6-2 Mathematical Induction In calculus, it can be shown that ex

k0

457

k! 1 1! 2! 3! . . . n!

xk

x2

x3

xn

62. Approximate e0.5 using the rst ve terms of the series. Compare this approximation with your calculator evaluation of e0.5.

where the larger n is, the better the approximation. Problems 61 and 62 refer to this series. Note that n!, read n factorial, is dened by 0! 1 and n! 1 2 3 . . . n for n N. 61. Approximate e0.2 using the rst ve terms of the series. Compare this approximation with your calculator evaluation of e0.2.

63. Show that

k1

ca (a
n

k1

64. Show that

k1

bk)

k1

k1

Section 6-2 Mathematical Induction

Introduction Mathematical Induction Additional Examples of Mathematical Induction Three Famous Problems

Introduction
In common usage, the word induction means the generalization from particular cases or facts. The ability to formulate general hypotheses from a limited number of facts is a distinguishing characteristic of a creative mathematician. The creative process does not stop here, however. These hypotheses must then be proved or disproved. In mathematics, a special method of proof called mathematical induction ranks among the most important basic tools in a mathematicians toolbox. In this section, mathematical induction will be used to prove a variety of mathematical statements, some new and some that up to now we have just assumed to be true. We illustrate the process of formulating hypotheses by an example. Suppose we are interested in the sum of the rst n consecutive odd integers, where n is a positive integer. We begin by writing the sums for the rst few values of n to see if we can observe a pattern: 11 134 1359 1 3 5 7 16 1 3 5 7 9 25
n1 n2 n3 n4 n5

Is there any pattern to the sums 1, 4, 9, 16, and 25? You no doubt observed that each is a perfect square and, in fact, each is the square of the number of terms in the sum. Thus, the following conjecture seems reasonable:
Conjecture Pn: For each positive integer n,

1 3 5 . . . (2n 1) n2 That is, the sum of the rst n odd integers is n2 for each positive integer n.

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6 SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND PROBABILITY

So far ordinary induction has been used to generalize the pattern observed in the rst few cases listed. But at this point conjecture P n is simply thata conis a true statement? Continuing to list specic jecture. How do we prove that P n cases will never provide a general proofnot in your lifetime or all your descendants lifetimes! Mathematical induction is the tool we will use to establish the validity of conjecture P n. Before discussing this method of proof, lets consider another conjecture:
Conjecture Qn: For each positive integer n, the number n2 n 41 is a prime

number.

T A B L E
n n2 n 41

1
Prime?

1 2 3 4 5

41 43 47 53 61

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

It is important to recognize that a conjecture can be proved false if it fails for only one case. A single case or example for which a conjecture fails is called a counterexample. We check the conjecture for a few particular cases in Table 1. From the table, it certainly appears that conjecture Qn has a good chance of being true. You may want to check a few more cases. If you persist, you will nd that conjecture Qn is true for n up to 41. What happens at n 41? 412 41 41 412 which is not prime. Thus, since n 41 provides a counterexample, conjecture Qn is false. Here we see the danger of generalizing without proof from a few special cases. This example was discovered by Euler (17071783).

Explore/Discuss

Prove that the following statement is false by nding a counterexample: If n 2, then at least one-third of the positive integers less than or equal to n are prime.

Mathematical Induction
We begin by stating the principle of mathematical induction, which forms the basis for all our work in this section.

THEOREM

PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION Let P n be a statement associated with each positive integer n, and suppose the following conditions are satised: 1. P1 is true. 2. For any positive integer k, if P k is true, then P k1 is also true. Then the statement P n is true for all positive integers n.

Theorem 1 must be read very carefully. At rst glance, it seems to say that if we assume a statement is true, then it is true. But that is not the case at all. If the two conditions in Theorem 1 are satised, then we can reason as follows:

6-2 Mathematical Induction

459

P1 is true. P2 is true, because P1 is true. P3 is true, because P2 is true. P4 is true, because P3 is true. . . .

Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 2 Condition 2 . . .

FIGURE 1
Interpreting mathematical induction.

Since this chain of implications never ends, we will eventually reach P n for any positive integer n. To help visualize this process, picture a row of dominoes that goes on forever (see Fig. 1) and interpret the conditions in Theorem 1 as follows: Condition 1 says that the rst domino can be pushed over. Condition 2 says that if the kth domino falls, then so does the (k 1)st domino. Together, these two conditions imply that all the dominoes must fall. Now, to illustrate the process of proof by mathematical induction, we return to the conjecture P n discussed earlier, which we restate below: . . . (2n 1) n2 P n: 1 3 5 n any positive integer

Condition 1: The rst domino can be pushed over. (a)

We already know that P1 is a true statement. In fact, we demonstrated that P1 through P5 are all true by direct calculation. Thus, condition 1 in Theorem 1 is satised. To show that condition 2 is satised, we assume that Pk is a true statement: Pk: 1 3 5 . . . (2k 1) k2 Now we must show that this assumption implies that Pk1 is also a true statement:

Condition 2: If the kth domino falls, then so does the (k 1)st. (b)

Pk1: 1 3 5 . . . (2k 1) (2k 1) (k 1)2 Since we have assumed that Pk is true, we can perform the operations on this equation. Note that the left side of Pk1 is the left side of Pk plus (2k 1). So we start by adding (2k 1) to both sides of Pk: 1 3 5 . . . (2k 1) k2 1 3 5 . . . (2k 1) (2k 1) k2 (2k 1)
Pk Add 2k 1 to both sides.

Conclusion: All the dominoes will fall. (c)

Factoring the right side of this equation, we have 1 3 5 . . . (2k 1) (2k 1) (k 1)2 Pk1

But this last equation is Pk1. Thus, we have started with Pk , the statement we assumed true, and performed valid operations to produce Pk1, the statement we want to be true. In other words, we have shown that if Pk is true, then Pk1 is also true. Since both conditions in Theorem 1 are satised, P n is true for all positive integers n.

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6 SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND PROBABILITY

Additional Examples of Mathematical Induction

Now we will consider some additional examples of proof by induction. The rst is another summation formula. Mathematical induction is the primary tool for proving that formulas of this type are true.

EXAMPLE

Proving a Summation Formula

Prove that for all positive integers n 2n 1 1 1 1 1 ... n 2 4 8 2 2n

1
Proof

State the conjecture: Pn:

Part 1

1 1 1 ... 1 2n 1 n 2 4 8 2 2n

Show that P1 is true. P1: 1 21 1 2 21 1 2

Thus, P1 is true.
Part 2

Show that if Pk is true, then Pk1 is true. It is a good practice to always write out both Pk and Pk1 at the beginning of any induction proof to see what is assumed and what must be proved: Pk: Pk 1: 1 1 1 ... 1 2k 1 k 2 4 8 2 2k
We assume Pk is true. We must show that Pk1 follows from Pk.

1 1 1 ... 1 1 2k 1 1 k k1 2 4 8 2 2 2k 1

We start with the true statement Pk , add 1/2 k1 to both sides, and simplify the right side: 1 1 1 ... 1 2k 1 k 2 4 8 2 2k k 1 1 1 ... 1 1 2 1 1 k k1 k1 k 2 4 8 2 2 2 2 k 2 1 2 1 k1 k 2 2 2 2k 1 2 1 2k 1 2k 1 1 2k 1
Pk

6-2 Mathematical Induction

461

Thus, 1 1 1 ... 1 1 2k 1 1 k k1 2 4 8 2 2 2k 1
Pk1

and we have shown that if Pk is true, then Pk1 is true.

Conclusion

Both conditions in Theorem 1 are satised. Thus, P n is true for all positive integers n.

MATCHED PROBLEM

Prove that for all positive integers n 123...n n(n 1) 2

The next example provides a proof of a law of exponents that previously we had to assume was true. First we redene an for n a positive integer, using a recursion formula:

DEFINITION

RECURSIVE DEFINITION OF an For n a positive integer

a1 a an1 ana n1

1
EXAMPLE

Proving a Law of Exponents

Prove that (xy)n x n y n for all positive integers n. State the conjecture:
n n n P n: (xy) x y

2
Proof

Part 1

Show that P1 is true. (xy)1 xy x y

1 1

Denition 1 Denition 1

Thus, P1 is true.
Part 2

Show that if P k is true, then P k1 is true. Pk: (xy)k x k y k Pk 1: (xy)k 1 x k 1y k 1

Assume Pk is true. Show that Pk1 follows from Pk.

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6 SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND PROBABILITY

Here we start with the left side of Pk1 and use Pk to nd the right side of Pk1: (xy)k1 (xy)k(xy)1 x y xy
k k

Denition 1 Use Pk: (xy)k x ky k. Property of real numbers Denition 1

(x kx)(y k y) x
k 1 k 1

Thus, (xy)k1 x k1y k1, and we have shown that if P k is true, then P k1 is true.
Conclusion

Both conditions in Theorem 1 are satised. Thus, P n is true for all positive integers n. Prove that (x/y)n xn/yn for all positive integers n.

MATCHED PROBLEM

2
Our last example deals with factors of integers. Before we start, recall that an integer p is divisible by an integer q if p qr for some integer r.

EXAMPLE

Proving a Divisibility Property

Prove that 42n 1 is divisible by 5 for all positive integers n. Use the denition of divisibility to state the conjecture as follows:
2n P 1 5r n: 4

3
Proof

for some integer r

Part 1

Show that P 1 is true.

2 P 1: 4 1 15 5 3

Thus, P 1 is true.
Part 2

Show that if P k is true, then P k1 is true. Pk: 42k 1 5r Pk1: 4

2(k1)

for some integer r for some integer s

Assume Pk is true. Show that Pk1 must follow.

1 5s

As before, we start with the true statement P k: 42k 1 5r 4 (4 1) 4 (5r)

2 2k 2

Pk Multiply both sides by 42. Simplify. Add 15 to both sides. Factor out 5.

42k 2 16 80r 4
2(k 1)

1 80r 15 5(16r 3)

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463

Thus, 42(k 1) 1 5s
Pk1

where s 16r 3 is an integer, and we have shown that if Pk is true, then Pk1 is true.
Conclusion

Both conditions in Theorem 1 are satised. Thus, P n is true for all positive integers n. Prove that 8n 1 is divisible by 7 for all positive integers n.

MATCHED PROBLEM

3
In some cases, a conjecture may be true only for n m, where m is a positive integer, rather than for all n 0. For example, see Problems 49 and 50 in Exercise 6-2. The principle of mathematical induction can be extended to cover cases like this as follows:

THEOREM

EXTENDED PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION Let m be a positive integer, let P n be a statement associated with each integer n m, and suppose the following conditions are satised: 1. P m is true. 2. For any integer k m, if Pk is true, then Pk1 is also true. Then the statement P n is true for all integers n m.

Three Famous Problems

The problem of determining whether a certain statement about the positive integers is true may be extremely difcult. Proofs may require remarkable insight and ingenuity and the development of techniques far more advanced than mathematical induction. Consider, for example, the famous problems of proving the following statements: 1. Lagranges Four Square Theorem, 1772: Each positive integer can be expressed as the sum of four or fewer squares of positive integers. 2. Fermats Last Theorem, 1637: For n 2, xn yn zn does not have solutions in the natural numbers. 3. Goldbachs Conjecture, 1742: Every positive even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers. The rst statement was considered by the early Greeks and nally proved in 1772 by Lagrange. Fermats last theorem, defying the best mathematical minds for over 350 years, nally succumbed to a 200-page proof by Prof. Andrew Wiles of Princeton University in 1993. To this date no one has been able to prove or disprove Goldbachs conjecture.

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6 SEQUENCES, SERIES, AND PROBABILITY

Explore/Discuss

2
Part 1. 1

(A) Explain the difference between a theorem and a conjecture. (B) Why is Fermats last theorem a misnomer? Suggest more accurate names for the result.

Answers to Matched Problems

1. Sketch of proof. State the conjecture: P 1 2 3 ... n n: 1(1 1) . P1 is true. 2 Part 2. Show that if Pk is true, then Pk1 is true. 123...k 1 2 3 . . . k (k 1) Conclusion: P n is true. 2. Sketch of proof. State the conjecture: P n: Part 1. x x . P is true. x y y y
1 1 1 1 k1 k k k k k

n(n 1) 2

k(k 1) 2 k(k 1) (k 1) 2 (k 1)(k 2) 2 x x y y

n n n

Pk

Pk1

Part 2. Show that if Pk is true, then Pk1 is true.

x y

x x x xx x x y y y y y y y

k1 k1

Conclusion: P n is true. n 3. Sketch of proof. State the conjecture: P n: 8 1 7r 1 Part 1. 8 1 7 7 1. P 1 is true. Part 2. Show that if P k is true, then P k1 is true. 8k 1 7r 8(8 1) 8(7r)
k

for some integer r

Pk Pk1

8k 1 1 56r 7 7(8r 1) 7s Conclusion: P n is true.

EXERCISE 6-2 A
In Problems 14, nd the rst positive integer n that causes the statement to fail. 1. (3 5)n 3n 5n 3. n 3n 2
2

Verify each statement P n in Problems 510 for n 1, 2, and 3. . . . (4n 2) 2n2 5. P n: 2 6 10 . . . 4n 2n(n 1) 6. P n: 4 8 12
5 n 5n 7. P n: a a a 5 n 5n 8. P n: (a ) a n n 9. P n: 9 1 is divisible by 4 10. P n: 4 1 is divisible by 3

2. n 10 4. n 11n 6n 6
3 2

Write Pk and Pk1 for Pn as indicated in Problems 1116. 11. P n in Problem 5 12. P n in Problem 6

6-2 Mathematical Induction 13. P n in Problem 7 15. P n in Problem 9 14. P n in Problem 8 16. P n in Problem 10 38. xn yn is divisible by x y; x 39. x2n 1 is divisible by x 1; x 40. x 1 is divisible by x 1; x
2n 3 3 3

465

y 1 1

In Problems 1722, use mathematical induction to prove that each P n holds for all positive integers n. 17. P n in Problem 5 19. P n in Problem 7 21. P n in Problem 9 18. P n in Problem 6 20. P n in Problem 8 22. P n in Problem 10

41. 1 2 3 . . . n3 (1 2 3 . . . n)2 [Hint: See Matched Problem 1 following Example 1.] 42. 1 1 1 ... 123 234 345 1 n(n 3) n(n 1)(n 2) 4(n 1)(n 2)

B
In Problems 2326, prove the statement is false by nding a counterexample. 23. If n 2, then any polynomial of degree n has at least one real zero. 24. Any positive integer n 7 can be written as the sum of three or fewer squares of positive integers. 25. If n is a positive integer, then there is at least one prime number p such that n p n 6. 26. If a, b, c, and d are positive integers such that a2 b2 c2 d 2, then a c or a d. In Problems 2742, use mathematical induction to prove each proposition for all positive integers n, unless restricted otherwise. 27. 2 22 23 . . . 2n 2n1 2 1 1 1 1 1 28. . . . n 1 2 4 8 2 2

C
In Problems 4346, suggest a formula for each expression, and prove your hypothesis using mathematical induction, n N. 43. 2 4 6 . . . 2n 44. 1 1 1 1 ... 12 23 34 n(n 1)

45. The number of lines determined by n points in a plane, no three of which are collinear 46. The number of diagonals in a polygon with n sides Prove Problems 4750 true for all integers n as specied. 47. a 1 an 1; n N 48. 0 a 1 0 an 1; n N 49. n2 2n; n 3 50. 2n n2; n 5 51. Prove or disprove the generalization of the following two facts: 33 32 42 52 33 43 53 63 52. Prove or disprove: n2 21n 1 is a prime number for all natural numbers n. If {an} and {bn} are two sequences, we write {an} {bn} if and only if an bn , n N. In Problems 5356, use mathematical induction to show that {an} {bn}. 53. a1 1, an an1 2; bn 2n 1 54. a1 2, an an1 2; bn 2n 55. a1 2, an 22an1; bn 22n1 56. a1 2, an 3an1; bn 2 3n1

3 29. 12 32 52 . . . (2n 1)2 1 3 (4n n)

30. 1 8 16 . . . 8(n 1) (2n 1)2; n 1 31. 12 22 32 . . . n2 n(n 1)(2n 1) 6 n(n 1)(n 2) 3

32. 1 2 2 3 3 4 . . . n(n 1) 33. an an3; n 3 a3 34.

1 a5 ;n5 an an 5

35. a man a mn; m, n N [Hint: Choose m as an arbitrary element of N, and then use induction on n.] 36. (an)m amn; m, n N 37. xn 1 is divisible by x 1; x 1 [Hint: Divisible means that xn 1 (x 1)Q(x) for some polynomial Q(x).]