Michael and Bernard Smith, eds. Learner English: A Teachers Guide to Interference and Other Problems. 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Taylor, Tracey and Alison Doherty. Adolescent Sport, Recreation and Physical Education: Experiences of Recent Arrivals to Canada. Sport, Education and Society 10, 2 (2005), pp. 211223. Valencia, S. W. and A. H. Hiebert et al., eds. Authentic Reading Assessment: Practices and Possibilities. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1994. Vasquez, Vivian M. Negotiating Critical Literacies with Young Children. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 2004. Walker, Catherine and Dana Antaya-Moore. Thinking Tools for Kids: Practical Organizers. Edmonton, AB: Edmonton Public Schools, Resource Development Services, 1999.

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Walter, Teresa. Amazing English!: How-to Handbook. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996. . Teaching English Language Learners: The How-to Handbook. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education, Inc., 2004. Watt, D. and Hetty Roessingh. The Dynamics Of ESL Dropout: Plus a Change. Canadian Modern Language Review 58, 2 (2001), pp. 203222. White, Ronald, ed. New Ways in Teaching Writing. New Ways in TESOL Series: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1995. Whitehead, Marilyn. Supporting Language Learning: An ESL Resource Book for Classroom Teachers. Nanaimo, BC: Nanaimo/Ladysmith School District No. 68, 1995. Whiteson, Valerie, ed. New Ways of Using Drama and Literature in Language Teaching. New Ways in TESOL Series II: Innovative Classroom Techniques. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), 1996. Wolfe, Paula. The Owl Cried: Reading Abstract Literary Concepts with Adolescent ESL Students. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 47, 5 (2004), pp. 420413. Wrigley, Pamela. The Help! Kit: A Resource Guide for Secondary Teachers of Migrant English Language Learners. Oneonta, NY: ESCORT, State University of New York at Oneonta, 2001. Yau, Maria. Refugee Students in Toronto Schools: An Exploratory Study. No. 211. ERIC Digest ED384687 (1995), pp. 1138. http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED 384687 (Accessed May 30, 2007).

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INDEX
3-Q-3R content-area reading for advanced students, 107 5Ws and HI graphic organizer, 183

Aboriginal students. See First Nations, Mtis and Inuit students academic language proficiency. See cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) academic subjects content-area reading, 106107 ESL pull-out classes and, 47 integrating language and content, 7577 note taking, 106, 127 teaching language of, 60 use of first language in, 61 See also English language arts; mathematics; science; social studies accommodations examples of general, 211 for advanced students, 106 for provincial achievement tests, 148 for special education needs, 38, 107109 in inclusive programs, 4344 See also differentiation adaptation, cultural cultural differences, 157158 stages of, 3233 adapted assignments for differentiation, 125 adjustment period changes experienced in, 3132 stages of adaptation, 3233 adolescents. See Division III; Division IV; students, ESL advance organizers for advanced students, 106 advanced students. See language levels and teaching strategies age-appropriate grade placement benefits, 30 organizing for instruction, 4042 program delivery to support, 3839 alphabet activities for pre-beginners, 92 anchoring activities for differentiation, 125 anecdotal records for assessment, 141 Arabic language pronunciation strategies, 8788 Index / 223 2007

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

argument and debate graphic organizers for, 203206 art program cultural diversity in, 55 assessment and evaluation about assessment of students, 133134 about assessment principles, 135141 accommodations, examples, 211 conferences with parents and students, 150151 content-area assessment, 139141 diagnostic evaluation, 147148 evaluation of assessment information, 147148 formative assessment, 136139, 147148 funding requirements, 5 interpretation of results, 30 language proficiency profile, 2627 modifications for ESL students, 140 ongoing monitoring, 31 policy requirements, 45 report cards, 149 summative assessment, 136139, 148 assessment tools about evaluation of (checklist), 146 anecdotal records, 141 checklists, 142 conferences, 142 for differentiation, 127 journals, 145 observations, 142 portfolios, 142144 provincial achievement tests, 148 rubrics, 145 self-assessment, 142 tests, 145 assignments for differentiation, 125 assistants, teacher. See teacher assistants assistive technology for differentiation, 126 use of, 115117 attention difficulties teaching and learning strategies for, 107109 audio technology for ESL students, 115 auditory discrimination for pre-beginners, 92

basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) about BICS, 1011 general language characteristics, 161 beginners. See language levels and teaching strategies BICS. See basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) birth certificates as documentation, 22

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blended programs funding not available for, 5 blogs tools for ESL students, 116 Boardmaker communication tool for ESL students, 115 body language culture and, 36, 157158 book selection techniques for intermediate students, 101 Burns and Roe Informal Reading Inventory for initial assessments, 28

CALP. See cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) Canadian Test of Basic SkillsReading Comprehension Component assessment tool, 30 Canadian-born ESL students characteristics of, 3 explicit instruction for, 47 funding for, 5 intake procedures, 22 junior high students, monitoring of, 31 celebrations cultural inclusiveness, 54 choice (knowledge framework) graphic organizers for, 8283 in knowledge framework, 7880 classification (knowledge framework) graphic organizers for, 8283 in knowledge framework, 7880 classroom environment choices, 56 classroom schedules (graphic organizer), 179 collaboration and interaction in, 56 communication tips in, 5861 content modifications in, 58 cultural competence in, 5455 cultural differences in, 157158 displays in, 54, 58 for self-contained classes, 45 individual attention, 53 language-rich environments, 56 positive tone, 58 routines, 57, 90, 111 seating of ESL students, 53 settling-in time, 53 student interests, 56 cloze activities for beginners, 9596 for intermediate students, 100 code switching benefits of, 51 cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) about CALP, 1011 general language characteristics, 161 Index / 225 2007

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cognitive learning strategies tips on, 165 colloquialisms for intermediate students, 102 communications with parents, 15, 148151 with students, 5861 communicative competence definition of, 10 computers, use of. See Information and Communication Technology (ICT) conferences for assessment, 142 consultants, ESL in learning teams, 17 content-area programs. See academic subjects context for word meaning for intermediate students, 102 See also reading cooperative learning cultural differences, 157158 teaching strategies, 8485 corrective feedback as a teaching strategy, 86 crafts and games for intermediate students, 104105 volunteer roles, 19 Cree language pronunciation strategies, 8788 crossword puzzles for intermediate students, 104 CTBS. See Canadian Test of Basic SkillsReading Comprehension Component cues, low-key for students with attention difficulties, 109 cultural adaptation cultural differences, 157158 stages of, 3233 cultural competence cultural differences, 157158 development of, 5455 in ESL programs, 39 cultural liaison workers. See liaison workers cultural school events culturally inclusive schools, 5355 parent involvement, 15 culture and language about cultural differences, 157158 considerations of, 3537 culturally inclusive schools, 5355

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debate and argument graphic organizers for, 203206 definitions communicative competence, 10 cultural competence, 54 culture, 54 differentiation, 119 English as a Second Language, 1 explicit/implicit instruction, 49 inclusion, 43 literacy, 2 self-contained classes, 43 delivery of programs considerations for, 3839 factors to consider, 43 inclusive programs, 4344 description (knowledge framework) graphic organizers for, 8283 in knowledge framework, 7880 design software tools for ESL students, 117 dictionaries bilingual picture dictionaries, 58 electronic dictionaries, 117 personal dictionaries for intermediate students, 100 differentiation about differentiation, 39, 119121 in self-contained classes, 45 of content, 121122 of processes, 123127 of products, 128131 directed readingthinking for beginners, 97 See also reading directions and instructions cultural differences, 157158 for students with attention difficulties, 109 how to give, 60 Division I about general language characteristics, 159163 differentiated products (examples), 128129 differentiating learning processes, 124127 explicit instruction, 39, 47 introduction of new students, 25 parent involvement, 15 resources for instruction, 4041 self-contained classes in, 4445 Division I, language levels and lessons Level 1: Pre-beginner, 64 Level 1: Pre-beginner, assessment modifications, 140 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6667 Level 2: Beginner, assessment modifications, 140 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 69 Level 3: Intermediate, assessment modifications, 140 Index / 227 2007

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Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 72 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107 Division II about general language characteristics, 159163 differentiated products (examples), 129130 differentiating learning processes, 124127 explicit instruction, 39, 4748 introduction of new students, 25 labelling of everyday objects, 58 resources for instruction, 4041 self-contained classes in, 4445 Division II, language levels and lessons Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6465 Level 1: Pre-beginner, assessment modifications, 140 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 67 Level 2: Beginner, assessment modifications, 140 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 70 Level 3: Intermediate, assessment modifications, 140 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 73 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107 Division III about general language characteristics, 159163 differentiated products (examples), 130131 differentiating learning processes, 124127 explicit instruction, 39, 48 introduction of new students, 25 labelling of everyday objects, difficulties, 58 monitoring of students, 31 personal challenges for students, 5253 resources for instruction, 4041 self-contained classes in, 4445 Division III, language levels and lessons Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6566 Level 1: Pre-beginner, assessment modifications, 140 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 68 Level 2: Beginner, assessment modifications, 140 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 71 Level 3: Intermediate, assessment modifications, 140 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 74 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107 Division IV resources for instruction, 4041 do-now activities for differentiation, 124 documentation birth certificates and education records, 22 drawings graphic stories for assessment of written language, 29

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e-mail use by ESL students, 117 educational information required for registration, 23 electronic dictionaries. See dictionaries elementary students. See Division I; Division II English language arts about general language characteristics, 159163 cultural differences, 157158 cultural diversity in, 55 differentiated products (examples), 128131 integrating language and content, 7677 scheduling of ESL pull-out classes, 47 use of dictionaries, 58, 100, 117 use of first language in, 5758 See also reading; speaking; spelling; writing enrollment counts for funding, 5 EOWPVT. See Expressive and Receptive One-word Picture Vocabulary Tests errors in language use entrenched errors, 51 interference by first language, 5052 pronunciation, 8788 response to, 61 ESL Student Information chart use of, 4142 ESL students. See students, ESL essays, graphic organizers for for compare and contrast essay, 197 for five-paragraph essays, 195196 See also writing evaluation (knowledge framework) graphic organizers for, 8283 in knowledge framework, 7880 evaluation of assessment information. See assessment and evaluation exams. See assessment tools expletives learning of, 50 explicit ESL instruction about explicit instruction, 39 in integrated settings, 4648 Expressive and Receptive One-word Picture Vocabulary Tests assessment tool, 29 extracurricular activities cultural differences, 157158

families. See parents fee-paying international students. See international visa students feedback, corrective as a teaching strategy, 86 field trips cultural differences and, 37 volunteer roles, 19

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Index / 229 2007

figurative language for intermediate students, 102 file folder games for intermediate students, 105 first language interference of, 5051 learning principles for, 79 research on use of, 61 use at home, 5152, 57 use in second language learning, 5052, 5758 use to check comprehension, 61 First Nations, Mtis and Inuit students characteristics of, 3 cultural differences, 157158 resources for, 57 See also Canadian-born ESL students five senses wheel graphic organizer, 175 foreign-born ESL students characteristics of, 3 cultural differences, 157158 explicit instruction for, 47 funding for, 5 stages of cultural adaptation, 3233 framework, knowledge. See knowledge framework Francophone students characteristics of, 3 resources for, 57 See also Canadian-born ESL students free writing in initial assessment, 2829 Funding Manual for School Authorities availability of, 4 funding of ESL programs manual on, 4 provisions for, 5

games for intermediate students, 104105 volunteer roles, 19 Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test assessment tool, 30 gender roles cultural differences, 157158 teachers and, 36 graphic organizers for advanced students, 106 for knowledge framework, 8283 how to use webs, 172 teaching use of, 8183 tips for intermediate students, 104

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graphic organizers, blackline masters 5Ws and HI, 183 debate and argument, 203206 five senses wheel, 175 for argument and debate, 203206 for classroom schedules, 179 for compare and contrast essay, 197 for debate and argument, 203206 for five-paragraph essays, 195196 for reports, 198 for writing stories, 199202 idea builder, 176 K-W-L charts, 180, 182 P-M-I charts, 186 paragraph planners, 193194 schedules, 179 sentence completion, 171 T-chart, triple, 184 Venn diagrams, 177178 webs, how to use, 172 web for brainstorming, 173174 web for discussions, 188 what I have, what I need, 187 graphic stories for assessment of written language, 29 list of sample text forms, 207 graphic supports for ESL students, 115 group work flexible grouping to differentiate learning processes, 126 volunteer roles, 19 guardians. See parents guessing games for intermediate students, 104 See also games guided writing for beginners, 97 See also writing

health information required for registration, 23 high school students. See Division IV holiday celebrations cultural inclusiveness, 54 home and school. See parents home education funding not available, 5 Hutterite students characteristics of, 3 See also Canadian-born ESL students

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Index / 231 2007

ICT (Information and Communication Technology) in ESL classrooms, 113117 idea builder graphic organizer, 176 idioms teaching of, 60 immigrants, recently-arrived characteristics of, 3 cultural differences, 157158 funding for ESL programs, 5 required documents, 22 stages of cultural adaptation, 3233 implicit instruction about implicit instruction, 49 inclusive programs organizing of, 4344 See also organizing for instruction Individualized Program Plan (IPP) for special education needs, 3738 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the ESL classroom, 113117 initial assessment. See assessment and evaluation instruction. See learning a second language; organizing for instruction; teaching and learning strategies instructions and directions cultural differences, 157158 for students with attention difficulties, 109 intake procedures. See reception and registration interactive learning strategies tips on, 167 interference of first language. See first language intermediate students. See language levels and teaching strategies international visa students characteristics of, 4, 52, 57 required documents, 22 Internet use by ESL students, 117 interpreters funding for, 5 in learning teams, 1718 interpretive learning strategies tips on, 167 interviews for assessment of oral language, 27 Inuit. See First Nations, Mtis and Inuit students inventories for initial assessment, 2829

Japanese language pronunciation strategies, 8788 journals for assessment, 145 junior high school students. See Division III

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

KWL charts for advanced students, 106 graphic organizers, 180, 182 how to use, 181 kindergarten welcoming new students, 26 See also Division I knowledge framework graphic organizers for, 8183 linguistic structure in, 7980 thinking skills in, 7880 Korean language pronunciation strategies, 8788

language arts. See English language arts language levels and teaching strategies Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6466 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6668 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 6971 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 7274 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107 See also teaching and learning strategies layout and design software tools for ESL students, 117 learning a second language about general language characteristics, 159163 about principles of, 79 characteristics of, 49 code switching, 51 culture and, 3537 entrenched errors, 51 factors influencing, 9 integrating language and content, 7577 interference of first language, 5052, 8788 interlanguage, 50 learning strategies, 165167 silent period, 50 See also first language; language levels and teaching strategies; teaching and learning strategies learning centres for differentiation, 126 learning strategies. See teaching and learning strategies learning styles culture and, 36 learning teams members and roles, 1219 liaison workers funding for, 5 in learning teams, 1718 libraries book selection for intermediate students, 101

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Index / 233 2007

linguistic structures in knowledge framework, 7980 listening and understanding general language characteristics, 159160 Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6466 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6668 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 6971 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 7274 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107 listening difficulties, strategies for, 111112 text forms, sample list, 207

Mandarin language pronunciation strategies, 8788 manipulating words and phrases for intermediate students, 101 materials. See resources for instruction mathematics accommodations for provincial achievement tests, 148 differentiated products (examples), 128131 integrating language and content, 75, 77 partial integration of ESL students, 45 mediated reading for advanced students, 107 for beginners, 97 for pre-beginners, 92 memory difficulties teaching and learning strategies for, 109111 Mennonite students characteristics of, 3 See also Canadian-born ESL students metacognitive learning strategies for advanced students, 107 tips on, 165166 See also teaching and learning strategies metaphors for intermediate students, 102 Mtis. See First Nations, Mtis and Inuit students middle school. See Division III monitoring ESL students in junior high, 31 policy requirements, 45 multimedia software for ESL students, 117 multimedia texts text forms, sample list, 207 music programs cultural diversity in, 55

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

newcomer kits contents of, 2425 nonacademic classes partial integration in, 47 nonagram for intermediate students, 105 note taking for advanced students, 106 supported note taking for differentiation, 127

observations for assessment, 142 See also assessment and evaluation online programs funding not available, 5 Oral and Written Language Scales assessment tool, 30 oral language general language characteristics, 159161 initial assessment, 27 teaching pronunciation, 8788 text forms, sample list, 207 See also first language; listening and understanding ordering phrases and sentences for intermediate students, 101 organizers, advance for advanced students, 106 organizers, graphic. See graphic organizers organizing for instruction about organizing, 4045 accommodations, examples, 211 age-appropriate placements, 30, 3842 ESL student information chart, 42 inclusive programs, 4344 programs, ESL, 4042 resources for, 4041 self-contained ESL classes, 4445 volunteers and, 19 See also differentiation outreach programs funding not available, 5

PMI charts graphic organizer, 186 how to use, 185 paragraph planners graphic organizers, 193195 parents assessment information for, 134 communication with, 15, 148151 conferences with, 150151 in learning teams, 1416 registration information, 23 report cards and, 149 Index / 235 2007

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tips for involving parents, 15 tips on helping children (handout), 16 use of first language with children, 5152, 57 partial integration options for students in self-contained classes, 45 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test assessment tool, 29 peers and ESL students peer ambassadors, 25 peer support, 26 peer tutors, 13, 18 See also students, ESL penpals, e-mail for ESL students, 117 personal communication skills. See basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) personal dictionaries. See dictionaries personal profile sample of, 155 personal projects for differentiation, 127 physical activity and physical education cultural diversity in, 55 volunteer roles, 19 Picture Communication Symbols (PCS) tools for ESL students, 115 picture prompts for assessment of oral language, 27 for assessment of written language, 29 placement in age-appropriate grades, 30, 3839 policy requirements, 45 program delivery to support, 3839 playground English. See basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) policies on ESL about legislative requirements, 45 on transitional nature of programs, 38 Polish language pronunciation strategies, 8788 politics and language consideration of, 35 portfolios for assessment, 142144 positive corrective feedback as a teaching strategy, 86 PPVT-III. See Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test pre-beginners. See language levels and teaching strategies prereading strategies for intermediate students, 102 See also reading principles (knowledge framework) graphic organizers for, 8283 in knowledge framework, 7880

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

problem solving flowcharts, 190191 how to solve problems, 189 no-solution chart, 192 productive learning strategies tips on, 167 programs, ESL about programs, 4045 cultural competence, 39 cultural considerations, 3537 differentiated instruction, 39, 119121 explicit ESL instruction, 39, 4648 inclusive programs, 4344 models of program delivery, 4345 organizing for instruction, 4042 program delivery, 3839 self-contained programs, 4445 See also organizing for instruction; special education needs, students with prompts for assessment of oral language, 27 for assessment of written language, 2829 pronunciation teaching strategies, 8788 provincial achievement tests accommodations and exemptions, 148 pull-out classes scheduling of, in Division II, 4748 See also organizing for instruction puzzles. See games

questioning adjusted questioning to differentiate learning processes, 126 as a teaching strategy, 8485 questionnaires for initial assessment, 2829 See also assessment and evaluation

reader response cloze for intermediate students, 100 reading assessment tools, 30 assistive technology for, 115117 cultural differences and, 157158 differentiation supports, 125 general language characteristics, 162 initial assessment, 28 mediated reading, 92, 97, 107 prereading strategies, 102 reading difficulties, strategies, 112113 text forms, sample list, 207 vocabulary tools, 209210 volunteer roles, 19

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Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Index / 237 2007

reading, language levels and lessons Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6466 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6668 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 6971 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 7274 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107 reception and registration about policy requirements, 45 intake procedures, 2123 introduction of students, 25 newcomer kits, 2425 peer ambassadors and peer support, 2526 recorded prompts for assessment of oral language, 27 refugees characteristics of, 3, 56 education records of, 22 funding for ESL programs, 5 stages of cultural adaptation, 3233 reinforcement systems accommodations, examples, 211 cultural differences, 157158 religious groups, students in characteristics of, 3 community expectations, 57 See also Canadian-born ESL students report cards, 149 resources for instruction accommodations, examples, 211 availability of, 4041 bilingual and first-language books, 54, 58 book selection for intermediate students, 101 for differentiating content, 121122 textbooks for advanced students, 106 use of inclusive resources, 4041, 57 ROWPVT. See Expressive and Receptive One-word Picture Vocabulary Tests rubrics for assessment, 145

safe and caring schools cultural sensitivities, 5354 schedules, classroom graphic organizer, 179 See also classroom environment school authorities Alberta Education policy requirements, 45 exemption of students from provincial tests, 148 school orientation scheduling of, 24 schools ESL as whole-school responsibility, 3839 welcoming environments, 5354 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

238 / Index 2007

science differentiation (examples), 122, 128131 explicit teaching of language of, 60 integrating language and content, 75, 77 self-assessment activities for assessment, 142 See also assessment and evaluation self-contained ESL classes about self-contained classes, 43 organizing classes, 4445 partial integration, 45 See also organizing for instruction senior high school students. See Division IV sentences, writing ordering sentences for intermediate students, 101 sentence building for beginners, 9697 sentence building for intermediate students, 101 sentence completion, graphic organizer, 171 sentence-level grammar for intermediate students, 101 See also writing sequence (knowledge framework) graphic organizers for, 8283 in knowledge framework, 7880 Serbo-Croatian language pronunciation strategies, 8788 services, coordinated funding for, 5 settling-in time in classroom environments, 53 sight vocabulary for pre-beginners, 92 silent period as language characteristic of beginners, 161 cultural differences, 157158 in second language learning, 50 skills in language learning. See basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS); cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) social studies differentiation (examples), 128131 explicit teaching of language of, 60 integrating language and content, 7677 social/affective learning strategies tips on, 166 Spanish language pronunciation strategies, 8788 speaking Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6466 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6668 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 6971 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 7274 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Index / 239 2007

special education needs, students with assistive technology, 115117 programs for, 3738 teaching and learning strategies for, 107109 specialist teachers. See teachers, ESL specialists speech-language pathologists ESL students and, 88 spelling assistive technology for, 115117 for intermediate students, 99100 strategies for, 8889 split-page notes for advanced students, 106 standardized tests appropriate use of, 29 for assessment, 145 See also assessment tools Stanford English Language Proficiency Test assessment tool, 29 stereotypes culturally appropriate resources, 4041 culturally competent students, 55 strategies, teaching. See teaching and learning strategies students, ESL adolescent concerns, 10 advantages and challenges for, 6 as part of learning team, 13 assessment information for, 134 assessment roles, 141 best environments for, 13 communication styles, 36 communications with, tips on, 5861 conferences, student-parent-teacher, 150151 cultural considerations, 3537 ESL Student Information chart, 4142 factors influencing language learning, 9 gender roles, 36, 157158 general language characteristics, 159163 individual attention for, 53 learning styles, 36 peer ambassadors, 25 peer support, 26 peer tutors, 13, 18 personality and language learning, 36 report cards, 149 technology and, 113117 See also special education needs, students with subject areas partial integration in nonacademic areas, 47 teaching language of, 60 use of first language in, 61 See also academic subjects; organizing for instruction summary cloze for intermediate students, 100 support services funding for, 5 240 / Index 2007 ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)
Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review method for advanced students, 107 survival English. See basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) swear words learning of, 50

T-chart, triple graphic organizer, 184 teacher assistants in learning teams, 14 teachers assessment information for, 134 cultural differences, 157158 cultural sensitivity, 5355 gender and cultural considerations, 36, 157158 in learning teams, 1213 individual attention by, 53 teachers, ESL specialists in learning teams, 17 on teams for students with special education needs, 38 teaching and learning strategies, 63117 about effective lessons, 90 about text forms (samples), 207 accommodations, examples, 211 cognitive learning strategies, 165 cooperative learning, 8485 explicit instruction, 39, 4648 first language use in, 5052, 5758 general tips on instruction, 5961 graphic organizers, 8183 implicit instruction, 49 interpretive learning strategies, 167 knowledge framework, 7883 language use learning strategies, 166 metacognitive learning strategies, 165 models of language instruction, 4649 positive corrective feedback, 86 practice activities (5 modes), 120 productive learning strategies, 167 pronunciation errors, 8788 questioning, 8485 social/affective learning strategies, 166 volunteers and, 19 See also differentiation; errors in language use; first language; graphic organizers teaching and learning strategies, by language levels Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6466 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6668 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 6971 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 7274 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Index / 241 2007

technology assistive technology, 115117 ICT in ESL programs, 113117 tests. See assessment tools text-to-speech software for ESL students, 115 textbooks for advanced students, 106 See also resources for instruction tiered assignments for differentiation, 125 transitions during classroom activities, 60 in and out of ESL programs, 38

Venn diagrams graphic organizers, 177178 video prompts for assessment of oral language, 27 for assessment of written language, 29 video technology for ESL students, 115 Vietnamese language pronunciation strategies, 8788 visa students. See international visa students vocabulary development for advanced students, 107 tips for intermediate students, 104 volunteers activities for, 19 how to develop a program, 19 in learning teams, 1819 interpreters and cultural liaison workers, 1718

web (graphic organizer) for brainstorming, 173174 for discussions, 188 how to use, 172 welcoming new students. See reception and registration what I have, what I need graphic organizer, 187 writing assistive technology for, 115117 general language characteristics, 163 initial assessment, 2829 personal profile (sample), 155 sentence building activities, 9697, 101 sentence completion, 171 text forms, sample list, 207 tips for intermediate students, 103 writing workshops, 103

242 / Index 2007

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

writing, graphic organizers for for compare and contrast essay, 197 for debate and argument, 203206 for five-paragraph essays, 195196 for reports, 198 for writing stories, 199202 writing, language levels and lessons Level 1: Pre-beginner, 6466 Level 1: Pre-beginner, lessons, 9193 Level 2: Beginner, 6668 Level 2: Beginner, lessons, 9397 Level 3: Intermediate, 6971 Level 3: Intermediate, lessons, 98105 Level 4: Advanced, 7274 Level 4: Advanced, lessons, 105107

ESL Guide to Implementation (K9)

Alberta Education, Alberta, Canada

Index / 243 2007