MEL 311: Machine Element Design

Harish Hirani
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pre-requisites MEL 211 AML 140 MEP 201 MEP 202 Kinematics & Dynamics of Machines Mechanics of Solids Mechanical Engineering Drawing Design Innovation & Manufacturing

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Identification of need

Problem formulation

Kinematics & Dynamics of Machines Mechanics of Solids Mechanical Engineering Drawing Design Innovation & Manufacturing

Mechanism/Synthesis

Analysis

Verification/Validation

Presentation

Purchase a safe lathe machine

Low risk of injury to operator Low risk of operator mistake Low risk of damage to workpiece/tool Automatic cut-out on overload
Problem formulation

Problem: Design a reliable and simple test rig to test shaft

connections subjected to impulse loads.
Reliable operation
Good reproducibility Low wear Low susceptibility to external noise Tolerance for overloading Easy handling Quick exchange of test connections Good visibility of measuring system

Simple

Minimum no. of components Simple design of components Low complexity Design for standards

Safety

Design Innovation & Manufacturing

Can we increase speed of Jute Flyer ??

Flyer Spinning Machine

Current speed 4000 rpm Target speed 6000 rpm

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Bobbin
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Design Innovation & Manufacturing

Can we increase speed of Jute Flyer ??

Flyer Spinning Machine Increase rotational speed Constraints: Stress < ?? Deflection < ???

Mechanics of Solids

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Increase operating speed wharve assembly

Bearing life must be at least 3 years The wharves must be lighter than the current wharves Temperature rise must be within 5C. Cost of new wharve assembly 1.5 times cost of existing assembly

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Identification of need

Problem formulation

Mechanism/Synthesis

Design is an iterative process Analysis requires mathematical model of system/component.

Analysis

Verification

Presentation

Machine Element Design: System Elements Power transmission System Gears, Bearings, Shaft, Seals.

Text books: 1. Mechanical Engineering Design. Shigley and Mischke..

Machine Elements
1. Design of shafts 2. Design of couplings 3. Design of belt and chains 4. Design of springs

2. Machine Design: An Integrated Approach.. R. L. Norton

5. Design of Clutches & Brakes 6. Design of Screws 7. Design of bolted joints

25-30 Hours Minor II Major

8. Gear (spur, helical, bevel and worm) design 9. Bearing Selection of Rolling contact bearing 10. Design of journal bearings
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Basics required to design Machine Elements

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Solid Mechanics Factors of safety Standards and Design Equations Selection of Materials and Processes Standard numbering system (i.e BIS designations of materials). 12-15 Hours Applications of failures theories Minor I Introduction to design for fatigue Major Surface strength Introduction to CAD. Computer Assistance
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Input

Name
U

Output
2.094

Computer aided..
.02

omega radius speed load

104.72

Design of gears. Design of hydrodynamic bearings.

1000

93.6

.005 .01

visco length clearance .00002

.75

ecc

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Load capacity versus eccentricity ratio 2750 2500 2250 2000 1750 Load, N 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 .5 .55 .6 .65 .7 .75 .8 .85 .9 .95

Eccentricity ratio

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Effect of clearance on load 700 600 500 Load 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.001 R * Factor

1 Load 2 Cr

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PARAMETRIC STUDY: Hydrodynamic Bearing

U = omega * radius omega = 2 *pi()/60 * speed load = U * visco * (length ^ 3) /(clearance ^2) * pi()/4 * ecc/((1-ecc^2)^2) *sqrt((16/(pi()^2)-1)*(ecc^2) + 1) clearance = 0.001 * radius Input Name
U omega radius speed load visco length clearance ecc
Iterative study to desirable results

Output
2.094 104.72

.02 1000 .005 .01

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93.6

.00002
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What is TK Solver?
Package for solving numerical equations: linear or nonlinear,
single or multiple equations - up to 32,000. No need to enter the equations in any special order-- TK
Solver is based on a declarative (as opposed to procedural) programming language..

No need to isolate the unknowns on one side of the equations

a ^ 2 + b^ 2 = c^ 2
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Input (a,b) or (b,c) or (c,a) Output c or a or b

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Enter Equations
This sheet shows the relationship between variables in the models. This is where model is controlled from.

Variable sheet shows the input or output value, with units if relevant, and the status of each variable
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BUILT IN FUNCTIONS
COS(), ACOS(), SIN(), ASIN(), TAN(), ATAN() COSD(), ACOSD(),SIND(),ASIND(),TAND(),ATAND() EXP(), LN() {base e}, LOG() {base 10} ATAN2(y,x), ATAN2D(y,x) {4-Quadrant arc tangent of y/x } COSH(), ACOSH(), SINH(), ASINH(), TANH(), ATANH() ROOT(X,N) nth root of x; SQRT(x) , ABS(x), INTEGER(x) or INT(x)
MODULUS (x1,x2) or MOD(x1,x2)

integer part of x remainder of x1/x2

-1 if x < 0, 0 if x=0, 1 if x > 0

SIGNUM(X) or SGN(X) ROUND(x) CEILING(x) FLOOR(x)

nearest integer to x smallest integer >= x largest integer <= x

TKs built-in functions are NOT case-sensitive; SIN(x)=sin(x)=Sin(x) User-defined function names ARE case-sensitive.
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List Function Sheet

Expresses functional relationship between the corresponding elements of two lists

Comment: returns the weight density of a mat Domain List: matl Mapping: Table Range List: density Element Domain Range 1 'alum 2.76805 2 'steel 7.75054 3 'copper 8.580955

Material Selection using TKSolver

Machine Design: An Integrated Approach.. by Robert L. Norton

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Evaluation Scheme
Minor I Minor II Major Laboratory Tutorial 15% 15% 30% 25% 15%

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Introduction to machine elements design..

Machine: Structure + Mechanisms

Combination of rigid bodies which do not have any relative motion among themselves Automobile chassis Machine tool bed Machine columns Slider crank mechanism Cam and follower mech. Gear train

Shafts, couplings, springs, bearings, belt and gear drives, fasteners, and joints are basic elements of machines..

Scientific procedure to design machine elements

Ultimate goal is to size and shape the element so that elements perform expected function without failure.
1. 2. 3. 4. Predict mode & conditions of failure. Force/Moment/Torque analysis. Stress and deflection analysis. Selection of appropriate material.
Thorough understanding of material prop

Q U A N T I F I C A T I O N

Iterations
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Wear, Vibration, essential misalignme nt, environmen t

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Acrylic bearing

Journal bearing test rig

Brass bearing
Fluid pressure (kPa) 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Max pressure = 1800 kPa Estimating stress

Angle (Degree)

Acrylic bearing
Selecting material
Fluid pressure (kPa) 1500 1000 500 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Max pressure = 1300 kPa

Angle (Degree)

Evaluation of Materials in Vacuum Cleaners

Wooden
Cleaner & year Hand powered, 1905 Motor driven, 1950 Cylindrical shape, 1985

Steel Polymeric
Dominant material Wood, canvas, leather ,Mild steel Mild Steel Moulded ABS, polypropylene Power Weight Cost* (W) (kg) 50 300 800 10 6 4 $ 380 $150 $ 95

Costs have been adjusted in 1998 values, allowing for inflation [Ref. M. Ashby]

Material Properties

Strength, Youngs modulus, Shear modulus, Fatigue strength, resilience, toughness

Generally determined through destructive testing of samples under controlled loading conditions.

Tensile test

Plotting of stress & strain

l l0 = , Apply load & measure deflection l0

l > l0

=log(l/l0)
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P = A0
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Young' s modulus

E=

Stress-strain Diagram for Metals

Ductile E compressio Brittle E compressio

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= E tensile > E tensile

elastic > proportional yield > elastic

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 Ultimate strength: Largest stress that a material can sustain before fracture
True stress Engineering stress

Ductility: Material elongation > 5%.

A significant plastic region on the stressstrain curve Necking down or reduction in area. Even materials.

Brittleness: Absence of noticeable deformation before fracture.

NOTE: Same material can be either ductile or brittle depending the way it is manufactured (casting), worked, and heat treated (quenched, tempered). Temperature plays important role.

Material
Nodular cast iron Malleable cast iron Low carbon steel Medium carbon steel High carbon steel Ferrite SS Austenite SS Martensitic SS

E (GPa)
165 172 207 207 207 200 193 200

Sy (MPa) Su (MPa)
265 220 295 350 380 345 207 275 415 345 395 520 615 552 552 483

Ductility (% EL)
18 10 37 30 25 20 60 30

Remark: Choice of material cannot be made independently of the choice of process by which material is to be formed or treated. Cost of desired material will change with the process involved in it.

Material
Ferrite SS Austenite SS Martensitic SS

E (GPa)
200 193 200

Sy (MPa) Su (MPa)
345 207 275 552 552 483

Ductility (% EL)
20 60 30

Ex: A flat SS plate is rolled into a cylinder with inner radius of 100mm and a wall thickness of 60 mm. Determine which of the three SS cannot be formed cold to the cylinder?

l0 = 2 (ri + 0.5 t ) = 2 (100 + 30 ) = 816.8mm l fr = 2 (ro ) = 2 (160 ) = 1005 l fr l0 % EL = l (100 ) = 23.1% 0

ANS: Ferrite SS cannot be formed to the cylinder.

Torsion Test
Stress strain relation for pure torsion is defined by Radius of specimen
=
G = G r l0 E G 0 .5 E 2 (1 + )

Angular twist in radians

Material
Aluminum Copper Iron
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0.34 0.35 0.28

Material
Steel Magnesium Titanium

0.28 0.33 0.34

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Tensile & torsion tests apply loads slowly and only once to specimen. Static

Fatigue strength
Time varying loads Wohlers strengthlife (S-N) diagram

7/24/2009 NOTE: Strength at 106 cycles tend to be about 50-60% of static strength

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Impact resistance
If the load is suddenly applied, the energy absorption capacity (strain energy)

U = d
0

Resilience: Strain energy present in the material at the elastic limit. Toughness: Strain energy present in the material at the fracture point.

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Resilience
el
0

(energy per unit volume)

Ex: In mining operation the iron ore is dumped into a funnel for further transport by train. Choose either steel (E=207 GPa, Sy=380 MPa) or rubber (E=4 GPa, Sy=30 MPa) for the design of funnel. 0.3488, 0.1125

U R = d = E d
0

el

=E UR
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2 el 0 2 Sy

1 = 2 E

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Toughness
U T = d
0

(energy per unit volume)

Since analytical expression for stress and strain curve is seldom available for actual intergration, an approximation of toughness 1 UT = S y + Sut f 2

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 Product must meet all government regulations & societal concerns. Substituting a new material needs appropriate design change Induction Motor casing Grey cast iron. Increasing cost & decreasing availability Safety regulations imposed by government.

Material Selection: Expectations

Economic & weightless materials High strength Low temperature sensitivity High wear & corrosion resistance Environmental friendly Controllable friction, stiffness, damping
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There are more than 100, 000 materials???

How many materials can be accommodate ???

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Classes of Engineering Materials

Members of class have common features:
Similar chemical composition Similar properties Alumina Si-Carbide Similar processing units
Steels Cast irons Al-alloys

Metals
Cu-alloys Ni-alloys Ti-alloys PE, PP, PC PA (Nylon)

Ceramics, glasses
Soda-glass Pyrex

GFRP CFRP

Polymers, elastomers
Butyl rubber Neoprene

Composites
KFRP Plywood

Polymer foams Metal foams

Woods

Foams
Ceramic foams Glass foams

Natural materials
Natural fibres: Hemp, Flax, Cotton

METALS
Relatively High Moduli (E, G, K) & Mechanical STRONG & STIFF. High ductility allows them to be formed by deformation process; accommodate stress concentration by deforming and redistributing load more evenly. Preferable in cyclic/ Fatigue Load Conditions

Least resistance to corrosion Good Conductors of Electricity & Heat

CERAMICS, GLASSES
Glasses typically have no clear crystal structure High moduli Hard and wear resistant Low thermal conductivity Insulate against Passage of Electricity Typically 15 times stronger in compression than in tension Resist corrosion (low chemical reactivity) Brittle and low tolerance for stress concentrations (like holes or cracks) or for high contact stresses (at clamping points).

Strength depends strongly on mode of loading. In tension, Fracture strength

CERAMICS

In compression Crashing strength Crashing S.= 10-15 Fracture S.

POLYMERS, ELASTOMERS
Electrical Insulating Little stronger (~20%) in compression than in tension EASY TO SHAPE: complicated parts performing several functions can be mould in a single operation. Generally no finishing is required. Corrosion resistance & low friction coefficient. Polymers are roughly 5 Times Less Dense than Metal, which make Strength/Weight Ratio (specific strength) equal to Metals Moduli (~2% of metals).
Large elastic deflections allow snap-fit, making assembly fast & cheap.
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Strength is identified as the stress at which strain is approximately 1%.

Thermoplastic POLYMERS
At Glass transition temperature, upon cooling a polymer transforms from a super-cooled liquid to a solid
Temperature sensitive properties ( to be used < 200 C) Polymer which is tough & flexible at 20C, may be brittle at 4C, yet
creep rapidly at 100C.

COMPOSITES:
Designed for Combination of Best Characteristics (light, strong, stiff, etc.) of Each Component Material
Graphite- Reinforced Epoxy Acquires Strength from Graphite Fibers while Epoxy Protects Graphite from Oxidation & provides Toughness

High Price- Relatively Difficult to Form & Join Upper temperature limit decided by polymer matrix (generally < 250C)

Little (~30%) weaker in compression than tension because fiber buckle

Illustration of Mechanical properties

Too heavy (need lower )

Not tough enough (need bigger Kic)

Not strong enough (need bigger y )

Not stiff enough (need bigger E)

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49 Stiff, Strong, Tough, Light

Relationships: property bar-charts

Steel Copper WC

Youngs modulus, GPa

CFRP Alumina Aluminum Zinc Lead PEEK PP PTFE Glass GFRP Fibreboard

Remark: Property can be displayed as a rank list or bar chart. Each bar represents the range of E that material exhibits in its various forms.

Metals

Polymers

Ceramics

Composites

E = S / ro

ATOMIC SIZE
Metallic & Ionic (15-100 N/m)

Covalent bond is stiff (S= 20 200 N/m)

Polymers having Van der Waals bonds (0.5 to 2 N/m). r0~ 3*10-10m)

1-5

; 1-10

Rank list
Material Nodular cast iron Steel 4140 Al 539 Al-Sic composite Ti-6-4
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1-100
kg/m3 Rank , MPa Rank 7150 7850 2700 2880 4400 4 3 9 8 6 250 590 75 230 530 5 9 1 4 8
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Material Selection
Best material needs to have maximum overall score (rank)
OS = weight factor 1 * Rank of Material property 1+ weight factor 2 * Rank of Material property 2+ weight factor 3 * Rank of Material property 3+ Weight factor 1+weight factor 2+ = 1.0

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Material Selection: Deciding weighting factors

Attribute 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 1 5 1 0 0 0 Dummy 1 1 1 1 1 Total normalized

1 2 3 4 5

5 3 2 1 4

0.333 0.2 0.133 0.066 0.266

Total

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Fatigue strength, Corrosion resistance, Wettability, Conformability, Embeddability, 7/24/2009 Compatibility, Hardness, Cost, etc.

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 Ex: Components of ring spinning textile machine go through unlubricated sliding at low load but high relative speed (20,000 rpm).
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Design property Hardness Roughness Cost Adhesion Dimension
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Increase hardness, Reduce surface roughness, Minimize cost, Improve adhesion to substrate, and Minimize dimensional change on surface treatment/coating
Hardness Roughness Cost Adhesion Dimension Dummy Weighting factor 0.267 0.133 0.067 0.333 0.2
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0 0 1 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 -

1 1 1 1 1

Four methods to fulfill the required functions: (1) Plasma sprayed Al2O3 (polished), (2) Carburizing, (3) Nitriding, (4) Boronizing
Hardness Surface improvement method Weighting factor P S Al2O3 Carburizing Nitriding Boronizing 0.267 9 4 4 8 0.133 2 7 9 7 0.067 5 9 7 6 0.333 5 8 8 9 0.2 3 8 9 7 5.27 6.87 7.2 7.87 Roughness Cost Adhesion Dimension Weighted total

Hardness Surface improvement method Weighting factor P S Al2O3 Carburizing Nitriding Boronizing 0.267 9 78 HRC 4 52 HRC 4 50 HRC 8 72 HRC

Roughness

Cost

Adhesion

Dimension

Weighted total

0.133 2 3 microns 7 1 microns 9 0.5 microns 7 1 microns

0.067 5 9 7 6

0.333 5 100 MPa 8 300 MPa 8 300 MPa 9 320 MPa

0.2 3 8 9 7 5.27 6.87 7.2 7.87

Subjective ranking and weighting impairs the material selection process.

Material property- charts: Modulus - Density

1000 Ceramics Youngs modulus E, (GPa) 100 Composites 10 Woods Metals 1 Foams 0.1 Elastomers 0.01 0.1 10 1 Density (Mg/m3) 100 Polymers

Modulus E is plotted against density on logarithmic scale. Data for one class are enclosed in a property envelop. Some of Ceramics have lower densities than metals because they contain light O, N, C atoms..

Optimised selection using charts

Index M =
E
2

E1/ 3

= C

1/2

E1 / 2

=C

=C E

1000 Ceramics Youngs modulus E, (GPa) 100 Composites Woods Metals

2 3

E = /M

Log(E ) = 2 Log( ) 2 Log(M)

10 1 0.1

Polymers

Contours of constant M are lines of slope 2 on an E- chart

0.01 0.1

Elastomers Foams 10 1 3 Density (Mg/m )

100

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PERFORMANCE INDEX
Best material for a light stiff rod, under tension is one that have greatest value of specific stiffness (E/) Larger Better For Light & Stiff Tie-rod Light & Strong Y/ Best material for a spring, regardless of its shape or the way it is loaded, are those with the greatest value of (Y)2 /E Best thermal shock resistant material needs largest value of Y/E Combination of material properties which optimize some aspects of performance, is called MATERIAL INDEX

PERFORMANCE INDICES
GROUPING OF MAT. PROPERTIES REPRESENT SOME ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE

Design requirements

To support load, transmit power, store energy

Function
Cost, energy storage

What does the component do ? What essential conditions must be met ? What is to be maximised or minimised ? Which design variables are free ?

Constraints Objectives Free variables

FUNCTION
TIE BEAM

WHAT DOES COMPONENT DO? WHAT IS TO BE MAX./MIN.?

OBJECTIVE
MIN. COST MIN. WEIGHT

CONSTRAINTS
STIFFNESS SPECIFIED STRENGTH SPECIFIED FAILURE LIMIT GEOMETRY

WHAT NEGOTIABLE BUT DESIRABLE.?

SHAFT

MAX. ENERGY STORAGE MIN. IMPACT

INDEX M=E0.5/

COLUMN

SAFETY

Contain pressure Transmit heat

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Example 1: strong, light tie-rod

Strong tie of length L and minimum mass
Hollow or solid

F Area A L

Tie-rod is common mechanical component. Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F, without failure. L is usually fixed by design. While strong, need lightweight.

Function

Tie-rod: Rod subjected to tensile force.

Objective

Minimise mass m: m = AL Length L is specified Must not fail under load F

(1)

Constraints

F / A y
Free variables

(2)

Material choice Section area A; eliminate in (1) using (2):

m = FL y

m = mass A = area L = length = density y= yield strength

Chose materials with smallest

Example 2: stiff, light beam

F Function Objective Constraint Beam (solid square section). Minimise mass, m, where: b L
m = mass A = area L = length = density b = edge length S = stiffness I = second moment of area E = Youngs Modulus

m = A L = b2 L
Stiffness of the beam S:
L3 I is the second moment of area: S= CEI

b4 I= 12

Free variables

Material choice. Edge length b. Combining the equations gives:

1/ 2

12 S L5 m= C

1/ 2 E

Chose materials with smallest 1/ 2 E

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Outcome of screening step is to shortlist of candidates which satisfy the quantifiable information 67

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68

Example 3: stiff, light panel

Function Objective Constraint Panel with given width w and length L Minimise mass, m, where t w L Stiffness of the panel S:
L3 I is the second moment of area: w t3 I= 12 S= CEI
m = mass w = width L = length = density t = thickness S = stiffness I = second moment of area E = Youngs Modulus

m = AL = w t L

Free variables Material choice. Panel thickness t. Combining the equations gives:

12 S w 2 m= C

1/ 3

L2 1/ 3 E

Chose materials with smallest 1/ 3 E

Function, Objective, and Constraint Tie, minimum weight, stiffness Beam, minimum weight, stiffness Beam, minimum weight, strength Beam, minimum cost, stiffness Beam, minimum cost, strength Column, minimum cost, buckling load

Index E/ E1/2 / 2/3/ E1/2/Cm 2/3/Cm E1/2/Cm

Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage YS2/E Minimizing cost instead of weight is achieved by replacing density by Cm , where Cm=cost/mass

MATERIALS for SPRINGS

? AXIAL SPRINGS, LEAF, HELICAL, SPIRAL, TORSION ? PRIMARY FUNCTION: STORING/RELEASING ENERGY ? OBJECTIVE: MAXIMIZE ENERGY STORAGE
WV

Yield strength for metals and polymers, compressive crushing strength for ceramics, tear strength of elastomers and tensile strength for composites.

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MATERIAL

M = 2 f E....MJ m3

Comment
Brittle in tension; good only in compression Traditional choice: easily formed and heat treated. Expensive, corrosion resistant Comparable in performance with steel, expensive -Cheap & easily shaped Better than spring steel

Ceramics
Spring steel

10-100 15-25 15-20 15-20 10-12 1.5-2.5 20-50

Ti alloys CFRP GFRP Nylon Rubber

If there is limit on , rubber ????

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MATERIAL

M =

f2 M = E

Comment
Brittle in tension; good only in compression Traditional choice: easily formed and heat treated. Expensive, corrosion resistant Comparable in performance with steel, expensive --

Ceramics Spring steel Ti alloys CFRP GFRP Nylon Rubber

10-100, 5-40 15-25, 2-3 15-20, 2-3 15-20, 4-8 10-12, 3-5

1.5-2.5, 1.5-2 Cheap & easily shaped 20-50, 20-50 Better than spring steel

Check minimum required strength.

? ELASTIC ENERGY/COST
M =

f2
C m E

Ceramics
Spring steel

10-100 15-25 20-50

Rubber
GPa
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Selection based on

2
E

2 Selection based on E

Selection based on

2 E Cm

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Using Minimum criterion on E (> 6.89 GPa)

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Chromium steel
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AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute 1019 (?)

Hardness
Surface property. Resistance to indentation. Resistance to wear. 401 HB, 425 HV and 43 HRC. Sut 3.45 HB 0.2 HB MPa (used for low- or medium carbon steel) Large or thick part Case hardening. Coating..
Question: Steel member has 250 HB hardness. Estimate ultimate strength.
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Sut 3.45 HB 0.2 HB 346.75 308.75

383.25

341.25

405.15

360.75

422.4

377.00

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AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute 1019 (?)

Steel Numbering Systems

Question: What is composition of AISI 4340.

AISI numbers define alloying elements and carbon contents of steel.

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Carbon steel 2

E/

Carbon steel 3

Carbon steel 4

Carbon steel 5

> 1 GPa

YS > 50% of UTS

Low carbon percentage. But high % Relatively low E & G

Stainless Steels
Type 430 S43000 416 S41600 420 S42000 440C S44004 Uses For rust resistance on decorative an nonfunctional parts Hardened to 30 HRC and use for jigs, fixtures and base plates Harden to 50-52 HRC for tools that do not require high wear resistance (e.g. injectionmolding cavities, nozzles, holding blocks, etc) Harden to 58-60 HRC for cutting devices, punches and dies

Stainless steel 2

Relatively low / and E/

Molybdenum steel

Nickel chromium Molybdenum steel

Strength > 2 GPa

Free Body Diagrams

Equations of static equilibrium

Segmenting a complicated problem into manageable

F = 0 M = 0
0.25 0.75

P = 1000 N

4000 N 3000 N
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1000 N
97

Question: Draw a free body diagram of each component of brake shown in following figure.

STRESS

Critical section

P t ,c , s = A My b = I Ty = J
(a) Normal, tensile (b) normal, compressive; (c) shear; (d) bending; (e) torsion; (f) combined
Elementary equations. No discontinuity in cross-section. Holes, shoulders, keyways, etc.

a. Before assembly

High concentration of elements are required to estimate stress level.

b. After assembly

Finite element model to calculate stresses

Stress Concentration
Axial Load on Plate with Hole

avg

P = (b d ) h

Plate with cross-sectional plane

Stress concentration factor

max Kt = avg
Half of plate with stress distribution.
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Geometric discontinuities are called stress raiser. Stress concentration is a highly localized effect.

EX: A 50mm wide and 5mm high rectangular plate has a 5mm diameter central hole. Allowable stress is 300 MPa. Find the max. tensile force that can be applied. Ans: d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7 A = (50-5)5 P = 25 kN

Stress concentration factor for rectangular plate with central hole.

EX: Assume H=45mm, h=25mm, and fillet radius r=5mm. Find stress concentration factor. Ans: ~1.8

Stress concentration factor under axial load for rectangular plate with fillet

Stress concentration factor under axial load for rectangular plate with groove

Stress concentration factor under axial load for round bar with fillet

Gap between lines decrease with increase in r/d ratio.

Stress concentration factor for round bar with groove

Ex: Assuming 80 MPa as allowable strength of plate material, determine the plate thickness Maximum stress near fillet
fillet = 1.8
5000 300 = b 30 b
Kt=2.1

Maximum stress near hole

hole = 2.1
5000 700 = b (30 15)b

Kt=1.8

Allowable
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allowable = 80

b=8.75 mm

109

EX: Assume H=45mm, h=25mm, and fillet radius r=5mm. Find stress concentration factor. Ans: ~1.5

Stress concentration factor under bending for rectangular plate with fillet

Concentration factor for thick plate with central hole is higher compared to thin plate with same size hole.

Stress concentration factor under bending for rectangular plate with central hole

Stress concentration factor under bending for rectangular plate with groove

Decrease in Kt for r/h > 0.25 is negligible.

Stress concentration factor under bending for round bar with fillet

Stress concentration factor under bending for round bar with groove

Ex:

Assuming 100MPa as allowable stress, determine the shaft dia, d.

Due to symmetry, reaction force at each bearing = 1250 N. Stress concentration will occur at the fillet. Kt=1.6
max = 1.6 avg =
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avg =
= 100

32 M 32 (1250 350 ) = 3 d (d )3

51.2 (1250 350 )

(d )

Diameter d=41.5 mm
115

Stress concentration under torsion loading is relatively low.

Stress concentration factor under torsion for round bar with fillet

Stress concentration factor under torsion for round bar with groove

Notch Sensitivity

q=

K f 1 Kt 1

Refer slide 43, Metals can accommodate stress concentration by deforming & redistributing load more evenly. Some materials are not fully sensitive to the presence of geometrical irregularities (notch) and hence for those materials a reduced value of Kt can be used. Notch sensitivity

parameter q = 0 means stress concentration (Kf ) factor = 1; and q=1 means Kf = Kt.
118

7/24/2009

Material selection for a plate having central hole and is subjected to Tensile force
EX: A 50mm wide (b) and h mm high rectangular plate has a 5mm diameter central hole. Length of plate is equivalent to 100mm. Select a lightest but strong material which bear tensile force P = 25 kN.
Ans: Mass = (50-5) h 100 ; A = (50-5) h

P 25000 1500 = Kt = 2.7 = (b d ) h (50 5) h h 1500 or, M = 4500

d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7;

or, M = 6750

M log10 = log10 6750

1500 = = 1.89e3 h = 0.8 mm h

Mass reduction ????

Commonly available. Economic.

Stress concentration ???

7/24/2009 121

Question: Draw a free body diagram of each component of assembly shown in following figure.

L2

L1 P

Contact Stresses
Two rolling surfaces under compressive load experience contact stresses. Ball and roller bearings Cams with roller follower Spur or helical gear tooth contact
Pinion

Gear
7/24/2009 123

Contact Stresses
Compressive load elastic deformation of surfaces over a region surrounding the initial point of contact. Stresses are highly dependent on geometry of the surfaces in contact as well as loading and material properties.
7/24/2009

Stress concentration near contact region is very high. Stress concentration factor ????
124

R1 R1 R2

R2

Roller against cylindrical line of zero width. Theoretical contact patch is point of zero dimension.

b << d1 b << d 2

Contact stresses
Zero areas Infinite stress. Material will elastically deform and contact geometry will change. Deformation b will be small compared to dimensions of two bodies.

High stress concentration

7/24/2009

126

Contact stresses ..
Two special geometry cases are of practical interest and are also simpler to analyze are: sphere-on-sphere & cylinder-on-cylinder.
By varying radii of curvature of one mating surface, sphere-plane, sphere-incup, cylinder-on-plane, and cylinder-in-trough can be modeled. Radii of curvature of one element infinite to obtain a plane. Negative radii of curvature define a concave cup or concave trough surface.

R1

R1 R2

R2

Finite positive value of R1 & R2 Infinite values of R1, but finite positive value of R2. Positive value of R1, but negative value of R2.
7/24/2009 128

Spherical contact
p = pmax r 2 1 b
b 2 0 0

Total applied load on contact patch is F = p rd dr

b

Total applied load on contact patch is F = 2 pmax

0

r 2 1 r dr b

or on assuming b 2 r 2 = t 2 or or

2 pmax b 2 2 F= b r r dr b 0 2 pmax 0 F= t ( t dt ) b b 2 pmax b 3 F= 3 b 2 F = b 2 pmax 3

K t = 1.5

Cylindrical Contact
p = pmax x 2 y 2 1 b a

R1

Pressure variation along Y-axis is negligible,

p = pmax x 2 1 b
Y

R2

Z
7/24/2009

X
130

Cylindrical Contact
b

Total applied load on contact patch is F = 2 L pmax

0

x 2 1 dx b

let x = b sin or

F = 2 pmax b cos 2 d
0

F=

b L pmax

Stress concentration factor = 4/

Fspherical contact

2 = b 2 pmax 3

Fcylindrical contact =

How to determine b ???

b L pmax

How to determine b
Assume pmax = y and find value of b.
1.5 Fspherical contact b= pmax 2 Fcylindrical contact b= L pmax

Criterion b << d1 needs to be checked.

7/24/2009 132

For axi-symmetric point load Timoshenko & Goodier suggested:

= x2 + y2 + z2
G= E 2 (1 + )

F z 2 (1 ) z = + 4 G 3

1 =

F 4 E 2(1 + )
2

(1 ) 0 + x2 + y2

(1 ) F =
2 E r

Ref: S. Timoshenko and J.N.Goodier, Theory of elasticity, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill.
7/24/2009 133

Deflection of sphere 1 1 12 1 (r , ) = 2 E1 0
b 2

pmax 1 (r / b ) rd dr r
2 2

b pmax 1 (r / b ) 1 12 r dr 2 or 1 = r 2 E1 0

or 1 =

(1 ) p
2 1

E1

max

1 (r / b ) dr
2

on assuming r = b sin or or or

1 =

(1 ) p
2 1

max

E1

cos (b cos d )
0

b 1 1 = 2 E1

( ( (

2 1

)p ) )

max

(cos 2 + 1) d
0

b 1 12 sin 2 2 + pmax 1 = 2 E1 2 0 b 1 12 pmax 1 = 2 E1 2

2 2 F = b pmax 3

 b 1 12 pmax 1 = 2 E1 2
3 1 12 F 1 = 8 b E1
1 = OB OC
or, 1 = R1 OA2 AC 2 or, 1 = R1 R12 b 2
2 b or, 1 = R1 1 1 R 1

2 2 F = b pmax 3
O

1 b 2 + or, 1 = R1 1 1 negligible terms 2 R 1 2 2 1 3 b 1 b = 0 . 75 R F or, 1 = R1 1 2 E1 2 R1

C B

Example
A ball thrust bearing with 7 balls is loaded with 700N across its races through the balls. Diameter of spherical balls is 10mm. Assume load is equally shared by all balls. Determine the size of contact patch on the race. Assume Poissons ratio = 0.28 and E=207 GPa. Ans: b=118 microns. Size=2*b 1 12 b = 0.75 R1 F E1
3
7/24/2009 136

Static stress distribution in spherical contact

z3 z = pmax 1 + 2 2 1.5 b +z

z x = y = 0.5 pmax (1 + 2 ) + 2(1 + ) 2 2 b +z z = 0.5 pmax 0.5 (1 2 ) + (1 + ) 2 2 b +z

z 2 2 b +z
3

Example: A ball thrust bearing with 7 balls is loaded with 700N across its races through the balls. Diameter of spherical balls is 10mm. Assume load is equally shared by all balls, Determine the stresses developed in balls. Assume Poissons ratio = 0.28 and E=207 GPa. Ans: pmax=3.34 GPa. Maximum stress at z=0, 3.34 GPa Prob 1: What will happen if poissons ratio of one body is reduced to 0.22.

z 1.5 2 2 b +z

Prob 2: What will happen if Poissons ratio of one body is increased to 0.32 and Youngs modulus is reduced to 180 GPa.
7/24/2009

137

NOTE: All the stresses diminish to < 10% of pmax within z = 5*b.

Variation of stresses with Z.

z3 z = pmax 1 + 2 2 1.5 b +z

z x = y = 0.5 pmax (1 + 2 ) + 2(1 + ) 2 2 b +z z = 0.5 pmax 0.5 (1 2 ) + (1 + ) 2 2 b +z

z 2 2 b +z
3

z 1.5 2 2 b +z

Four equations. Eight variables. We need four inputs. Assume b = 100 m, =0.28, pmax = 2 GPa and z = 0.

Parametric variation

7/24/2009

140

7/24/2009

141

7/24/2009

142

Graphs help to find whether function is monotonic or uni-modal.

7/24/2009 143

Two spherical contacting surface

Deflection of sphere 1 b 1 12 pmax 1 = 2 E1 2

similarly Total deflection

2 b 1 2 2 = pmax 4 E2

pmax

2 1 12 1 2 + b E2 E1

) (

b2 b2 Total deflection can be presented in terms of geometric radii, = + 2 R1 2 R2 or or

2 1 12 1 2 b + E E 2 1 2 1 12 pmax 1 2 b= + 4 1 E2 1 E1 2R + 2R 2 1

b2 b2 + = pmax 2 R1 2 R2 4

) (

) (

2 2 F = b pmax 3

7/24/2009

144

or

b=

1.5 F

4 1 1 2R + 2R 2 1

b 2 (1 12 )
E1

( 1 ) +
2 2

E2

or

2 1 12 3 F 1 2 b = + 41 E2 1 E1 R + R 2 1 3

) (

z3 z = pmax 1 + 2 2 1.5 b +z

Question: Two carbon steel balls (AISI 1030 tempered at 650C), each 25 mm in diameter, are pressed together by a force F = 100N. Find the maximum value of compressive stress. Poissons ratio = 0.285, Youngs modulus = 208 GPa. Answer: 1.85 GPa.
7/24/2009 145

Question: Two balls, each 25 mm in diameter, are pressed together by a force F = 100N. Find the maximum value of compressive stress. For one material (AISI 1030 tempered at 650C ), Poissons ratio = 0.285 and Youngs modulus = 208 GPa. Other ball is made of synthetic rubber (Poissons ratio = 0.48 and Youngs modulus = 2.0 MPa)

Maximum stress is < 1.5 MPa, but b ~ 45% of ball radius.

Question: One carbon steel balls (AISI 1030 tempered at 650C), having diameter = 25, is pressed against a AISI 1030 steel flat surface by a force of F = 100N. Find the maximum value of compressive stress. Poissons ratio = 0.285, Youngs modulus = 208 GPa.

Conclusion: Increase radius of one of surface, reduces the value of maximum compressive stress.

Cylindrical Contact
p = pmax F= x 1 b
2

b L pmax 4F

2 1 12 1 2 + b= E E 1 1 1 2 L R + R 1 2

Example: An overhead crane wheel runs slowly on a steel rail. Find the size of the contact patch, and stresses? What is the depth of max shear stress? Given: Diameter of wheel and length are 150 mm and 20mm respectively. Assume radial load is 10000N. Assume Poissons ratio = 0.28 and E=207 GPa.

x max = z

max

= pmax

y max = 2 pmax max = 0.304 pmax

z@ max = 0.786 b

7/24/2009

148

Stress distribution in Cylindrical Contact

z =
pmax 1 + z 2 / b2

1+ 2 z2 2 z b 2 x = pmax 2 2 b 1+ z / b z 2 2 z b + y = 2 pmax 1 / 2 b

Problem: A 200-mm diameter cast iron (=0.26, E = 80 GPa) wheel, 55 mm wide, rolls on a flat steel (=0.29, E = 210 GPa) surface carrying a load of 10.0 kN. Find the maximum value of all stresses. Evaluate all three compressive stresses (in x-, y- and z- directions) at z = 0.2 mm below the wheel rim surface.
7/24/2009 149

Answer
2 1 12 1 2 b= + = 6.09e 4 m E E 2 L 1 R + 1 R 1 2 1 2F = 190 MPa pmax = bL

4F

x max = z

max

= pmax

y max = 2 pmax = 99 MPa max = 0.304 pmax = 57.76 MPa

7/24/2009

150

Problem
The figure shows a hip prosthesis containing a femur (ball shaped having diameter 50 mm) and cup (having diameter 54 mm). The femur is coated with 500 microns thick titanium (=0.35, E=90 GPa) material and cup is made of plastic (PEEK: =0.378, E=3.7 GPa) . Assume normal load transferred from femur to cup is 300 N. Find the maximum values of stresses.
7/24/2009 151

Failure of Machine Element

There are only two ways in which an element fails:
Obsolescence Loss of function
Ageing, wrong choice of materials

Element losses its utility due to:

Change in important dimension due to wear. Change in dimension due to yielding (distortion) Breakage (fracture). Jamming (friction)
7/24/2009

Brittle material, fatigue

152

Yielding (distortion)
Wear

Fracture

Jamming

Failure Theories

Often failure mechanisms are complicated involving effect of tension, compression, shear, 7/24/2009 and torsion. 154 bending

Failure Theories for yielding & fracture

First step towards successful design is obviating every possible failure. Failures are often associated with multiaxial stress states. On the basis of comparative study between theoretical and experimental work, few theories to predict failure have emerged. Each theory has its own strengths and shortcomings and is best suited for a particular class of material and kind of loading (static/dynamic).
7/24/2009 155

Failure of Ductile Materials under Static Loading

Distortion energy (von Mises) theory and the maximum shear stress theory agree closely with experimental data. Distortion energy theory is based on the concept of relative sliding of materials atoms within their lattice structure, caused by shear stress and accompanied by shape distortion of the element.
7/24/2009 156

Von-Mises (Distortion energy) Theory

1 Strain energy/volume U = 2 1 U = ( 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 ) 2
To avoid complexity, the principal Stresses and principal strain That act on planes of zero Shear stress have been considered.

1 ( 1 2 3 ) E 1 2 = ( 2 1 3 ) E 1 3 = ( 3 2 1 ) E

1 =

2 2 2 + + 1 1 2 3 U= 2 E 2 ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 1 3 ) U = Ud +Uh

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157

Finding Distortion Energy

2 2 2 + + 1 h h h U = 1 + + U= h 2E ( ) 2 + + h h h h h h 2 E 2 ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 1 3 ) 2 3 U = Ud +Uh U h = h [1 2 ] 2E +2 +3 h = 1 3

2 1

2 2

2 3

1 + 2 2 Ud = 1 + 2 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3 3E

]
158

7/24/2009

von-Mises Theory
1 + 2 Ud = Sy 3E 1 + 2 1 +
3E Sy = Sy =

Ud =

3E

2 1

2 +2 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3

2 1

2 +2 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3

If we consider factor of safety Sy N

2 1

2 +2 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3

]
159

7/24/2009

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca Theory)

Evaluate maximum shear stress Compare with shear strength of material (Sys) If we consider factor of safety (N) then compare with (Sys/N)
7/24/2009

max =

1 3
2

How to find principal stresses and estimate factor of safety.

160

Principal Stresses

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161

Principal Stresses
F = 0

= ( x cos 2 ) + ( y sin 2 ) + ( xy sin cos ) + ( yx sin cos )

= x

A = ( x cos )( A cos ) + ( y sin )( A sin ) + ( xy sin )( A cos ) + ( yx cos )( A sin )

= ( xy cos 2 )
x y sin 2 2

cos 2 + 1 1 cos 2 + y + ( xy sin 2 ) 2 2 x y ( ) 0 cos 2 sin 2 = xy x + y x y 2 ( ) = + cos 2 + sin 2 xy 2 2 2 xy tan 2 = x y

7/24/2009 162

Principal Stresses
x + y x y = 2 + 2 cos 2 + ( xy sin 2 )

tan 2 =

2 xy

x y

x + y = 2

2 2 ) ( ) 2 + x y xy 2

1, 2 =

2 + x y x y

+ ( xy )

Similarly we can find 3. In practice 1 , 2 , and 3 are arranged in descending order of magnitude.

Factor of Safety
FOS is a ratio of two quantities that have same units:
Strength/stress Critical load/applied load Load to fail part/expected service load Maximum cycles/applied cycles Maximum safe speed/operating speed.

NOTE: FOS is deterministic. Often data are statistical and there is a need to use Probabilistic approach.
7/24/2009 164

Variation in Material Strength (MPa)

Material Range (AISI, rolled) 1080 865 - 975 1095 1030 1040 1050 1060
7/24/2009

Mean 920 967.5 522.5 627.5 725.0 812.5

St. Deviation 18.33 34.17 19.17 20.83 25.00 29.17

165

865 - 1070 495 - 610 565 - 690 650 - 800 725 - 900

Probability density function

Ex: Measured ultimate tensile strength data of nine specimen are: 433 MPa, 444, 454, 457, 470, 476, 481, 493, and 510 MPa. Find the values of mean, std. dev., and coefficient of variation. Assuming normal distribution find the probability density function.

s = 468.67 MPa s = 24.34 MPa

Coeff. of variation = CS = 1 f (S ) = e 24.34 2
+

s = 0.05194 s
2

1 S 468.67 2 24.34

f (S ) dS = 1

4.59,4.34,4.5796,4.50, 4.582,4.58474.5948

2 2 d i ( d i ) / N d = N 1

EX. NOMINAL SHAFT DIA. NUMBER OF SPECIMEN

d d

4.5mm 34 4.58mm 0.0097

6 4.5294 0.0987

1 2 f (d ) = e d 2

1 di d d

Conclusion: Variation in stress level occurs due to variation in geometric dimensions.

167

7/24/2009

Ex: Consider a structural member( s = 40 , s ) subjected to a static load that develops a stress ( = 30 , ). Find the reliability of member.
NOTE: Reliability is probability that machine element will perform intended function satisfactorily.

Deterministic FOS = 40/30. 100% reliability.

Q = 40 30 = 10 Q = 6 2 + 82 = 10
Q =10 ,Q =10
7/24/2009

= 30 s = 40 = 8 s = 6
168

ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

MEAN

STD. DEVIATION

Q=C Q = Cx Q=C+x Q = x y Q = xy Q=x y Q =1 x

7/24/2009

C Cx C + x

0 C x

x x2 + y2
2 y x 2 + x2 y 2 2 2 y x 2 + x2 y 2 y

x y x y x y
1 x

x x2
169

Margin Q = S

Q =10 ,Q =10

= 30 s = 40 = 8 s = 6

Probabilit y of failure Pf = P (Q < 0 ) Reliabilit y R = 1 Pf

2

f (Q ) =
7/24/2009

Q 2

Q Q 1 2 Q

Let normal variable Q Q Z =

170

Z = R=

Q Q

Q
1 2
+

Z0

1 Z2 2

1 F= 2 dZ

z0 1 z 2 e 2 dZ

Q where Z 0 = Q

Q = 10 Q = 10

at Q = 0 0 10 Z0 = = 1 10

Z-Table provides probability of failure

In the present case Probability of failure is 0.1587 & reliability is .8413.

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172

7/24/2009

173

Comparison
FOS equivalent to 1.33 is insufficient for the present design, therefore there is a need to increase this factor. Selecting stronger material (mean value of strength = 50 units!!!!)

7/24/2009

174

Ex : Strength and Stress of a tensile bar are : S y = (270, 32 ) MPa &

= (184,15) MPa

Reliability of design R

2.43 = 1

1 z2 2 e dz 2

R = 1-0.0075 ????

Ref: Probabilistic Mechanical Design, Edward B. Haugen, 1980.

Prob: A steel bar is subjected to compressive load. Statistics of load are (6500, 420) N. Statistics of area are (0.64, 0.06) m2. Estimate the statistics of stress. Ans: (10156, 1156.4) Pa.
7/24/2009 175

Ex: A round 1018 steel rod having yield strength (540, 40) MPa is subjected to tensile load (220, 18) kN. Determine the diameter of rod reliability of 0.999 (z = -3.09).

Given s = 540 MPa ; s = 40 MPa 220000 18000 = MPa ; = MPa 2 2 /4d /4d
Z = Q Q

;R=

1 2

Z0

1 Z2 2

dZ

880000 Q = 540 d2 72000 Q = 40 + d2

2 2

Q where Z 0 = Q
2 2

72000 880000 3.09 40 + d2 = 540 d 2

7/24/2009

d = 26 mm
176

Example: Stress developed in a machine element is given by:

= P / 4kd 3

)(

2 4 L1 + 3L2 2

Given P = (1500, 50) N, Strength = (129, 3) MPa, L1=(150, 3) mm, L2=(100, 2) mm. Assume std. dev. of d is 1.5% mean value of d. k = 0.003811. Determine distribution of d if the maximum probability of machine-element-failure is 0.001

2 Standard deviation of a complex function is expressed by : = in=1 x xi i

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = P + d + L2 L1 + L L P d 2 1 1/ 2

Statistically independent
1/ 2

2 2 2 22724 2 2 e 13635 4 170430 85216 2 2 2 = (0.002 ) 3 (0.003) + 3 0.015 d + 4 (50 ) + 3 d d d d 1 = 3 [1.291e12 + 41830 + 261420 + 29047]1/ 2

1136200
3 d

3 ) 4 L21 + 3 L22 = ( P / 4k d

)
)
2

34087000
3 d

Z = 3.09 =

3 0 129e6 34087000 d

1136200 2 3e6 + 3 d
2

1136.2 11031 (3000) + 41748 3 = 3 d d d = 0.06686 m

2

d = 0.001 m
Calculating FOS = Strength/stress FOS =129/114=1.13

(diameter = 6 mm), which is made of steel (yield strength = 300 MPa). Assume plate is rigidly mounted (deflection of plate is negligible). Estimate the safety of plate.

Question: Estimate all the stress at point A of L shape rod

Plate

L shape rod
7/24/2009 179

made of steel (yield strength = 300 10 MPa). Assume plate is rigidly mounted (deflection of plate is negligible), standard deviation of load components is 5% of mean values, standard deviation in dimensions is 0.1% of mean values, and expected reliability of rod is 99%.

Question: Determine the diameter of L shape rod, which is

Plate

7/24/2009

L shape rod

180

Failure Theories for Brittle material under Static loading

Brittle material fracture rather than yield. Fracture in tension is due to normal tensile stress.
Shear strength of brittle material can be greater than their tensile strength, falling between their compressive and tensile values.

Conclusion: Different failure modes are due to

the difference in relative shear and tensile strengths between the ductile and brittle materials.

7/24/2009

181

Maximum Normal Stress Theory

Sut 1 N
Maximum tensile stress Ultimate tensile strength. Often referred as tensile strength.

Factor of safety

Suc 3 N
7/24/2009 182

Compressive & Tensile Strength

Material Alumina Aluminium Nitride Boron Carbide Boron Nitride Silicon Silicon Nitride High Si Cast iron Tool steel 7/24/2009 Compressive
(GPa)

Tensile
(MPa)

1.667 2.183 5.158 0.397 3.2 7.93 0.58 1.68

128 218 515 40 165 476 90 1920

183

Coulomb Mohr theory

Tensile

Compressive 0

Tensile

Compressive

Coulomb Mohr Theory

Sut 1 if 1 > 2 > 3 > 0 N Suc 3 if 0 > 1 > 2 > 3 N
1 Sut Suc N
7/24/2009

if 1 > 0 > 3
185

Ex: A round cantilever bar made of brittle material experience torsion applied to the free end. Assume that the compressive strength is twice the tensile strength. Express failure stress in terms of strength.

Given : Bar is subjected to torsional stress ( i ). 1 = i and 3 = i

as 1 > 0 > 3 or
7/24/2009

i
S ut

( i )
2 Sut

1 S ut Suc N 1 N
2 Sut i 3 N
186

Tolerances

Inaccuracies of Manufacturing methods

Machine elements are manufactured / fabricated with some tolerance on their basic (normal size, i.e. 20mm) dimensions.
Tolerance: permissible variation in the dimensions of a component. Tolerance: Unilateral or bilateral. +0.04 0.00 +0.04

20

0.00

20

0.04

20

0.02

20

0.03
187

7/24/2009

d = 20 ; d = 0.01

Fits
Careful decision on tolerance is important for assembling two components.
Relationship resulting from the difference between sizes of components before assembly is called a Fit. Clearance fit: positive gap between hole and shaft. Relative movement is possible. Interference fit: Negative gap. Relative movement is restricted. Transition fit: border case. Either a clearance or interference fit, depending upon actual values of dimensions of mating components.
7/24/2009 188

Prob : A bearing (20 assembled. Calculate :

+0.013 0.000

) and a crank - pin (20

0.040 0.061

) are

Known as 20H6-e7

Maximum and minimum diameters of the crank-pin and bearing. Maximum and minimum clearance between crank-pin and bearing.

19.939

19.96

20.00 20.013

Prob : A valve (20 Calculate :

+0.048 + 0.035

) is inserted in a housing (20

Known as 20H7-s6

+0.021 0.000

).

Maximum and minimum diameters of the valve seat and housing-hole. Maximum and minimum interference between the seat and its housing.

20.00 20.021 20.035 20.048

7/24/2009 190

B.I.S. (Bureau of Indian Standards) System of Tolerances

As per B.I.S. tolerance is specified by two parts (i.e. H6, e7). :
Fundamental deviation: Location of
tolerance zone w. r. t. Zero line. Represented by an alphabet (capital or small). Capital letters describe tolerances on hole, while small letters describe tolerance on shaft.

Magnitude: by a number, often called grade.

There are eighteen grades of tolerance with designations IT1, IT2,, IT 18. IT is acronym of International Tolerance.

7/24/2009

191

H6-e7

j g H7-s6 e c a

Letter Symbols for Tolerances

7/24/2009

193

7/24/2009

194

Basic series k
0-3 3-6 6-10 10-14 14-18 18-24 24-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 140-160 160-180 180-200 200-225 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4

n
4 8 10 12 12 15 15 17 17 20 20 23 23 27 27 27 31 31

p
6 12 15 18 18 22 22 26 26 32 32 37 37 43 43 43 50 50

s
14 19 23 28 28 35 35 43 43 53 59 71 79 92 100 108 122 130

u
18 23 28 33 33 41 48 60 70 87 102 124 144 170 190 210 236 258

Nominal Sizes (mm)

over inc. IT Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 3 3 6 6 10 10 18 18 30 30 50 50 80 80 120 120 180 180 250 250 315

0.8 1.2 2 3 4 6 10 14 25 40 60 100 140

7/24/2009

1 1.5 2.5 4 5 8 12 18 30 48 75 120 180 300

1 1.5 2.5 4 6 9 15 22 36 58 90 150 220 360

1.2 2 3 5 8 11 18 27 43 70 110 180 270 430

1.5 2.5 4 6 9 13 21 33 52 84 130 210 330 520

1.5 2.5 4 7 11 16 25 39 62 100 160 250 390 620

2 3 5 8 13 19 30 46 74 120 190 300 460 740

2.5 4 6 10 15 22 35 54 87 140 220 350 540 870

3.5 5 8 12 18 25 40 63 100 160 250 400 630 1000

4.5 7 10 14 20 29 46 72 115 185 290 460 720 1150

6 8 12 16 23 32 52 81 130 210 320 520 810

196

250

1300

IT Grade Lapping Honing Super finishing Cylindrical grinding Diamond turning Plan grinding Broaching Reaming Boring, Turning Sawing Milling Planning, Shaping Extruding Cold Rolling, Drawing Drilling Die Casting Forging Sand Casting Hot rolling, Flame cutting

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Examples
Hole 110H11 Minimum = 110mm + 0mm = 110.000mm ... Maximum = 110mm + (0+0.220) = 110.220mm Resulting limits 110.000/110.220 Tolerance of hub, tlh=220m Shaft 110e9... Maximum = 110mm 0.072=109.928mm... Minimum = 110mm - (0.072 +0.087) = 109.841mm Resulting limits 109.841/ 109.928 Tolerance of shaft, tls=87m
7/24/2009 198

Examples 34H11/c11
Hole 34H11 Minimum = 34mm + 0mm = 34.000mm ... Maximum = 34mm + (0+0.160) = 34.160mm Resulting limits 34.000/34.160 Tolerance of hub, tlh=160m Shaft 34c11... Maximum = 34mm 0.120=33.880mm... Minimum = 34mm - (0.120 +0.160) = 33.720mm Resulting limits 33.880/ 33.720 Tolerance of shaft, tls=160 m
7/24/2009 199

Examples:
Clearance Fit: In hydrodynamic bearings a critical design parameter is radial clearance between shaft and bearing. Typical value is 0.1% of shaft radius. Tolerances cause additional or smaller clearance. Too small a clearance could cause failure; too large a clearance would reduce load capacity. Interference Fit: Rolling-element bearings are generally designed to be installed on a shaft with an interference fit. Slightly higher interference would require significant force to press bearing on shaft, thus imposing significant stresses on both the shaft and the bearing.
7/24/2009 200


Effect of clearance on load 700 600 500 Load 400 300 200 100 0
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1 Load 2 Cr

10

201

0.001 R * Factor

Interference Fit
Wringing

Utilized to minimize the need for keyways.

=0.00 mm

Require light pressure. Suitable for stationary parts Suitable for low speed and light duty joints Considerable pressure is required to assemble /disassemble joints. Semi-permanent joint

Light

=0.00025d mm

Medium

=0.0005d mm

Heavy

=0.001d mm
For 20mm shaft dia, interference = 20 microns

Press Fit

Baseline

rs

rs

Pressure pf is caused by interference between shaft & hub. Pressure increases radius of hole and decreases radius of shaft.
pf

rh
rf

rh

rf

rf
pf
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rf

203

Circumferential strain =

(r + r )d r d = r = ( r )
r d r E

Radial strain r =

r +

r dr r ( ) r = r = r dr E r

d Force balance = ( r + d r )(r + dr ) d dz r rd dz 2 sin dr dz = 0 2

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d ( r + d r )(r + dr ) d dz r rd dz 2 sin dr dz = 0 2 d r rearranging r d dz + r d dz d dz = 0 dr d r or = r + r dr

r E r ( r ) = E r

( r )

d r r r + r r dr = r E d r r r r r dr = E r

d 2 r r + r 1 d r r dr 2 = r + r r + r E dr d r E d r 2 dr dr

d r d 2 (r r ) 2 + =0 2 dr dr

d r d 2 r 3 +r =0 2 dr dr

d r d 2 (r r ) 2 + =0 2 dr dr
r 2 r r + C1 + C2 = 0 2 C1 C2 r + + 2 = 0 2 r
2

d (r r ) 2 r + + C1 = 0 dr
d r2 r + C1 r = 0 dr

Two conditions are required to express radial stress in terms of radius.

r = pi at r = ri r = po at r = ro

C1 C2 + 2 = pi 2 ri C1 C2 + 2 = po 2 ro

pi ri 2 po ro2 + (ri ro r ) ( po pi ) Radial stress r = ro2 ri 2

2

rf

pi ri 2 po ro2 (ri ro r ) ( po pi ) Circumferential stress = ro2 ri 2

2

CASE I: Internally Pressurized (Hub)Circumferential stress = Radial stress r = p f r f2 1 + (ro r ) ro2

p f r f2 1 (ro r )2 ro2 r f2

r f2

,max =

p f r f2 + ro2 ro2 r f2

r ,max = p f

Circumferential strain =

rh
rf

( h r ) =
E

,max

rh p f rf2 + ro2 = + h = 2 2 r E f ro rf

CASE II: Externally Pressurized (shaft)Circumferential stress = 1+ r r p f r f2 2 i 2 r f ri

)2

,max =

p f r f2

2 ( ) r r 1 Radial stress r = p f r f2 2 i 2 r f ri

2 2 2 r f ri

r ,max = p f

rf

Circumferential strain =

rs
rf

( s r )
E

,max

r p f ri2 + r f2 = s = s 2 2 rf Es r r f i

Total interference r = rh rs
2 2 ro2 + r f2 r r + h s i f or r = r f p f + + 2 2 2 2 Eh Es r f ri Es Eh ro r f

r f p f ro2 + r f2 ri2 + r f2 If hub and shaft are made of same materials : r = 2 2 + 2 2 E r f ri ro r f r f p f 2 ro2 If shaft is solid : r = 2 2 E ANS: pf =73 MPa ro r f

Ex: A wheel hub is press fitted on a 105 mm diameter solid shaft. The hub and shaft material is AISI 1080 steel (E = 207 GPa). The hubs outer diameter is 160mm. The radial interference between shaft and hub is 65 microns. Determine the pressure exercised on the interface of shaft and wheel hub.

) (

Through interference fit torque can be transmitted, which can be estimated with a simple friction analysis at the interface.

F f = N = ( p f A) Ff = ( p f d f L) Torque T =

= coefficient of friction

pf d2 L

Abrasion

Adhesion

C.A.Coulomb 1781
1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction 2)Contact at discrete points. 3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces

4)No adhesion 5)f func(v)

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PLOUGHING Effect
Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact with flat soft metal, vertically project area of contact:

A = n 0.5 * r

W = n(0.5 * r ) H
2

F = (nrh) H
212

cot

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 For = 45 For = 60 For = 80

= 0.6366 = 0.3676 = 0.1123

Slope of real surfaces are nearly always less than 10 (i.e. > 80), therefore < 0.1.

ADHESION Theory

Two surfaces are pressed together under load W. They deformed until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support load W. A = W/H. To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength of junctions with force F F=As

Shear stress of softer of contacting materials

W = Areal H

F = Areal s

s H

For most of materials H = 3y & s = y /1.7

Expected value of =.2 Metals on it self Gold 2 Silver 1 Copper 1 Chromium 0.4 Lead 1.5
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On steel (0.13%C) Silver 0.5 Copper 0.8 Indium 2.0 Lead 1.2
215

Junction Growth

Constant

F A ????

Limiting Junction Growth

Presence of weak interfacial films. Assume shear stress, i.
Average shear strength

Fmax = i Amax
Fmax i Amax = 2 2 W ( y 4 i2 ) Amax

i
2 2 ( y i2 )

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218

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219

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220

Rankine published Causes of unexpected breakage of railway axles in 1843, postulating that materials experience brittleness under fluctuating stresses.

Fatigue Failure
Fatigue failure looks brittle even in ductile metals. Parts often fail at stresses well below the ultimate strength of mat.
High factor of safety.
Aloha Airlines flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, lost about 1/3 of its cabin top while in flight at 8.5 km. This failure, which happened in 1988, was caused by corrosion assisted fatigue.
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 Machine elements subject to time

varying repeated loading
2 min a = max 2 Ex: A particular fiber on surface of shaft subjected to bending loads undergoes both tension & compression for each revolution of shaft. If shaft is part of electric motor rotating at 1440 rpm, the fiber is stressed in tension & compression 1440 times each minute.

m =

max + min

Stresses repeat a large number of times, hence failure is named as Fatigue failure.

Fatigue Failure
Fatigue is a concern whenever cyclic/fluctuating loading is present. Loading may be axial (tensile or compressive), flexural (bending) or torsional. Appearance similar to brittle fracture Damage accumulating phenomenon (progressive fracture).
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Beach marks highlight advances

of a fatigue crack (s)

Crack initiation Crack growth Fracture

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224

 Crack initiation, propagation, and fracture.

Fast
Fracture

Crack growth

CI: Crack initiation CG: Crack growth FF: Final fracture

Crack initiation

CG FF

Normal Element
Relative time

CI

CG FF

Faulty (stress raisers, material defects) Element

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226

Normal element Life 32,000 Hours Removed before final fracture

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Faulty element Life 100 hours Unexpected final fracture

227

 Low nominal stress results in a high ratio of fatigue zone to FF zone High nominal stress is indicated by low ratio of fatigue zone to FF
7/24/2009 228

Fatigue Regimes
Low cycle fatigue ( 103 cycles)
Latches on automobile glove compartment Studs on truck wheels

Sl = 0.9 Sut

bending ; Sl = 0.75 Sut axial

Since static design often uses Yield strength (< Sut) in defining allowable stresses, therefore static approaches are acceptable for designing low cycle component.

High cycle fatigue (> 103 cycles)

Car door hinges
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Aircraft body panels

229

Dimensions in inches

Fatigue Strength
Measured by testing idealized (R. R. Moore) standard specimen on rotating beam machine.
Highly polished surface. If specimen breaks into two equal halves, test is indicative of mat. Fatigue strength. Otherwise, it is indicative that material or surface flaw has skewed results. Test specimen is subjected to completely reversed bending stress cycling at 66% Sut and cycles to fatigue are counted. Procedure is repeated on other identical specimens subjected to progressively decreasing stress amplitude.
7/24/2009 230

Strength - Cycles

German engineer

S-N (Wohler) diagram

Plot of fatigue strength (S) vs logarithm of number of cycles (N)
Indicate whether material has endurance limit (possibility of infinite life) or not.

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231

) Endurance Limit ( Se
For Steel = 0.5 Sut bending Se = 0.45Sut Axial Se = 0.29 Sut Torsion Se
NOTE: It is always good engineering practice to conduct a testing program on materials to be employed in design.

= 0.35 Sut Magnesium alloys (108 cycles) S e Copper alloys (108 cycles) Nickel alloys (108 cycles) Titanium alloys (107 cycles) = 0.38 Sut Se = 0.42 Sut Se = 0.55 Sut Se

= 0.45 Sut Aluminum alloys (5 *108 cycles) S e

232

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Fatigue strength S f can be expressed by log S f = k1 log N + k 2

Fatigue strength

Number of cycles to failure, N

Example: The ultimate tensile strength of an axially loaded steel member is 1080 MPa. Find out fatigue strength as a function of number of cycles (103<N<106). Slide 229
3 Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycle

3 3 log Sl = k1 log 10 + k 2 log(0.75 Sut ) = k1 log 10 + k 2 6 Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycle

( )

( )

6 6 log Sl = k1 log 10 + k 2 log(0.45 Sut ) = k1 log 10 + k 2

( )

( )

Slide 232
K1=-0.07395
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k2=3.13

(stress in MPa)
234

Design factors

Endurance limit modification factors

Endurance limit is measured under best circumstances, which cannot be guaranteed for design applications.
Components endurance limit must be modified or reduced from materials best-case endurance limit.
Stress concentration factor, surface finish factor, size factor, reliability factor, temperature factor, etc.
7/24/2009 235

Reliability Factor
Reliability factor obtained from Table can be considered only as a guide (academic) because actual distribution varies from one material to other. For practical applications, originally determined data are required.
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Probability of survival, % 50 90 95 99 99.9 99.99 99.999 99.9999

Reliability factor, kr 1.0 0.897 0.868 0.814 0.753 0.702 0.659 0.620

236

Surface Finish Factor

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237

Surface Finish Factor

Finishing method
Ground Machined or cold drawn Hot rolled Forged

K finish = a(Sut in MPa )

Constant a Exponent b
1.58 4.51 57.7 272 -0.085 -0.265 -0.718 -0.995

Ex: A steel has Sut = 520 MPa. Estimate Kfinish for a machined surface. ANS: 0.86
7/24/2009 238

Temperature Factor
Temperature Ktemp 20C 50C 100C 150C 200C 250C 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.025 1.02 1.0 Temperature Ktemp 300C 350C 400C 450C 500C 550C 0.975 0.943 0.900 0.843 0.768 0.672

NOTE: Initially increase in temperature causes the redistribution of stress-strain profiles at notches or stress concentration features, hence increases the fatigue strength.
7/24/2009 239

Stress Concentration Factor

SCF is slightly lesser than SCF under static loading.
Many mat. Relieve stress near a crack tip through plastic flow.

To avoid complexity in the present course assume, SCF under fatigue loading = SCF under static loading.

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240

Size factor, Ksize

K size 1.24 d 0.107 = 0.157 1 . 51 d 2.79 d 51 mm 51 < d 254 mm
Applicable only for cylindrical components.

NOTE: A 7.5mm diameter beam specimen is used for testing fatigue strength. Larger the machine part, greater is the probability that a flaw exit somewhere in larger volume. Fatigue failure tendency Necessary to define effective diameter based on equivalent circular cross section for components having non-circular cross-section.
7/24/2009 241

Effective dimension is obtained by equating the volume of material stressed at and above 95% of maximum stress to the same volume in the rotating beam specimen. Lengths will cancel out, so only areas are considered. For a rotating round section, the 95% stress area is the area in a ring having outside diameter d and inside diameter of 0.95, so

Effective diameter for nonrotating cross sections

A0.95 =

[ d 4

(0.95d )2 = 0.0766 d 2

Example: A hot rolled steel plate (Sut=400 MPa) at room temperature is subjected to completely reversed axial load of 30 kN. Assume size factor and expected reliability as 0.85 and 95% respectively. Determine the thickness of plate for infinite life.
STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of mat.

30 kN

= 0.45Sut Se = 0.45 400 Se = 180 MPa Se

For Steel = 0.5 Sut bending Se = 0.45Sut Axial Se = 0.29 Sut Torsion Se

50

30 kN
7/24/2009 243

STEP 2: Estimate endurance limit of plate. Find modification (i.e reliability, finish, temp., stress concentration and size) factors.

Probability of survival, % 50 90 95
b

Reliability factor, kr 1.0 0.897 0.868

Surface Finish Factor Finishing method Hot rolled

K finish = a(Sut in MPa )

Constant a 57.7

Exponent b -0.718

0.868

0.78

Corrected S'e includingreliabilit y and finishfactors = 180 0.868 0.78 MPa Se = 121.9 MPa Se

Temperature Factor

Temperature Ktemp

20C

1.00

Corrected S'e includingreliabilit y , finish,temperatu re andsizefactors = 121.9 1 0.85 MPa Se = 103.6 MPa Se

Stress concentration factor

2.5 1/2.5 =0.4

Corrected S'e includingreliabilit y , finish,temperatu re, sizeand stressconcentrat ion factors = 103.6 0.4 MPa Se = 41.5 MPa Se
Thickness > 18.1 mm
5

30 kN

50

30 kN

Example: A rod of steel (Sut=600 MPa) at room temperature is subjected to reversed axial load of 100 kN. The rod is machined on lathe and expected reliability is 95%. There is no stress concentration. Determine the diameter of rod for an infinite life. STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of mat. 0.45*600 = 270 MPa. STEP 2: Estimate endurance limit of plate. Find modification (i.e reliability, finish, temp., stress concentration and size) factors.
0.868, 0.77, 1, 1, 1.24 d-0.107

ANS: Diameter > 30 mm

Example: A rotating bar made of steel (Sut=600 MPa) is subjected to a completely reversed bending stress. The corrected endurance limit of component is 300 MPa. Calculate the fatigue strength of bar for a life of 80,000 rotations.

Fatigue strength S f can be expressed by log S f = k1 log N + k 2

log S f = ( 0.0851) log N + 2.9877 S f = 372 MPa

( ) log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k

log(300 ) = k1 log 106 + k 2
1 3

NOTE: We can state that at stress value = 372 MPa, life of bar is 80,000 rotations.

Question: Ultimate tensile strength of a bolt, subjected to axial tensile loading, is 1080 MPa. A 20% decrease in its stress would increase its life by 50000 cycles. Determine the bolt-life.
log(S f ) log(0.8 * S f ) = k1 * [log(N ) log(N + 50000 )] Sf N = k1 * log log 0.8 * S N + 50000 f N log(0.8) = log k1 N 50000 +

Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Suppose a machine part is subjected to:
Fully reversed stress 1 for n1 cycles. Fully reversed stress 2 for n2 cycles. Fully reversed stress 3 for n3 cycles.

ni =1 Ni where n i = cycles at stress i N i = cycles to fail at stress i

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Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Palmgren-Miner cycle ratio summation rule.. Miners rule

1 N

ni 1 N = N i

where N = Total life in cycles

if 1 , 2 ,... are proportions of the total fatigue 1 N = N i
251

ni N 1 = N N i
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life (N)

Example: A component is made of steel having ultimate strength of 600 MPa and endurance limit of 300 MPa. Component is subjected to completely reversed bending stresses of: 350 MPa for 75% of time; 400 MPa for 15% of time; 500 MPa for 10% of time; Determine the life of the component.

N1 = 163333 N 2 = 34010 N 3 = 2471

log(300 ) = k1 log 106 + k 2

1 3

( ) log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k

ANS: 20214 cycles

log S f = ( 0.0851) log N + 2.9877

.75 .15 .10 1 + + = 163333 34010 2471 N

 Question: A component is made of AISI 1008 cold drawn steel. Assume there is no stress concentration, size factor = 0.87, and expected reliability is 99%. The component at temperature of 100C is subjected to completely reversed bending stress of:

140 MPa for 60% life 180 MPa for 25% life 200 MPa for 15% life

Determine the life of component.

ANS: Sut=340MPa. Determine Ktemp=1.02 Kfinish=0.9624 and Kr=0.814.

Corrected endurance strength for 103 cycles = 212.7 MPa Corrected endurance strength for 106 cycles = 118.2 MPa

Refer slide no. 233 to express Fatigue strength S f log S f = k1 log N + k 2 Using calculated strengths for 10 and 10 k1 = 0.0851 & k 2 = 2.583
Using fatigue strength equation: N1 cycles to fail component at stress 140 MPa = 136200 N2 cycles to fail component at stress 180 MPa = 7104 N3 cycles to fail component at stress 200 MPa = 2059 Using Palmgren Miner rule (refer slide 246) Life of component, N = 8893 cycles
3 6

Fatigue strength depends on

Type of loading Size of component Surface finish Stress concentration Temperature Required reliability

NOTE: Factor of safety depends on the mean and alternating applied stresses and fatigue and yield/ultimate strengths 7/24/2009 255

Axial loading
Difficult to apply axial loads without some eccentricity bending & axial. Whole critical region is subject to the same maximum stress level.
Therefore, it would be expected that the fatigue strength for axial loading would be less than rotating bending.

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256

Fluctuating Stresses

Fatigue failure criteria for fluctuating stresses ???

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Fatigue failure criteria for fluctuating stresses

When alternating stress =0, load is purely static. Criterion of failure will be Syt or Sut. When mean stress=0, stress is completely reversing. Criterion of failure will be endurance limit. When component is subjected to mean as well alternating stress, different criterions are available to construct borderline dividing safe zone and failure zone.
a
m =1 + S e Sut
2

a
Se

m
S yt

=1
258

7/24/2009 Remark : Gerber parabola fits failure points of test data. Soderberg line is conservative.

Goodman line Failure criterion

Widely used, because
points of test data, therefore it is safe. Equation of straight line is simple compared to equation of parabola.
It is completely inside failure
Syt Se A a B O m

m
Sut

a
Se

=1

a = m =

a tan = =r m
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r Sut S e r Sut + S e

a
r

C Syt Sut
259

m
Sut

+ +

a
Se

=1 =1

m =

Sut S y S e Sut S e

)
Syt Se A

Modified Goodman line

Area OABC represents region of safety.
B m

m
Sy

a
Sy

a = Sy m tan = a m

Example: A cantilever beam is made of steel having Sut=600 MPa, Syt =350 a MPa and Se =130 MPa. The moment acting on beam varies from 5 N.m to 15 N.m. Determine the diameter of the O beam.

C Syt Sut

m
Sut

a
Se

=1

a = m =

a tan = =r m

r Sut S e r Sut + S e

Moment range M a = 0.5 * [15 (5)] M a = 10 N.m M m = 5 N.m tan = 10 r=2 5 Moment mean M m = 0.5 * [15 + (5)]

a
r

a = 117.3 MPa
d = 9.54 mm

For diameter d 9.54, a < 130 MPa & m < 350 MPa

Design is safe

Ex: A cylindrical bar is subjected to 0 to 70 kN tensile load. Assume UTS = 690 MPa, YS = 580 MPa, and EL = 234 MPa. Assume stress concentration factor as 1.85. Find diameter of bar.
m
Sut +

a
Se

=1

a = m =

a tan = =r m
Fa = 35 kN

r Sut S e r Sut + S e

a
r

Load range Fa = 0.5 * [70 0]kN Force mean Fm = 0.5 * [70 + 0] tan = 35 r =1 35
262

Fm = 35 kN

7/24/2009

Ex: A cylindrical bar (dia = 40 mm) is subjected to 0 to 70 kN tensile load. Assume UTS = 690 MPa, YS = 580 MPa, and EL = 234 MPa. Assume stress concentration factor as 1.85. Find FOS.

m
Sut

a
Se

=1

a = m =

a tan = =r m
Fa = 35 kN

r Sut S e r Sut + S e

a
r

Load range Fa = 0.5 * [70 0]kN Force mean Fm = 0.5 * [70 + 0] tan = 35 r =1 35
263

Fm = 35 kN

7/24/2009

Griffith 1921

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) Method

Assumption: Cracks exist in parts even before service begins. Energy release rate is energy required rate Focus: Predict crack growth and remove parts from service before crack reaches its critical length.

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264

Modes of Crack Displacement

Figure Three modes of crack displacement. (a) Mode I, opening; (b) mode II, sliding; (c) mode III, tearing.
Mode I is the most common & important mode.
7/24/2009

Stress intensity factor depends on geometry, crack size, type of loading & stress level. 265

Design for Finite/Infinite Life

Fatigue / Wear
Attempt to keep local stresses -crack initiation stage never comes. Pre-existing voids or inclusions. Tensile stress opens crack (growth), while compressive closes (sharpen) it.
7/24/2009 266

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method..

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267

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method..

A 2a d 2b

7/24/2009 268

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method..

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269

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method..

Life Prediction
Paris equation (for region II)
da n = A(K ) dN
Nc

A & n are mat. constants

Ni

dN =
ai

ac

da n A(K )
a

da 1 c Nc Ni = A ai n a n / 2

Nc Ni =

( (

ac

) )

da n/2 a ai a
ac n +1 2 ai

Nc Ni =

( n / 2 + 1)

K c = ( max min ) ac
Fracture toughness
Austenitic cast iron, flakes Austenitic cast iron, nodular High silicon cast iron Carbon steel, AISI 1080 Low Alloy steel, AISI 3140 Cast Austenitic SS Tin based babbit Alumina Silicon carbide
7/24/2009

21 MPa.m^0.5 22 MPa.m^0.5 9 MPa.m^0.5 49 MPa.m^0.5 77 MPa.m^0.5 132 MPa.m^0.5 15 MPa.m^0.5 3.3 MPa.m^0.5 2.3 MPa.m^0.5
272

Ex: Aluminum alloy square plate (width= 25mm), having internal crack of size 0.125 mm at center, is subjected to repeatedly tensile stress of 130 MPa. Crack growth rate is 2.54 microns/cycle at stress intensity range = 22 MPa(m)0.5. Crack growth rate at stress intensity range = 3.3 MPa(m)0.5 is 25.4 nm/cycle. How many cycles are required to increase the crack size to 7.5mm?

Given

2b = 25 mm 2h = 25 mm 2a = 0.125 mm

da n = A(K ) dN

A & n are mat. constants

2.54e-6/2.54e-8 = (22/3.3)^n Or n = log10(100)/log10(22/3.3) 7/24/2009 n=2.4275.

273

Nc Ni =

ac n +1 2 ai

( n / 2 + 1)

ANS: 24500 cycles.

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274

Question:

A rectangular cross-section bar (width 6mm, depth = 12 mm) is subject to a repeated moment 0 M135 N.m. Ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, fracture toughness, constant A and c are equal to 1.28 GPa, 1.17 GPa, 81 MPa.m^0.5, 114e-15, and 3.0 respectively. Assume =1 and initial crack size is 0.1 mm. Estimate the residual life of bar in cycles.

M = = 937.5 MPa I/y

Nc Ni =

K c = ( max min ) ac
7/24/2009

The maximum tensile stress is below the yield strength, therefore bar will not fail under static moment. We need to find the size of critical crack size using value of stress range and fracture toughness.

ac n +1 2 ai

( n / 2 + 1)

ac = 0.0024 m

275

 Death of machine inevitable.

Design considering yielding & fracture

Reference: Professor E. Rabinowicz, M.I.T

7/24/2009 276

Adhesive (frictional) wear

Mechanical interaction at real area of contact

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277

Laws of Adhesive Wear

Wear Volume proportional to sliding distance (L)

True for wide range of conditions

Wear Volume proportional to the load (N)

Dramatic increase beyond critical load

Wear Volume inversely proportional to hardness of softer material

k1 NL V= 3H

Transition from mild wear to severe depends on relative speed, atmosphere, and temperature.

Approach followed by M. F. Ashby

V k1 N = = = ka p L 3H
= ka p = ka p pmax pmax

= ka

p pmax

CH

p = C p k a H max
7/24/2009 279

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280

Ex: Ship bearings are traditionally made of bronze. The wear resistance of bronze is good, and allowable maximum pressure is high. But due to its chemical activity with sea water galvanic corrosion occurs and wear occurs. Material chart shows that filled PTFE is better than Bronze material.
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