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JEWISH LITEEATUEE
FROM

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INTEODUCTION ON TALMUD AND MIDEASK

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THE GERMAN OE

M. STEINSCHNEIDER.

REVISED THROUGHOUT BY THE AUTHOR.

LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, & ROBERTS.
1857.

TTie right

of translation

is

reserved.

London

Printed by Spottiswoode New-street-Square.

& Co.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

The German
was written
the years 1845

essay, a translation of

which

is

here given,

for

Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopaedia during

but
till

1847;
hands

it

was not placed by the editor

in the printer's

the spring of 1850.

The author

had in the meantime an opportunity at Hamburg of glancing over the Michael MSS., now in Oxford, which enabled him
to introduce a

few emendations.

Since 1849 he has devoted

himself almost entirely to the catalogue of

the Bodleian Library.

Hebrew books

in

In 1850, having finished

his notes

out of the old catalogues and the bibliographers, he made

his first acquaintance

with the books themselves in Oxford.

in England, the essay

While thus occupied

was printed
p.

in

Germany without
(p. 174.

his superintendence,

and reached

432.

of the English translation) without his even seeing

the proof-sheets, in consequence of which he was unable to

give the authority for his discovery about the translation of

Barlaam, introduced in one of these (see Zeitschr.

Gesellschaft, v. 89.).

d. d.

m.
and

He

could

make but very few

correc-

tions in the last sheets, as will be easily conceived;

while his

new

bibliographical studies and his visit to the

Bodleian, that incomparable store of old

Hebrew

editions

and manuscripts, did not induce any alteration in

views, they enabled
rections
in

his general

him occasionally
Judische
A 2

to

make some
(vol.

cor-

the

article

Typographie

xxviii.

iv

author's preface.

pp. 1

94. and

p. 475.).

But

there remained a large mass

of minor corrections which the author discovered while elaborating the materials for his Catalogue.

He

found out

even more than was agreeable, namely, that the principal

older authorities, such as Wolfius and

De

Kossi, and even

Jewish writers
cases;

like

Zacut, were erroneous in very

many Of

and that recent authors, with but few exceptions,

repeated too readily the old reports and misstatements.

the reliance to be placed on the Catalogues he had already

a misgiving while vvriting the essay; and

31., containing

a short survey of the Sources and Fate of the History of

Jewish Literature, has accordingly, in compliance with his

express desire, been omitted from the English translation.

The matter
Jewish

will

be more profoundly treated in the Introbut espe-

duction to the Bodleian Catalogue.

literature is peculiar in all its branches,

cially so is the history of its study.

One

fact will at once

for the

illustrate this observation,

critical

and give the reader a clue

examination of the present work.

When
scientific

the author

undertook the arduous task of giving a

survey of

the development of the entire Jewish literature of the last

1800 years (the older Hebrew

literature

having been treated

by

Christian authors under the separate heads

Hebrew

Lite-

rature and Bible), his only encouragement to venture on this

but partially trodden path was, that he had agreed to confine

his essay within the tacitly
ficial

narrow

limits of

two sheets

a condition

implying another, namely, that only the most super-

outlines

were to be given,

all

the details being left to

the special articles, biographical and miscellaneous, of that

large encyclopsedia, which, even should
will always
it

never be finished,

remain a singular monument of the profound

conception proved impracticable, and there

erudition and self-denying labour of the scholars of Ger-

many.

This

first

was not the slightest objection made by the learned editor and the renowned publishing
firm,

on

whom

the expense of

author's preface.
the

work devolved, when the essay swelled out to a size Yet the seven times greater than was at first intended. author in no instance trespassed on the ground of the special
articles,

even in cases where these had been omitted from

their proper places in the portion of the Encyclopaedia pre-

viously printed.
this

How
is

very

much remained

to be done in

department

now

obvious from

the extent

of the

on Jewish authors treated under the name Josef in the 31st volume of the second section, (pp. 44 This 104.)
articles

involved another peculiarity of the greatest importance to

the translator.

The

author, fearful of being too prolix,

and

feeling the necessity of not suppressing

the essential and

leading ideas and matters of fact, expressed himself as concisely as

he could without becoming obscure

is

and the Ger-

man language

so elastic,

and allows so much freedom in

the formation of

new

expressions, that a great deal can often

It need hardly be added, that this

be said in a few words.

has materially enhanced the difficulty of translation.

Since the completion of the essay, the author's time has

been entirely occupied on the Catalogue of Hebrew Books in Oxford (to which the word Catal. in this translation refers)
the printing of which was only interrupted by repeated visits
to the Bodleian Library, a trip to Trieste in 1852, for the

purpose of gleaning some bibliographical information from

the Saraval collection

(now

in

Breslau)*, and a trip

to

Amsterdam and Ley den

where he was charged with publishing a catalogue of about 120 very interesting manuin 1854,
scripts, especially for Karaitic literature (see p. 309. n. 1.

of
at

the present work),

this

now

in the press.

His attention being

time directed to a vast mass of particulars, was necesaverted from the general development,
his researches into

sarily

but at the

same time

these particulars prepared a

his opinions,

more

solid basis

on which to found
"

and added

flesh to the

" dry bones

of names and dates of individual

* Cf. Serapeum, 1853, p. 281., and 1854, p. 187.

vi

author's preface.
Having, soon after the appearance of the essay in
in a separate form, the

authors.

the Encyclopaedia, resolved on a thorough revision and republication of

it

author made short

marginal notes, corrections, and additions for that purpose,

when

the special articles

in the Catalogue,

and principally

the references to the authorities noted in the essay, seemed

to call for

them

but he never contemplated an immediate

or early execution of his intention, and in the meanwhile

neglected materials furnished from time to time from various

sources,

and especially by the periodical

press,

and these

materials are to this day not completely at his disposal;

nor could he even find leisure to make

of his
notes

full

use in this essay

his

own
made
in

extracts from books

and manuscripts, or of
Oxford manuscripts.

for the Catalogue of the

When

1853 a

literal translation

of the whole was sub-

mitted to him for revision, the author found himself in an

embarrassing dilemma with respect to the alterations to be

made, and especially with respect to the notes, and he

briefly point out his part in its

will

form and matter

as

it

appears

now
1.

before the public.

He

first

read the translation with the view of insuring

a faithful reflex of the

sions having

German

original, the

German
and he

expres-

been weighed and measured anxiously, and

;

often rewritten before their final adoption

tried to

keep up

its

general character as a literal translation.

Pereasiest.

haps this was not the best method, certainly not the

Besides the difficulty arising from involved construction, and

from the conciseness mentioned above, there was but

assistance to be found in the

little

common

dictionaries,

even for

the simple conceptions of criticism and philosophy which

form the

pillars

of sentences,
,

such as Begriffi

umdeuten,
or

Bearheitung,

Wechselwirkung

Haltpunct, Anhaltspunct,

special terms, like Wettgedicht, or even the formulae for cau-

tious restriction, as wohl, theihoeise, &c.

Indeed, between

the anxious fidelity of the author and the necessary care for

AUTHORS PREFACE.
his

VU

English readers on the part of the translator, the original

strictness of expression

meaning and the

suffered in

may

both have

some places unwittingly, imperfection being an

inherent quality of

introduced the

human work. The translator having common English spelling of Hebrew names,
his different spelling

and the author being in constant use of

in

the

Catalogue,

some inconsistencies have escaped the

attention

of both, especially with respect to the letter

h.

being sometimes rendered ch instead of

2.

The important

alterations

of matter

made by

the

author consist principally of hundreds of scarcely perceptible

but sometimes very essential emendations in dates, names,

&c., as far as his

memory

or the marginal notes supplied

his researches for

them.

Since

1853 he has turned

the

Catalogue more carefully to the advantage of the essay, and

the result
at the
is

evident in the notes, and some final corrections

end of the work.

Of some
all

omissions in the text an

iv.)
;

account has been given above (p.

portion to the additions of

they bear no pro-

kinds, and

some parts and

longer passages are almost entirely new, for example, parts

of 11. 13., pp. 113, 114.

222-236.,

23. 29.

Although the essay

endeavoured to give
in the

in its present shape does not

come up
he has

to his original idea of a

it

German
is

reconstruction,

still
;

a more independent form

and what

German

encyclopasdia

supplied by the special arti-

cles will

be in most cases found in the Catalogues menIt

is

tioned, and vice versa.

neither agreeable nor easy to

dispose of materials belonging to the same subject for three

works printed almost

at the

same time

and the author could

not avoid some repetitions and cross-references in the notes.

Some

of his friends were of opinion that the notes should

be entirely omitted, and that the work should merely introduce the English public to studies almost unknown to

them:

but the translator thought differently, and as he

considered

them

necessary

for

those

who

seek

further

viii

author's preface.
author has endeavoured to render them

information, the

complete by revising them according to his system in the

German
value.

essay, so that this part

claims

a strict scientific
in
it

The important
because
of

alterations

made

are obvious,

and need no
siderable,

comment.

omissions are more conmere references having been sub-

The

stituted

collected

where the matter has been treated or the authorities somewhere else but such omissions are indeed
;

additions,

and altogether the notes have increased in extent. The numbering has not been altered for many reasons.

The

notes of Period III. have been omitted, being almost

exclusively references to Wolfius and the

talogue, then the chief authorities
:

Oppenheim Caall

almost

the authors

mentioned in

this

Period are to be found amongst the 3000

in the Catalogue.
I.,

and more treated of

With
collective

respect to Period
literature

which contains the peculiar

of

Talmud and Midrash, the author

confesses that he has had of late years less opportunity of

referring to it; and as the
to special articles,
for

German

essay left the particulars

will not arrive

whose turn to be printed

many

years, he

meant

to treat of these, even in

his

intended

German

reconstruction, only as an introductory

part, necessary for the understanding of the rest,

this

and with

view he has revised the

translation.

With

respect to

the final dismissal of the sheets for press, he must remark

that his revision of the
lator
;

MS. was
;

again revised bv the trans-

that the author read one proof of the print without

the assistance of the

MS.

and that he sometimes altered the

proof-sheet again, and the corrections being very

numerous
in

some

slight mistakes

arose,

which have been corrected

the notes and corrigenda, as far as he hasdetected them by

occasional reference to the fair sheets.

In
form.
tions

this

way
its

did the present essay receive

its

external

Perhaps some readers might expect a few observa-

upon

inner nature, the general views of the author,

IX
his tendencies,

and the

like

but this

is

a theme for an essay

in itself longer

than the present;

it

belongs to a

critical

introduction
subject

to

Hebrew

literature,

and nothing on that

than imperfect remarks,

seemed to him

less advisable

easily to

be mistaken, misinterpreted, and distorted.

He
as

confesses, however, that he treats of

Jewish

literature

mere

literature, that his

method

is

critical, his

exposition

historical,

and that he has neither in a personal nor in a

its

literary

view anything to do with theology in

strict

sense

theology itself being partly an object, nowhere the

subject of his writings.

The author

has thought

it

useful to add a

Hebrew and
lexicography,

Arabic Index, which

contribution to

may

be also considered as an indirect

the much-neglected

Hebrew

upon which some very

interesting remarks have been lately

published by his celebrated friend Dr. Zunz, in the Zeitschrift der deutsch-morgenl. Gesellschafti x. 501.

The author has

also heard that

an English translation of

the whole essay has been inserted in an

American

journal,

The Asmonean, but he had no opportunity of seeing one

sheet of
it,

nor does he believe that journal

much known
obvious
;

or

read in Europe.

The purpose
race, the

of the present translation

is

it is

to

render the English people familiar with the literature of a

name of whose very language

beyond
it

is

used by them to

denote something hopelessly

their comprehension.

And

strange

is

that such a phrase

should exist in a
library

country which possesses in Oxford a

Hebrew

now

undoubtedly the

first

in the world.

Berlin,

December, 1856.

CONTENTS.
Page

4.]

Division of the Subject

PERIOD
EROxM

I.

THE TIME OF EZRA TO THAT WHEN THE INFEUENCE OF ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY BEGAN TO BE FELT, AND EUROPE FIRST APPEARED ON THE SCENE.

From the Fifth Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A. D.

INCLUSIVE,
2.]

Development
Midrash
Halacha
-

2
5

3.]
4.]

-..---.
,

5.]
6.]

Haggada
Liturgy

28

^ -

54
59

7.]

The

earliest

Jewish Literature of Arabia

PERIOD

IL

FROM THE BEGINNING OF ARABIAN SCIENCE TO THE EXILE OF THE JEWS FROM SPAIN.

From the Eighth to the Fifteenth Century

8.] 9.]

inclusive.
-

Introduction and General View

60

Halacha

-67
-

10.]

Histories of Learned
Conflict

Men.

Chronicles
-

^
-

75

IL]

between Science and Haggada

-

82

12.]

Theology and Philosophy

94

Xll

CONTENTS.
Page

13.]

Mysteries and Kabbala

Karaitic Literature

104
115

14.]
15.]

Polemics

-------

i22
131

16.]
17.] 18.]

Hebrew Philology
Exegesis
-

141

Poetry, Rhetoric, Stylistic

Liturgical Poetry (Pijjutim)

146 157

19.]

20.]
21.]
22.]

Non-Liturgical Poetry

Mathematical Sciences

-----

168

179
193

Medicine and Natural History

PERIOD

IIL
inclusive.

From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century

23.] 24.]

Transition

203
21

Polemical and Apologetic Writings

25.]
26.]

Halacha

------

213 220

Homiletics, Ethics, Religious Philosophy, and Kabbala

27.] 28.]

The Bible and Hebrew Language

Poetry and Liturgy
-

232
241

29.]
30.]

History, Geography, Antiquities, and Miscellanies

250 260

Mathematics and Physical Science

Notes

-----

267

JEWISH LITERATURE

1.]

Division of the Subject.

The

principal Periods into wMcli

we may
tliis

dh-ide the part

of Jewish Literature treated of in

essay,

depend upon

general characteristics

they can, however, be distinguished

only by criteria which form varying limits to special branches

Within these, the arrangement may be reof literature. garded from various other points of view in turn, e. g. form,
subject, scene, language.^

Period

I.,

from_ the time of Ezra, to that

when

the in-

fluence of Arabian philosophy began to be

first

appeared on the scene,

-

is

and Europe characterised by the Oral

felt,

Tradition and Midrash.^-

Period II., till the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and the invention of printing, exhibits a great development of studies of all kinds in various countries and languages
it

may be

characterised as a process of

new

formations

first

struggling for existence, then in full possession, and finally

perfected by cultivation.

Period III., pearance of

leads to

till

the time

of Mendelssolin and the

(as

apis,

German philosophy
formations

yet unexamined),

in general, one of decay.

new

From this, now in the

a recent Period, TV.,

course of elaboration,

and, consequently, does not belong to this treatise.

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

PEEIOD

I.

FROM THE TOTE OF EZRA, TO THAT WHEN THE INFLUENCE OF ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY BEGAN TO BE FELT, AND EUROPE FIRST APPEARED ON THE SCENE.
Fifth Centukt, B.C.

Eighth Cextuet, A.D.

2.]

Development

Jewisii Literature, in a more restricted sense, begins with the Eestoration, and thus comprises the Canonical and Apocryphal Scriptures posterior to the Captivity. These,
fact, bear some analogy to the Talmud and Midrash, which were not reduced to writing until later, although certain fragments of them and, indeed, entire treatises,

in

originally to an earlier germs of Midrash, especially the Legends, are found in the Books of Chronicles ^, and perhaps also in Job. xii. 4. (conf. Gen. vi. 9.).^ In Haggai (ii. 12.) may be traced the elements of Halacha; in Daniel, and perhaps in Psalm Iv. 18., "the prayer three times a-day" The formal contradistinction of Law and is mentioned.^ Prophecy is followed by the developments of Halacha and Haggada; the language of Ecclesiastes approaches very nearly to that of the Talmud, and many apocryphal books are, in fact,
age.

now

extant only in
So,
e. g.,

name
first

belonged

the

Mich'ash reduced to writing.^

Parseeism, the influence of

which may be perceived in the Talmud ^, was at work during and it the Babylonian Captivity, not long after Zoroaster shows itself unmistakeably in the Book of Ezechiel. But every foreign element which was assimilated up to the time of Ezra's Restoration, became a national element for the
;

Jews then organising themselves

afresh.

As

regards the

locality, we have, during nearly the whole period, with the exception of Esther, no book composed at Babylon Pales;

and Egypt divide the whole literature. The language is the Aramaic, subsequently to the Greek supremacy alloyed with Greek, and later still with Latin elements and To the literarv monuments of that time belong the Greeh,
tine

 2.]

DEVELOPMENT.

the genuine coins * and some Greek and Latin inscriptions.

With Ezra
time
;

are connected the most remarkable

men

of the

they formed the Synagoga

to the time of the
scribes,

Magna^

the influence of

which extends
(d^"i3"ID,

Maccabees.

These Soferim

afterwards scripturists) collected the Pen-

tateuch, or the written

Law

and the Prophets, and thereby

laid.'' On these, regarded from every point of view, they insisted, as the centre of all thought and religious action; and thus gave a centre to the Jewish mind and a direction to literature, which, predominating in the first period, have remained active till the

the foundation of the

Masora was

present time.

The general and

lasting consequences of this

:

may be
1.

collected under the following heads

The awakening and promotion

of mental activity in

and the establishment of suitable institutions, and lectures. Study appeared as the highest guide for faith and feeling the teacher took his place at the head of the Honoratiores ; and to speak in the words of the Talmud, " The crown of the Thora surpassed that of the Priesthood, and of Royalty." 2. Mental activity submitted itself to Scripture, for the right understanding of which it therefore became necessary to take some careful steps. This would be tinged with more
general,
schools,
;

or less of individual character, thus giving rise to the various

interpretations of Scripture, from the
since the object

Targum

to the Midrash,

was both to investigate the sense of the divine Word without any previous hypothesis, and also to discover the presupposed meeting-points for the whole mental and religious development of the nation.
3.

From

the state of culture at that time, the institution

for the investigation of Scripture

amounted

to

little

else

than a verbal lecture.

This and the before-mentioned causes

tended to soften down individual characteristics, and afterwards to produce a collective literature of a peculiar structure. 4. In the investigation of Scripture there are two principal divisions, Halacha and Haggada, analogous to those of Scripture itself, the Law and the Prophets.^
* On the subject of Jewish Coins, cf. the Ersch und Grube's Encycl. vol. xxviii,
article

" Jiidische Miinzen," in

B 2

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I,

The whole of this movement, the literary ramifications of which are not perceived till later, begins from a common germ in the period of the Persian dominion in Palestine Under Alexander the Great, Greek 330). (B.C. 458 philosoj)hy was transplanted to the East thence the Jewish mind awoke first to self-consciousness, and then to divisions, religio-political parties, and schools^; and, indeed, besides the writings of the Hagiographa, certain individual writers appear

with

all

their individual features as historical persons,

In the struggle against the Syrians, the connexion of doctrine with national existence became apparent, and Polemics placed itself in the vanguard but in Palestine the widely spread practice of religious
first place, at the time when the synEgypt gave rise to the Alexandrian school. The Synod ^ established by Simon (b.c. 143) wielded the authority of the Law. Gradually the Hagiographa was col-

Sirach, Aristobulus (B.C. 190

70).

e. g.

ceremonial took the

cretism of

lected;

Against
astes,

and then began the formation of the Apocrypha, this, however, some opposition arose (Ecclesixii. 12.), from the fact that the traditional element
fixed

This first period, till Mishna, although somewhat mythical, is the most interesting, and in many respects the most important. It is, however, the least known, since so many of its elements have reached us only in collections of fragments made in later times ^^, and scarcely any step has yet been taken towards a scientific analysis and a historical investigation of them. This is the literature of
writing. ^^

could not be

by

the composition of the

the Talmud, Midrash, and

Targum, the truly national

litera-

ture of more than a thousand years, to which nothing analogous

can be found elsewhere, and which has been rescued from a chaotic state of wildest misconception by Rapoport's sound
critical perception,
tific

and the surprising

object
as the

results of Zunz's scien-

deductions. ^^

Our present
^'^,

is

to treat not of separate

and particular writings, such

sephus,or the poet Ezechiel
ture,

Greek works of Philo, Jo-

but of a great collective literawhich comprises the whole mental activity of centuries so that some general remarks on the very peculiar character of the whole should precede the survey of particular groups.

 3.]

MIDRASH.
3.]

Mldrask.

In the literature of the Midrash, taken in its widest which connect the writer as an individual with the reader, are wanting. With few exceptions the works in this branch of literature are anonymous, some have had fictitious names added afterwards, some few have had them from the first. In their present shape the works are disfigured by literary, manuscript, and typographical errors, either intentional or otherwise ; they have been frequently touched up ^, extracted, and compiled from original compilations, or from single older writings now lost many more from collected discourses and oral traditions sometimes not written down till after the lapse of centuries from old sayings, facts, and individual occurrences, the authority for which is often not indicated, scarcely to be recognised even by means of combinations and parallel passages, and which are frequently even contradictory. Besides this, there is in the form of the writings a continual interchange of exposition and discussion, narrative and debate, and even of persons introduced with transitions frequently
sense^ the usual expressions,

imperceptible, either expressed only

by

niceties, or not ex-

pressed at all ; so that an intelligible translation cannot possibly

retain the character of the original.
criticism has in

Nevertheless, historical
older,

most works, particularly in the

an

important and tolerably sure footing for

authorities frequently
tional chain of

details, in certain

mentioned by name, the long tradi-

is drawn out Avith a scrupulousness always considered as a particular duty, and in legal matters And these single names, together with actually necessary.^

which

other criteria of the contents, the form, and the language,

supply a footing for the criticism of the whole works

e. g., it

so that,

has become possible to determine that in the Midrash

is

E-abbot, the redaction of the second part (Exodus)

about

five centuries, and the concluding section of the first part (Yajechi) considerably later than the beginning. Moreover,

the transition from this strange state of mere aggregation, to

a form of more studied composition, as well as the separation

of the parts according to their subject,

a later time,

is

a clear indication of

when Arabian

science and literature had appeared

B 3

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

on the stage^ and the creative power of the Midrash gradually vanished. In the older periods the most varied subjects are blended with each other, from the highest questions of the philosophy of the day, to the most indifferent things of common life. The latter owe their place among the former to their connexion with persons and things, to their mode of treatThis remark does ment, or even to some external accident. not hoAvever apply to the entire collection there are throughout definite sections, and the materials are arranged either according to their subject, or according to their connexion with the Bible.3
;

The
is

relation

of the

ivhole

of

this literature to

the Bible

in general the centre for the true apprehension of its pecu-

liarities,

and

is

of the greatest importance for the develop-

ment of the
the

later periods.

The Soferim had made

first

of

all

next the remaining Canonical Scriptures, the centre of their mental activity, and these have continued more or less to hold that position until the present

Law (the Pentateuch), and

This was especially the case when Judaism was engaged in the contest with the two daughter religions, which alike take their stand upon the Old Testament, but make it subordinate to subsequent revelations. The most prominent
time.
religious divergences

among

the

Jews themselves,

e. g.

the

Alexandrian school, the Sadducees,theCaraites,theCabbalists likewise exhibit a particular treatment of the Bible. This relation to the Canon forms a characteristic of the Jewish literature as distinguished from all others. The latter develop themselves freely, and therefore with more marked
individuality.

But
by

the period

of

the Midrash

is

distin-

guished from later ages not so

of activity, as
lute that (as in

much by any

greater

amount

tliis supremacy of the Bible, so nearly absoChristendom about the same time^) no other " Turn it (the science could attain an independent position. Bible) over and over again, for everything is in it," Avas the saying of an old teacher. ^ The Institution, which formed the connecting link between intellectual activity and practical life, was that of public Discourses, the history of which stands in the closest con-

nexion with the literature originating in

it.

Preachings

 3.]

MIDRASH,

from Ezra and the Soferim established and extended them. Next to them Prophets, trained in schools, acted in a freer manner, but always with reference to the Law. Even these preachings must have exhibited various modifications, from mere reading and explanation to homilies. When the biblical Scriptures, and the written discourses of the older Prophets, &c. became unintelligible to a people who spoke hebraized Aramaic, the reading and exposition of Scripture must have taken the character of a translation or paraphrase and thus gradually arose the literature of the Targumim, both the Chaldee and Greek, and also, according to recent researches, the Syriac.^ These, like the Midrash, were developed for a long time only in the mouth of the reader and teacher, before they were collected and reduced to writing, and in their internal character do not differ very widely from the Midrash.^ Even the Arabic translation of R. Saadja has the character of a paraphrase and Mendelssohn's German translation of the Pentateuch, in legal matters, rests on traditional interpretation. In the time of the second temple this reading and explanation of Holy Scripture on festivals and days of assembly partook of the character of divine service, and finally became an integral part of the worship. In the place of the earlier Levites and Priests there now came the Lawyers (Soferim), viz. the director of the school (j^^i)? graduated Rabbins (^"i), or learned men in general, and members of societies (onnn), who modestly, like the Philosophers, called themselves scholars of the wise(D^Dr)n '^T'T^Vn).^ Like the earlier schools of Priests and Prophets, it was necessary now to establish schools of the learned, in which the principal Here were found point was the study of (ti'mD) the Law. both preelections for students and the learned, and also popular lectures, sermons, and homilies ( XLIYSl ) for the whole variously people, who also were in the habit of praying indeed, according to the customs of time and place in the
the earliest times
; ;
;

from the

Law

for general instruction take their origin

synagogue,
avvcvyw^r}).

i.

e.

house of assembly (riDDrm

n"^n,

1V^

ri^n

But
;

public speaking was not confined merely to

life,

this institution
e. g.

various occasions of public and private

B 4

circumcision, marriage, death ^, were celebrated and con-

8
secrated

JEWISH LITERATURE.
by
lectures and discussions.

[Period

I.

All these discourses,

for the most part centered in

Holy

Scripture, opened with a

text, or returned to its interpretation as their result.

They

were on this account called Midrash in the widest sense (ti'l'TTD, Aramaic infinitive, from wyi, properly the investigation and explanation of Holy Scripture, hence, later, a cycle of such explanations), ^ and Darush (ti'TlT, properly
the result of the investigation);
the lecturer in general,

Doresh, Darshan
explainer).

{]X[^'~\1

ti'lTl,

properly, one

who

explains,

The form and

subject of these discourses de-

pended upon the occasion. The cycle of Scripture readings was accompanied by a cycle of paraphrases and homilies, and the subjects of the strictly doctrinal discourses were connected with them.

On
it

the other hand, the popular dis-

courses were carried on freely through the whole range of

Holy

Scripture, and

was for the

later collector or redactor to

determine from what point of view he would arrange his mateAnd, since the Bible itself contains many very different rials.
elements, the Midrash system, the oral tradition, the explanations constructed on one another, the varied compilations,

could not

fail

to produce a varied

web, as described above.

In a

scientific treatise

on

this literature in particular, it is

therefore necessary to separate the elements, to establish the

particulars according to time, place, and individuality, to

pursue the historical development, and to recognise the original oral communications in the later written form, in order
to

form a complete judgment.

But

as long as one hesitates

to undertake this really difficult task, one will in vain dis-

cuss the " Ethics, and Exegesis of the Talmud ; " for a conglomeration of fragments of such a kind will furnish arguments for almost any kind of views. Even the consideration

of the scene of this

movement

is

important. ^^

It

was de-

veloped in Palestine, and thence passed to the countries either immediately adjoining or connected with it by the

E-oman dominion, Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece,

Italy, &c.

In

the third century Babylon, having long recognised the weight

of the authorities of Palestine, takes a prominent position.

After these general remarks,

we

pass on to particulars.

 4.]

HALACHA.

4.]

Halacha.

In the whole movement of that time, and even within itself^ a difference was developed at an early period. The foundation of this lies in the very essence of Judaism it found a footing in the Bible itself, and in later times led to important divergences^ the difference of Halacha and Hao's^ada. The theocratic law of the Jews contains precepts for life, and presupposes certain doctrines In this the difference between Politics, Law, and as true. Religion is only partially developed. The Pentateuch brings the whole of private and public life within the field of its legislation ; but this is done in general outlines, the application of which to practical details, together with the administration of the Theocracy, is entrusted to certain bodies ; The great revolutions, e. g. Priests, Levites, Judges, &c. which the JcAvish polity underwent from the time of its foundation till the second captivity, and the still greater which followed, must have introduced important modifiThese required a cations in the whole life of the people.^ Moreover, the tendency of particular higher sanction.
the Midrash
;

parties

to

be influenced
of

characteristics

of a rule for

by the national and religious showed the necessity modifications of the Law, and of measures
foreign
nations,

on the
for

part

of the

the maintenance of

for the national life

for

their

leaders,

and teachers Judaism and thus the contest was the same as that between the parties and the schools for their fundamental
religio-political leaders
;

doctrines.

The fundamental idea whence arose the literature of which we are about to speak (the Pharisaic or Rahhinical, as it is called), was as follows. Moses had received, together with the Pentateuch or iVritten Law (nnnnti' niin), also
an Oral

Law

(n3

hvT^

HTin), which was faithfully trans-

mitted from him, by an unbroken line of leaders and teachers (Joshua, Judges, Kings, Sjc), to the members of the Great
ceeded.

Synod, and thence to the teachers who immediately sucFor this reason it was called Tradition {phli'p) ^

10

JEWISH LITERATURE.
tlie

[Period
rule

I.

and a single law was termed

('^^DD
'niXLf'dl

Mosaic

from Sinai

"n^Dhn).

tutions and

laAvSj

laws
all

Besides this there are single instipreventive and defensive of the

ages,

wise and pious of

various origin.

command
or

and manners and customs of Their sanction rests upon the general divine (Deut. xvii. 11.) of obedience to rulers and teachers,

upon

special exegesis, according to rules of interpretation

considered as traditional. Generally speaking, that which was

acknowledged in practice was brought into connexion with the Bible by a " leaning " ("JT^D), as it was called, even if
it

did not originally arise out of the passage of Scripture in

question.^
fact of its

The

principal point for

its

authentication was the

^B12

having been received (or " heard,"

i^DVTy^

by members of the chain of tradition, or by men of recognised authority, i. e. by learned men of note (pupils Many things were ascribed to old bibliof the former), &c. cal personages, even without forging or attributing to them
H^yty^ri)

books for this particular purpose

difference

in this lies a characteristic

from the later especially the historical Haggada, and likewise from the newer Kabbala.'* From the theocracy was derived the fundamental notion, that the exercise of religious duties, as a kind of legal relation to God, should be defined and watched in the most minute particulars with scrupulous exactness, almost in the same way as the legal Hence arose a juridicorelations between man and man. hence also thi3 maintenance of ecclepolitical point of view siastical discipline and the censorship of the religious life in reference to jurisdiction and casuistry came into intimate and connexion with the legal and criminal administration hence, finally, the varied fate of the Jewish autonomy necessarily introduced all kinds of conflicts in religious theory and practice.^ But by means of the opposition to foreign nationalities and their adherents, as well as by the general ascetic tendency of the time, all life was drawn into the sphere of religious law. The written law contains, according to the tradition, 613 commands ( miSi?:! :)^""in ), viz., 248 commands and 365 prohibitions ^ and according to a later explanation (which is, however, now given up by almost all
;

 4.]

HALACHA.

11

Hebrew scholars), the Soferim derive their name from " numbering " * precepts.^ They certainly occupied themselves both with the preservation of the letter (see below), and also with the development of the spirit of Scripture, i. e. especially of the Law (in which they were followed by hence much of the Law is characterised as later teachers)
;

Soferical

(n^BID nm?2)

or

Rahhinical

(jDlinTD).

This

whole

field

of juridico-political religious practice, in a certain

sense a doctrine of
divini juris"), is

human and divine law ("humani et termed Halaclia (p'^hn, rule, precept).^ If men occupied themselves in it, it also had reference to actual life. But it was considered important not to deliver over the old traditions, and that which gradually grew up in daily life, to the slavery of the letter, as this would have placed it on the same footing as the written Law (on which
point the contest of Sadducaeism arose).^

large portion
;

of matter was therefore propagated orally for centuries

at most, a

and,

few learned men,

in order to assist their

memory,
(jrhyo

noted

D"'nnD).^

down what was necessary in If then we wish to form

Secret Rolls

a conception of the
till

literature of the (written) Halaclia,

which did not begin

a later period,

here adopt

we must commence with oral tradition. the common division, according to which
:

We
the

period treated of in this introductory part

subdivisions, viz.
1.

is

arranged in five
4.

boraim

The Soferim 2. the Tannaim 5. Gaonim (up to the end

; ;

3.

Amoraim

Sa-

of this

introductory

part).^i
1. The Soferim (nnsiD), the members of the Great Synod {phT\yn HD^S^ti'DK), (who always filled up their number) from Ezra to Simeon the Just, until the beginning of the Grecian Sadducees, and down to the Greco-Syrian

persecutions, were, as their

name

implies.

Scribes^ viz. of

the

Law

in particular,

and therefore acquainted with Scrip-

ture,

great care

and generally the literary men of the time.^^ To their is due the preservation of the Biblical Scriptures
*

The Hebrew

"ISD

is

also " to

number."

12

JEWISH LITERATURE.
^^
;

[Period

I.

and form a matter which is more closely connected than is generally supposed with the Jewish tradition, and therefore with the legal part of the Pentateuch, and especially with the Halacha. For this reason, in the criticism and exegesis of the Pentateuch, the more attention should be paid to the Halacha.

in their present character

From

the Soferim

are derived explanations and interpretations ( D''"i)*iD ^ti^ll"**) ), especially determinations of measure and quantity (mp^ti'

DnBID), which in theory form a contrast to the simple

letter of the

Law (nmn
since,

^"ini),

equal to
are

it,

as a traditional

but which, in authority, are view of the Law, they

esteemed
'^

therefore not separately fixed

" divinely-legal " (l^nmi^lTO). They were ^^ and taught, but in a great
( U^'^T^I )

measure
( D'^^rj'^D )

ascribed to Scripture," by
indications
;

or

means of certain signs and these formed the

foundation of the Masora, which, at a latter period, took an

independent position.

To

this belong, e. g., the writing of

vowel-points, large and small letters, unusual formations of

words
ketibh,

(e.

g.

the

&c.^^,

the

well-known "IP3 object of which

for
is

nnP3,)

keri

and
So-

to indicate

feristic law,

and generally speaking a doctrine.

also,

with
ginal

this,

are

probably variations,

or

Connected other marexistence of

glosses in the
is

MSS.

of the

Law, the

which
e. g.

perhaps mentioned in the time of the Tannaim,

in R. Meir's copy of the Pentateuch.'^

In

this

way

arose

the

So/eristic

emendations or

modifications

(""ilp^n

DnSlD) of Holy Scripture, a matter which has not yet been

sufficiently treated.

The

results

of these glosses with re-

spect to the interpretation of the Bible, in so far as they

lie

at the foundation of
Soferistic
:

those modifications, are perhaps

as

the
ties

reasonings,

they

are

called (or subtleto

ansiD ^pnpi)^^
on the Bible
(

in

contrast

the

unwritten

reasonings

nmn

^^'pTipl )

of

the Soferim.

Besides

these, they

made

prohibitory laws on their

;

own
this

authority, called Fences {TV, ^1^, later n~iT^), &c.

Soferistic precept

and

(onsiD mi), "Tradition of the Elders"

e. g.

(in

Greek works,

the

New

Test.), forms a contrast to

the traditional laws which are deduced from the Bible ("ipr
nrr^m^^l) and similar authority.

 4.]

HALACIIA.

13

2.

The Tannaim.
and

To

their time belong the fixing, col-

lecting,

final redaction

of the Halacha, which

as to its history.

we

will

discuss, as to its matter,

and

(A.)
in the

The

additions to the Halacha which were gradually

collected in

the times of the Soferim, whether

indicated

MSS.

of the

Law,

or

known from

practice alone,

were

By the for the most part not taught in the schools. changes of the Persian, Egyptian, Syrian, and the later
Roman
rated,

dominion, and the consequent divisions

life

among

the
the

people, the changes in national and private

were accele-

and rendered more

striking.

The endeavours of
;

national schools were turned towards bringing out a greater

conformity in practice by a more scrupulous theory

and

thus more credit was given to the notion that everything

blished, in spite of all controversy

undetermined by the Law was to be estaand doubt, by the decision (mxri^) of the wise. In this way it became necessary to formularise the subject matter of the Halacha. On the other hand, a connexion between the Bible and that which was recognised and determined having been established, certain general rules of interpretation (riH/O, properly, measure, determination, &c.) ^^ were necessarily put forth and these

which was

left

themselves became an object of theory.

Among

the points

determined by the Law, those relating to judicial matters required particular attention. These were, however, not carried
out
in detail in the Pentateuch in

proportion

to their

urgency, but were rather given up to the individual

filled office,

who

and therefore the most exposed to great reforms

during political changes.

The theory

of judicial matters

was developed in accordance with the natural feeling of justice by means of single sentences and statements (mn^f:!, 01J~-in ) ^^, which were either of general ( nirD^n I"']^! rnix^llp), or only of local and provincial application (miJ^bn n^^lTD) and these last either were deduced from the provincial customs (1~13'^"17D Iin::?:)), or were the foundation of them. The Sadducees had a book of sentences ()nn^n .nnnJ nDD)^^ differing from the Halacha, which book was set aside in the The influence exerted by the Roman time of E. Jochanan. dominion on the formation of Jewish Law, and its termi;

14
nology,
times.
is

JEWISH LITERATURE.
a subject of dispute

[Pebiod

I.

amongst the learned of modem was fixed by compressing simple practical rules into a short and often enigmatical formula this was called ^' a Halacha (r^Dbn). These oldest Halachot* are composed in a scholastic Hebrew (the common language of the people was at this time Aramaic), which was subsequently called the '* language of the wise " (D'::2i:n V^i'V) -^ ; and the preservation of a formula once established was a solemn duty among the scholars.

^^

The

subject matter of the Halacba

*'

The
is

relative age of these

Halachot,

i.

e.

of the formulae,
e. g.

to be discovered from their form

and contents,

by

Grecicised or Latinised expressions for certain classes of

the mention of late events is a sure sign of a recent on the other hand, the contents may be older than the form in which it is enunciated. But when many teachers ascribe certain Halachot to the old kings, prophets, &c., this is orenerallv not to be considered as intentionallv an historical Thus the or critical testimony, even to their contents.^ Halacha expression Mosaic ( ^^^VO r\l'L.'72'? ndbn ) is extended to aU the old traditional matter of the Halachot, even when it clearly belongs to the time of the Soferim, and is
ideas
;

date

actually noticed as such (^"ISID ""QT^).

great

number

of Halachot respecting the Temple certainly belong to eye-

and if matters which had fallen into disuse afterwards became a subject of discussion (see below, C), still the formulising of simple Halacha generally belongs to the time when it was practically needed. The recorder and the original composer of a Halacha are both called in Hebrew,
witnesses
:

nDhn
tine,

nz^'Z'

in

Chaldee,

^>^:n

in

the dialect of Pales-

>5*'i;n -^

without reference to his position or learning

in other respects.

Both

as regards their contents at the time

still

in consequence of a long and the external impediments to study, these short Halachot frequently needed a further elucidation and discussion so that the oral Halacha, in this respect, like Holy Scripture, had its exposition, which might be called (with Krochmal) the Midrash of the Halacha {p:hn ti'mr)). But the Halacha had itself originally in

of their formation, and

more

oral tradition, the changes in life,

* niD^n, Halachot,

is

the plural of

nD^H, Halacha.

4.]

HALACHA.

15

part been deduced from the study of the Bible, and in a

still

greater degree been referred to the Bible

discussions.

The

investigation

of

the

relation

by the later between

Halacha and the Bible was called Midrash of the Scriptures D'^mnrjn ti'llTD ), and the complete treatment of the Halacha formed the Halacha studies in Hebrew, Talmud
(
;

(lydiT))

in Chaldee,

Gemara

(i^1?2:i)

'^^

which, in opposi-

tion to

the formularised Halacha of tradition,

gave

full

play to the subjective element.

the old traditions or their

Hence, in

later times, the

prevalent tendency of particular teachers to follow out either

own opinions becomes especially R. Elieser boasted that he had never said anything which he had not learned from his teacher. Hence also this element first appears as supplementary (KDSDin) ^^ but, when the old Halachot were finally collected, the element of Talmud could no longer be clearly distinguished.^^ The subject matter of the Halacha, and even that part which )^"T) underwent in the was of the highest authority course of time all the various modifications (niDpn) which were established (iD'^pnn) and sanctioned by individuals or schools. On the other hand, older and original regulations (""rnprn, from the verb ()pri) were referred to the oldest authority possible, and consequently often connected with Thus, finally, the contrast the Bible by means of Midrash. between the Bible (K"ip?D) and Halacha was developed with
prominent;
as, e. g.,

(mm

the most varied traits in respect of origin and authority.

(B.)
dually,

The
and

compilation of the single Halachot took place grain different

ways.

It

is

natural to suppose that,

number of particular Halachot increased, a rubrication of them should be made for the sake both of method and of memory. The compilation may be reduced to
as soon as the

three principal heads, which are

collections.
(1.)

still

discernible in the later

According to the contents and form of the

even only of the

Halacha, in respect of similarity either of the object, or the

tendency

(e. g.

alleviation or aggravation), or

external formulae (similar or dissimilar, universal and particular,

numbers ^^,

arrangement;

which give an opportunity for an artificial was called a web (nr)D70, Massechet).^^ These, however, grew again to such a size, that they were
&c.),
this

16

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

divided into orders (n'lD, Sedarim), the reduction of which to the number 6 is ascribed to Hillel. Particular doctors occupied themselves especially with particular di\'isions, according as their

mode

of

life,

their school, or inclina-

and they often became great authorities in such matters, e. g. Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob in the determination of measurements (miTD) respecting the Temple K. Simon, of Mizpn, in the Ritual of the Day of Atonement, which he, as Krochmal judiciously supposes, perhaps collected
tion suggested,
for liturgical purposes for the inhabitants of the country,

and

for exiles (see

below

6.

19.);

and Hillel in the genealogy

a subject of practical

of those

who returned from Babylon,

5
b.).

(2.) According to the order simple the Halacha was connected with the Bible, far as as of Midrash; so that here, instead of those means of its it by '' webs Halacha, of independent " we meet with certain coland named after the sections of the Bible lections arranged a^ 28 ParasMot). With these two divisions of Ha(nvt^na lacha is connected the expression Mishna (HDli'T:)), which was used for Halacha (how early is unknown), and employed in both senses by the later schools. ^^ (3.) According to After the Midrash the method by which it was deduced. of the Halacha had itself become an object for theory, and certain rules and methods of interpretation for the deduction of the Halacha from Scripture had been fixed upon (seven of which were ascribed to Hillel, and others known as Rabbi Ismael's), Halachol were finally composed on and according to these " axioms," and called " Measure

importance (see below

(>?nVnD

JTiVd?:), the

Chaldee interpretation of

T\yi2),

or

All these different Mishna of the Midrash (ti'-n?2n DDti'D). systems were represented in particular schools, and in the collections which they produced. In order to form an opinion of the method of the Talmud,
it is

necessary to give due weight to the memoria iechnica

signs

(D'^DD'^d) of the narrators and collectors. Even and explanation in of letters exegesis, e. g. some formulae used and numbers (^* grammatica," and " geometria "), which in mystic writings and the Kabbala were believed to be real, were originally meant only for memoria technica.^^

 4.]

HALACHA.
The History of the composition and gradual
is

17
collection

(C.)

of the Halacha

connected with the history of the people,

Schools, their leaders, and the

especially with that of the

principal judicial colleges.

rior

By

the establishment of a supe-

Court of Law, the Synedrium (b. c. 142) ^^, a certain unity of practice became possible, since the dissentient (n")7:iQ )pt) was forced to obedience by the strong hand of the Law. Hence throughout those times the names of the During the wars of the presidents only are preserved. last Maccabees and the aggressions of Rome the political power of the Synedrium decayed; the Schools and doctrine which had flourished in Palestine up to that time were suppressed tradition, if not entirely interrupted, was at least dimmed, and was restored only by Syrians, Thus the old Halacha Babylonians, and proselytes.^'' became more and more the subject of dispute, and took the hue of particular teachers and schools. Hillel, the
;

Babylonian,
oral that

is

considered as the restorer of the Oral

Law

at the time of Herod.

He

effected

Ezra did

in the written

much the same in the Law; he collected and

arranged the materials, and applied himself to the diffusion But it was no longer possible to restore the of doctrine.
ancient

uniformity in practice;

for,

although

Shammai

himself, Hillel's colleague, differed

points, yet there arose so

from him in only a few

wide a difference in the theory of

the Halacha between their respective schools, that, to use

'^ The Thora was become as were two." During the dominion of the Roman governors, through the last struggles of the declining nation (45 70), and under the cruel measures of the conquerors, learning could not fail to decay yet there arose under GtAMALIEl the older (i. e. the first) the flourishing school of Jamnia, whither migrated B. Jochanan ben Sakkai, with other This gave an opening for the further developlearned men. ment of various tendencies and schools, and a new impulse

the expression of the Talmud,

it

to the study of the Halacha.

By

the destruction of the

Temple, and the Captivity, a great part of the collected

fell,

Law

either at once or
it

by degrees,
C

into disuse.
;

clung to

only so

much

the closer

for

Yet theory the Captivity was

18

.JEWISH LITERATURE.
state,

[Period

I.

looked upon as but a transitory

the glorious restoration

the end of which,

by the

Messiah,
the

was

expected

every moment, and minutely calculated by various persons

with contradictory

results.

Under

Halacha

were

gradually comprised more and more things, which could not

become of

practical importance until the time of the

Mes-

siah (HTl^wr^h

i^Ddbny^
be
satisfied

On

the other hand the notion

fulfil
;

arose, that the obligation of the

possible, might

Law, to by mere study

which was im" Since the Temple

was destroyed, God had only the four ells of Halacha." * Finally the Halacha, although it had become unpractical, was, through its methodology audits exegetical part, too much interwoven with everything else to be ever entirely excluded from study and this remark is applicable even at the present time. Once more an attempt was made to restore unity of practice among the contradictory schools, by means of external authority. After the death of K. Jochanan ben Sakkai (about A. D. 100), Kabbi Ga:maliel ben Simon ben Gamaliel collected round himself a new Synedrium at Jamnia, as president of which he was probably the first to bear the title of Prince (K^ti'3,
;

Nasi).

He

proposed the statements of the school of Hillel

tried to put

as normal,

and

down every

contradiction

by a

power ecclesiastical rather than temporal. But his labours were wrecked by the opposition of his own college, which
wished to maintain the right of tradition uncurtailed. The old traditions and their teachers again came forward and it is possible that a theory of tradition was actually pro;

pounded

at this time.^

Men of note

exerted themselves inde-

e. g. R. Eliezer Lydda, R. Joshua at Pekiin, R. Jehuda and as after the Captivity Jewish of Batyra at Nisibis, &c. learning generally travelled with the exiled Jews beyond

pendently in the Schools at different places,

BEN Hyrcan

at

* According to the
sense, therefore,
in study.
is,

that

Talmud, the space occupied by a man is four ells the God resides at those places where men are engaged
;

Eisenmenger, in his desire to make the Talmud ridiculous, translates, ells of space to go" while ilD^n can be taken only mischievously in such an unusual sense foi- n^""^!!; and this translation shows eren an ignorance of the whole genius of the language, which would requh-e an entirely
" only four
diiFerent

grammatical construction to express

this

meaning.

 4.]

HALACHA.

19

the limits of Galilee and Syria, to Arabia, Asia Minor, and

so for its maintenance institutions were which retained some connexion with each other. ^^ Thus the renowned proselyte R. Akiba ^^ laboured during his extensive travels, no less than in his school at Bene Barak. He also extended the rules of interpretation and to him the first composition of Mishna arrangements is

even to

Rome ^^,

established,

ascribed.'^*'

in the

As a follower of the Pseudo-Messiah Bar Kochba war of Trajan and Hadrian (ending with the conquest
life

of Bethar (Beth Zor) a. d. 122?), he sealed a

of enthu-

siasm for religion and doctrine with a martyr's death.

directed the oppressive decrees of

He
first

thus occasioned the subversion of his numerous school, and

Rome

against these

buds of learning, and especially against the ordination or promotion (r\D^72D, laying on of hands) which communicated the dignity of
his death

Rabbi

to the learned.

But

before

he had taken great care to preserve

this dignity,

which in the course of circumstances underwent various

modifications.

Jerusalem was rebuilt as a heathen city, Christianity began to assume a concrete form, and Rabbinism found it more and more necessary to support practice by a theory of
principles.

The

religious polemic against the

political

Samaritans
contro-

and Christians,

persecutions,

scholastic

versies (especially those

between Palestine and Babylon), of

an intricacy and detail hitherto unattempted, all brought about the transplanting of doctors and schools e. g. the fall of the school at Jamnia through the instrumentality of Simon ben Jochai ^\ and the removal of the learned to the north of Palestine, where finally, under the mild rule of the Antonines, Tiberias became a city renowned and influential in Jewish lore. The fate of the Synedrium during this war
;

requires a

more thorough
is

investigation.

Immediately after
first at

the Destruction mention

(Mti'll*),

made

of one located
a. d.

Usha

and subsequently (about

160) at Tiberias.
schoolboy from the

R. Simon ben Gamaliel, who

destruction of Bethar,

fled as a

was considered as the successor of his father in the rank of Nasi by his side stood R. Natan, the Babylonian, as "Father of Court" (]n n^n nK), and R.
;

c 2

20 Meir,
at

JEWISH LITERATURE.
the proselyte, as
''

[Period

I.

Wise Man "

(p^xi).

The

school

Jamnia, called

" the vineyard," from the

lines or ranks

its members, flourished once more. At this time the Methods (see above, B.) began to be distinguished in a more decided manner, and to be represented by individuals thus e. g. R. Meir taught principally simple Halacha K. Nehemia principally discussion R. Jehuda ben Jlai ''^, and R. Simon the Midrash of the Halacha, in a form which became the foundation of the later collections of Sifra and Sifri; E. Ismael, and R.Elieser ben Joze the Galilsean

of

propagated hermeneutical studies.

as

at

Besides these, there were, an earlier period, some schools named after their

masters ^^ and some teachers of Mishna,

now

again called

and distinct from the mere RepemDTD), ^Kn''''3nD with whom indeed they tentes (D-'i^Dn At this time R. Simeon, the often fell into controversy. Nasi, impelled probably by the same motives as his father, endeavoured to collect a Canon from the pile of Halacha; and this work, begun in the time of Hillel, was completed by his son and successor '^^, R. Jehuda, called Rabbi Kar' he is therefore usually desigs^o'xrjv (died about A. D. 191) nated as the composer or redactor of the Mishna. This " redaction " consists, as was shewn above, in a continuous sifting and arrangement of the Halacha material from oral and written sources, according to the method of R. Meir, in which discussion and exegesis were not considered as proper It is nevertheless a great point of elements of the Mishna. controversy among the learned of recent times, whether R. Jehuda was the first actually to reduce the complete Mishna At all events the Mishna of R. Jehuda is not to writing."^^ come down to us, since it was retouched by has which that
(D^'TDDn),
;

"Wise Men"

next period begins. This name was given 3. expounders, or lecturers, the period to preceding in the publicly the words delivered who ()n:iTin7D), interpreters " popular the in dialect, Man," or Wise of the master,
his pupils.
this point the

At

The

Amoraim

(D^>*ni7:)K).

and enlarged upon them.

ordinate
to

He

thus

occupied a rank sub-

him.

After the

redaction

and general

re-

ception of the Mishna, this

expression came

to signify the

 4.]

HALACITA.

21
nothing more than

" Wise

Men

"

themselves,

to

whom

the received Halacha was permitted.^^ immediate pupils of R. Jehuda form and the transition from the Tannaim to the Amoraim
a simple report of

In

this

sense

the

among them Abba Aricha (ob. a. d. 243), by the name Rab/'' was reckoned by
writers
as

distinguished

some later Tannaim. He transplanted to Babylon, then under the newly established dominion of the
one of
the
(a. d. 226), the last amended recension of the Mishna; and in connexion with his illustrious colleague, Samuel, he gave the first impulse at that city to a more important and productive study of the Halacha. The Mishna of R. Jehuda excluded not only traditions theoretically false, or critically suspected, but also for the most part discussion (Talmud) and exegesis (Midrash); although both were at that time in a flourishing state, and had gained the respect due to antiquity (the latter even the authority of tradition),

Persians

'^^

by some masters. Indeed, through internal and external causes, the Mishnijjot '' Chaldee ]^n"'Dnn also ]n^3n7D, 'i3n:::i'D our ( m^Dti^TD,
besides being regarded with predilection
to

Mishna ") of R. Jehuda came to be looked upon as a canon which public lectures were confined, and to which appeal was made in practice. It could not, however, fail to happen,
especially in early tunes, that individual doctors should have

preserved Halachas, either single or collected from periods more ancient ^^, so that, beside the official collection, another of an apocryphal character might be formed; and
still

this in fact was done by the above mentioned Abba Aricha, and his uncle R. Chijja, and about a generation later by R. OscHAJA, called "the Father of the Mishna." The Halacha collected by the latter is called the external Mishna (n^ti'TD nillii^n, Chaldee xnnn Kn"^2n?2, the last' two used also Matnito, Boraito ^^). Similarly also'R. Chijja and singly R. OscHAJA collected the discussions and other additions'^to the Halacha, which had been omitted in the Mishna, after the method of R. IS"ehemia, called Tosefta (l^rUDDin). Still more pressing was the need for collections, which should
,

comprise the Exegesis and Methodology of the Halacha, as they were treated by the old doctors. Such are the worka
c 3

22

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

Sifra, Sifri (edited in the School of Rab),

and Mechilta,^^
extant, partly

All these and other individual collections are

still

and partly only as fragments in other works, particularly in the Talmud; they are for the most part composed in the dialect of the Mishna. Materials so rich, handed down from past ages with such pious care, and the continual additions from living sources, afforded to the increasing schools in Palestine and Babylon matter sufficient to raise a superstructure. The next generation were occupied still more with the critical treatment of Halacha literature. But although a part of the discussions and exegesis was already intruded upon the Mishna, or in separate collections was so far perfected as to succeed in
as separate works, partly in later editions,

establishing a claim to currency for itself, yet, like the old

simple Halacha and the Bible,

it

again necessarily became

the object of oral interpretation and discussion, and had to

be linked with the Bible; so that the exposition of Scrip-

became more and more arbitrary, the methodology more and more complicated, until finally the traditional element of the Halacha was obscured by speculation (nvin, subjecture
tive

discussion). ^^

The

history of this

development, the

separation with respect to countries, schools, and individuals,

awaits, with but little hope, a self-denying, indefatigable, and

unprejudiced inquirer.

The

further the study of the Hala-

cha evolved, or rather involved itself, the more pressing became the need of sifting the new material and arranging it under
the old; and after the old Halacha and
its elucidation had been fixed in writing, and made canonical, the subsequent These were, however, discussions followed periodically. produced by external causes, and carried on in written redactions, which must always be regarded as the work of In a school at the instigation of one prominent individual. Palestine, such was the case about a.d. 370 380, after its

schools had lost the right of ordination, and had been de-

stroyed by the influence of Christianity, then in full power.

In

this

way,

at

Tiberias, sprang

properly Palestine)
is falsely

up the Jerusalem (more Talmud (more properly Gemara), which

E,.

attributed to

Jochanan
became

(ob. a.d. 279).^^

after this the Patriarchate

extinct,

Soon and the import-

 4.]

HALACHA.

23

ance of Palestine declined;

this

but the lasting connexion of

familiarised the literati of

country with Babylon

^"^

bylon with the Mishna and Gemara of Palestine.^^

BaIn Ba-

bylon there flourished^ under raore favourable circiunstances,

the schools at Syra, Pum-bedita, Xehardea^, Mahusa, Xeresh

under the Heads of Schools (Kna^nD ^n, Resh and the Princes of the Exiles, Resh Geluta, as they were called, whose more subtle and refined doctrines met with scorn and reproach at the hands of some of the doctors of Palestine.^^ The Babylonian Amora'im number from six
(Pti'i:)

Metibtd)i

to seven orenerations, accordino; to the heads of the schools

Rab and Samuel, Huna and Jehuda, Babbah (n^n) and Joseph, Abbaje and Eabba (><^"^), Ashe and his son Mar and Rabina. Bab Ashe, head of the school at Syra, was permitted, in a long
official life (said to

be of sixty years), and

after a long period of external peace, to direct his

scholars in the collection and arrangement of his entire

numerous Halacha

writings.

He

died, however, before the completion of this

revision (a.d. 427).

From

these circumstances he or his

son (ob.

2oth Sept., a.d. 467) is considered as the last Tahnudical authority '^^ {^\i^^^n ^^id). The redaction of the

Babylonian Gemara was effected by B. JoSE, president of the Academy of Syra (ob. A. d. 475) but the Babylonian Tal;

mud
4.

appears

first as

a complete whole in the time of

The Sabokaiim. In

the latter half of the fifth century,

the persecutions under Jezdegerd, Fu'uz, and Kobad'^^, who,

amongst other things, degraded the office of Besh Geluta to a venal title of the rich, had caused the decline of the Babylonian schools, and interrupted the chain of ordination In consequence of this, the in a most palpable manner. succeeding doctors did not again assume to themselves any authority in opposition to tradition, and they confined their teaching and judgment simply to the comparison and reconciliation of what was in theu' hands, to explanation and hence they were called Saboraim ^^ opinion (nilD) (Oiil^iD, conf. the form of Amoraim). By them, how;

ever, certain additions, particularly the methodological and mnemonical signs (l:d^:?2^d), have been introduced into the But the latest Saboraim must have Babylonian Gemara. ^
c 4

24
had
this

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

tions) already in the

a few later additions and variasame form as that of the few remaining MSS. and earliest editions. The Gemara (Talmud in the narrower sense) being subordinate to the Mishna (according to the Babylonian recension), the word Talmud received the wider signification, comprising both Mishna and Gemara. The Sabora'im consequently stood in the same relation to the Babylonian Talmud, as the Soferim to Holy Scripture. It lay before them as a book ready to hand, as an object of exposition, investigation, and discussion.

Gemara (excepting

To

them,

or

rather

to

itself

as

the
as

last

effusion

of
in

tradition

(which

was

considered

uninterrupted),

and authoritative due the esteem in which the Talmud is held as contrasted with later productions (some older parts being similarly it was not made canonical by contrasted with the newer) any individual or college, for its own nature would have rendered this impossible. So it came to pass, that the Talmud, including the Mishna, as a living commentary on Scripture, and like Scripture itself, was made the foundation of all later a fact which is the more conceivable because developments, the Talmud forms almost the only literature for more than the few Halacha-Midrashim above five hundred years mentioned having been partly scattered about the Talmud
the midst of great intellectual pressure
belief, is
;

itself.

All the other collections of Halachot of that time

lost,

have been
tion

probably in consequence of the reverence

paid to those which were received.

More

detailed informa-

two Talmuds, is Concerning the many hundred Scholars of the Talmud ("nD^nn "'TDIDn) mentioned in that work, only what is absolutely necessary can be here By a compilation of their remaining fragments noticed. pictures of them as physical and intellectual persons might be drawn; and for this purpose the Talmud is our only But we cannot here do this even with respect resource. remarkable of these men. It was, however, most the to
fate of the

on the contents, form, and

not the purpose of this essay.

necessary
of the

to

give a

sketch of the history of the origin

the
later litera-

Talmud

as the foundation of all

ture of the Halacha and

TIaggada;

for

a proper treat-

4:']

HALACHA.

25

ment of the Talmud and Midrash gives tlie true point of view whence to consider the subsequent cultivation of independent science and its controversies. The following principal circumstances

The language
scholastic

of the

fonn the transition to the next period. two Talmuds in the narrower sense
is

(exclusive of the older fragments), in contradistinction to the

Hebrew

of the Mishna,
as

principally the east and

free

west Aramaic

dialect,

was rendered necessary by

discussions and popular lectures.

But

in Persia

the lan-

guage of the country, of which some specimens are to be found in the Talmud ^^, gradually became prevalent among the Jews and the Talmud then required philosophical explanation and textual care. The study of the Talmud with its all-comprehensive contents absorbed the whole powers of the mind, and scarcely even the titles of the original works of the Saboraim have come down to us.*^^ To their
;

time perhaps belongs the collection or final redaction executed in Palestine of some of the
mr)D?:i), as

lesser

treatises

(miDtOp

forming an apocrypha to the Talthey mud. ^^ Generally speaking the period which follows is obscure and dark, and the uninteresting pages of literary
are called,

history are filled with accounts of persecutions traced in

blood.

Even

the limits of this period are differently given,

the idea of the Saboraim given above being in fact extended

to the period
5.

which follows,

viz. to

the

first

among

The Gaonim.

After the revival of the school at

Tiberias during the wars of of the office of the

Rome

and Persia, and the decline

after the attempt to

Resh Geluta, and

restore Jerusalem (a. d. 610),^^ the mental and ecclesiastical

power of Palestine seemed to be leaving the country. At Babylon, from some circumstances and~ causes but too little known, raised itself to a primacy in religious and mental affairs by means of the Heads of the Schools at Syra and Pum-bedita, of whom Chanan (a. d. 589) was
this crisis

the

first to

bear the

title

of

Gaon

(]1K:i,

Excellence).^^

The

supremacy of these Babylonian heads appears to have been but a consequence of the Arabian dominion established in Irak and it is difficult to draw the line between the last Saboraim and the first Gaonim, since even the latter pro;

26

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

duced no independent Halacha

the Babylonian exclusively
^^).

literature/ but only con-

tinued to promote the study of the

Talmud (and almost

In their practical views,

they considered that they were not bound by the letter of

the Talmud, and independently of others
in accordance with the spirit of the age

made
^^
;

institutions

but the same had also occasionally been the case with the Saboraim, although their times were less adapted to the reception, propagation, and maintenance of such institutions than those of the Gaonim, who were assisted by external power and by the universal respect and esteem paid to their learning. ^^ The literature of the times of the Gaonim does not begin until the termination of this introductory part (at the middle of
the eighth century).
It
is

not a

who

begins the series, but R.

Gaon nor a Babylonian Simeon of Kahira^^, peracquainted with the

haps a resident at that place, and

Palestine Talmud, through the close connexion which had

Egypt and Palescomposed a compendium of the most important Halachot from both Talmuds with the title. Great Halachot (niVn:! mr)bn), the introduction to which contains the first known attempt to arrange all laws under the old canonical number 613, i. e. to determine accurately these 613 precepts from the Halacha literature then extant. The occasion of his undertaking this purely theoretical labour is unknown, and would be worth investigation (conf. inf. 9.). In language and style this composition, which was extant in the eleventh
subsisted from the earliest times between
tine.

He

century as a separate work, resembles the older Halacha.

But the work now extant under this title is a fusion of the old work with different later matters, viz. the decisions (m^Vn
able
distinguishmplDS) discussions and opinions (mnVxti') ^^ only by their Aramaic dialect, and often directly

contradictory to the older parts

by

Gaon Jehudai,

the

Blind,
larly

who

flourished soon after,

and by

his school, particu-

by his follower, R. Chaninai (or Achunai) ''2, who was probably executed, and likewise by other teachers and pupils, whose names are unknown, and who are designated Thus the final redaction as " the Doctors of that time." ^^ of our Halachot Gedolot ^^ must be placed at earliest in the middle of the ninth century. From the school of R. Cha-

 4.]

HAL AC HA.

27

may be added, the Midrash Esfa (n5D>^ li'TlD Numer. xi. 16.)^^ probably emanated. Some passages of the work of R. SnTieon were translated during the period of the Gaonim, from Aramaic into Hebrew, in the Midrash Hashkem (oni^n ti'mTD) and it is a pity that this Midrash is only known by a few fragments, so that we are enabled to speak of its early date, and probably mixed (Halachic and Ethical) character, only by quotations recently
ninai, it
;

discovered.

On

the other hand, as early as the middle of the

eighth century, R.
his

Acha

of Shabcha

who, vexed at seeing

Gaon by
the Prince

own

pupil preferred at the election of

of the Exiles,

went

to Palestine,

composed a work, which

combined

all

the different characteristics of the study, viz.

Halacha, Midrash, Talmud, and responsa, arranged according

and explaining their reand observances, by means of extracts from the Babylonian Talmud, and original expositions in the favourite form of question and answer (mnVi^ti'). Our printed Sheeltot ^^ are for the most part only extracts and compendia. In Palestine, since the completion of the Talmud which bears its name, there seems to have been nothing important done for Halacha literature. At all events, the complete failure of everything that might have been effected shews Some remarkable to how narrow a sphere it was confined. decisions, affecting practical cases, may have been recorded by the learned, and transplanted to Babylon, as can be gathered from the citation of a work. Events in Palestine, (VKIti'^ y-|>? ^nV D'^^i'rTDn ISD), by the later Gaonim, and from some references in the genuine Babylonian fragments Some apocryof the above-mentioned Halachot Gedolot. phal books of the Talmud (lesser Treatises), composed in Palestine, belong either to an earlier or to a later date. On the other hand, in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries we meet with the development of the Masora from its earlier elements to an extensive science, and with the composition Palestine, however^ together with of particular Targumim. the countries closely connected with it, viz. Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, exerted itself principally in a department of which we have now to speak.
to the sections of the Pentateuch,

spective laws

28

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

5.]

Haggada,

as required by "the doctrine of Divine Law/' or leading and Thought either ending in to action, sometimes blend, sometimes contrast themselves.
Action Halacha
itself,

Thought

itself, as

being without the sphere of duty,

is

not

an object of law, but is presupposed or considered true when produced by Revelation and Reason, and kept alive by She is the living internal law, the general sense of society. which produces and upholds the external, but breaks through she is the spirit which creates her it when it becomes rigid own form and expression, yet disdains to be confined to words and formulae and these, which in her alone have any She is brought value, she abrogates, or silently transforms. forth and guided by teaching and life, by culture and Custom, but cannot be restrained by merely human authoThus free, in strong contrast to all law, and limited rity. only in herself, thought has always found her expression in during the time of the unimpaired unconscious Judaism national life, in the free words of the Prophets ^, which were often a stumbling block to the men of law and justice
;

during the time of the

the school of
life

full self-consciousness

developed by

and

scholastic science, in the

word of the

" Wise

Man "

(DDn), who, to use the thoughtful expression

is

of the Talmud,

standing yet higher than the Prophets, and whose sayings are the outpourings of the Revelation given of old.^ So neither the
^,

the heir of the Prophets

authority of the written oral law, nor that of

sentatives

its

repre-

and administrators, nor the sanction of the Traditions was here necessary as in the case of the Halacha (which was designated as something received externally, or " heard ") it was sufficient for thought that it should be expressed. Hence every expression of it, so far as it did not purposely aim at the investigation and establishment of legal practice, nor fundamentally lay claim to any practical weight, is designated as merely " said," Haggada, in Chaldee Aggada (jM^i^ JMyn) ^ a distinction which, however, must not be so finely spun as to exclude incidental points which
:

 5.]

HAGGADA.

29

might and actually did lead to a different view, and to render conceivable the independent cultivation of the two The Haggada was developed, like the Halacha, parts.
principally

by

oral discourses,

i.

e.

by

lectures, homilies,

sermons, and discussions, which were held ^ on specified days and upon various occasions of life, in assemblies of the people or of families, by men who were competent to speak, or who thought themselves so so that the Haggada may be considered as the first of Jewish Homiletics. But the Halacha and Haggada were separated only by degrees, as manifest in the and recognised divisions and groups of learned men treatment and combination of which there was developed an artificial form of discourse ^ varying according to time and country, to be specially considered in their treatment of the
; ;

Bible.

The Haggada afforded by far the wider field for the development of the Midrash, under which expression, in its more restricted sense, only the Haggada Midrash (m:inn ti^llT^) is to be understood ; since the study and exposition of the Bible, gradually extending itself and overcoming the fetters of the letter with less resistance, became united more and
more to the free expression of thought. But as regards Halacha in the treatment of the existing law and customs, this study and exposition sank lower and lower, till it became a mere memoria technica, tracing out connexions and making notes (TD"i) ^, unauthoritative, and consequently unimportant. Holy Scripture was the centre also of the Haggada; but the Haggada Midrash had no need to distinguish between the Pentateuch (Law) and the other books it was able freely to trace combinations, of the Bible ^ and consequently the Midrash was no fetter or strait jacket to the Haggada, but a large, elegant robe, which restrained no ordinary motion nor even distorsion, and which might be drawn on and ofiP unperceived. By adapting the whole Bible as current and typical to its own purposes, both in its contents and in its form, there was ensured ample matter for the fancy, sharp and pointed weapons for the wits, plenty of incitement for the intellect and mind, and still a continual check reminding them of holy earnestness, and consecrating their thoughts and words to the highest
;

30
ends.

JEWISH LITERATTIRE.
This
is

[Period

I.

not the place to enter upon the special exege^

of the Haggada, or on the use or misuse of

tical resources
;

them we here only glance at the principal relations of the Haggada and Midrash, which will suggest a point of view
for the subdivision of their

voluminous literature.

The Haggada mode

tive or

of treatment was either mainly subjec;

mainly objective

its

standing of words and things, Peshat

letical application, reflecting the

end was either the simple under(tDIi'3)^, or else a homipresent condition of things

in the mirror of Prophecy,

where the words of the Bible and

subjective thought were evenly balanced, as much being brought into the Bible as was taken out of it, Darush

(tZ^m), in a restricted sense

and, finally, there were some

circle of students.

themes confined to a narrower

mystery). ^^

Sod

(*TID,

The

desire

of a simple explanation of words

exegesis was

was but little

of individuals

felt, scientific

unknown

or perhaps

avoided, and the secret science was considered a prerogative

but Darush was favoured alike by internal and its way into both Targum and Halacha. An independent Haggada, free from all Midrash, is not extant in the literature which took its rise in that time ; for anything of that kind was considered unimportant, and consequently would not be preserved except
;

external causes, and thus found

in

connexion with other things.

as

The

Haggada

is

there-

fore, as far

we

are concerned, identical with

Haggadaclasses,

Midrash, and must be divided into two principal

viz.
is

General Haggada^ in which the reference to the Bible

and Special Haggada, ; which the biblical exposition takes the precedence so that the Haggada-Midrash is connected with the Halacha-Midrash, inasmuch as both had originally been developed from general Midrash. ^^ The original elements of the Haggada, both oral and written, must however be distinguished from the later collections and extracts. As regards the written composition of the Haggada^^, some considerations arise different from those noticed in the case of The former must not and cannot, like the old the Halacha. rules of the Halacha, be set down in definite unchangeable formulae, since it was almost entirely merged in Midrash.
subordinate to the subject matter
in
;

5.]

HAGGADA.
necessity for preserving the matter once produced,

31
was

The

not generally a practical one, but was rather the result of the

and studies of individuals and the expression took its hue from the particular prism through which the ray On the other hand, excepting in of thought was refracted. the case of the Mysteries, there was less danger in committing Hence men began earlier to comthese matters to writing. ^^
predilections
;

mit the Haggada to writing in marginal glosses to the Bible,

and in particular rolls or books, both for their own use, and for their schools and public lectures. In this manner the greater collections, now extant, were gradually developed, though These often with important modifications of the originals. must now be treated separately according to their contents and form. The Haggada, in contradistinction to the Halacha, proceeds more upon theory than upon practice the General Haggada (Haggada-Midrash in its wider sense)
;

treats of (1.) Ethical, (2.) Metaphysical, or (3.) Historical

truths.
(4.)

Special

Haggada
its

(Haggada-Midrash
is

in

its

narrower, Midrash in

narrowest sense)

principally

concerned with biblical exposition, and for that purpose

employs

all

the various elements of general Haggada.

(5.)

All these tendencies, however, have points of connexion with

Halacha, and

(6.)

come

in

as conflicting elements in the

simple explanation of words, the Targumim. Omitting various

kinds of transition,

we

thus have the six principal groups of

specified

Haggada literature already

by Zunz, of which

three,

belonging to general Haggada, are independent, and meet in

a fourth, the special Haggada, and then become elements in
the literature of the Halacha and Targumim.

The latter,
Halacha.

for

reasons given in our preface, are excluded from this sketch.

1.

The

Haggada

in

connexion

with

The

original

explanation

of the Bible, especially of the Pen-

was at one time of a Halacha, at another of a Haggada character, according to the contents of the text ; and consequently the single as well as the collective HalachaMidrash could not fail to contain important portions of Haggada, as e.g. the old collections Sifri, Sifra, and Mechilta mentioned above. But the Halacha, in its narrower sense, and the discussions belonging to it, e.g. in the
tateuch,

32

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Pebiod

I.

Masora ^^, had also their points of contact with ethics, metaphysics, and history. This was the case both with their contents, which comprised not only law but the whole of life, and still more with their organ, oral
tradition, which, together with the pith of the tradition, in-

Tosefta^ and even in the older

cluded a mass of accessory matter.

up whole

collective

In this way there grew works of a common character. But in

the larger collections the contents of particular parts diverged

from the whole so completely, that they owe their place only to their form or connexion, and consequently require an independent treatment. In the Talmud, a Boraita, Seder Olam {uh^V "IID), of K. Jose ben Chalafta (S^c. I.) is quoted our Seder Olam, " rabba," resembles the historical Midrash
Lepsius, in his researches its language and contents. ^^ on Egyptian Chronology, invites the learned to investigate the manuscripts of this chronology, which give the date of the exodus differing *' only one year " from the true tradition. The Boraita of the famous Haggadist, R. Elieser ben Jose OF GtALILEE (Saec. II.), called also 32 Middot {nrm 'D."h), and treating of hermeneutic rules which partly relate to The last chapters of Halacha, is of a mixed character. Description Mishna, the Boraita or of the Tabernacle
in
()Dti'?Dn

nDi^VTD)^^ belong to the veritable Halacha,

The

Mishna properly excludes the Haggada; still the Haggada is to be found there: 1. in separate treatises, e.g. Abot (see inf. 2 a.), Middot (see sup. 4., 2 B.), neither of which have any Gemara
peculiar

character

of

the

2.

in the

concluding passages of
^^

many

treatises, containing

blessings and consolations, the style of which

tion of the Prophets
;

was

in imita-

and,

3. in

particular Halachot, which,

being essentially related to the Haggada, combine with it. Among the Boraitas, fragments of which (in the Talmuds

and other collective works) contain Haggada

following are the most important
:

parts,

the

that of the school of R.

seems to be a kind of (V^PT^iti'"' "111 KDD), which Midrash on the Pentateuch and Seder Elijahu ("in^bi*? 1"ID), which is said to contain communications from the Prophet Elijah to B. An AN (a. 280), and existed as a separate work
Ismael
;

as late as the twelfth century (cf. infra, 2

a. ).

Many Boraitas

 5.]

IIAGGADA.

33

belong especially to ethics. ^^ Again, to the Haggada partly belong the Lesser Treatises, six of which appear as apocryphal books in our editions of the Babylonian Talmud
seven others have been recently published as belonging to
the Jerusalem Talmud, to which they are partly anterior,

and partly
of the
six

posterior.
(in the

There

is

one among the moi^e recent

in
(

ninth century at earliest) particularly

interesting
called

(but
of

much

mutilated

the

extant

edition),

The

Treatise of the

Scribes

nn^lD

substance
the Law.^^

which concerns the scribe

JinDTD), the and reader of

Amongst

the seven, two, treating of the Sa-

maritans (OTilD mnD?:)) and of proselytes, merit general

attention.

Lastly, the two

parts
;

Gemaras

or

Talmuds contain
true, in a

Haggada
sition,

the Jerusalem Gemara,

it is

much

less degree, since this older

Gemara, being a Halacha expo-

keeps closer to the Mishna, while the Palestine

In Babylon, where the tendency to the Halacha prevailed ^^, the Haggada did not form a separate literature, but rather found a place in the Gemara, as in the Halacha writings of the Gaonim mentioned above ( 4, 5.), the lost work. Practice of the Gaonim {u^lM^yn nta'I^TD) ^^, and others of the same kind.
Lastly, to this age belongs also the
dividual sciences
^'^j

Haggada was developed more independently.

commencement of
;

in-

which form the transition from Halacha to special Haggada, particularly to Secret Doctrine e. g. physical science, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, which came into consideration in the laws relating to food, leprosy, festivals, and other points ceremonial and judicial (in respect to records, &c.), and which are also indispensable in common life. The study and knowledge of these were developed first within the nation itself, and still more afterwards during the Dispersion, under the influence of the prevailing culture. From them, in a great degree, proceeded the transformation of Jewish views, that great internal revolution, which, spreading in different degrees, by means of the various
external connexions of the separate branches of the nation,

became general or remained merely local. Proportionwas the influence of these theoretical sciences upon national life, which had been fast bound by the Halacha
either

ately various

34

JEWISH LITERATURE.
intellect

[Period

I.

and in accordance with their influence on

rendered
all

and man-

ners in general, traces of these sciences, each step of which

previous steps useless, have been preserved in

literature.

From

the collection and investigation of these

some interesting contributions to the expected. ^^ We have here to do with the literary formation of scientific elements; which in that respect appear to have taken the literary character of the Halacha and Haggada, at all events with the collectors of the latter, so that themes in medicine, physical science, astronomy, and mathematics appear as Boraitasp-^
scattered fragments

history of science

may be

This

is

particularly the case with astronomy^ the study of

which was carried to a high pitch among the Jew^s, so that it was characterised as the " Jewish Wisdom " (Deut.
iv.

6.)

in this the influence of the Chaldeans during the

offers

an interesting subject for investisides, according to which it approaches either to the Halacha or the Haggada. These were, first, the Kalendar, and especially the determination of

Babylonian Captivity
gation.^^

Astronomy has two

the Jewish cycle of festivals (originally agrarian, and since the Jewish year was lunar,
it

required correction for the solar)

by the proper
&c.^^
;

authority, the fixing of jDroper times for prayer,

in

the

and, secondly. Astrology, which was very prevalent East, together with the studies dependent on it.^^
late as the dissolution of the Patriarchate,

In Palestine, as

or, at all events, till the patriarch

Hillel

(a. d. 430), great

grandson of B. Jehuda, the new moon was determined by testimony, a fact which, however, could not supply the place
of astronomical calculation.

the

Passover

Papoport ^^ 89) was able to calculate approximately the appearance of Halley's comet. But the more important astronomical movement seems to belong to the Babylonian scholars; at least, Samuel, who boasts of extraordinary knowledge in astronomy (called also " Jarchinai," or learned in the moon, or, according to others, " of Orchon," a place renowned for its astronomers), is to be considered as the founder of the calculation of the Kalendar, by the introduction of the

The Jewish computation of was continued by the early Christians.^^ believes it probable that P. Joshua (about a, d.

 5.]

HAGGADA.
it

35
the older astro-

Julian year. Improbable as

now seems that

nomical results and calculations were transmitted only by

word of mouth, it is sufficient to admit that some such matters were inserted by the learned as particular Halachot in the "Secret Rolls" (cf. supra, 4. n. 10.). We are not
justified in admitting that a separate astronomical literature

was formed before the progress of science had exercised any general influence; so that the titles of astronomical works mentioned by later writers are to be regarded with These writers can, in fact, be speaking only great caution. of Halachot named after their contents, and the explanations
of them, or of later pseudepigraphic Avorks.

To

the for-

mer belongs the well-known Boraita of The Mystery of Intercalation ("iinm niD"! Kn^nn), and perhaps also The Boraita to the latter probably The of Samuel (h^vy^l i^TT-nn) Boraita of R. Ada (mK nil i^n^nn).^^ xhe same is the
;

were Halacha decisions ; the Talmudical treatises Micldot, Arachin, Erubin contain many of them. particular collection ( Mishna, Boraita, or Midrash), The 49 Middot ( miTi '^"^\ was ascribed to
case with geometry and mathematics in general, which

of

importance

in

various

R. Natan ; and he was identified with the Babylonian of the same name, who is known as the collector of Mishnas, and as the author of many decisions of a mathematical or astronomical character, and who was fond of the combination of Halacha and Haggada by the symbolism of numbers.^^ In proportion, however, as the elements of theoretical sciences and of practical knowledge and experience were more completely beyond the field of the Halacha, they, as the free expression of thought, fell within that of special Haggada, to the literature of which we now turn. 2. Of the independent Haggada, some late productions extend to the age when Arabian science commenced and the whole subject may be divided, according to the remarks
;

made above, into A. The former gada.

a.

General, B. Special or expository

of these
:

Hag-

may be

again subdivided into

If
the Halacha, as

three principal groups

Ethical

Haggada (!Mashal).
D
2

religio-moral law, supplied only the

fundamental idea of

36
right, tlie
*^

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Perioi>

I.

whole doctrine of duty ^"^^ and thus accurately determined the measure of all external action, then morality, piety, custom, experience, and prudence must needs find elsewhere a free expression; this again gradually became typical and prevailing, and thus not unfrequently repassed into the fixed form of Halacha. The richer the Jewish life was in transformations, so much the more complicated must have become the expression of its ethics in the widest sense, although it may not yet appear in the form of a complete system. But since we are here concerned only with the literary phenomenon of the old Jewish
cuique," in
tlie

suum

ethics, the expression of it, or the form of language in which the thoughts are communicated to us, is especially worth our consideration. Ethical thought either created for itself an entirely new form, or else chose one already extant, whether from an earlier literature, or from society, national It then appears as simple reflexion and exhortaor foreign. tion ^^, but for the most part in an aesthetic form just as the philosophy of the East, and of an earlier stage of civilisation, is This gave rise generally clothed in a semi-poetical garb.^^ ^ to a peculiar kind of didactic poetry, which in all its forms The Mashal is, is expressed by the term Mashal (bti'/O).^^ according to the Jewish view, " a small light by which the lost jewels (truth and philosophy in their generality and
;

abstraction) are rediscovered."

Mashal is the Gnome, a maxim, which, first spoken by an individual, becomes the expression of the popular mind and if the reference to the fact in the shape of a proverb
(a.)

The

simplest form of the

short doctrine, sentiment, or

it still hangs like a clod on becomes a proverb of example.^^ All the usual forms of Gnome parable, similitude, and contrast of conception and expression, parallelism, rhythm, are to be found in the Gnomes of the Haggada ^^ &c. but

or the person giving rise to

the transplanted flower,

it

intentional

rhyme

is

the product of later artificial poetry.

Together with the generally known features of Gnomonics,

there are certain particulars, of some importance also for the
later periods (infra,

20.),

here, regarding the

origin,

which must be brought forward history, meaning, originality.

 5.]

HAGGADA.
Gnomes.

37
The Jewish

age, country, and founders of the

Gnomes have been formed and become

mediately from actual
literature.
life,

general, either im-

or under the influence of earlier

They

are either peculiar to the Jews, or taken

from other nations, as must have been more especially the case in the ultimate fortunes of the Jews and sometimes they are expressed in such general terms, that a simultaneous
;

originality is conceivable. But, as a general rule, even the most universal utterances of wisdom and prudence, verbally repeated as the sentiments and maxims of teachers, and becoming popular sayings (tOT^n btL'D, Mashal of the Idiotae),

are stamped with a different character

^^

in different nations

and regions.
various

This was the case also among the Jews of

countries, as of Palestine
age'^'"

and Babylon.'^^

dif-

ference in

can be of importance only in connexion with the points above mentioned. In this continuous flow of history it is not possible to draw accurate distinctions

amongst the various fields of literature before us; e. g. Talmud, Midrash. Even maxims, sentiments, and proverbs undergo perpetual changes; yet the introduction of Arabian Gnomes is distinctly visible in the later
Bible,
literature.

As

criteria

for

these

categories,

we

have,

besides their subjects and historical and geographical allusions,

the literary works themselves, the Jewish as well as the early

Christian and

Muhammedan,
"^^
;

the Old Testament, the Koran,

and besides these, the language, e. g. and the Sunna East or West Aramaic dialect, older or Arabico-Hebraisms.

common life out of witticisms, the application or " moral " of fables, narratives, 8z;c., and
Proverbs, however, arise in

mere proverbial sayings, and finally types, which are of special importance for philology.^^ There is some peculiarity in the influence exercised by the Bible on Jewish Gnomonics, by means of which they are brought into closer affinity with the Midrash. The linguistic side of these which we are here

become condensed

into

into simple metaphors or

considering, forms one phase of style in

Hebrew

literature

down

to the present time.

stances of

Amongst Jewish literature. Holy

p
3

the peculiar circum-

Scripture
;

influences
ele-

both the language and subject-matter

and these two

38

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

ments come into mutual action through the medium of the Midrash. Some of the books of the Bible borrow from one another the form of expression as well as the thought. The more these books become separated as canonical, and the more their style becomes the object of careful treatment and exposition, so much the more importance
is

attached to
;

the preservation of

the

biblical

phrase in the quotation

stood out with
so it fared with

and

after the

Hebrew had

ceased

to be the popular dialect, the

all

Hebrew

biblical expressions

their

external

distinctness,
.

although
the Bible,

translated and paraphrased in Aramaic.

As with

Halacha

at a later period,

with forms of
It

prayer, and

all

separate branches

of literature.

must,

however, be borne in mind, that the Haggada literature, at least the older part of it, and especially the Gnomonics,

must not be considered

a written form.^^
in particular
is

as having

The
shown

influence of the Bible on

been generally produced in Gnomonics

in the following steps: (1.) Biblical

precepts were used, unchanged in meaning and expression,

as sentiments or favourite sayings of particular persons (e. g.

Abot,
the

iv. 1 9).^^

In

this

way

biblical sayings

from the Book

straight into

of Proverbs, the Psalms, &c., found their

^"^

way

Koran and the Sunna ^^, and at last became common proverbs among the Arabs. (2.) Biblical sentences, unchanged in form, were made by extending or contracting their
"^^

contents into neAV expressions of various truths, which had

elsewhere been clothed in known proverbs, so that these last were in some sense deduced from the Bible. A wide field was thus opened for the Midrash and, finally, the words of the Bible were made into proverbs with an entirely different sense.''^ The last result happened also to the Halacha formulas, which were likewise composed in the form of sententise, and consequently became liable to this change of sense.^^ (3.) Lastly, biblical phrases and ideas were used more or less intentionally in newly formed sententiae^^ and passed into proverbial forms, as they are to be found in the old Halacha (e. g. Peah,
;

ii.

2.).

The supremacy
its

of the Bible, considered as sacred

its

both in

subject-matter and in

expression,

is

the form-

ing and transforming power.

Its application depended, in

 5.]

HAGGADA.
upon the attention paid by the
collector

39
teacher, speaker,

single cases,

preacher,

or

of fragments, to
thoughts. ^^

the

way

of ex-

pressing or clothing his

of this

Gnomonic

literature is

The internal character marked by a certain chastity,

and mildness in its satire.^^ simple form of the Mashal is the more concealed expression in the Kiddle and Apologue, Fable and Parable, of which, as it is well known, some specimens occur in the Bible but although no independent literature of the kind, belonging to this period, is extant, they still form an
sobriety,
(/3.)

A less
;

element of the ethical Haggada, are connected with the Bible by the Midrash, and also stand in close relation to the
Gnomonics.^^
ing
literature
is

The connexion
of
the

of this with the correspondPersians,

Indians,

Arabians,

and

Greeks,

as yet too little investigated for us to say any-

thing certain

here

on

the

originality

and other points

touched upon above regarding the Gnomonics. In the Talmud mention is made of Fables of Foxes (U'bl/W 'hw72)

and Fables of and R. Meir

the
is

Bates or of the Washers (D-^Dnn

celebrated
as

'^Vti'TD) ^^ ^

the

person in

whom

the

composers of fables

His cotemporary. Bar Kappara, was acquainted with fables and riddles, apparently from Greek sources, and consequently adopts an

became

extinct.

almost

artificial style.

^^

The

literature of the ethical

cipally of

Haggada thus consists prinGnomology and Morals, the particular parts of

which exhibit the gradations of form described above.^^ To this place belong, first, some apocryphal books, viz. Sirach, which, composed in Hebrew in Palestine, and early translated into Aramaic, was at a later period enriched with additions at Babylon, and of which particular elements appear in the small work of a later age. The Alphabet of Ben Sira, or Ben the addition Of Sira's Book (><-|^D ]n ISD Kl^D ]m 2"^) ^^ and perhaps the Wisdom of Zerubabel in the Pseudo-Ezra also an Aramaic translation, made from the Greek Book of Wisdom. To the earliest ethics, i. e. collections of Halachot
; ;

with ethical sentential, belongs the

Megillat Chasidim (D"^n^Dn T^yo

lost Megillat Setarim, or

D^DD

Toya, Secret Kolls,

Book

of the Pious), which contained precepts of D 4

Jose ben

40

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

Jehuda

(cotemporary of Rabbi), renowned for his piety,

his sententious teaching,

and his Midrash-like method. The most famous and generally the most important, as well as
the Mishna,

the oldest, Grnomological

commonly Capitula Patrum (mni<

called

work now extant is the Treatise of The Sayings of the Fathers,

nilK
^pn3).^

n^'D'n

It consists of

five chapters,

beginning with the delivering of the Law by Moses to Joshua, &c., contain sayings and sententiae of sixty-three of the most remarkable
first four,

of which the

Jewish doctors, from Simon the Just to the immediate

about
five centuries.

fol-

lowers of K. Jehuda Hanasi, and thus through a period of

Next

follows, as the sixth chapter, a

Boraita, called

nmn

y^'p,

Chapter on the Acquisition of the Law (p")3 There appear, however, to also mni^n i^n^nn).^^

have existed other Boraitas containing sententiae of this kind, and likewise called Abot, some of which have found The Gnomology is in general their way into our Mishna. of a double importance on the one hand, it shows us one of the principal motives for making such collections, giving us historical information on the unbroken chain of
:

authorities
sententias

in

tradition,

as

characteristics of

whom

the

come

in^^;
for

became a centre
date,

and on the other hand, these sayings the Jewish writers on ethics of a later

who

frequently introduced their scientifically developed

and somewhat enigmatical ^^, pithy sayings, by means of a commentary, as it was called. These again became, and still are, the subject of many lectures and expositions, translations and editions so that they gained a place in the Prayer-Book (for the long afternoon of the
ethics into these older,
;

Summer

Sabbath, originally in the six weeks between Pass-

Connected with these is a similar work. The Abot of R. Natan ()n3 '"IT n'l:!^), which, in its present form (in our editions of the Talmud), has, according to Zunz, been compiled from three sources viz. (1.) The Older Boraita (or Mishna) of R. Natan; (2.) Extracts from the Middot of the same, mentioned above, supposing that this Middot contained ethical arguments, and that it was by the same author, which is now rather doubtful ; and (3.) Later Additions, which bring its final redaction into post-Talmudical

over and Pentecost).

5.]
times.^^ *

HAGGADA.

41

One of the lesser treatises noticed above contains a and general system of ethics. It consists^ in its present form, of three parts (1.) Derech Erez ("pll^ "]m Ts'D'Dl^) (2.) Derech Erez Minor (KtDIT ^"l) (3.) The last chapter, entitled, Of Peace (U"bwn p"i3). The first, derived from an old nureal
:

cleus, belongs,

from chapter

3. ^^,

to an earlier date

the

second part, a mirror for the learned, of use even at the

present time, extends to the ninth century.

The

treatise

Fear of Sin (Kton n><"l^), of which scarcely any recent quotations are known, is indeed extant as an appendix to the Arabic Siddur of Salomo ben Xatan of Segel-

mas
and

(iii.

19.);

but

it

consists only of the chapters 1

is

4.

9.

of our D. E. Minor, and

followed immediately

chapters 5

(which in our edition are said to be taken and those last only bear the name of Derech Erez Minor. In the unprinted book HaOrah of Salomo Isaaki ( 206.), the eighth chapter of our
8.

by

out of the Machzor Vitry)

is folloAved by another (not extant in our edition), where the sentences are exemplified by narrative. Another manuscript contains, imder the title Hilchot Derech Erez, The above only the first four chapters of the same treatise. circumstances, but recently discovered, may serve to give an Another idea of the history of these works in general.

edition

offshoot

of the

ethical

Hao^o-ada

is

the

work Tana

clehe

Eliahu, or Seder Eliahu (y\'hi<

is

^m

K2n

^^^b^^ "TID) ^^

which

guished as major and minor

into two parts, distinand KlDIT). This ethical Midrash, composed by a Babylonian about A. D. 974, took its name from the way in which he clothed his subject (not however maintained strictly throughout), viz. as instruction given by the Prophet Elias in the school at Jerusalem it occasionally introduces passages from the Talmud.^ In reference to its contents, it is remarkable that the author carefully inculcates the avoidance of customs not Jewish, as well as the most exact justice towards those who were not Jews. There is an apocryphal book of the ethical Haggada, of a date probably not earlier than the end of the twelfth century, viz. Midrash of Contradictions (nilDn W^l'O) ^^, in which the notion that contradictions are necessary in the

divided

by

a compiled

addendum

(mn

42
world,
1.

JEWISH LITERATURE.
is

[Period

I.

iii.

treated in the form of a Midrash on Ecclesiast. Other small tracts, or rather extracts or compilations, of the Midrash of a later period refer principally to ethics, although not in a regular form; e. g. a collection of sentences (3 10.) called Maase Tora (nmn Hli'rQ), and ascribed to Rabbenu Hakadosch, by which name R.

Jehuda, the author of the Mishna, is commonly called; and a similar tract, Chuppat Eliahu (tt^Vk nsin), continuing
to

1115.
b.

Historical

Haggada
;

(Sagas

and

Legends). ^^

In

contradistinction to ethical, historical truths occupy only a

subordinate place

but the causes which called forth and

formed the
action.

historical

Haggada gave

it

a wide sphere of

We bring

those forward which had the greatest in-

fluence on the form of these collections, and constitute the

(1.) The Midrash in general spun out the historical matter of the Bible like that of any other work, and interwove it with legends, introducing all the subsequent history of the present and past into the Bible ^'' the wives and daughter of Muhammed, for instance, are introduced by the Targum into the Pentateuch (2.) The Halacha offered many meeting-points of history and legends: on the one hand, there were individual practical

foundation of their division:

interests,

such as the maintaining of genealogies, especially

conflict of the strong

under the

laws of separation, with the

or the recollection of the

intermixture

of races

by which the Jews were always

;

threatened in their Dispersion

celebration

origin of national or family festivals as connected with their

;

or those points in the drawing of documents and

on the deeds which depend upon chronology and history; other hand, the whole character and organism of the Halacha

and tradition afforded a vehicle for history and legends.

Even

the discussion of the

Law
;

often led to a result only

through the mention of some fact

the Halacha.

thence

we

find, as early

as in the Mishna, facts (HI^I^d) introduced as vouchers for

Through the importance of personal authority

and through the conscientious strictness requisite for tracing back a precept to its first originator, and often, indeed, through a long series of narrators % persons and characters
'''^

 5.]

HAGGADA.
tlie

43
objects

frequently came Into the foregroimd, and became

of Sagas and Legends.

Lastly, the theory of the Halacha

and

tradition,

notwithstanding

the contradiction which

it

met with
ers,

early at the hands of the Sadducees, the

many

ob-

it underwent in the fate of pupils and teachand the endless varieties of opinion among the learned, whose precepts were scarcely even scattered about in collec-

scmrations which

tions,

attained

to a control over the spiritual descent, as it may

and to the preservation and chronological arrangement of the chain of tradition of the most important teachers. With this, again, other Haggada elements were readily united, as was shown above (a) in the Mishna Abot. ^ (3.) The form of narrative, originally a merely semi-poetical clothing for ethical and Halacha subject-matter, was taken at a later period for more than. this. (4.) With the particu.lar formation of Haggada literatm-e in general. Saga and Legendary matter finds its way into collective works. This, however, is brought about only by external and accidental circumstances, since the principal tendency of these works is altogether different. From this point it first attains to an independent literary structure and form. The latter is in consequence principally either that of the Midrash, according to the arrangement of the Bible, or something more independent and chronological, forming a kind of transition to history, especially the history
be
called,

of the learned.

With

respect to the originality, antiquity,

and country of individual Legends, Sagas, and Stories (actual fables do not belong here), the same circumstances occur as in the case of the Gnomonics. But though both of them are connected with old authorities, still the historical Haggada
in general, as far as its contents are concerned, offers
criteria for

more

determination of

its

date even in those places

where
the

it

least in so far as the materials for it

forms a legendary embellishment of the past, at have been taken from

present.

The

historical

Haggada

is,

indeed, during
;

several centuries the only source for

it

Jewish history

and yet

has hitherto been far too

much

neglected in this respect.

for while the

The determination
Sagas and Legends

of the originality of certain groups of

is

more

difficult

Gnome

and the Proverb once formed, generally speaking always

44

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

preserve their original type, the Saga receives a

at

new

birth

the hands of the narrator,

its

or,

like

an avalanche, in-

creases in

course, and gradually becomes

;

more concrete by

the addition of names ^^, numbers, &c.

difficult to discover,

so that its origin is

and an arrangement of it according to even great periods is almost impossible. To the critic of Jewish Sagas, the study of the general history of Sagas is quite as indispensable and important as the consideration of the Jewish is to the student of Sagas in general. The originality of the Jewish Sagas, and their power of accommodating them^
selves to foreign circumstances, render this a profitable task

and the connexion between the two

the later periods of romance
(iii.

is

by no means confined to
but

20.),

may be

followed

up

commencement in the East. Both the Christian and Muhammedam?^ legends have been developed from the Jewish and one or two valuable attempts have been made at explaining the New Testament and the Koran by means
to its first
;

of the latter.

If the elements of the INIuhammedan

are

more recent Haggada writings ^^ and in the later Rabbles ^^, it is still difficult to decide whether the latter authors have not drawn from 'older Jewish, Independently of the foreign, sources. We will not, however, deny the natural tendency of Jewish authors to consider matters as originally Jewish (cf. note 25.), although such a conclusion is supported only by a total ignorance of their
to be found only in the real source.

A striking Instance has

;
!

been pointed out in a

of the celebrated

different field of literature

viz. tales, &c.,

Greek Barlaam and Josaphat ( works as sayings of old Habbies

20.),

quoted in Hebrew
biblical

Moreover, the

legends contain traditional elements of historical and philological Import, in the garb of the Mldrash.^^

The

offshoots of the historical

Haggada
first

stretch far into

the following period of J udseo- Arabian science, and these take the place of historical science.

The

traces of

it

are to

be found in the Bible itself. ^^ At this point begin the exposition and extension of history, the clothing of ethical truths in a historical garb and thence the oral and written Haggada, with their mutual reaction, proceed onwards without any perceptible variety or interruj)tion. Unlike the Halacha,
;

 5.]

HAGGADA.
does
;

45

the Midrash

not distinguisli between canonical and

and only important epochs of history propartial, in its course and contents. For the historical Haggada overshadows the fate of the nation and of individuals with its wide-spread wings,
uncanonical books

duce any modification, and that but

whilst

it

points out a deeper ethical significance in the

won-

ders of Omnipotence, and daily unfolds higher truths to be

learnt from

new

marvels.

The

divisions of the historical

Haao;ada would then coincide with those of the Jewish national history, if the literary works of that time were at all more numerous. Before the period of the last general Distian literature,

which coincides with the commencement of Chrisand with the first attempts at a redaction of the Mishna, the more important facts of history had been illustrated by the Haggada. This had been done, in some
persion,

degree, in particular writings, either preserved as apocrypha,

or

known

only from fragments, citations, and later editions

to

'^

such are the Additions

Esther and Daniel, the story of

Aristeas about the composition of the Septuagint, all in the

Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek language.

of Flavins Josephus also draws in

The

historical

work

many

places from the living

fountain of the Haggada, and must be estimated from that

point of view.^^

The
works
:

following are the most important and characteristic

(a.) The Period of the Talmud (a.d. 140500). To this belong several historical Midrashim, which are no longer

extant in their original form, amongst which some are of a

mixed

character.

The Easter Haggada (HDS

("^ID),

rn;in), de-

voted to the ritual of Easter eve

and called Haggada,

par excellence, on account of its general use, is partly of a Halacha character. Its origin, together with the ritual itself, probably reaches far into antiquity; and to it passages of Mishna, Tosefta, Mechilta, Sifri, and Talmuds, and, in later times, prayers and hymns, have gradually been added.'''' Originating in the Halacha, but important as a historical
source,
in
is

the Megillat Taanit (rr^ipn

rh^i'O, fast-roll),

extant

Aramaic
;

as early as the beginning of the second cenit

tury

originally

was a

list

of historical

days of re-

46
joicing,

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

on which people were not to fast, and with it and Sagas became connected. The work printed under this name ^^ is, however, a commentary on fragments of the original work, of a later date indeed, but, according to Zunz, known as early as the eighth century (?). To the numerous lost Books of the Haggada (m:in nSD) ^^ belongs
Stories

Megillat Juchasin

()*'Dni''

dV^ITD,

genealogical

roll),

of which

there were probably several after the Babylonian Captivity,

owing
is

to the interests above noticed

apocryphal Book of

Adam

(d^K*7

^^, and perhaps also an K5D) ^^, which, however,

by no means to be identified with the Life of Adam, or Apocalypse of Moses, or Lesser Genesis ; a book containing, indeed, Haggada elements, but bearing evident marks of the
Alexandrian or Christian Pseudepigraphy.^^ The Period of the Gaonim. The Tannaim and (/9.) Amoraim, the heroes and victors in " The War of Doctrine,"
as

Jews and Muhammedans

called the study of

Theology

^^,

the martyrs for belief and knowledge, gradually attain to

the position of the old kings and chiefs, in the field of the

Saga, and become at once

its

subject and object

whilst their

names, renowned by their doctrine and deeds, are finally transformed into mythical persons, into categories for ethical
allegory.

This allegory freely uses the plentiful subjectlite-

matter for stories found in the Halacha and Haggada

rature ; at an early stage it works with self-consciousness, and not without regard to the literary form, but finally This last characit degenerates into actual Pseudepigraphy. ter, however, designates the productions of the later Gaonic times (a. d. 800 1040), when the historical Haggada, under the influence of science, which was awakening in Babylon, was continued in two distinct directions, that of history and chronology, and that of ethical narrative. Some few books, however, remained isolated with regard to the estimation in which they were held and the influence which they exerted, ^^ or else belonged to the epias the Book of Seruhabel ; goni of an earlier period, as the Aramaic Book of Antiochus (DIDrto^K rhyd) ^^ which received some support from

its

connexion with the feast of Chanuca (encasniorum). While

postpone the principal really literary labours of this pe-

we

5.]
riod,

IIAGGADA.

47

which belong to chronology, history, and the biography Olam Sulta, Seder Tannaim, Josippon, &C.5 to the main part of this essay, we will conclude the survey of the historical Haggada with some old biblical and post-biblical groups of Sagas, whose tendency is rather to afford information, relaxation, and entertainment. The time of their composition or redaction for the most part The following works cannot be accurately determined.
of the learned, such as Seder
treat of biblical Sagas, generally in a semi-poetical

Hebrew,
e. g.

and in a more and more puristic

biblical

language

the

History of Abraham ("iD'^nK DnilKl Hti^PTO) ^^ written perhaps partly after the Arabian legends ^^5 in a later Hebrew, and

not to be confounded with a recent translation from Oriental

sources.

The wars of the sons of Jacob are treated of in the Midrash Wajjisu (^V'D^^ 'inyro) ^^, i. e. of Genesis, xxxv. 5., and the Life of Moses in the Chronicle of Moses (btL' D^TD^n nti'TD), and the older iliz'tZms/i of the Death ofMoses {n')^lD2 ti'mD Even a tract, innii'TD) ^^, which resembles special exegesis. scribed Midrash of Goliath the Philistine (n^V:i hvj II/'lIT^ Titi'Vsn), has been found by the author in an old manuscript The Histories of Solomon (bu/ W^hwo of the Bodleian library. One of the most Tl'dh'^) ^^ are legends of an Arabian cast. favourite themes is the History of Asmodai (''"I7Dti'>$ nti'PD), the king of the Daemons, who deceived Solomon, and sat on his throne for some time. The foundation of the legend, which is already traced in the Babylonian Talmud, is the passage in Ecclesiastes (i. 12.), I, Kohelet, "have been" king,

nm

&c.

The learned
is

Silvestre de Sacy, speaking en passant of

this tale (of

an imperfect manuscript of
recension
that he
is

which a

later

Hebrew

printed in a collection mentioned below), thinks

" abusing the patience of the reader by dwelling on such a frivolous subject," which is familiar to him as the source of the Muhammedan legend in the Koran, where Asmodai is called " Sachr " while Rapoport digs psychological and ethical ideas out of the fanciful Oriental legend, which he compares, not without reason, to the German " Faust." It may be remarked, by the way, that even the mission of Asmodai for the " Shamir " seems to be alluded
;

to in the

Koran

(xxi. 82., xxxviii. 36.).

48

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

those which are brought connexion with a celebrated Haggadist himself, E,. Joshua ben Levi. legend of his being taught in one of his journeys by the prophet Elias, that the justice of God
into

Of Talmudical Sagas we mention

not to be judged by appearances^ is now well known through the Koran (where Moses is substituted for our Eabbi), and also through many metrical versions. Another
is

legend of his entering alive into Paradise, called History of R. Joshua hen Levi (^l'? )n Pti'lH^ 'iT T\VJV12), has been

spun out and wrought into what may be called the first '' Divina Commedia,"^^ It is to be remarked, that in the most common Hebrew recension of this legend, the Rabbi is begged by another Rabbi to look " whether there are Gentiles in Paradise or Jews in Hell," of which question only the latter part is answered in the affirmative, and that indirectly. The tale was afterwards metamorphosed into an ^' epistle " of Rabbi Joshua himself; and some cabalistic author of the fourteenth century (?) forged an appendix, where all the wise and pious of Paradise are said to be studying some remarkable works amongst them, R. Simon ben Yochai is But our legend reading the book Idra (part of the Sohar) seems to have previously undergone several combinations with eschatological ideas and fancies, which are to be met with in different recensions, under the titles of Treatise of Paradise or Hell (ddH"^:! nr)D7D )ir ]:i n^D?^), and which themselves have been otherwise combined with the tracts on the Torment of the Grave (y'^'^'pT\ Dll'^n), Creation of the Child
:
!

(iVin -DT^:^), &c.

The Hechalot

(see

13.) are closely

and

especially connected with this legend, as well as with the

Ten Martyrs {7\VJ2^'t2 DIDbTD ^^r)r\ nnti'P Midrash elle Eskera (phn ti'llT:) n"i3m), a description of the execution of ten renowned Mishna Doctors of the second century^^, and many others. The Midrash of the Ten Commandments^^ (m-imn nnti'P ti'mD) is a collection of stories on the contents of the Decalogue, the subjects being mostly taken from the Talmud. One of the two different recensions, although printed four times
History of the
mD'772 '';nim), called also

under the

mimn),

title. History of the Decalogue (nnti'r bti' D-^ti'rTD has escaped the notice of even tlie editor of the

 5.]

HAGGADA.

49

consider neither the histories Beth ha-Midrash (1853). nor the precepts to be the principal object of the writer, but
rather the illustration of the Decalogue
;

We

and we would range

is

the

work under

that class of Homiletics which

(cf.

closely

connected with the liturgy

below,

d.).

It partakes also of

a hymnical character, reminding us strongly of various Arabic

hymns on the name

the Decalogue, one of which

of

is

printed under
hitherto

Saadia Gaon.

No

less

unknown
:

was a collection of histories, printed also four times with the Midrash of the Decalogue, under the title Collection of Histories, Midrashot and Haggadot (r\W'^lr^'^^ Tsy^'^^l^n lin'^n It contains twenty pieces, without any visible nn:im). connexion, some of which are to be met with in separate But our literature is not manuscripts, and are very old. for example, one deficient in larger and better collections composed for his father-in-law, by NissiM the Gaon, as a book of consolation and morals, and, according to Rapoport's
;

probable supposition, either entirely or partly in the Arabic

language. ^^*
c.

The

Secret Doctrine

is

that part of the

Haggada which

has had the greatest interest for Christian students, on account of its pretended reference to Christianity, and of its

supposed identity with the later Kabbala, which also numThis latter tried to bered Christians among its disciples.
gain the authority of antiquity by means of intentional

pseudepigraphy but, on the other hand, the Jews protested By the thoroughly critical against it at an early period. investigations of Rapoport and Zunz^^^ however, the historical separation of the two has been established on a sure
;

footing,

tions or

which cannot be injured by superficial investigaby arguments apparently critical, whose evidences are taken from delusive and suspected sources, nor by arbitrary selections of individual points, and combinations built therethe important questions which here only from a more accurate and obtained be meet us, can Oriental philosophy, especially with acquaintance thorough of Syrian Arabia in the middle and that of ancient Persia effected, the external means of be But until this ages.
upon.^''

A solution of

50

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

criticism (especially for the fixing of dates)

must guide and

determine our judgment.

If religious and moral truths have generally expressed

themselves with precision in law and custom, and the national consciousness has found a

home

reference being

made

in writing

in history and sagas, and speaking to the ori-

ginal source of all things;

then the highest metaphysical

questions on the essence of

God and

his relation to the world,

must needs have occupied the minds of individual thinkers even at an early period, and the apparent contradiction between the prophetical images of visions and wonders, and the great idea of the " I am' that I am," must have driven men An impulse in this direction might be traced to reflexion.
in the fact of the intellectual centre of the nation having

been carried away to Chaldsea^^, a country by its position well suited to the observation of the heavens, and one which had at an early period emerged from unthinking Paganism to the more developed form of Dualism (Lam. 3, 38.). Thus on the old ethical and political prophecies there was grafted a metaphysical offshoot, fantastical in its expression, and having a tendency to become systematised, just as the introduction of a syncretic philosophy into the images of Scripture was produtied only by the confluence of the minds of the East and West in the Western-Asiatic Hellenism and Alexandrianism. The whole field of Jewish wisdom (n7::ir)n) in the highest sense ^^ was collected, under the influence and form of the Midrash, into

two

principal groups, comprising the

two spheres of

being, heaven and earth.

Under
it

the names. The Doctrine

of the Divine Throne (nnD^TD

Creation (n^ti'i^nn nti'rTD)^^

HtS'rTO) and The Doctrine of proceeds to treat, in the MidIs. vi.,

rash manner, of the vision of Ezechiel (also

Jacob's

dream, and Moses's vision),

a,nd the history of the creation

(Gen.

i.

1.)

of the

doctrines

of the essence, attributes,

(names, ^^) and manifestations of God, of the heavenly courts, stars, and angels ^^, and also of the first and
influences,

continuous growth and nature of creatures. son

it

was properly

physics."
connf^-^.ted

To

this

For this reaby Maimonides, "metaphysics and part of our subject belong some matters
called

with the above, taken from the Parsee doctrine

 5.]

HAGGADA.

51

of daemons, astrology, cliiromancy and sympathetic healing,

and also ; on the hidden grounds and tendencies of the precepts, which, belonging rather to special exposition, were designated i)^5^ene5 of the Law (nilD ^"1, nnD)^% and were The union of all these subjects at variance with blind faith. in a systematic whole marks out the later Kabbala,

treated of in certain Boraitas as before mentioned

treatises

some

The
Sirach,

exposition of the vision of Ezechiel

is

older than the

Chronicles,

and that of the chapter on the creation older than

cautions the reader against
is

who

it

the influence of

the Alexandrine school

visible in the

book of Wisdom and

Philo affords philosophical elements for the later Kabbala. ^^^

This Midrash, from

viduals.

its

nature, could only be the

work of indimonotheism,

Its consequences,

dangerous to

strict

upon the Halacha of the time, demanded and obtained the strictest forethought and consideration among the Jewish wise men in Babylon and Palestine, of whose labours on this subject only a few traces are extant.
and
its

practical effect

On

this alone rests

our designation. Secret Doctrine}^'^

this

It is

not impossible, although improbable, that individual

litterati

had written something of

the period of the

Talmud and

have been no
so late, that

literature,

kind on Secret Rolls, but in Gaonim there seems to certainly none in the popular dialect
earlier

(the Aramaic). ^^^

The

first

really literary productions appear

we

prefer to treat

them

in connexion with the

following period ( 13.). B. The special or expository

called)
^^^^

Haggada (Midrash strictly so some sense the old Jewish Exegesis and Homiletics, and aims at an explanation of the text, without excluding the tendencies and methods of the general Hagis

in

gada, or even those of the Halacha.

On

the contrary,

it

sometimes applies and makes use of them in constructing The works a whole, of which the text forms the centre.
are collected from fragments, and in their complete form
constitute a

kind of commentary on particular books of Holy Scriptm-e, and are named after them, as Bereshit So far, how(Genesis) Rabba, Midrash of the Psalms, &c.
ever, as they for the

most represent the usual cycle of SabE

2

bath and Festival Lectures (Sermons and Homilies), their

52

JEWISH LITERATURE.
and called

[Period

I.

particular sections are divided

after the divisions

of the Pentateuch {Parshiot), or those of the prophets {Haftarot\ and after the five Megillot received into the ritual

consequently Midrashim on particular books of the Penta-

would in an uncritical age be treated as a whole, e. g. Midrash Rabhot. The exposition extended itself to everything that could be brought into connexion with the text, and thereby introduced, by an almost imperceptible combination of ideas, the most distant objects. The materials swelled like an avalanche the later Midrash having reference to the older, and the collectors being not
teuch, written at different periods,
;

very particular in the selection of their matter.

They ex-

pounded the whole contents of Scripture, even the names ^^% and not unfrequently the exposition itself *^^, laying particular stress sometimes on the contents sometimes on the expression, any external features of which served as a connecting link for the interpretation. Of these we will mention only the best

known

the Masoretic definitions, alphabetical changes, ab(

breviations, numerical value of the letters

Geometria,

Gram-

mataia, Notarikon, Temura), and even the similarity of words

in foreign languages.
^^^

As

regards the form and arrange-

ment

of particular lectures and collections,

progress in the care

we may
;

perceive

and art bestowed on them although, some described above, it could never have from the influences attained to any high degree of excellence.
Further investigations are
still

requisite for the special

works of which have been subjected by Rapoport and Zunz to a general The oldest traces of such an expocritical examination. At the sition may be found in the Bible and Apocrypha,^^'^ time of the redaction of the Mishna there were certain Books of Haggada which were studied, although not without some fear of the misuse of free thought if it were allowed to behistory of this Midrash, the principal literary

come paramount but these are known to us principally by fragments and quotations from existing works.
;

The special Haggada consists (1.) of great and important Midrashim on the entire Pentateuch, or on particular books of it, and also on the prophets and the Hagiographa; (2.) of lesser and later offshoots of the Haggada on the particular To the first belong the ten Midsections of Scriptures.

 5.]

HAGGADA*

53

rashim known'by the name Midrash Rabba {Rabbot) on the Pentateuch, and the five Megillot, of which the earliest (Genesis) was completed as early as the sixth, and the latest
(]^umbers) in the twelfth century.

complete cycle of
A. D. 700, the

lectures corresponding to the Pericopes of remarkable days

is

formed by the old

Pesikta^^^,

begun about

text of which as restored from fragments in an edition of the

Pesikta Rabbati about two centuries later (composed A.D.

845), and from other quotations, is calculated to give an idea of the history of the Midrash ; to which we may add that

Zunz's investigations are fully borne out by researches in

MS.

works.

lamdenu, the history of which as exhibited by

less peculiar,

In the Midrash Tanchuma, or Tanchuma-Jeits text is no

the oldest expository Haggada, origiIt

we have

nally comprising the whole Pentateuch.

was

collected

probably in South Italy, in the second half of the 9th century.

Among the non-pentateuchal Midrashim, the Midrash of the Psalms (called also Shocher Tob) belongs to the same country, and as regards the older half (1 118.), to a still earlier date. The Boraita of R. Elieser (ben Hyrca Js^) ^^, composed in Palestine, Syria, or Asia INIinor, shows a peculiar character with respect to its arrangement and contents. It is an incomplete Pentateuch ^lidrash, with an intentionally false name it contains some lengthy disquisitions on the objects of worship, of the ethical and historical Haggada, and of secret doctrine, and in its artificial arrangement answers to the benedictions of the prayer Shemone esra (see inf. 6.). Of the second class of special Haggada, the relation of which to the liturgy (cf. above, p. 49.) we hope to see illustrated

by the master Zunz himself, we may mention, out of the eight works noticed by Zunz, the Midrash Vajosha, or bp V:/1172
U^n
T^l^ll/

(on Exod. xiv. 30.

sq.),

which contains the

first

form

of the old Armillus (Romulus) legend after the analogy of

the Arabian Deggial

(J'^-T^^)? ^^^ a small Midrash Esther, These various Haggada works, of which we have taken a rapid sketch, constitute the creative period, and consequently that most fruitful in literature. Even the collective works of the time show, at least in the treatment of their It materials, a certain generative power and independence.

E 3

54
is its

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

not impossible to follow the whole length of the stream in

manifold intersections^ as an unbroken natural channel, up

Gradually the course of the stream comes to a stand still, its bed is lost in the sand, while canals and artificial reservoirs carry off the water. In the place of the productive energy of the Haggada andMidrash, the 11th century presents to us nothing but servile extracts, compilations, and comprehensive collections made from all sources. But these latter belong to the succeeding period for the new elements which indicate the termination of one period are in fact the beginning of another, just as the extinction of the Midrash itself is perceived by means of the new elements by which the epochs are marked out. They were however, from a general want of criticism, placed in the series of the old Midrashim. Moreover, the less independent, the more faithful, and the more unmeaning the compilation, the less These compilations, accurately can its date be determined. and especially the larger and more comprehensive of them, contain elements of works either lost or but little known to us, and consequently afford materials, in many respects important, We will mention here only for the criticism of the Midrash. the best-known work ; Midrash Jalkut, by R. SiMON K1a:ra
to the living source.
;

(see 9.).^ This brief development

might
all

justify the assertion

made

above, that a more intimate acquaintance with the Midrash

literature, in

which nearly

the mental energy of a people,

its

equal at least in this respect to

contemporaries,

is

concenis

trated and reflected throughout

more than 1000

years,

worth, and actually needs, a lengthened and unprejudiced

examination of

details.

Few, however, seem

inclined to un-

dertake this labour.

6.]

Liturgy.^

Since

we have found

in the literature of the

Halacha and

Haggada an expression for all the intellectual interests of life, we shall not expect prayer to have been an isolated development. And, in fact, the whole liturgical literature of the Jews stands, in the closest connexion with the development of the Midrash, and particularly with the earlier period

 6.]

LITURGY.
foundation^ in which the

55

Jewish prayers assumed the usual Jewish prayerFor peculiar character.^ book consists of elements belonging to a period of 1000
of
its

their

years,

and

offers to criticism a field of greater difficulties

all

than the Midrash, from the absence of

being

external criteria

while the accounts preserved in the Midrash, of prayers

composed by

certain

Eabbies, must

with caution, as the prayers

beginnings have in

now

in use with the

be received same

many

cases

been enlarged.

Moreover

those Rabbles must not be considered as their authors, but

merely

as

having handed them down.^

still

received into the liturgy, have

to be collected

Other prayers, not from the

for oiu' historical

Midrash

literatm-'e"*,

and are of importance

development.

The Bible recognises but one kind of public worship incumbent as a matter of duty, viz. the sacrificial worship at Jerusalem, with which certain confessions of sins and ritual
formularies are connected; and in general
to the requirements of individuals.
it

leaves prayer

Of independent forms
;

of

some of the psalms and prayers anterior to the captivity may have been composed for worship or introduced into it, and finally have become disseminated among the people. If other individual prayers were composed and written at that time, they
prayer there
is still

no mention anywhere made

belong to history, not to the law. To the interruption of worship, to the revolution in the popular the sacrificial
dialect, to the

consciousness
schools

more extended development of the religious by the later conflicts, to the influence of the and the Halacha, which made everything the object
to be ascribed the general fixing
;

of law,

is

and formularising

of prayer

so that the

commencement

of a liturgy falls at

earliest in the

time of the great synod, when, together with

the restoration of the sacrificial worship, prayer accompanied

with teaching from the Bible took an independent position,

what time men began to pray at stated hours, and consehave a fixed ritual, when and how congregations first met for prayers and public worship elsewhere than at the Temple, and when the relation between reciter of prai/ers Cantor (]Tn, iin:: n^VtL,') and congregation Q7T\^) was developed,
t

C|uently to

E 4

56

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

are questions not yet satisfactorily determined; nor lias

it

even been asked, whether the ancient prayers were propagated orally, or written down by their composers On the whole it is certain, (1.) that prayer is connected with the development of the Midrash,in so far as in the case of the history of Midrash, additions, extensions, and embellishments gradually grew up around the old nucleus of prayers, whether originally composed for general use, or first introduced into public worship at a later time ; until, finally, the Midrash itself encroached upon
!

prayer

(2.) that a considerable portion of the oldest prayers

grouped itself about passages from the Bible, and thus approached very near to the Haggada, so that in general, to use the expression of a Talmud Doctor^, a form of prayer enjoined as a duty at particular times can no longer be regarded as confined to the narrow limits of mere feeling (3.) that the Halacha and Haggada lectures gave occasion to prayer The prayers when once fixed and meetings, and conversely.
:

circulated

came

into a certain analogy with the Bible

they

were were founded^, they were used as texts for the construction of Midrash^, and their form of expression involuntarily returned "VYe learned above ( 5. 2 b.) to recognise to the memory.^ Easter Haggada as something between liturgy and Midrash. At a later time the Halacha found its way into the daily
cited, instead of the passages of the
ritual.

Bible on which they

is

The language of the older prayers, particularly the ritual, Hebrew; a few only are Aramaic, as the Kaddish (ti'^'lp), originally a form for concluding Haggada lectures.^ The oldest are little Their style likewise has its history.
else

than compilations of Biblical sentences, together with

;

actual pieces of the Bible

and throughout the whole period

they maintain a Biblical Hebraism. The language is simple and clear, without any artificial form, without any congeries
of synonymes, and their tone
elevating.
artificial
is

consequently hearty and

first adopt a kind of form in composition, with inflexional rhymes and

;

At

a later period they

alphabetical acrostics

as is the case in the

Books of La-

mentations, Psalms, and in the

other hand, actual

Targum

Esther. ^

Oh

the
to

rhyme and

acrostics of

names belong

the following period.

 6.

LITURGY.

57

The liturgical literature is divided in its progress into two classes, not entirely distinct: (1.) The general />r?/er5 for Divine service or worship in a restricted sense, which are obligatory on each individual, and are not connected Avith any definite occasions; as are (2.) the Benedictions
(niDil) at
meals,

on the performance of certain cere-

monies, at lectures, &c., which

further, as they do not exercise

we

will

not particularise

any actual influence on the later literature. The former class comprises daily and festival prayers (in which are reckoned those for all remarkable days, such as fasts, &c.). The daily prayer was developed out of the two oldest principal groups of the liturgy, which, on
account of
the general
character

of

their
first

contents, are

was called by its initial word, iho, Shema (PTDIi'), afterwards also Reading of the Shema (^'0''\V nK''~ip), and was originally a mere collection of pieces of the Bible, in which the acknowledgment of the unity of God, and the memory of his government of Israel, It was probably introduced in or after the are expressed. period of the Syrian war, as a morning and evening prayer, and was enlarged with suitable additions. The other group, the TefiUa (nbsn) ^^ the actual supplication, contained a form of hymnical Introit and Exit, with the addition of
entirely adapted to public worship.

The

the sacerdotal blessing (]rin, originally, pulpit of the priest). The nucleus gradually grew into twelve sayings (m^m), and

thence the whole took the

ings), (nitZ/P
n3"i?:)t2/

nVsn)

name Prayer of the Eighteen {sayand this name was preserved for

the corresponding prayers of the Sabbath and festivals, which contained, instead of the twelve supplications, a proper hymn

of triplets referring to the offering proper to the festivaL^^* And since on these days an additional offering, Musaf{^t>V2^,

was made, there

Avere

formed similarly for

this

an eighteen

prayers, which was called Musaf. After the complete cessation of the sacrificial worship, prayers received a greater extension

the Halacha exalted prayer to a vicarious duty, and thus involved its formularisation almost as a necessary conse-

quence.

went on
also

In the synagogues and schools teaching and prayer and the president of the academy was generally director of public worship (kitd VJ^'\, later '\'\'D'n ti'l^i).^
;

58
The

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

I.

agrarian signification of the principal feasts was, in

prayer and preaching, gradually pushed more and more into

the background

by

its religio-historical signification (e. g.

the

offering of the firstlings at the Pentecost,

tion of the giving of the

Law).

by the commemoraAmongst them the day of

Commemoration (subsequently the

New Year's

day, and day

of Judgment), and especially the day of Atonement and Fast

day, must at an early period, on account of their original meaning and importance, have had a longer liturgy, in which preaching and prayer had a part, following immediately upon the extraordinary sacrificial worship. We have mentioned Krochmal's opinion above ( 4.), that at an early period a description of the Temple ritual on the day of Atonement By degrees the was composed for liturgical purposes. ^^ lecture of the doctor, also on the subject of the Temple ritual,
naturally passed into the hands of the reciter of prayers,

In earlier times the reciter of prayers spoke in public worship as the

since they

were often both the same person.

plenipotentiary of the congregation (~nn2S H^Vti', later

as
in Aramaic),

i-illlp,

and the congregation joined only in the " Amen " and short responses. This, with the old variations, now extant, and also the argumentum a silentio, that in the

Talmud nothing upon liturgical writings occurs, makes it more than probable, that the older prayers were not circulated

among

the people in writing. ^^

By their

spreading from
to arrange

the centre of authority, by the gradual interpolations of individual doctors and reciters,
settle things constantly

by the tendency

and

evinced by the Halacha (as the object

of which certain prayers were

now

considered),

by the con-

which was once produced, by the growing respect for learned writers and the need of a uniform public worship, and by a combination of all these causes, the dissemination of written prayers must have gradually advanced. Among the authorities in the period of the Talmud who were active in composing or fixing the liturgy, we may mention Gamaliel II. and R. JochaNAN in Palestine, E-ab and Samuel in Babylon. From the time of the Saboraim and the first Gaonim, the
tinually increasing care in retaining that

history of the liturgy

is

obscure

but

it

is

improbable that

 7.]

EARLIEST JEWISH LITERATURE OE ARABIA.

59

there was any great activity on the subject. ^^

a

Prayer took

new form from

7.]

the liturgical poetry of the next period.

The

earliest

Jewish Literature of Arabia.

With the
first

extension of power which Judaism received in the

its

century after Christ in Arabia (in

widest sense), and

with the religious controversies Avhich necessarily occurred, it was impossible for the Jews of Arabia to be destitute of
all science, as their

heathen countrymen were at the time of

Ignorance (Djahelijje).
batasa,

The

inhabitants particularly of the

small kingdoms to the north (Hira, Ghassan, Hidjaz,

Na-

and Idumaea) were too near to Palestine not to take The *^ Religion of part in its civilisation and literature. Abraham" of the Arabian Jews is a Muhammedan invention
easily explained
;

aind the

legends of the two learned Jews

of the lineage of Karisa, in Medina,

who

prophesied of

Mu-

hammed and

converted the Tobba^, can at best be treated

only as a sign of the existence of Jewish learning in Arabia,

with which the journey of R. Akiba thither, and the mention

of a learned Jew Malluch in the Talmud-, coincide. At the same time, single Beduin families might have remained untainted with Rabbinism.
JudcRO- Arabic literature^ ^ the importance of which be demonstrated in the following period, shows early traces of being the (genuine) national literature of the counwill

The

try

for contemporarily with Amriolkais, the Singer of a ; Moallaka (i. e. a golden song), the Jew Samuel ben Adijja whose friendship for him was proverbial, and others but recently made known by Hammer, composed their poems. The

important Rabbinical elements of the Koran indicate a certain cooperation on the part of learned Jews and Jewish
renegades.

such the following may be mentioned ES Selam, Finhas (ben Azura), and according to some (but with less probability), Werka ben Naupil and the monk Bahiea, or Boheira. As a main authority for the Sujina, we have Kaab ol Akbar and

As

Abdallah BEN

one of the oldest Islamite

Khalif Ali, derives
its

sects, the Sabaites,

who

deified the

origin from the

Jewish renegade Ab-

dallah BEN Saba.

We

soon see the Jews also take an

60

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

active part in those sciences which

necessarily established
e.

themselves in the first warlike centuries of Islamism,

g.

Abu Hafsa

Jezid, a physician in Yemen, who professed Islamism to Omar (a.d. 650); and Masergeweih of Bosra (a. d. 683), who translated the Syriac medical Pandects of
the presbyter Aaron into Arabic.

But up
rature
is

to this point the participation in the

Arabian

lite-

rather isolated, without direct influence on the

whole, and having some other analogy with the literatures of

the other lands of the Dispersion.

The wide-spread dominion

first
;

of the Arabian power and science

brought about a

general development of Jewish literature

enter upon the next Period.

and with

this

we

PEKIOD

11.

FROM THE BEGINNING OF ARABIAN SCIENCE TO THE EXILE OF THE JEWS FROM SPAIN.
From the Eighth to the Fifteenth Century.
Introduction

8.]

and General View,

is

The

beginning of the Second Period

not without analogy

to the First.

The

First Period, that of the Midrash, lay

in the obscure age of the great synod,

and

its

literary pro-

ductions refer to the Bible and the Apocryphas.

The

intro-

duction of Greek and

parties,

Roman

culture called forth religious

and required a more distinct formation in faith and and finally, the Midrash, in all its breadth and depth, society was developed from the complete canon of Scripture. In like manner, at the time of the middle Gaonim (8th century), were formed the first seeds of the new Arabian science, preserved to us almost like scattered plants on the broad ground The new wisdom gradually becoming of the Midrash. universal, met and arrested the living creative power of the Midrash, made the Midrash itself the object of scientific inquiry, and gave a definite form to scientific and religious
;

 8.]

GENERAL VIEW.

61

This second period is distinguished systems and schools. from the first by very important characteristics. The development took place at once with the Dispersion, under the influence of different nationalities and languages, and of two complete religious systems springing from Judaism. It proceeded more from literature than life, and, being founded on the foregoing period, was in general richer and more diversified. Moreover, the individuality of the author becomes now better ascertained ; and the particular writings receive the stamp of an intellectual purpose, acting with due attention to the outward form, as may be perceived in the division, &c., and in the titles^ of the books. Finally, oral tradition gave way to written literature. We find that this period also began with the formation of an actual sect, the Karaites (about 750); and immediately afterwards^ the Arabian language became the usual organ for the new Reference to geographical objects and forms of thoughts. position, and its historical influence on particular intellectual
tendencies
is

also

more apparent.
is

The most general type

minion.

afforded

between the countries under Christian or

From Babylon and

Irak,

by the distinction Muhamrnedan^ dowhere the Gaonim and

Khalifs held the ecclesiastical and civil power, the Arabian

science and language together with the study of the Halacha

flowed with the Arabs over Northern Africa and Spain, and

reached Southern Italy and the South of France (Provence). Both of these countries afterwards occupied an influential
position.

We name this
now

school after
"I~)5D,

its

chief representative

(Spain) the Sefaradic (from

Palestine was

Avith the

Babbies, Spain).
importance,

suffering from the inroads and wars of the

its literary

wild hordes of the East, and had lost

being unable to raise itself from Masora and Midrash to more independent study. But from that country when the

Talmud was
and Germany

in full vigour, the

Halacha and Haggada had

spread over Asia Minor, Greece, Northern Italy, France,

and towards the end of the 9th century a between Germany, Northern Italy, and France was promoted by means of an important learned family, whom the king of France brought from Lucca to
;

closer connexion

62

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

Mayence.^ The scientific activity of the Jews under the Arabian dominion had thrown into the background the separate study of the Halacha, which however was indispensable to religious life and thus they became dependent for it upon the Babylonian Gaonim. But this came to an end when in the 10th century the Jewish literature of Europe
;

finally

took

the

foremost

place.^

An

effect

described

below more in means of certain

literature.

detail

was produced by Italy, through the influential personages, upon various kinds of
other things the transplanting of three

Amongst

men from Bari to Kahira, Kairovan, and Cordova (948 960), gradually emancipated men's minds from the Halacha authority of the Gaonini, which in 1037 completely fell to the ground with the Babylonian academies.^ Spain now independent (united with Mauritania) had not long been adorned with the noblest specimens of JudaeoArabian literature, when the fanaticism of the Almohaden threatened to crush it (about 1150); but this fanaticism, in conjunction with the movement of the Crusades, only caused them to be transplanted to the north-east (Prodistinguished learned

vence). ^

In it began, not only the important development of Talmudical learning among the glossatores of Northern France and Germany, but also the influential activity of the translators from the Arabic in Provence. By them Arabian science was made accessible to the Jews of France and Italy. In its
a
era in this period.

The 12th century forms

new

more consistent formation, however, it became a stumblingAnd thence block by the religious system of Maimonides.
arose,

in

the

13th century, the sharp polemical dispute

about philosophising, which ended (1306) in the proThe intellectual hibition of the early study of philosophy. tendencies of this century generally, even in the West, had
approached one another more nearly. Toledo had become the Jerusalem to which the combatants of the pen had drawn
together to obtain Arabian learning for the benefit of the
Christian faith
;

and Jews or Jewish apostates were here the

it.^

usual channels through which they obtained

But

the

more the Arabs were driven back by the power of Christian

 8.

GENERAL VIEW.

63

Spain, so

much

had to

offer

the more did the treasure which the Jews become an object of desire. Thus we find in the

13th century Christian princes, for example, the Emperor

King Alphonso the Wise (12561277), Anjou (1279), and Robert of Anjou (1319), mentioned as protectors and favourers of Jewish litterati,^ This however did not happen without exciting bitterness on the part of fanaticism and envy ^; which vented itself in the numerous writings of this century hostile to the Jews, and occasioned persecutions of the Jews, and the burning of Jewish books. Manfred is said to have translated a pseudoAristotelian work, as it seems from the Hebrew. The intellectual intercourse between Jews and Christians, in the countries where the language of literature (the Latin) was more accessible to the Jews, from its affinity with the vernacular, was far greater than the deficient state of inquiry into that very interesting subject might lead us to suppose and it has even recently been ascribed to subordinate causes. At the same time, through the western syncretism in Provence and Southern Italy, where the Arabian- Spanish and the Judseo-Christian lines of thought met, the new Kahhala with its pseudepigraphic literature was developed,
Frederic II. (1232),
Charles of
;

in opposition to the rational school, out of the old secret

In the 14th and 15th centuries this literature took possession of the leading minds, not only of the darker North where the light of Arabian science had not penetrated, where no sunshine of culture and humanity had warmed the
teaching.

and where systematic superstition reigned both in the schools and in society, but also of the more cultivated South. This may be ascribed to the fact that science, having passed
soil,

out of the fruitful stage of struggle into that of peaceful possession

and cultivation, had

Christian

lost in

depth what

it

had gained
its

in

breadth;

scholasticism being,

by

nature,

upon the Jewish only polemically, and indeed herself soon becoming a disciple of the Jewish Kabbala. Jewish literature, in general, not excepting even the subject
able to react

of theology, took a prominent part in the different

Romance
either of

languages, and in the learned Latin, in the

original composition or of translation

way

and

editorial labours.

64

JEWISH LITERATUKE.
tlie

[Period

II.

From

13th century, the Italian school approaches nearer

to the Spanish,

and at last absorbs the best strength of the These are the outlines of the intellectual movement, which future investigation must illustrate. We must now consider briefly what disciplines were
Spanish
exile.

brought into shape during this period, pointing out their connexion with the literature of the first period. This must be done in order that the encyclopcBdic division, here to be developed, may be followed by a closer observation of what was doing in the particular departments. In the First Period nearly the whole literature was ranged under the great banner of the Midrash, and we distinguish as principal groups, Halacha, Haggada, Targum, and Prayer.

Of

none.

independent science in the stricter sense, there was This first found entrance among the Jews through
;

the Arabs

although certain Jews, as for example

SERGEWEiH (683), Mashallah (754 813), Sahl et Thaberi (800830), with his son the renegade, and
others,

Ma-

cooperated by their translation of Greek works

(apparently from the Syriac).

In what manner the Jews

literature,

were influenced

by the Greek

transplanted to

the Arabian soil in the 8 th century by means of the Syrians, can only be guessed by bold conclusions from a later age, on account of the want of certain criteria, and of In this inquiry regard literary documents of the time.^^ must be paid to the development of Arabian science, as yet but imperfectly determined. The dates which have been
hitherto ascertained, point to the oldest Karaitic literature as

the key for the solution of this most difficult question (see

below,

12.),

and

it

may

to be considered as one of the

prove that religious polemics are most important elements in

it. At any rate, the scientific literature known to us begins with Arabic writings, partly polemical and religio-

philosophical,

and with translations from the Bible by Saadja

892), and his Karaitic contemporaries, some of

Gaon (about

whom

were older than himself.

the Halacha and

The

principle of the literal

interpretation of the Bible adopted

by the Karaites, who

rejected

Haggada-Midrash, necessitated

the use of objective Exegesis, and the grammatical studies

 8.]

GENERAL VIEW.
it.

65

inseparable from
racter of the old

It

must

also

have Imprinted the cha-

Targum upon

the translations necessitated

by the altered circumstances of language, and, by bringing forward religious principles, have led to a regularly constructed system of doctrine (dogmatism).

In consequence
it

of

this, as

well as of the progress of science generally,

followed that the Haggada, which had never been

studied in Babylon,

much

fell still more into the background. The Halacha, which on the completion of the Gemara was no longer developed by the Halachaic Midrash directly

from Scripture, began to take a formal shape while, on the one hand, the substance, and especially the practical results, were systematically put together, so, on the other, the Methodology of Talmudical deduction was discussed. With this were connected inquiries concerning the history of the Talmud and of the Talmudists, and the commencement of Chronology and of the history of literature. Finally it became
;

necessary to explain the

Talmud

itself

according to both

its

substance and language.

As

fettered

soon as the homiletical element of the Haggada was by writing and rule, it became necessary that another

element should be introduced into the synagogue. This was new poetry (Pijjut) with rhyme and metre, with which, as cultivation in thought and language adprayer in the form of the
vanced,
it

became usual
and
its

to clothe all kinds of literature, after

Still later, poetry ceased to be form was considered as a worthy object Besides these peculiarly Jewish departments of of study. literature, considerable progress was made, as regards both matter and form, in Mathematics and Astronomy, Medicine and Physics,

the example of the Arabs.

didactic,

The language of the Jewish,

locality.

literature of this period varies

with the department of literature and

It is at first the

the geographical

Aramaic or Aramaic-Hebrew of the Talmud, even as late as Anan the Karaite ^^ and it generally remains the same among the Jews in Christian countries. Among those under the dominion of the Arabs
;

the prevailing language after the 9th century

is

the Arabic,

in which even liturgical writings, prayers, and

poems are

66
extant.

JEWISH LITERATURE.
But few
traces of Persian literature
^^

[Period

II.

remain to

us.

In the countries of the Romance

later times took part in literature.

lano-uao-es a

Among

few Jews in the grammarians

and poets, and even among some old French Bible expositors (as Joseph Kara), the Hebrew retrograded towards purism but a corresponding attempt on the part of Maimonides to restore the language of the Mishna in the Halacha produced no result. The preponderance of legal studies in Germany and France made the mixed Talmudic idiom predominant,
while their Pijjutim still displayed that imperfect state of language out of which the Sefaradim had early risen to a

more correct form.

The

translation of

Arabic writings laid

the foundation for a scientific prose (n31^n, properly astro-

nomy), the Arabisms of which were gradually softened

or entiiely
naturalised.

The

Kabbalistic pseudepigraphy,

Aramaic idiom, and in part translating from the Hebrew, is itself also in some degree puristic, but it fell into strange mistakes, and even grammatical blunders on the other hand, it extended the capability of
veiling itself under the old
;

the language for

in

new ideas.

Finally foreign elements pressed

assimilated.^^

from

all sides,

and became in a measure

Besides their

own

literature of translations, &c.,

we

are

also indebted to the

Jews

for the preservation of various

works in foreign languages written in Hebrew characters, amongst which the Arabic, from its affinity, takes of course
the
first place.

The

neglect of several valuable contribu-

tions to the general history of literature has arisen only from

ignorance of the letters in which they were written; through

they have been misinterpreted, and foreign authors have been converted by bibliographers into Jews. Many works of the celebrated Averroes ( 12.) in the genuine Arabic are preserved only in Hebrew MSS. an Arabic
this
;

lexicon in

Hebrew characters, and older than the year 1380, is extant in the Escurial but no" one, as far as we know, even noticed it, at a period when every corner of the libraries was
;

thoroughly examined by Arabic scholars. tion of the Psalms, written as early as 1510,
;

A Polish translais

to

be found at

Parma and at a later period even a Turkish work on ]Muhammedan sects was written in Hebrew characters, and has

 9.]

HALACHA.

67

been recently discovered at Leyden by the author of the

present treatise.

The
but
it

external history of literature (that of manuscripts,

transcribers,

and

libraries) begins

properly in this period,

^^ little cultivated.

has unfortunately as yet been but

little

more

attention has been paid to the literature

of gravestones, interesting in
originator of so

many

respects

and Zunz, the

many

researches, has also written an essay,

exhausting whatever of these monuments was spared by the

barbarism of the middle ages.

only monuments

We

are,

to time edified with discoveries of old inscriptions

of ignorance.
9.]

however, from time which are

litera-

We
ture.

now

proceed to the particular departments of

Halacha,

We have above ( 4, 5.) pursued the Halachaic literature as

far as the

works of K. Achai, Jehuidai Gaon, and Si-

meon Kahira, which form the transition to independent systematic works of this period, and are perhaps in some measure
aifected

by its

influences.

We

Jerusalem, and the line of thought connected with

of Babylon was carried by the reputation of the
far as Spain.

have seen that the Gemara of it, main-

tained their authority principally in Italy, while the

Gemara Gaonim into

the countries subject to Arabia, and over Northern Africa, as

There however, by the transplanting of learned Italy to Kahira, Kairowan, and Cordova, attention was again directed to the older and simpler Gemara

men from Southern

of Jerusalem.

But

this

occurred too late for them ever to

;

be placed on an equal footing

wliich

and since the Babylonian,

was

besides in

many

respects preferable, lay at the

foundation of the established practice, the other could never

boast of any great literary attention
;

and subsequently a

whole Order (Seder) of it was lost. The activity of the later Gaonim (800 1037) was thus exercised principally upon the Babylonian Talmud, which they expounded, as regards both substance and language ^ in continuous commentaries or lexica rerum. Besides this they delivered Judgments or Responsa (mostly legal judgments), even for Spain and

F 2

68

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

France, of which several collections are

Joseph Tob-Elem.^
upon
practical

They

subjects,

still extant, one by composed Monographies partly in Arabic, and partly in

also

Hebrew memorial

verses ( 18.).

Zemach

(872

890),

Saadja, Sherira, Hai (who died 1037), and his fatherin-law Samuel ben Chofni, composed writings of this kind. After the Gaonim the same subject was treated in the first half of the 11th century by Chefez, author of a Book of Precepts (mi^STDH "IBD),^ and NissiM BEN Jacob and Chananel in Kairowan, both pupils and the latter son of Chuschiel of Bari, who combined the learning and methods of Babylon and Italy, and exercised an important
influence on the system of the Halacha.^

NissiM, who suc-

ceeded his father as religious head, and was the means of carrying on the correspondence between Hai Gaon and

composed a double " Key which was intended to (rrnS/O) to deficiency in arrangement, and its entire make up for its want of notices of parallel passages, &c. He gives as an introduction, a historical account of tradition and of the Talmud, and is the first in those countries to take into His successor consideration the Talmud of Jerusalem.^ Chananel (who died 1050 ?)^ in his Hebrew commentaries on the Talmud, selected those parts which had not fallen into disuse, and gave the result of the whole at the end of his disHe thus furnished an example to Isaac Alfasi quisition. (1013-1103) of Fez, a Rabbi in Lucena (a community which was celebrated for learning, until 1148^), whose " Halachot,"

Samuel Hannagid

in Spain,

the Talmud

in Arabic,

a compendium of the Talmud with its final results, obtained great authority as the first code of laws, and found its way
as far as France.^

It

however soon met with a bold

critic in

Provence, the young Serachja Halevi of Lunel, who had observed the connexion of general logic with the methodology

who was opposed by Meir of Carcassone Commentaries were written by Nachmanides. (1220), and Jonathan Kohen of Lunel (cir. 1200), Isaiah de Trani, jun., Jonah Gerondi, Aaron Haleyi of Barcelona (who died 1293, and whose nephew Aaron ben Pinchas made a compendium of some sections) ^^, NissiM BEN Reuben Geof the Talmud, but

 9.]

HALACHA,

G9

RONDi (about 1350), Joseph Chabib (about 1400), and many

authors in the East.

Meanwhile, in Spain an independent

to Cordova, and,

study of the Halacha flourished in the school of R. Moses,

who had been removed from Bari

office

by means
R.
?),

of the minister Chasdai ben Isaac, had been raised to the

of teacher, in which he was succeeded

by

his son

Chanoch.

Joseph Ibn Abitur (Abi Thaur ben

Santas

a pupil of K. Moses', seems to have written an Arabic com-

pendium of the Talmud (or of the Mishna), for the Khalif Alhakim.^^ Soon afterwards R. Samuel called Hannagid (the Prince), composed an introduction to the Talmud ^^, in which the Haggada is already distinguished in principle from
the Halacha, and the talmudical form of discussion
plained.
its
is

ex-

By
;

the time therefore that the Halacha had lost

chief fosterers in the East,

the

West

it was already in full bloom in and through the variation of practice in different

countries,

it

gained in breadth, and

in

copious.

For even

its method became more Western Germany (Worms, Mayence,

Regensburg), and in France (especially in the South), there had been since the 11th century an unbroken line of distinguished teachers of the law, commencing in Germany with the descendants of R. Moses of Lucca, the real founders of the German-French Halacha, which reached to England and the Slavonic east then known as " Kanaan" and "Russia." In France we must mention first Rabbenu Gerson " the ancient," called "the light of the Exile," the founder of monogamy and other " institutions, " who was already, through his teacher R. Leontin, acquainted with the views of the Gaonim^^, and had composed a commentary on the Talmud, &c. His brother Machir (1030) attempted an alphabetical dictionary of the Talmud, as the Gaon Zemach had formerly done, and probably also Hai Gaon, almost at Amongst other pupils of R. Gerson was the same time. R. Moses of Narbonne, called " Ha-Darschan," because he distinguished himself particularly in collecting and explaining the Midrashim.^"^
the Halacha and

Yet

in the

of the various subjects contained in the

German-French treatment Talmud and Midrash,

clearly

Haggada

are
F 3

less

distinguished.

Soon

after

R. Moses^ we find R. Simeon Ha-Darschan,

70

JEWISH LITERATUEB,

[Period

II.

author of the famous and comprehensive coHeetions on the Midrash, called Jalkut ; and R. Tobia, son of the famous

R. Eliezer "the Great" (which means the old) of Mayence, who travelled to the East, and was the author of a " Midrash/' different in its character from those of earlier
times.^^

Nathan ben Jechiel

of

Eome (who

died 1106),

the famous author of the Eabbinical dictionary called Arucli,

was a pupil of R. Moses Ha-Darschan. From the works of Salomo Isaki (called Rashi, erroneously Jarchi) of Troyes gained much information his model Comthe latter^^, R.
;

mentaries on the greater part of the

of R. Gerson, and called forth

pupils and kinsmen.

Talmud superseded those similar works among his chief

rise

A new

epoch commences with the

of

Maimonides,

Arabian commentary of the Mishna ^^, who, and partial explanation of the Gemara of Babylon and that of Jerusalem, accomplished (about 1180) in a remarkable manner the gigantic plan of what may be called a *^ second Mishna." His Mishne Tor ah is a compendium embracing the whole extent of the Halacha, even of that part which was no longer of any practical use. In its principal features but it is remarkable it follows the Halachot of Isaac Alfasi for its scientific form and plan, and leaves nothing to be desired but special references for the conclusions drawn from the two Talmuds^^ a deficiency which he had intended to supply. This work, written in Egypt, was soon disseminated among Parts of it were the schools of Maimonides in the East. translated, contrary to the author's intention, into Arabic; and the Hebrew text was explained in Arabic by Salomo b. Jeshua Kohen, by an anonymous writer of the 15th century, and by Said ben Daud (Saadja b. David) el-Adeni (1473 1479). It was carefully glossed by the learned, but mystic and not very scientific, Abraham ben David junior o Posquieres (who died 1198), son-in-law of the famous Abraham ben Isaac (see below), and pupil of MeshulLAM BEN Jacob (who died 1170); and it was defended against Meir Abulafia Halevi (before 1200) by Aaron son of Meshullam.^^ Afterwards, it was widely dissemilearned men wrotp nated, and obtained a high reputation
after his complete
;

^9.]

HALACHA.
it,

71

and even in modern times the h) has been exercised upon it. As an introduction, Maimonides wrote in Arabic his Sefer Hammizwot, an enumeration of the 613 laws (see above, 4.), prefixing 14 canons on the principles of numbering them, directed principally against the Halachot Gedolot and the "Asharot" ( 19.). This work was in part disputed by Nachmanides (about 1250), in his glosses, but was nevertheless used as a foundation for their works by R. Aaron Halevi of Barcelona (who died 1293, and was said to be the author of the Sefer Hachinnuch), and by many others both French and Germans. ^^ Up to this time, in France and Germany (for example, in Mayence, Regensburg, Speier, and Worms), and partly also in Italy, the explanation of the Talmud had been the chief occupation of the learned and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, distinguished teachers, the first of whom were of the family of Eashi, collected glosses and disquisitions, called
commentaries on
percriticism

of the Halacha

Tosafot

(mSDin),

or

Additions.^^

The

greater part of

these are printed in our editions of the Talmud, together

with the practical conclusions Piske Tosafot (m)Dir)

Decisions of the

"''p'DB),

or

Additions

^^,

collected

from them by a
the

German

in the fourteenth century.

At

time

of the

burning of the Talmud in France (12441248) the Tosafot

were written on the margin of the extracts of ALfasi, as was done by Moses ben Jomtob of Evreux.^^ The persecution of the
note, such as in

Jews

at that time reached also teachers of

Meir ben Baruch Rothenburg, who died 12931303, and whose pupil Asher ben Jechiel
to

was obliged

remove from Germany

wrote, besides other things,

to Toledo. The latter the Halachot of Alfasi, like work a

from which his son Jacob ben Asher (cir. 1339) extracted a At a later time, Jacob wrote an indeshorter compendium. pendent book of the law in four parts, Arha Turim, which takes in only the part of the Halacha still in practice, and forms the foundation of the normal code of Joseph Karo
( 25.).

the fourteenth century the study of the Halacha declined, particularly in France and Germany, and the dis-

With

F 4

72
tinction

'

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

between the older or " former " (D"^:!m;Kl), as the great authorities, and the ^^ latter" (D^DinHK) began; so that the older were called the "ancient" (D^lilTDlp). The sad condition of the Jews, which could be alleviated only by bribery, rendered learning, often indeed the mere degree and title of Rabbi ("Morenu" and the like)^^, an object of desire to the poor, and brought even the learned into a lamentable dependence upon the Maecenates (Nedibim) discord was excited by the disputes of the schools; and the reciprocal anathemas of the Kabbies formed an echo to the scandal of the Antipopes. But even learned schools and writings soon became scarce and not until the end of the middle ages did a new life begin to be developed in Hungary and Austria, although even there it manifested no real progress. Study indeed increased to a gigantic extent but being left to itself, and guided by no general scientific knowledge, it unavoidably degenerated into a method repulsive to the few who were really profound scholars, or whose minds were The transition from the short explanation of less distorted. words and things of the older commentators of the Talmud, through the discussions and disputations of the Tosaphot (in the narrower sense), to the exercises of wit of the " Niirembergers " (Blauser) * ^^ and " Begensburgers " (so called from the principal schools), and the pettifoggings of modem times, has not yet been specially investigated. There are many analogies in Christian Jurisprudence and Muhammedan Theology to this kind of casuistry and discussion^^ (^PilpuT), which gradually devotes more attention to the mode of treatment than to the subject itself. For it is the nature of a practical science and the Halacha must be
; ;

regarded throughout as a theory of law, that over-theorising causes it to degenerate from a practical aim to a mere play of intellect. During this unhappy time rules derived from
idle speculation

religious law,

were enforced as rules of life belonging to the more strictly than at any former period; and subsequently the authors of the Tosaphot and their successors, together with the great Spanish and Proven9al legal authorities (particularly the authors of Compendiums, Judgments,
*

The word

is

derived from the

German

*'

bloss,"

by which the query was

introduced.

 9.]

HALACIIA.

73

" &c.), were comprised under the expression " Decernents (Poskim, D''pD"i3).^'^ Finally ^ the Spaniards became the pupils

of the French and

Germans who immigrated

to their country.

The Halachaic
of
tion (title). 28

writings are distinguished in a variety

to their subject, form,
I.

ways with reference

and inscrip-

They

are:

Commentaries (^n''3, onDDIp)

for

1300). Aippendices (Tosaphot), Remarks on the Talmud and on the commentators (1130 1340), which correspond with the Novellas (mriVn of the Spanish and schools (1150 1350); e.g. those of Chananel,
the more important parts (1000
II. Glosses,
('pl73^3, mioti^)
^li'll^n,

on the Babylonian Talmud,

the most part only on

D'^tl'lTn)

Italian

Joseph Ibn Megas, Abraham ben David, Jonah GeKONDi, Nachmanides, Salomo Ibn Adeket, Jomtob ben Abraham, Nissim Gerondi, Jes. de Trani, and others.
III. Collections
(D'^tQIp'^'?),

Compilations ("pup), Compendiums

and still more in the 13th and 14th centuries). IV. Decisions (D*'pDS) and Judgments (mmtiTi), Rules emanating from them (D'tri), and Ordinances (mDpn).^^ V. More independent or more systematic works, in which the foremost rank, with regard to form and plan, is due to the Spanish school, (a.) Those upon the entire Halacha: as the Sefer Hammizwot, collected from expositions by Moses ben Jaacob of Coucy (about 1236)^^, to the practical abridgment of which, the Amude Hagola by Isaac ben Joseph of Corbeil (1277)^^ supplements and glosses were made by Perez, Moses of Zurich, and Isaac (Eisak) Stein (ob. 1495) and the edition of the Halachot of Alfasi, by Mordecai, at Nuremberg (1300), reedited by Samuel (of) Schletzstadt
(Dm22''p), principally for practical use (in the 12th,

(in the 14th century),

(b.) Editions of separate

branches of

the subject, judicial or ritual: as those

by Jehuda ben

Barsillai

at Marseilles

(fl.

1130)^2. especially the rules

respecting food, for the most part in " Portae " (onptL'), as
those of Isaac (of)

Duren

(about 1320), and of

Pseudo-

Jon a

in the 15th century,

(c.) Collections or Miscellanies,

titles
;

generally with symbolical

the principal authors of

which were Solomon Isaki, Abraham ben Isaac at Narbonne (who died 1158 ?)^^ Isaac ben Abba Marx
at

Marseilles

(1179

1189),

Eliezer ben Samuel

of

74

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

Metz, Eliezer ben

Baeuch ben Isaac

Trani
(fl.

the Elder in

at Mayence (fl. 1140) ^^^ Germany (fl. 1200), Isaiah di Italy, Eliezer ben Joel Halevi

Nathan

in

Eleazar of Worms (1240), Meir Abulafia ben Todros at Toledo (ob. 1244), Gerson ben Solomon of Beziers^^ Zedekiah ben Abraham (1244) and Jehuda Anaw (cir. 1320) at Rome^^ Isaac ben Moses at Vienna (cir. 1250), Solomon Ibn Aderet and his glossator Aaron Halevi at Barcelona, the unknown author of the Kolbo
1210),
(referred to

by Aaron Kohen of Lunel), Men ahem (Vidal)

at

BEN Solomon Meiri

Perpignan

(cir.

1300), author of an

introduction of historical interest ^^,

SHULLAM in Provence (1334), Aaron, who wrote particularly for those who held office at court, and who might, through ignorance, transgress the law, IsSERLEiN in Germany (1450), and others. As authors of Judgments (called also Dinti'm mVi^ti^,
that
also
is.

Jerucham ben MeMen ahem Ibn Serach ben

Enquiries and Decisions, because the enquiries are

best

put down), particularly of those which are preserved and known, we must mention Bashi, and his grandson

Tam (Jacob of Bameru), Joseph Ibn Megas (died 1141), and Maimonides, son of his pupil (died 1204), Abraham ben David of Posquieres, Nachmanides (1266), Meir ben Baruch Bothenburg (1280), Menahem Becanati (in Italy, 1290 1330), Solomon Ibn Aderet at Barcelona, Asher ben Jechiel, and his sons Jacob and Jehuda at Toledo, Nissim ben Beuben Gerondi (of
^'^^

Gerona, 1350, at Barcelona), the families Scheshet (1374) and DuRAN in Algiers, Jacob Levi (ob. 1427), Jacob Weil (1460 1470) in Germany, Joseph Kolon (ob. 1480 in Pavia), Moses Minz, Jehuda MiNz(ob. 1508), and others. These writings are of great importance for history, for the history of literature, for antiquities, and particularly for legal history.^^ With the expository works are connected the Dictionaries of Machir in France (1030), and of Nathan ben Jechiel at Borne (ob. 1106)^^, from whose

Aruch
the

extracts

were made, and supplements added,

in the

14th century, by
difficult

Menahem ben Eljakim, who

translated

words into German, by Samuel ben Jacob

 10.]

HISTORIES OF LEARNED MEN,

75

(before 1189?), and

by

Abraham Zacut
(cir.

(15th century).^^

Tanchum 1250) wrote an Arabic dictionary of the Mishna as an appendix to the great work of
of Jerusalem

Maimonides. To the Halachaic Methodology^^ belong, amongst other

works, an Arabic Monography by

Saadja Gaon; Mai;

monides' Introduction to the Mishna Joseph Ibn Aknin's Arabic work upon the measures, the reckoning of time, and the coins of the Talmud, probably forming a part
of a methodological introduction;
the
Sefer Kerithot,
;

by

Samson ben Isaac

logy of Isaac

of Chin on

(cir.

1300)

the Methodo-

Kanpanton

in Castille (ob. 1463, at the

age of 103); the Halichot Olam of

Jeshua ben Joseph Halevi (1467, at Toledo); a MS. treatise by Moses Ibn BEN Danan Joseph of Coimbra, pupil of Isaac Aboab and
;

other writings, which form the transition to the following

branch of

literature.

10.]

Histories of Learned

Men.

Chronicles,

During the First Period, that of the historical Haggada ( 5 b.), national pride was able to point to the nation as a whole, and to connect its present condition, or the history of recent events, with former times. But now that, through the Dispersion, a national history properly so called had ceased to exist, this feeling was necessarily confined to a pride in the Although, in the controintellectual powers of individuals. versies with religions descended from Judaism, the Jews not only refused to admit this circumstance as an argument against
^, but even appealed to the remains of their own temporal power ^ (of which views the book o^ Eldad may be regarded as an example ^^), still they took advantage of it

themselves

against the Karaites,

who were

despisers of tradition,

and

in-

tellectually inferior to themselves.

In

later times also this

national tendency

is

displayed in the apologetic historical

writings of Cardoso, Barrios, &c., even

cias de los Hebrceos,

by their
this the

titles,

Excelen-

and the
little

like.^

In
;

example of the
to the

Arabs could have but

influence

as their historical litera-

ture must have remained, for the most part,

unknown

76

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

tion.

Jews, and there could have been no opportunity for imitaSerious scientific study must have been opposed to the writing of dry chronicles, or of legends leading to pseudepigraphy, such as are to be found among the Arabs.'^ But

although the history of learned men was in both nations developed under like influences^, still, owing to the peculiar
character of Jewish literature, and

want of knowledge

re-

specting the writers and their works, the soil to be cultivated

was

far

more

sterile.

have seen above how the form and method of the Halacha naturally led, on the one hand, to its great teachers being made the heroes of traditions and tales, and, on the other, to their chronological and didactic connexion becoming the subject of methodical inquiry. Indeed we found, even in the Talmud, besides a mass of traditions referring to Talmudical times, a kind of chronological exposition of tradition in the

We

Mishna

hundreds of names are Talmud and quoted concerning whose authority, and connexion with time, society, and doctrine, we can obtain information only by a critical combination of scattered passages and fragments, there must have been an increasing necessity for chronicles of learned men, combined with methodological discussions, as an assistance in the Halacha. In fact, we possess such a treatise upon the Tannaim and Amoraim (D^K"n7:)i<l D^Kan niD), from the year 885 or 887 ^ besides fragments of a lost work by Nathan ben Isaac Hababli (956)^ ; and, as a principal source of information, the famous answer of Sherira Gaon (980) to a question of Jacob ben Nissim at Kairowan, about the composition of the Mishna^, and a fragment of a treatise

Midrashim, where

treatise called Abot.

Throughout the

by the same.
Karaites

Perhaps

also

polemical animosity to the

effect^, as

may from

time to time have had some

appears clearly in a part of the book of Cusari, by

Jehuda

(1140), and in the well-known Book of Tradition (especially following Sherira) of Abraham ben Dayid

Halevi

(erroneously called

Ben Dior) Haleyi, or the Elder, in Spain (1061)^^, which forms the principal foundation of the

historical part of the

raeli (1310).

astronomy of Isaac ben Joseph Isbrother of R. Meir of Speier (1210Vi

10.]

HISTORIES OF LEARNED MEN.

77

composed an alphabetical biographical dictionary of the teachers of the Talmud. Of the Halachaic methodological writings and introductions, besides Maimonides' introduction to the commentary on the Mishna ( 10. at the end), that of Menahem Meiri to his commentary on the Tractatus Abot ( 9.) and that of Menahem Ibn Serach ( 9.) deBesides these, there are also some serve to be mentioned.
notices belonging to this subject in the preface to Schaare

Zion,

by Isaac de

written in the

Latas (1372) ^2; and a catalogue fourteenth century by [Aaron ben AbraSamuel Schletzstadt, and
it.

ham] we

a grandson of H.

lately

published ^^, gives some extracts from

see the scientific

In

this case also

and

critical

tendency proceeding from

Babylon^ and extending as far as Spain.

Other glimpses occur in single historical writings, among which are to be distinguished the extracts from, and supplements
Sutta
fifth
is

to,

the Seder
dViJ^

01am

( 5. 2 b.), called Seder

Olam
to the

(Kioit

"nD)^S a chronology from

Christian
aera,

Adam

century of the
families

the

object of which

to prove,

by means of
are

records, that the Babylonian pa-

triarchal

lineal

descendants of the house of

the prophets and learned

David.

The arrangement of
;

men

in appropriate dynasties, reminds us of the plan of similar

works among the Arabs

the foreground
is
still

the attempt to bring Babylon into

observable in the Answer of Sherira^^

genealogical interests ^^, in

mentioned above.
later times,

To simMar

we owe

the preservation of

many
:

registers of

descent, and accounts of families, not

free

however altogether

from deliberate inventions and falsifications for even in Olam Sutta one piece of a genealogy, in opposition to the older historical Midrash, is borrowed from the Book of Chronicles and subsequently the Karaites borrowed their genealogical table from Anan upwards, from our Seder Olam As an ofishoot from the fully developed Midrash of Sutta. Arabian and Latin literature, there appeared in Northern
the Seder
;

Italy

^^

(in the tenth century) the

Hebrew

edition of the
^'^

JoLatin Hegesippus by the so-caUed Pseudo-Josephus, sippon," or Josephus Gorionides, who, as late as the eighteenth century, was supposed by the genealogist Jechiel

78

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Periqd

II.

to be the real Flavius Josephus. into Arabic

It was partly translated by Zacharia ben Said el-Jemeni. ^^ The

opposition of the later intentional pseudepigraphy to the

older historical Midrash
strict
is

most apparent, on account of

artificial

its

biblical

style

and

plan intermixed with

Arabian elements, in the Sefer Hajashar (^^VJ^n "IBD), which was apparently written in Spain in the twelfth century, as a reading-book, and purported to be the book of that name mentioned in the Bible (Jos. x. 13., 2 Sam. i. 18.). This has been again confounded with a similar fabrication, by the famous London printer Hive (1751), said to have been brought over by Alcuin; a literary forgery, which was aggravated by a pirated reprint at Bristol, in 1829. ^^ The joys and sorrows of the nation and of individuals,
particularly of the pious, expressed themselves in literature

in various ways.
nicles

Plain records after the manner of chroeffusions (memorial books^ as

or

elegiac

they were

termed), catalogues of martyrs (Dp33 miJIIDT D) for the celebration of the dead
:

(ni7Dti'3

nnrDTn)^^,

and the

like,

were writ-

ten for example, by Eliezer ben Nathan in Mayence (fl. 1130 1150), Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn, and others, upon the massacres of the crusaders ^^; by Sohemtob Palquera (cir. 1250) and Chisdai Crescas, upon the

persecution in the year 1392 ^^^; and by a contemporary of

Jacob Levi (about 1449), upon the times of the Hussites.^^ Consolatory epistles and dissertations in times of general persecution were written by K. Maimon, his son Maimonides, and Joseph Ibn Aknin (12th cent.). Many elegies were
written for Divine Service, or were used afterwards for that purpose ( 19.). Besides this, much material, valuable for
history and biography,
is

contained in the ethical Testaall

ments ( 12.), in occasional poems of

collected

kinds, partially
jud(/-

in
9.),

Diwans

20.),

and in the Halachaic

titles,

ments (

and generally in
(for genealogy),

prefaces, dedications,

and catalogues of writings by Ibn Caspi.^^ As a recent discovery of our own it may be mentioned here, that Mazliach Ibn ol-Bazak, judge of Sicily, on coming from Babylonia to Spain, presented to Samuel Nagid a very interesting treatise, describing the manners of Hai Gaon

and signatures

by authors themselves,

for example,

10.]

'

HISTORIES OF LEARNED MEN.

79

(ob. about 1037), quotations

from which, by authors of the

^^ ^

twelfth century, excite our regret for the loss of the whole.

The

two chapters of the Arabic Poetics of Moses

most interesting, and have been only recently made use of by Munk and the author. They treat, historically and critically, of the older linguists and poets of Spain (cf. 20.), and seem to have been the source from which Jehuda Charisi (cf. 20.) drew the substance of his more aesthetic chapters on the same subject. They were not impro(1130
are

40)

Ibn Esea

Abraham ben David (cf 20.). The work was certainly known, although perhaps through a Hebrew translation, to Abraham Sacut, of whom, with some
bably used also by
others belonging to the end of this period,

we shall speak in the

following period ( 29.), because they form a connecting link between the two. The same Moses Ibn Esra also wrote a treatise

on celebrated men of another class, probably famous for and promotion of " literae humaniores," and " noblesse," of which the author has but recently discovered a quotation, and the Arabic title (li^lK^K bn>< b^K2i5 ^sn'rxpr) nKDnK^Kl), furnished by Ibn Esra himself in the work above
their study

mentioned.

The

chronological system

^^

which had been developed in

life

the earliest times from the necessities of civil and religious

was now gradually changed, on account of the extension of writing, and the alteration in external circumstances, not however without injury to our computation of time. The Seleucidic or " Greek " sera (D^l-^^n )inwn), called also j^ra Contractuum (mitotz; ]^DD, nntoti'b), or the cessation of prophecy ^"^^ was adopted as the general date for MSS. even by the Karaites. This however involved the difference of one year, which depended upon older Jewish dates (the departure from Egypt), and was retained in the different countries and schools, as may be gathered from the books

of the Maccabees.
often used.
^^

^^

The reckoning from the

first

destruction

()l"inb) of Jerusalem (3828 of the world, A. D. 68) was less

We meet

with the

sera of

the creation

work of Sabbatai Donolo {uh^v n>im'7, ni^mV) The (in Italy, 950) and in the book Tana dehe Elijahu.'^'^
in the

date of the world in Sherira's Decisions (986) was intro^ duced by European transcribers. The use of this tera by

80

JEWISH LITERATURE.
is

LPeriod

II.

the old Gematria (i<ntDD:i) ^^

found

first

in Charisi (1204).

^9

When it became more general after the year of the world 4000, the 4000 years were gradually omitted, as had been the case already after the year 2000 of the Seleucidic sera.^^ This system of mentioning only the hundreds and lower
numbers was
called
^^

the small aera/'

()top tonsV,

abbreviated

numbering (Vnu tois), so that at the beginning of the sixth 1000 years, there are still instances of the use of the small number, as 1002 Amongst the Jews under the dominion of ( = 5002), &c.^^ the Arabs we sometimes find the Muhammedan computation of time (D^V^^PTDtL'^n ]in:i'n)^^ and also the Spanish aera, The dating from the birth ^^Alzafav^'' i. e. the Christian. ^^
p"2h), in contradistinction to the full

of Christ

is

found in Hebrew writing only as an

exception.^''

Moreover researches concerning chronology are connected with astronomy ( 21.). Information important for universal history and ethnography is furnished by the Jewish Travels, Letters, &c., which are generally distinguished by an ingenuous observation, and a description of the writer's own experiences, or of traditions, views, ideas, and manners found in the countries visited. They do not however generally contain much original matter, being often older accounts newly embellished. The greater number of Jewish authors may be classed as travellers. ^^ The instruction in reading and writing, which had prevailed amongst the Jews from very early times, made
.

even the least learned capable of keeping a journal of travels, Moreover, to the Jews of old no less than of the &c. present time, the hard lot of necessity has been the hurricane

on which the seed of knowledge was borne over

all

countries

while, on the other hand, learning, as a garment of honour,

has protected and enveloped the wandering beggar.

The

Dispersion, and trade, as well as meetings for the preser-

vation of their educational institutions, promoted travelling

for

both business and pleasure. The astonishingly rapid and wide extension of Jewish literature can be explained
only by these circumstances.
pilgrims

One

principal object of the

was their ancient father-land, and the graves of their pious, learned, or brave forefathers. Accounts of

 10.]

HISTOBIES OF LEARNED MEN.

;

81

come from various sources they had been mulmanner, by their pious or super^^, stitious descendants they had become more attractive as places of pilgrimage, and had also arrested the attention of literature. On this account, these and many other Jewish sources of information are important to the Geography and History of Palestine^ Another and particular inducement to travelling and epistolary correspondence lay in the symthese had
tiplied after the Oriental

pathy of the Israelites with one another throughout the whole world. On this subject Gentiles have always exhibited ignorance, partiality, and want of sympathy, by
filling

up

their

own
^^

deficiency in

knowledge and experience

sources.

with the most absurd, and often the most deplorable opinions

and prejudices

drawn from questionable

The

country inhabited by the ten tribes,

who

did not return

to Palestine, forms a particular subject of discussion, in-

volving also the consideration of the nations and lands in

which the Jews lived. Thus, Ethnography was represented by polemics ^^, by the mutual relations of the literature of different countries and of particular branches, and lastly by
cosmography written after the Arabian
scientific view.
style,

with a purely

Isaac, a The most prominent authors of Travels are^, the embassy of Charlemagne to the Khalif member of Harun er-Easchid (802), perhaps the first who effected a communication between France and the Babylonian Gaonim; Eld ad Hadani (cii\ 900) ''^; Jacob ]n^:)i:), whose
accounts of the East and the Sultan of Singiar
serted
(?) are

in-

by the Karaite Jehuda Hedessi (see 15.) in a work containing some historical and cosmographical information; the celebrated Benjamin of Tudela (1160
sq.), of whom very different estimates have been formed, and whose travels have been recently, for the first time, critically edited ^^; Petachja of Eegensburg (1170 80); Samuel ben Samson of France (1210), apparently the precursor of more than 300 French and English Babbies who

travelled to Palestine (1211);

Menachem ben Peeez

of

somewhat fabulous account of whom has been recently discovered by the author in the Bodleian

Hebron

(a. d. 1219), a

82
Library; the poet

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

Jehuda Charisi
(1257);

Jacob

of France

Elia

(1216 18) (see 20.); of Ferrara in Palestine

(1438); an anonymous writer *of .Maghreb (cir.1473); and Obadiah di Bertinoeo (ob. between 1500 and 1510), a

fragment of whose

epistle has

been recently found by the

author in the Collectanea of Jochanan Allemanno.

:

The correspondence of lowing works also belong here Chisdai ben Isaac with the king of the Chozars (959)^^;
the Cosmography of

The fol-

Gerson ben Solomon Catalano

;

of
the

Aries (13th cent.), perhaps grandson of Nachmanides

important work of
translation of the

Esthori

(not Isaac)

Parchi

(1322),

recently reprinted, but miserably incorrect; the

Hebrew

Image du Monde (1245); and a part of the

pretended letters of

Eugene

or Frederic TV.

Prete (or Petro) Joan to Pope (1442 1460.)44 At the end of

Jews occupy no unimport-.

the fifteenth century Portuguese

ant place in the history of geography.^^

11.]

Conflict between Science

and Haggada,

In the earlier periods we found, in contradistinction to the Halacha, the Haggada usually developed in the form of Midrash and, by way of a simpler study of the Bible, the Ma;

sora,

with

its

censorship of the text ; and, finally, the textual

expositions of the Chaldee, Greek, and probably also Persian

Targumim

(Paraphrases).

The Haggada comprised the

however in a
scientific

objects of the most various sciences ; not

form.

The philology of the Bible was fotmded upon a view of the Hebrew tongue derived from actual life and tradition, and not upon any elaborate theory. We must now consider
ramifications corresponding to those of the

its

Halacha in

this

period.

At an

early stage of the conflict between the social

the

system then in process of formation, and the restrictions of Law, the authority of faith was obliged (especially on account of the communication with foreign nations and religions,

itself), to

and with the corresponding parties and sects in Judaism seek for support and guidance in the definitions of thought. But in the collision between Judaism and pure the religious and philosophical opinions of heathens and Christians,^

the Alexandrine School alone grew into a syncretical

 11.]

SCIENCE

AND HAGGADA.
Haggada

83
did

system.

The

scattered precepts of the national

not, like the

Divine jurisprudence of the Halacha, take the

form of a distinct theory, but were moulded by their connexion with the Bible into the Midrash
;

and since Judaism

all parties

must stand or
within

fall

with the authority of Scripture,

even the Sadducees, appealed directly to the letter of the Law. So long, moreover, as the doctrine and
its circle,

law of Judaism had to fight against the derivative religion of Christianity (a religion which in general confirms, but in special matters abrogates, Judaism) with weapons furnished by the Midrash, such subjects as the motives of the laws, the exposition of the text, and the truth and meaning of legends, did not lead to a system built upon mere laws of thought. Men guarded themselves rather against error by secret oral teaching, without devoting much attention to the Haggada. When through the agency of Arabian science Muhammedanism began to discuss the highest religious questions in a rationalistic manner, and even Judaism thence became conscious of a severance between faith and knowledge, the essence of the Midrash (the natural justification of doctrine and law by their connexion with the all-comprising Bible) was for the first time and its contents, disengaged from the tangled web of set free The the Haggada, were formed on a scientific foundation. Midrash and Haggada were radiations of the national spirit through the prevalent oral tradition. With the Graeco- Arabian civilisation individual minds came forward and at this period there arose for the first time writers, composers, and separate sciences, properly so called. This opposition between the national and individual elements could not fail to give rise to a conflict, which beginning in Arabia was renewed
; ;

clear insight into the wherever they came into contact. essence of this struggle was not indeed attained until the most important separate parts of Jewish literature had been affected

by

it.

From

the contest about the validity of the Halacha, on

society, the sect

which depended the whole form of Jewish

of the Karaites arose (a. d. 750) value of tradition, tradition
of
its
;

but, with the practical

itself, as

well as the importance

supporters the Rabbies, was called in question.

G 2

84

JEWISH LITERATUEE.
tlie

[Period

II.

strong feeling thus arose for going back to

Bible, and

making a verbal and

real exegesis, independent of Midrash, on the foundation of grammar and the philosophy of religion. But it was necessary at the same time also to establish the

philosophy of religion upon

its

own

basis

by

new

interpre-

tation, irrespective of the general value of the

Haggada, which

was now nearly

closed.

In the last instance there arose the question which runs through the whole history of religion, concerning the relation between Reason and Revelation; only that here the exposition of the Bible and the Haggada gave the first impulse. In this case, as in most others, it is difficult to distinguish the first germs of the movement we know, however, that this contest of thought with the simple Haggada had begun during the last days of the Midrash. Saadja, for instance (ob. A. D. 941), contends for the use of Reason.^
;

At

the time of

Samuel ben Chofni, when

the reading of

Arabic works had become general, various views respecting the value of the Haggada were brought forward^ by Hai the Gaon, Chananel, and their pupils but, on account of the decline of Oriental civilisation, they did not exercise any important influence. In Spain, in the twelfth century (probably through the oppression of the Almohadi), some Jewish philosophers, especially editors of Arabian works, appear either actually to have apostatised, or at least to have become estranged, from Judaism as the neophyte Petrus Alfonsi (see 20.) Johannes Hispalensis, or Abenbehut, perhaps the same as (Ibn) David and Andreas, whom Roger Bacon states to be the real author of what Michael Scotus published as his own works. The translations by Johannes Hispalensis, of Arabian works, amongst others that of AlbenzuBRUN (see 12.), and the celebrated work De Causis, the Arabic text of which, although still extant, escaped the notice of Jourdain, were interdicted as " Aristotelian" by the Uni;
:

versity of Paris (a. d. 1209).^

class

We

find other

men

of this

amongst the Arabs

(see

as for instance, the persecuted poet

Ibn Sahl

20.).

Others, once renowned amongst

the Jews, figure as illustrious Arabians amongst Christian

scholastic authors

on

account of their Arabic writings^;

 11.]

SCIENCE AND HAGGADA.

85

Ibn Gabirol himself, whom even Leo Hebraeus ( 23.) seems to know only from Christian authorities, although he calls him '' our Albenzubrun." About the end
e.

g.

of this century the Aristotelian philosophy had struck so deep a root in Judaism, that Averroes found his immediate
pupils only amongst
tried,

Jews

(see

12.).^

Lastly, the Karaites

but in vain, to take a more important position in the Peninsula ( 14.).

In strong contrast to this stands the simple faith of the Northern Franco- German (Halachaic) school, ignorant of the Arabic language, isolated, and consequently free from
the conflict of opposing elements, which
pearance, through

Maimonides

(ob. in

first made their apEgypt A. D. 1204),

in Provence. He first combined considerable Halachaic power with a philosophical basis. His work on the Law, written in Hebrew ( 9.), begins upon a religio-philosophical foundation^ his commentary on the Mishna, written at an
;

earlier

period

in

Arabic,

contains

the

famous
;

Thirteen

Articles of Belief

and a fragment on psychology

especially

and

his

philosophical

Exegesis ,

the

{Doctor perplexorum), intended for his

More Hanehuchim pupil Joseph Ibn

Aknin at Haleb and the initiated, and translated into Hebrew

in his lifetime, carries out to its consequences the principle

taken up long before by Saadja and

many

Karaites^, that

the Bible must be explained metaphorically

by

established

fundamental truths in accordance with rational conclusions.

He

also

extent in the Haggada.

necessarily

employed the same course of procedure to some This spiritualism, to which the

French Jews appeared in the light of anthropomorphisers^, became involved in all kinds of disputes. Thus, for example, the doctrine and exegesis of Maimonides' school in general, misused by the Mystics ( 13.) and deformed by exaggerated rumours ^, gave great offence to the pious people of France and Provence ^^, as will be shown more in detail
hereafter.

Provence, from
for

its

peculiar position,
civilisation

lore.^^

Arabian science and There dwelt the

was a meeting -point and French Talmudical

last collector of the

Haggada

( 9.);

there (as in Italy, since the end of the thirteenth century)

G 3

86
laboured

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

from tte Arabic ^^ beginning with Jehuda Ibn Tibbon, the "Father of the Translators" (a. D. 1160), who in conjunction with Joseph Ibn KiMCHi translated the Ethics of Bechaji (Bachia) for MeshuUam ben Jacob at Liinel (ob. a.d. 1170), teacher of Abraham ben David ( 9.), and later (a. D. 11671186) also the writings of Jehuda Halewi, of Gabirol (for Asher, son of MeshuUam), of Ibn Gannah, and of Saadja. In like manner his son, Samuel Ibn Tibbon, and at the same
translators

many

time the poet

of Maimonides.

Jehuda al Chaeisi
To
this

(beginning of the
of

thirteenth century), translated the

Moreh and other writings

great and illustrious family

others

translators belonged

among

Jacob Anatoli,

pupil

of his
also

father-in-law

Samuel Ibn Tibbon; and probably

Scotus (a. d. 1217),

of the

Christian Michael

who

worked, like the last, at Naples (a.d. 1232), under a comWhen the controversy about mission from Frederick 11. philosophy broke out, he translated, at the request of his friends at Narbonne and Beziers, the middle Commentary of
Averroes (Ibn Roshd) on Aristotle's logical writings.^* He also delivered a course of philosophical homilies on the Pentateuch,
entitled

Molmad, which were much approved

in

Provence, and consequently became the object of various attacks. His father-in-law Samuel Ibn Tibbon published a

Commentary on Kohelet (as yet known only by catalogues and some quotations), to which he added, as an appendix, a translation of Averroes' treatises on the Intellect; and he It also wrote a philosophical work on the Creation, &c. seems that the contest, which had begun in the life of Maimonides, came to its height through these and similar works,
in consequence of their being accessible to a large class of readers,

and having been written for them by the authors whose translations had introduced the Arabic writings of Maimonides into Provence and France, The differences of opinion were thus developed from single dogmata to the
In
this

principles of religious philosophy.

attempt to give a short survey of a struggle the results of which have influenced Judaism to the present time, we can neither enter into the questions themselves, nor trace

 11.]

SCIENCE AND HAGGADA.

87

by the individuals must however, according to the general purpose of this essay, draw the attention of our readers to the literary documents in which the
the systems and opinions represented even

who

took a prominent part in

it.

We

debate found

its

expression, although the subject deserves a

separate treatise.

On

the other hand, the documents bear-

ing upon the controversy are far from complete or sufficient.

Some of them, belonging to about A. D. 1232, are collected and inserted in the Kesponsa of Maimonides by an anonymous writer, whose understanding was unequal to his task, A considerable number of or was dimmed by partiality. poems, mostly satirical or laudatory, might be collected but they are rather unintelligible from our ignorance of the facts alluded to in enigmatical phrases. "We shall mention^n their proper place other works but recently published a collection of valuable supplements, belonging to successive periods, and deserving a more thorough investigation, has been lately dis;

covered by the author among the manuscripts in the Bodleian

Library.

Some

of the following statements are extracted

from

it.

The

first

seeds of dissension were certainly

sown by the

introductory part of the great

( 9.) called the

Hebrew Codex
Soon

of Maimonides

book Madda.

after this

work became

known in Provence, the learned Talmudist Abraham ben David (ob. a. d. 1198), in his glosses to it, defended the
simple believers in the Talmudical creed against the rigorous
spiritualism of

Maimonides

( 9.).

His

style is short

and

abrupt, and his views are, after

all,

not far removed from

those whose exclusive authority he condemns.

Meir Abulafia
As

(Halevi) of Toledo, a

man

of more

general knowledge, but no philosopher, went a step further.

soon as the book was published in his country he took

offence at Maimonides' Eschatology, perceiving

how

it

bore

upon the general theory of miracles, &c.

to

He

wrote a letter

Jonathan Kohen,

the celebrated head of the learned

at Llinel, imploring him, as it seems, to defend the orthodox

belief with the authority of his learning.

sarcastic reply

But he received a
of Liinel,

from

Aaron ben Meshullam

G 4

who

objected that he did not properly understand the system

88

JEWISH LITERATUKE.

[Period

II.

of Maimonides^ and that for a long time previously E-abbis of high authority, such as Saadja and Hai, had not considered
a literal belief in the
necessary.

Haggada sentences of the Talmud

Meir replied briefly, and addressed a circular to all the learned men of Provence (perhaps also of Northern France), appealing to them to decide between the opponents. He seems to have met with more sympathy from the French Eabbies and the learned Samson ben Abraham of Sens combated the theory of Aaron ben MeshuUam with arguments drawn merely from the Talmud. He always remained an opponent of Maimonides (see below). At the commencement of the thirteenth century the theory of Maimonides began to be better understood through the translation of his Moreh, and the more popular works men;

tioned above.

Hence

a serious conflict arose

life

both parties

being engaged in a struggle for

space of about thirty years.
sailing party

or death during the

This time the head of the as-

was Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier ^^ one of the Northern French School, who had earned a great It may be considered as certain reputation as a Talmudist. that he first directed the attention of the French Rabbles to the obnoxious works of Maimonides and that he was assisted by his pupils Dayid ben Saul and the famous Jona ben Abraham Gerondi.^^ The latter was sent to France to canvass for his teacher, who had met with great opposition in his own neighbourhood, principally at Beziers. Solomon and Saul, in an unpublished letter said to have been written to Nachmanides (although at the very beginning it appears to address Rabbi Samuel ben Isaac as an old friend of Solomon), profess the highest respect for Maimonides himself and his Talmudical views and decisions, and accuse their opponents, especially an old man called "the bearded" (hl^Ti ]p'\'n, perhaps David Kimchi (?), see below), who travelled about on behalf of the other party, of having forged the letter of Solomon to the French Kabbies, whom they affirm to have been impelled by their own zeal against the book Moreh, &c. The answer to this letter is quite favourable to Solomon, but
;

written in a pacific

spirit.

It further cannot be denied, that

the most zealous of the orthodox party had anathematised

 11.]

SCIENCE AND HAGGADA.

89

the study of the accused works, and that their opponents in

Provence, even in Montpellier and in Spain, had replied with

a counter anathema; a copy of which
1332, at Saragossa, where
still exists,

dated A. D.
the leader.

Bechai beist Moses was

endeavoured to propagate their opinions in France and Spain. Their spokesman and delegate was the celebrated grammarian and interpreter of the Bible, David KiMCHi, then advanced in years, who during his journey entered into a controversy with the revered physician JeHUDA al-Fachar of Toledo, a man of spirit and independence, who, notwithstanding his respect for Maimonides, The younger defended Solomon and his pupiFs opinion.
latter also

The

Samuel ben Abraham Saforta

to the
still

(or Sporta)

^^

addressed

French Eabbies a respectful but zealous epistle, unpublished, proving by learned arguments and quo-

tations that the

Haggada passages of

the

Talmud

are not

obligatory in their literal sense, defending the opinions of

Maimonides, and urging those who condemned them to show

reason for so doing.

The

position of

Nachmanides (Moses ben Nachman

is

of

Girona) in this struggle

in

not yet accurately ascertained; and

it

the passages throwing any light upon

appear to have been

(cf.

some degree altered by the editors. His mystic system 13.) was strongly contrasted with the sober philosophy of Maimonides; and it seems therefore that he as well as
others defended the

many

high personal authority only,

not the system, of the great

Talmudical teacher, whose

memory was
works.

not to be insulted by the interdiction of his

Nachmanides disapproved no less of Abraham, whose cause he pleaded in a letter to Meir Abulafia. This letter has been in part published but was erroneously interpreted by the editor, as having been written on behalf of MaimoIt appears that

the anathema against Solomon ben

Meir Abulafia himself, already advanced in age, and surrounded by people of different opinions, now declined to take any prominent part. He is alluded to by Abraham Ibn Chisdai, in a letter to Jehuda Alfachar, as having lowered himself by mixing with people of inferior rank. Veneration for Maimonides seems to have been the turning
nides.

90
point;

JEWISH LITERATUEE,
and before several of the
letters

[Period

II.

were written,

the

orthodox and fanatical party, deserted by the more

moderate, inconsiderately took a further and fatal step

one which has been subsequently repeated, even up to the They submitted the Jewish Creed to the judgment of Christians ; they denounced the pupils of Maimonides as heretics and they brought the accused books to
present time.
;

the stake.

By this however

they did not benefit themselves

some of them, perhaps Solomon himself, having been, as it seems, convicted of libel, were punished, according to the barbarous laws of the time, with the loss of their tongues, and
finally expiated their

crime with their lives (before A. d. 1235).

This excited the zeal of the Christian clergy, who made it a pretext for a war of extermination against Jewish literature
in general.

According to a recently published

it

letter of the

physician

Hillel ben Samuel, whom we

was only

shall

have

occasion to mention hereafter,

forty days after

the auto da fe of Maimonides' works, that the

Talmud and

other books, commentaries, &c., to the number of about

Thus the 12,000 volumes, were publicly burnt at Paris. ashes of both were mingled, and on the same occasion the
blood of more than 3000 Jews was shed in France.

Accordof Inno-

ing to Zunz however the latter event took place on the

17th of June,
the convert
will

1244,

after

the bull " Impia "

cent ly. dated 9th March, 1244, partly at the instance of

Dunin

(Jona), or Nicolaus, whose disputation

be mentioned below ( 13.). Hillel, who at a subsequent period attended during three years the lectures of Jona at
Barcelona,
tells

us that this

man was

the chief leader and cause

of the catastrophe, but that he repented publicly, and

vowed

a pilgrimage to the grave of the ofiended Maimonides.

He

delayed the performance of this

set out,

vow

but having eventually

he was detained on his passage through Toledo, by the wish of some who asked him to deliver his lectures. There he died, but the piety of Hillel towards so pious and learned a

man forbids him to describe his end. Its suddenness was attributed to his sin, for others who kept their vow better were
spared.

By this statement the identity

of the leader Jona (who

had a cousin Jona ben Josef) with the renowned moralist

11.]
( 12. B.)

SCIENCE AND

HAGGAD A.

91

Jona Gerondi (ob. A. d. 1263), first conjectured by Kapoport, is placed beyond doubt. A controversy such as this could not but lead to personal attacks and defamations of various kinds. Solomon the son of Nachmanides bad married
the daughter of Jona, and according to

Abraham Sacut they

were themselves first cousins (sons of two sisters); at all events they seem to have been kindred. When therefore some ten learned men of Beziers tried to cast a stain on the extraction of Jona and his family at Girona and Barcelona, by insinuating that a marriage, which took place some 130 years before, was illegal, Nachmanides was provoked to take He demanded energetic measures against the calumniators. an anathema, and directed a circular to all the synagogues of Provence and perhaps this odious affair was not without Neverits influence upon his emigration into Palestine. theless about the year 1373 the same calumnies again produced a sharp controversy, part of which is still extant in MS., although Solomon Aderet and his son Astruc did not
;

attach sufficient importance to the attack to prevent their

uniting themselves with the calumniated family.

In the East

also,

at an earlier period (1190),

Samuel

Haleyi, head

of the school at Bagdad, attacked Maimonides'

doctrine of the resurrection^^, and called forth a refutation of it.

He

was perhaps protected by an anathema of the Prince of

the Exiles,

David ben Hodaja,

(?).

at

New Nineveh, against the

a pupil of

adherents of Maimonides and the opposition Prince of the

Exiles,

Samuel

Daniel the Babylonian,

Samuel Halevi, soon after the death of Maimonides, animadverted upon his great Talmudical work and the Boohs of Precepts, partly in Hebrew and partly in Arabic, in the form of queries to Abraham, the son and follower of Maimonides at
Kahira.

He

answered, with an allusion to the

lion,

little

foxes

and the dead

censuring the

new and

arbitrary

method

of certain people, but admitting some errors which

nides himself had corrected in his

Maimo-

own

copy.

This Daniel,

and the above-mentioned Samson of Sens ^^ who removed to St. Jean d' Acre, carried on the controversy, principally on For this reason, Maimothe subject of Demonology, &c. nides' pupil, Joseph Ibn Aknin^^, mentioned above, de-

92

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

manded an anathema from Abraham.

against
all

He, however,

as a

party concerned, satisfied himself with a controversial work

previous attacks (1235), while the Prince of the
Exiles, David, fulfilled the wish.

When

afterwards some

German and French,

by
the East (1286-90), a

of

whom Solomon

Petit (?) mentioned

been one, tried to force their way into of the head of the school at Damascus, ISAi ben Chiskia, to whom others at Acre, &c., joined themselves, put an end to the conspiracies.^^ Copies were sent to Barcelona, &c., and called forth an apology for the Moreh, perhaps by Schemtob Palquera. In the meantime Arabian science gradually found more adherents in Provence and Italy, while the translators, many
Hillel seems to have

new interdict

of

whom

lived in Christian Spain, facilitated the study.

its

On

the other hand, the French school forced

way

into the

North of Spain and Castile, which had been freed from and even thus early a mystical school, as yet orthodox, began to be formed (see 13.). The contention broke out again about the year 1300; and a new element is observable in it, viz. the employment of Astrology ^^, which, like all superstitious usages of the kind, had been opposed by Maimonides himself with a rigour remarkable But the example of Abraham Ibn Esra, for that time. and other influences (see 21.), made even his school
the Arabs
;

infidel in that respect.

To

this period

probably belongs
providence, partly

the defence

of

Aristotle's doctrine of

accepted by Maimonides, the author of which is a certain Kalonymos.^^ Generally speaking, the subject of controversy was no longer the person Maimonides, but rather
the philosophical exposition of
Scripture,

which, having
12.) as

been

laid
its

made

down way in

in writings like those mentioned above ^^%

lectures

and sermons (see

an ex-

planation of Scripture and Haggada.

Amongst

the authors

most violently attacked appear Levi ben Abraham, a poor travelling teacher of philosophy and astrology ; the

renowned astronomer ( 21.) Jakob ben Machir (called Prophiat); and Tibbon of Montpellier (ob. cir. 1309), whose allegorical and astrological explanations of the Bible
are quoted without mention of his name.

In

this

new

field

the contest was carried on with more distinct consciousness

11.]

SCIENCE AND HAGGADA.

93

of the relation between Philosopliy and Revelation.

As

party-leader against philosophy^ and yet also an opponent

of astrology,

we

find at this time called

at Montpellier

Abbawho

Mari ben Moses,

Astruc

of Lunel

-^,

author of a

collection of controversial writings

{Minchat Kenaot),

declared only three articles of belief (unity and incorporeality, creation ex nihilo,

Amongst
above,

his principal opponents, besides those

was Jedaja
to

and Providence) to be essential. mentioned Penini, author of an interesting

Solomon Aderet. Many Proven9als from that of Astruc.^^ This man tried to obtain from the celebrated Rabbi at Barcelona, Solomon Ibn Aderet, pupil of Jona Gerondi and Nachmanides, an interdict against too early a study of philosophy. Ibn Aderet struggled long, in the expectation that those who were of the same opinion as himself in Proat the vence would take the lead but he finally determined same time that the Council at Vienne interdicted Ibn Roshd's writings to forbid the study of " philosophical works" (exapologetic epistle
likewise took a position diflferent
;

cepting medicine) before the age of twenty-five for the next

fifty years.^^

Among

others,

Asher ben Jechiel,

then

chief

Rabbi

at Toledo, also joined in this determination. ^^

On

the other hand, a rival interdict was brought forward

opposition,

by the
tions

which was followed by a host of dissertapro and contra", amongst which is one of Menahem Meiri, answered by Don Duran, younger brother of Abba-Mari, in a long unpublished ^dissertation. While however at Montpellier each interdict strove for the sanction of the law, the government (1306) drove aU Jews out of France and the pastoral persecution in Navarre, which followed soon after (1320), laid waste the North of Spain. This was fatal to the position previously held by the North of France in Jewish literature, while that of Provence was gra^ dually transferred to Italy. Political events, the newly formed Kabbala, the revival of classical literature in Italy, the decline of Jewish civilisation in Christian Spain, and the greater

and

epistles,

interest in Christian literature occasioned

by the polemics

of both parties, turned the thoughts of individual minds

in different directions.
Still
:

not only are the traces of

those

two characters preserved

Sefaradi (Spanish-Portu-

94

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

guese, Arabian, scientific) and

[Zarfati],

Ashkenasi (German-French,
but the controversy about
offshoots

Komanesque,
is

&c.),

philosophy
e. g.

connected,

in the

of this period,

in the Kabbalist

1430) and his

Shemtob Ibi^ Shemtob (ob. A. D. opponent Moses Alashkar (about the end
down
to the present time,

of the fifteenth century), and even

with Maimonides and his opponents.^^ curious instance may be drawn from a manuscript of the Oppenheim Collection
at Oxford.^^
this literature.

We

now

pass on to the individual branches of

12.]

Theology and Philosophy.

origin, tendency,

In respect of the

and form of the theolo-

gico-philosophical literature, there are but slight foundations

for a division of the subject during the period anterior to the

twelfth century

up

to

which time only names,

first

titles,

or frag-

ments, or at most incomplete translations from the Arabic, have

come down

to us.

The

systematic philosophy of religion

in the East appears to have followed, as regards at least its

ticular the Mu'tazelites.

method, the Arabian scholastics {JSIutakallimun), and in parThis is demonstrable in the case of
sopher

the Karaites and the oldest

known rabbinical religio-philoSaadja^ and also the older Spaniards Joseph Ibn Zaddik and Abraham ben David (see below). At a later
Maimo-

period the peripatetic school of Farabi and others obtained the preponderance in Spain through the agency of

Jews began to follow the opinions nides. of Averroes (Ibn Roshd); whose system {Averroism) and works became the centre of a great movement in scholastic philosophy and theology, and were carefully preserved and propagated by the Jews, as is now generally acknowledged. But this and other points, such as the comparison of Averroes with contemporary Jewish writers, Joseph Ibn Aknin and Maimonides for instance, deserve further investigation. Opposed to this was a kind of orthodox sentimental theology, e. g. that of Jehuda Haleyi ( a. d. 1140), and subsequently the Kahhala; both of which, in the controversy with " the Philosophers ^," availed themselves of the ambiguous polemics of the Arabian Ghazali.
Soon afterwards the

 12.]

THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY.

the

95

arrangement of Aristotle generally adopted ^ the rational sciences are preceded by the " Or-

According to

ganon" or Logic (miin DTDDn

pression

i^^'-^\

A^

or y^^yn, which ex-

occurring

once in

the

Talmud, and signifying

something wrong, has been made a topic for controversy between the different parties mentioned^ 11.). They are,
moreover, divided into
2.
1.

Prefatory or Mathematical
3.

( 21.),

Physical (
I.

22.),

and

Metaphysical or Theological
:

(nvn'?}^).

The works

of the last class are

Editions

(Translations,

Explanations,

Commentaries,
:

Super-Commentaries, and Kefutations) of Arabian writers the principal of whom are Farabi (870 950) Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (9801037); Ghazali (ob. 1111 or 1126), of

especial influence in ethics;

Ibn Saig, or Ibn Bage (ob. Tofeil (about Ibn 1150); Averroes (Ibn Eoshd) 1138); (ob. 1198); and others from whom a knowledge of the Greek philosophy, especially that of Aristotle and his Greek expositors, and Plato, &c., was derived e. g. the translator Honein (809873), and his son Isaac (ob. A. D. 910911). Later also the writings of Christian Scholastics were edited amongst them those of the translator Constantinus Afer, Michael Scotus, Vincent Bellovacensis, ^gidius, Albertus Magnus, Petrus Hispanus (whose compendium of logic has been translated several times), Occam, Robert of Lincoln^*, Thomas Aquinas, Thomas Bricot, and even some things of Augustine, AUessandro Piccolomini (1550), and In these works of course various kinds of alteraothers. tions of the texts were made on account of religious differences on the whole, however, the translators from Arabic, Latin, &c., proceeded with some knowledge of the subject and scientific enthusiasm, if not always with careful They were very skilful in using and philological fidelity. enlarging the powers of the Hebrew language for new conceptions, although at first they fell into a somewhat hard and obscure style.'' Many works otherwise unknown, and many interesting data, have been preserved in this way^; but it is to be regretted that scarcely any of them have been printed, and that none of the numerous MSS. in the public libraries of Europe have been used for the history of medias;
;

96
val philosophy.

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Perioi> II.

will here mention only two examples. Michael Scotus' translation of the Liber Animalium, committed by Buhle and Schneider^, might easily have been avoided if the Hebrew translation in the Oppenheim Collection had been known. Supposing the Hebrew

We

The

errors about

title to

be correct, this MS. contains the Commentary of Averroes ; to which neither Jourdain, nor Renau in his great work on Averroes, makes any allusion. Another Hebrew MS., now at Oxford, contains a work by Robert of Lincoln,

De Anima (unknown
is

to Tanner), in which Albertus

Magnus

complete answer to those who imagine all Jews in the Middle Ages, except the Arabians, to have been trades-people and privileged usurers, is found in the prefatory
quoted.

remarks of Jehuda ben Moses of

teenth century);
short dissertations

Kome

(beginning of four-

who

professes to have translated various

by several celebrated Christian authors, in order to show his brethren that " the Christian nation is not
some of them believed. The Jews have never been entirely excluded from the scienthe tific pursuits of their contemporaries, except by force
destitute of all true science," as
;

general ignorance respecting that part of the literature of the

Middle Ages
of a

is shown by the fact, that a Hebrew translation work by Thomas Aquinas has been recently introduced

to the public as a great curiosity,

and ascribed to a special

motive of no value.

The most important Translators and Commentators of Arabian works (by Arabs or Jews) are, the family Tibbon (mentioned at 11.) of Grenada at Ltinel; viz. in a direct Hne, JuDAH BEN Saul (1160), Samuel (1200), and Moses (1244 1274); and as collateral branches, Jacob Anatoli (1232) and Jacob ben Machir (12891303); moreover,

Jehuda ben Cardinal (1211 ?), Jehuda Charisi (ob. before 1235), Abraham ben Samuel Ibn Chisdai at Barcelona (1230), Solomon ben Joseph Ibn Ajub of Grenada atBeziers (1240 1265), the physician Solomon ben Joseph Ibn Jaakub at Saragossa (1298), Jehuda ben Solomon Cohen of Toledo in Tuscany (1247), Shemtob ben Isaac of Tortosa (1264), Shemtob Palquera (12641280), SeRACHJA BEN ISAAC BEN ShEALTIEL HaLEVI at RomC (1284

 12.]

THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY.

Seracpija

97

Halevi, called Saladin (141*2); Isaac Albalag (1307), who savoured of heresy*^; KaloNYMOS BEX Kalonymos of Arles (nat. 1287), at Avignon (13111317), Eome (1320), and in Spain, who also translated into Latin'', and

1294);

was versed in many languages; Isaac

BEN Joseph Ibn Polkar (Alfasi?) in Spain (about 1300); Chajim ben Joseph Ibn Bibas (1320); Levi ben
attacks on Ibn

GePvSON, or Gersonides, at Perpignan (13204), whose Boshd were afterwards refuted by Sabbat ai Cohen ben Malkiel of Crete (1473) and Elia ben Medico (1491); Samuel ben Jehuda of Marseilles (1321

1326), Joseph Caspi (1330), Kalonymos

Theodorus
(at

ben David

Nar bonne?), Theodorus Theodorosi of Aries in Trinquetaille (1337), Isaac ben Nathan of Cordova (Xativa?) (1348), Moses Narboni, called Maestro Vidal mti^Vl (1344

1362), Jehuda

ben Solomon

Nathan

Provence (1354), Moses ben Solomon of ]'hfU in the South of France (not Xilon) (before 1390), Salo3ION Ibn Labi, Manoah Shuali, and others.^ All these were acquainted with Arabic, though in their works they availed themselves of their Hebrew, and after
in

the thirteenth

century

also

of their Latin, predecessors.

Others took as the foundation of their editions the Hebrew translations and the Christian Scholastics above mentioned

Jehuda ben Moses ben Daniel Eomano (nat. 1292)^, Samuel Benveniste (at Saragossa?) translator of the book De Consolatione Philosophias by Boethius (about 1320?), Jechiskija ben Chalafta in Provence (1320)^^ Abraham ben Meshullam Abigdor (1367) at Montpellier^S and Jehuda ben Samuel Shalom (about 1400).
was translated from the Latin of century)* by Don Meir Alguades (1405), physician to King Henry III. of Castile; and this translation was commentated by Joseph
Aristotle
lived in the thirteenth

The Ethics of Boethius (who

BEN Shemtob
Crete (1448

1451),

at

Segovia (1455).
the physician

Michael Cohen

in

Menahem Zebi ben

Eli ben Joseph
not the older author of that

Natanel

of France in Sinigaglia (1474),

is

* Boethius, the translator of the Ethics,

name, as has been proved hy Jcurdain.

98

JEWISH LITEEATHRE.
(Xabillo) of

[Peeiod

II.

Habillo
(1470),

Mongon on

the borders of Aragon,

Baruch Ibn Taish ben Isaac (1485), David BEN Samuel Ibn Shoshan (of uncertain date), Abraham BEN Shemtob Bibago In Aragon (1489) and his opponent Isaac Arama, Abraham ben Joseph Ibn Nachmias (1491), Isaac Abravanel (see below), Elia Misrachi at Constantinople (1490), Elia ben Joseph be Nola (1538), and Moses Almosnino at Salonichi, form, with contemporary translators into Latin, the transition to the next period ( 23.).

Between these and the following

class

we may
;

place those

works from foreign sources, either directly or indirectly as Samuel Ibn Tibbon, whose Opinions of Philosophers is scarcely yet known, and will be described in the catalogue of the MSS. of Ley den; Gerson ben Solomon ( 10.); and MosE Di Gaggio di Eieti, whose Italian work in the same library has been described as a system of ethics by all bibliographers, not excepting Dukes.
larger systematical or encycloptedical

who composed

The more independent writings are partly, A. Dogmatic Theology, or Philosophy of Religion
II.

investi-

gations respecting the rational grounds, the importance, and

duration of the law (a kind of philosophy of the Halacha)

the authority of the Bible and tradition
;

the essence, object,

and necessity of revelation and prophecy in relation to the mental and moral nature of man; the essence and attributes of God, and his relation to the world the principal doctrines of the Jewish faith, such as Monotheism, Creae. g. the works of the Spaniards tion, Eschatology, &;c. Solomon Ibn Gabirol, i. e. Avicebron (eleventh century), whose system is original; Moses Ibn Ezra (1138)^^; and Joseph Ibn Zaddik of Cordova (ob. a. d. 1 149), whose dogmatical work Mikrokosmos, on the system previously adopted
;
;

by the

celebrated Arabic Society,

The Brethren of Purity

;

the reasons please Maimonides owing to a mistake in the translation, have been hitherto misunderstood by every one, not excepting the editor (a. d. 1854). The dogmatic treatise by Abraham ben David (the historian, 10.) has been described by GugQjiA\ ^\y>-\)i did not
for this opinion, however,

much

 12.]

THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY.

German

99

genheimer, and edited with a

the last

translation only within

is

few years

the refutation of Ibn Gabirol

it.

perhaps

About the same time Joseph Ibn Aknin (ob. at Aleppo, a. d. 1226) wrote at Maghreb (as has been proved elsewhere by the author) the greater
the most interesting part of
part of his profound and learned works, founded on the Ari-

Later he became a pupil of Maithe Thirteen Articles of Belief, and especially the Moreh) form a kind of epoch, and constitute
stotelism of Alfarabi, &c.

monides, whose works

(e. g.

down to the present many commentators of the Moreh ^^, we will mention the translator himself Samuel Ibn Tibbon and his corrector Shemtob Palquera (1280), Joseph Ibn Caspi (1330), Moses Narboni (1362), Prophiat Duran (Ephodfeus) (1394), Shemtob ben Joseph ben Shemtob
the centre of religio-philosophical activity
time.

Of

the

(1488) grandson of the opponent above mentioned

( 11. fin.),

AsHER ben Abraham Bonan Crescas, Don Isaac Abrayanel, and Dayid Ibn Jahja. There soon appear Abulafia also Kabbalistic interpreters, as Abraham (1280)^"^, and G-erman commentators, as Menahem, brother of Abigdor Kara (about 1439).^''^ By the way, it is an interesting fact, that

the Moreh, as well as of the great Halacha

some general philosophical passages of work of Maimon-

ides (the latter translated into Arabic, against the intention

of the author), found commentators even amongst the professors of Islamism, probably in the thirteenth century,

and were disseminated amongst Christian scholars in the same century by means of Latin translations. Other writers on
:

the philosophy of religion are

(ob.

Moses

(Levi)

Abulafia

1255), author of an essay on the Primum Movens Jehuda Ibn Sebara, probably at Montpellier (subse-

quently to 1293), author of a tract upon the resurrection; Chajim ben Israel (1272 1277)^^ Levi ben Abraham

BEN Chajim, the leader of the

11.)';

liberal party in

Provence

David ben Jomtob Ibn Billa (Bilia, Villa?) ( (1320), who wrote on the Thirteen Articles of Belief ^^; ChaNOCH BEN Solomon al-Constantini (about 1350), who stood in bad repute with the orthodox Moses Nathan ben Jehuda(1354); the original Jehuda ben Joseph Corsani,
;

100

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

imprisoned in Fez (1365)^^;

(1368),

Elnathan ben Moses Kilkes

hut was no critic; and the celebrated Levi ben Gerson (1329), who had the audacity to confess the eternity of matter, so that his philosophical work. The Wars of God, was ironically called The Wars with (against) God. Chisdai Crescas (1377), and his pupil Joseph Albo (1425), attacked Maimonides' Articles of Belief, and reduced them to three, The Existence of God, Revelation, and Retribution; the former writer was opposed by Simon Duran in Algiers (ob.
in a dispute with the Karaites,

who engaged

1444).

HiLLEL ben Samuel

at

Rome

(thirteenth cen-

tury) wrote a Psychology and Eschatology in the sense of

the philosophers

orthodox,

and
A

although

in respect of
i.

Halacha

strictly

boasts (bk.

chap. 3.) of being acknow-

ledged by Christian scholars,

writings.

but really

who adopted his views in their work on Eschatology, attributed to Machir, written by Moses de Leon (a. D. 1290), expresses
It
is

a diametrically opposite opinion. ously edited and translated.

different views of

found only in a mistitles,

cellaneous collection, printed under various

and

vari-

We

may

here remark, that the

Jewish theologians about the future state of the Gentiles are given in an interesting essay by Zunz. Joseph ben Shemtob (a. d. 1442) tried to reconcile the substance of the orthodox creed, and even the mysteries of
the

Law, with
is

the formal principle of Aristotle, that the

speculative and not practical;

highest good

a striking

proof of the influence exercised by ancient study and learning upon later times, until external oppression had given rise
to ignorant bigotry.
tion

The same author propounds

pagan philosophy
is

the ques-

how

far the study of

lawful for

Jews, and decides in favour of its lawfulness ; but he advises

restrictions as to the age of the students (conf. 11.).

He

intended to publish a selection of such passages of Aristotle

Jewish creed, together with a refutation. Abraham Shalom ben Isaac Catalano (ob. 1492), and Joseph Ibn Jahja (ob. 1539) complete the period; to which also belong Joseph KiLTithe Greek, author of a Logic (1450 1500)^^ and many others. B. Ethics ("iD^^n n?D:Dn) never attained to any independent
as are opposed to the

Abraham Bibago

(1489),

 12.]

THEOLOGY AXD PHILOSOPHY.

101

scientific treatment.

External duties and jurisprudence con-

tinued to foiTQ an integral part of the Halaclia^ and grew

more severe and ascetic in practice ^^ wliile the theory was elucidated by the above-mentioned Solomox bex Gabirol in a celebrated Arabic treatise, which might perhaps be
:

also called a practical

Psychology.

It gives a systematical

survey of the different virtues in connexion with the

senses, short

human

remarks upon each, and a collection of sentences taken from the Bible, from the old philosophers, and from anonymous authors, interwoven, according to the taste of those times ( 20.), with quotations from Ai'abic poems
(omitted in the

Hebrew

translation,

but extant in the Ai'abic

the latter

MS.

in the Bodleian Library).

Among

we may

perhaps reckon a work mentioned under the name of Kuti,

hitherto

unknown, but apparently written by

Jew named

Chefez AL-Krxi, who was

probably the composer of an

Arabic paraphrase of the Psalms in rhyme cited by Moses Ibn Esra, by whom he is called once Al-kuti, and once Alfuti, The a variation easily explained by the Arabic characters. aim of Bechaji bex Joseph at Saragossa (circa 1050
1100), in his Arabic
construct a system

work The Duties of

(]1)l*?2n

the Hearty

was

to

^- ?) - out of the n?2Dn which system was probably 2 a.), ethical Haggada ( o. discussion on the important fundamenoverthrown by the
'

^^

tal doctrines of the

Philosophy of Religion.

Ethics there

fore appear either as a

new

treatment of the Aristotelian, the

abridgment of which by Averroes was first translated from the Arabic about the year 1321, by Samuel bex Jehuda of Marseilles, and thence again abridged by Joseph Ibx Caspi (1330), or else as an exposition of the Haggada, and This treatise especially of the Talmudical treatise Ahot.-^

was explained not only by those authors who included it in their commentaries upon larger portions of the Talmud, but more especially by those who selected it for the sake of its subject matter, and the various du^ections which it
gave suitable to different countries, general views, special
philosophical systems, &c.

Some

of the later writers lose

themselves in
for instance,

digressions

and introductory disquisitions

wrote, as an introduction to
liis

Maimoxides

102

JEWISH LITERATURE.
**

[Period

II.

Commentary, the celebrated

eight chapters" on psychology,

Menahem Meiri
( 19.),

historical

and methodological essay

itself.

and Simon
still

Duran

a philosophical or dogmatical

work,

much

larger than the

Commentary
is

Amongst
;

those which are

and one commonly occurs under the name of Kashi (Salomo Isaki) they have been variously altered and ascribed to different authors. Others were made by Jonah Gerondi, Isaac ben Solomon Israeli (cir. 1300), and others. Moreover, we find ethics as a component part of Halacha and exegetical works, and in certain lesser writings, in the form of parcenetic epistles
extant one
ancient,
{'')'Dyt2'n

m:iK), among the Sefardim; e. g. those by Abraham BEN Chijja (1130), Jehuda Ibn Tibbon (1170), Maimonides (1200), Nachmanides (1260?), Shemtob Palquera (1260), Joseph Ibn Caspi (1330), and Solomon al-Ammi
in Portugal (1415)
^^,

partly addressed to the sons of the

authors, and consequently appearing as testaments (n><12S),

which, especially in Germany, form a part of popular literaFinally, ethics were introduced into poetry, rhetoric and homiletics, affording but few names and titles for such as in Germany Eliezer ben Isaac particular mention
ture.^^
( 20.),
:

of

Worms

(1050);

Jehuda ben Samuel,

(cir.

'^the pious"

(Cha-

sid),

of Regensburg

1200),

who was acquainted with

Ibn Ezra, and with the translation of Bechaji's Ethics, and

probably also with Maimonides, and to whose school belongs the renowned Book of the Pious (D'^T'Dn 'd), which Wulferus

compares with the Ethics of Marcus Aurelius and Seneca

Eliezer ben Jehuda of Worms, Jona Gerondi Menahem Meiri of Perpignan (before all of whom wrote essays on penitence; Bechai ben 1287), AsHER, who composed an alphabetical work on ethics and asceticism (1290)^^ Serachja Hajevani (the Greek),
his pupil

the Spaniard, and

author of the book on ethics (before 1387) ascribed to R. Tam from an interchange of similar titles ("iti'TT "Df^

-,

Jechiel ben Jekutiel ben Benjamin

(cir.

Anaw

at

Rome

(1430); the anonymous author Orchot Zaddikim ; and Isaac ben Eliof the figurative 1460 ezer at Worms (cir. 1480) the last two wrote ori1287)^^; R.

Matatia

ginally in

German.

The compilation of Jehuda Calaz,

 12.]

THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY.

103

edited

by his grandson (1537), is not popular in Germany. The Menorat Hammaor of Isaac Aboab of Castile (ob.
1493, in Portugal)
is

period.

With

these are

one of the principal works of the next in some degree connected the

Spanish Flores de Derecho, compiled by order of Alfonso (son

of Alfonso the Wise) by
attendant
Sabios
e

Jacob de las Leyes,

the

or his

Lihro de Dichos de Philosophos^ a compilation from the Old and New

Moses Zarfati, and

Testaments and ecclesiastical authors, &c., by Jacob CaDiQUE (i. e. Zaddik) of Ucles (middle of the fourteenth
century).

The former, the developC. Exegesis and Homiletics. ment of which can be treated only in connexion with Hebrew
philology ( 17.), will be mentioned here merely as a field of
literature, in which, especially since the time of

Maimonides,
;

the Philosophy of Religion principally flourished

thus, one

Alexandri

(?)/in the tenth century, wrote a long

commeni.

tary on the chapter on the creation ^^ and his contemporary

the physician Isaac Israeli

20.

^^

a similar treatise on Gen.

The

biblical

commentaries of Ibn

Ezra

(ob.

1168),

Tanchum of Jerusalem (cir. 1250, in Arabic), Levi ben Gerson (1327 38), Ibn Caspi, Immanuel of Rome and his Roman contemporaries (cir. 1300)^^ Ibn Billa (1320), Shemarjah of Negropont or Crete (Ikriti) patronised by of Robert of Anjou (1328), Isaac Aboab, Abravanel (ob. 1506), and others many of the innumerable super-conmaentaries on Ibn Ezra^^, e.g. by Jedaja Penini (cir. 1300), Moses ben Jehuda of the Roman family of Nearim (cir. 1300), Solomon ben Chanoch al-Constantini (1325), Joseph Ibn Caspi who introduced the form of double com-

mentaries, separating the "Mysteries" from the rest (1300

that in Arabic

Joseph ben Eliezer Tob-Elem (Bon-fils, cir. 1335) by Solomon Ibn Jaish at Seville (ob. 1345), translated into Hebrew by Jacob ben Solomon Alfandari
30),

for the

well-known super- commentator Ibn Zarza, and those by Solomon Franco (attacked by Abraham ben el Tabib, but used by Ezra ben Solomon Astruc Ibn Gatigno
(1372)
also
31), Shemtob ben Isaac Shafrut (1385), perhaps Prophiat Duran (Ephodasus), and others, are as im-

104

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II,

portant for philosophy as the

many

Kabbalistic

Commen-

taries for the discipline of that school.

To this class likewise belong the Sermons (D^l2;n% DW^iy^,

for the

most part on the various sections of the Bible, espePentateuch, which explain Scripture and the Haggada in a philosophical manner and works in which biblical commentary and theology are interwoven e. g. by Jacob Anatoli ( 11.), Nissim, Joshua Ibn Shoeib (1300-30), Jacob ben Chananel Sikeli in the East (cir. 1400) 3^, Joel Ibn Shoeib at Tudela (1469), Joseph ben Shemtob and his son Shemtob ben Joseph (1489), the Spanish
cially the
; :

and Isaac Karo, and others. The Arabic homilies, favourites even with the Karaites in Egypt, and attributed to David grandson of Maimonides, stand
exiles

Isaac

Arama

at the limit of this period (1503).^^

letics is treated

The theory of Homiby Joseph ben Shemtob (cir. 1440), and Ehetoric in general by Jehuda ben Jechiel, called Messer Leon of Naples, at Mantua (cir. 1454), with references to Cicero and Quinctilian.
Finally,
philosophical expositions of Midrash and

we may mention Haggada, by Moses

;

Ibn Tibbon and Jedaja Penini, &c. Maimonides intended to write a work of this kind, but it became merged
in the

Moreh. D. The Terminology of Philosophy, in its widest sense, was treated by Maimonides, who wrote on Logic in Arabic (ante 1160); by the author of the ]n mi^^; by Menahem Bonafoux Perpignano, in the form of a lexiand in glossaries con by the author of the )!i"i"in nSD ^^ appended by Samuel Ibn Tibbon (who used the celebrated
;
;

^j^\ c;bs^ of Al-Chalil), in his translation of the Moreh of Maimonides, and in the preface to his large work on the know of no special work Views of the Philosophers. but some essays are to be found on Methodology, &c.

We

inserted in several

works,

e. g.

by Joseph Ibn Aknin

(1403), &c.

(before 1180),

Prophiat Duran

13.] Mysteries
( 5 c.)

and Kahbala}

We

have above

given the essence of the olden

a special litera-

Mysteries, and traced the

commencement of

 13.]

MYSTERIES AND KABBALA.

(cir.

105

the two principal subjects, Theophany (Theomorphy), began to be transformed into Physics and Metaphysics by the introduction of Science, and when the Haggada passed
ture in that period

800),

when

the

History of Creation and

from oral tradition to writing, accessible as yet only to the initiated. The Mysteries were transformed into Kabbala The principal first in Europe, and subsequently in the East. difficulties in the historical development of this comprehensive and important field of literature consist in the frequent occurrence of Pseudepigraphy, and the prejudice and superAnother difficulty ficial views to which it has given rise. is the obscurity, intentional or otherwise, of the language and, lastly, another is to be found in our scanty information respecting the Oriental Mysticism, with which the Jewish
is

connected.

We

must here confine ourselves

to

what

is

necessary for establishing our views on the historical develop-

ment of this literature. The following points must be carefully attended to, if we would avoid falling into errors, and into anachro1. The date of a written composition nisms especially must be clearly distinguished from that of the origin of
:

the doctrine, which has often been orally preserved.

their

We
is

can only form a definite judgment on the writings in

present shape
;

and in

so

doing more weight

given to language and style, quotations and reminiscences

from writings whose dates are known, and the like, than to the indications to be gathered from the contents; but, nevertheless, whole groups of investigations and leading ideas, as the doctrines of Spheres, the Trinity, &c., form 2. Titles and quotations from important landmarks. writings which cannot be found have often only a negative value, on account of the frequent Pseudepigraphy and direct The Pseudepigraphy may be explained by the forgeries. author's fear of giving his own name, or by the desire for the sanction of antiquity for new ideas, to which the usual explanation of Scripture (Midrash) afforded but slight founThis abuse, however, which reached its height at dation. a later period, appears to have been influenced by non-

Jewish apocryphal writings, e. g. those of Christian Gnostics, and especially those of Muhammedans, whose doctrine of pro-

106

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

phets and legends, though partly constructed by Jewish and

Christian renegades, doubtless called into existence a pro-

we must first which occur in older writers are not merely Hebrew translations of Arabic titles^; and, if they refer to Jewish works, whether these works are not entirely different from later forgeries bearing the same titles as for instance, the book Tagin ()*'Jri), on
phetic literature of this kind.^
all

At

events,

investigate whether the few quotations, &c.,

the ornamental crowns, &c., in the rolls of the Pentateuch, &c. ( 16.)

3.

We must not start with the premiss, that the

Mysteries were a definitely developed philosophical system,

unless obviously the reverse, older than Christianity.

and that the principal doctrinal statements in them were, In certain individual cases the Kabbala has been united with
;

a philosophical system but in general it rather designates a kind of Haggada or Exegesis, forming a kind of Midrash
applied to the Mysteries and
ticular connexions

common

philosophy.'^

Par-

between such systems and other philosophies or religions, Parseeism for instance, are of no use as
age of the writings^, since

criteria for the

many

older Gnostic,

upon the Jewish literature until a later time.^ Some valuable suggestions have lately been made by 8. Sachs, who traces the two opposite philosophical systems, " Transcendentalism and ^^ Immanence " (combined in the Kabbala with Emanation), in the Jewish philosophers of the Peripatetic school, and in the peculiar philosophy of Ibn Gabirol and Abraham Ibn Ezra, from whose influence he derives the KabBut the subject requires balistic system of Nachmanides. further investigation before we can estimate the value of any general remarks. The 'practical Kabbala, on the other hand, belongs to astrology, magic, &c. ; which certainly made their first appearance in the shape of a left-handed science in Jewish literature through the instrumentality of Arabia^, and which together with the prevalent superstitions did not find their way till a much later period into the Syncretism of the Kabbala ( 12.). The Secret Science is in fact nothing else than Metaphysics in the garb of the Midrash and Haggada; an
intentional obscurity in which,

Philonic, and Persian doctrines were not intruded

down

to a late

period, the

 13.]

MYSTERIES AND KABBALA.

107

teachers of liberal philosophy were in the habit of enveloping

them,
archy.

lest

they should oiFend the multitude.

It treated prin-

cipally of the old subjects. Creation

and the Celestial Hier-

in the ranks of Spiritual

Philosophy and Secret Science fought respectively Theology and Oriental Sensualism.

On the one
gences

hand, the Aristotelians sought to bring their clear system of vovs (hD^l/), and the spheres enlivened by Intelli(D^V:ib:i, DoVd, cli^li), into harmony with the Bible and Haggada, by means of allegorical interpretation and on the other, the Secret Doctrine lost itself among fantastic images and exaggerations, and took possession of everything that is inexplicable in the world of nature and spirit.^ An instance of this is to be found in the descriptions (if we may use such a term) of the " body " of God, called SMur Koma
;

by Salmon ben Jerucham Hence with this school even the plainer miraculous legends of the Haggada gave an agreeable opporThe ordinary Midrash tunity for further embellishments.
{p'ry\'p mx^^ti'),

satirised in verse

(tenth century).

deduces a manifold signification from the mere letter of the Bible, considered as divine, and also uses a play upon letters

by way of memoria technica

(v. sup. 5.)

but here we meet

with a mystical treatment of letters in general, with reference to their sound, form, and numerical value. ^ The Book
Jezira
l^**!*^

(H'T'SJ'' 'D,

i.

e.

Book

of the Creation, or

DnnnKl

DTTni*

of Abraham the Patriarch^, which opens the literature of the Secret Doctrine, enunciates as a fundamenLetters
tal idea, that

the ten digits (n"n''3D) and twenty-two letters

the foundation of everything. ^^

(the thirty-two paths of wisdom, HT^rDH niK^VlD mn-^ns l^'V) are

to be considered as

The

following writers gave a philosophical explanation of this

work Saadja. (ob. 941), Isaac Israeli (ob. 940 953)^ and Jacob ben Nissim (?) at Kairowan, aU in Arabic ^^ Sabbatai Donolo in Italy (born about 913), Jehuda ben Barsillai in Provence (cir. 1130), and Jehuda Halevi The third and fourth chapters of the Boin Spain (1140). raita of R. Eliezer ( 5 B.), the greater and lesser Hechalot (nfe'^n), said to be written by R. Ismael (cf. 5. p. 48.), the old book Raziel ('^K'^n), attributed to Solomon, extant only in detached portions, the Midrash Konen (]3ir5 'n^y^, and
:

likewise the lost Hajashar (erroneously ascribed to R. Akiba),

108

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

and Juchasin, are the principal works on the old Secret Doctrine. ^^ One of them, the Alphabet of K. Akiba ('"n 1"^^
m^pi^), older than the tenth century, lays great stress upon
the letters, and gives a preference to the knowledge (nD"*!)

over the practice of the Law, thus opening the door to a controversy between a

new kind

of Gnosis and the Halacha.

or Tra-

The Secret Doctrine,

the Haggada, was
dition ^^; this
first

originally unfettered as a part of

(jlh'l'p)

stamped as Kahhala

occurred in Europe, and at the point of contact

of the two principal intellectual tendencies frequently

tioned above, in Italy and Provence, a fact, which
racteristic of its
is

mencha-

development and of

its

subsequent position
of this
;

with respect to Halacha.

historical value is

The oldest traces

movement

point to Apulia and Northern Italy (Lucca)

to be found in later authors,

although no

due to the names and conflicting traditions and still less to the legends and fables, according to which, for instance, Eleasar of Worms makes a journey through the air into Spain, to teach Nachmanides, &c. From Northern Italy we have the name of one Kashisha^^, a descendant of the Gaonim, as the author of
a Kabbalistic

work written

for his pupil

is

Jehuda or CoRsaid to

have been a however traces back his Secret Doctrine through various stages up to one Abu Harun, who migrated from Lucca, and was son of the Babylonian Prince Samuel. His pupil Moses ^^ and his family are said to have brought it back to Germany, and finally handed it down through Eleasar OF Spires, his son Samuel, and his grandson Jehuda the Pious (cir. 1200), who like Nachmanides is called *^ Father Perhaps from of Wisdom," to his great-grandson David. this quarter issued also the Kabbala of Provence and Spain, although it claims origin immediately from the Prophet Elias Mention is also made in connexion with it of (see below). a Doctor Nehorai of Jerusalem. At this point, the Doctrine of Mysteries enters upon a
BEiL, of
pupil.

whom Eleasar of Worms

latter

The

new

course.

The Haggada had,

in the

as early as the First Period,

Midrash; this again on the one hand had undergone a poetical metamorphosis in the FrancoGerman Pijjutim ( 19.), and on the other evaporated into the
exhausted
itself

 13.]

MYSTERIES AND KABBALA.

In the North,
social

109
political

Arabising Philosophy.

and

circumstances, and the spirit of the

fostered a tendency towards feeling
are always associated
in the traditional letter.

surrounding nations,
superstition,

and

which
spirit

with the embodiment of the

In the South, Magic, Chiromancy, Demonology, &c., were added as a kind of philosophical sequel to the highest sciences and the Oriental Mysticism of the Sufi found a resting-place in the old remains of JudaeoChristian gnosis. The Crusades and other political revolu;

tions brought all intellectual tendencies together.

Thus was

developed a fresh Jewish Theosophy^^, in which first the letter, and afterwards also the practice of the Law (Halacha)

were degraded
in
it.^^

to a

mere husk of the Mystery (no) contained

This again was carried back to antiquity by means

of Pseudepigraphy,

by the

imitation of the external forms

and expressions of the old Midrash, and finally by the afterthought of pretended Inspiration and forgery. But the intermixture of well-known foreign elements
that the so-called

made

it

evident

" Kabbala" was the reverse of that which its name (Tradition) designated. In such a wide choice of thoughts and means for exegesis a large field was open to the subjective element and hence " the number of the systems
;

and expositions was nearly as great as that of the writers." ^^ E. Isaac the Blind, called the " Father of the Kabbala," son of the celebrated Abraham ben David of Posquieres ( 9.), is perhaps to be considered as the founder of the new mystic literature.^^ To him Landauer ^^ ascribes the book Bahir ("l^nin 'd), or Midrash Nechunja Ben ha-Kana'^^ (at all events belonging to this age), in which the ten Sefirot (numbers) of the Book Jezira were brought into connexion with the attributes (dHTD) and fingers, or members, of God. foundation was thus laid for the doctrine of the Sefirot, which was finally merged in the Aristoteliari spheres, and

introduced by

way

of interpretation into the

Book

Jezira.

His pupil Ezra (ob. 1238 ?) is said to have been the teacher of Nachmanides (in Spain) but, although much has been written upon the subject, it is not yet clear whether he is not the same person as Azriel (ben Solomon, or ben Menahem ?) According to Moses mentioned as a pupil of Nachmanides.
;

^"^

110

JEWISH LITEKATURE.

[Period H.

ben Solomon ben Simon of Burgos, a not very trustworthy

author of the thirteenth century of
hereafter, a

whom we

shall

speak

work called Masoret, by a K. Elchanan, is one of the sources whence Nachmanides drew his system. About the same time lived Joseph ben Samuel, a fragment of whose Exposition of Genesis is inserted by Jacob ben Sheshet. K. Eleasar of Worms (1220) in Germany was author of many Kabbalistic works among others of a Commentary on the Book Jezira and on the Prayer-book, and also of the K'ln 'HID, a compendium of which is called the Greater RasielJ^^ To his numerous pupils belong, among others,
;

Abraham ben Alexander

(or Achselrad) of Cologne,

and the author of the pseudo- Saadianic Commentary on Jezira ^^; a certain Men ahem however seems to have been a pupil of Nachmanides.

To

the thirteenth century, especially the latter half of

still

it,

belong some important men, whose writings

require

thorough investigation for the history of the Kabbala ; and also a mass of pseudepigraphical writings^'' which became

more numerous

in the fourteenth century,

and were ascribed

;

to Patriarchs, as

Adam, Enoch, Abraham

;

to Prophets, as

Moses, Elias, Jeremiah, &c. to Doctors of Talmud, as Akiba, Ismael ben Elisha, Nechunja ben Hakana, Simeon the Just^^%

Simeon Hapekuli,
as Saadja, Sherira,

especially

Simeon ben Jochai to Gaonim, Hai ^, and the fictitious Chammai ^* and
;

Dositai

and

also to later learned

men,

as

Ibn Ezra^^, and even

to forged or ficti-

Maimonides.^^
tious

Lastly, appeal was

titles, as

made

by the notorious Spaniard MoSES BoTAREL, who wrote a Commentary on the Book Jezira, nominally for a Christian named Maestro Juan.^^ The persons first mentioned, principally Spaniards, are divided by Landauer^^ into four schools, I. The Orthodox School of Ibn Aderet ^^, which cultivated the doctrine of the Sefirot according to the Book Bahir, and the Commentary on the Pentateuch by Nachmanides (finished a. d. 1267 in the East). The following are representatives of this school
names and

ToDROS Halevi ABULAFiAat Toledo (ob. 1283

erroneously called " Tedacus" by Reuchlin
;

at Seville),

the notorious

Shemtob ben Abraham Ibn Gaon

(Jaen?),

who

calls

 13.]

MYSTERIES AND KABBALA.

Ill
at

himself a pupil of Aderet; Isaac

Safet)^^%

ben Todros (1325

and

his colleague

Isaac of

Akko

(i. e.

St.

Jean

d'Acre) (see 17.); Bechaji ben Asher at Saragossa (1291) perhaps also some less known, of whom we shall speak hereafter ; and, according to Landauer, Menahem de
;

Recanati in Italy
(see below).

^^

but we must place

this

author later

Among those more independent of Nachmanides

were Perez, the supposed author of the famous Maarechet ha Elahut^^, the pseudo Chammai Gaon, and others. II. The Aristotelian Kahhalistic School (called by Landauer "Kabbalistic Philosophical") of the ambiguous Isaac Ibn Lathif (1280, not 1244), who expounded the mystic doctrine philosophically, and consequently incurred censure and per-

III. The Philosophical Kahhalistic School of Ibn Chiquitilla (Gekatilia, erroneously also Joseph Karnitol), and his teacher Abraham Abulafia, who
secution.

viewed the Kabbala as the foundation of Philosophy, but

nevertheless gave greater prominence
bala than to the Sefirot.
to the literal

Zoharic School,

Hence was developed which forms a new and important

I Y.

KabThe

phase.

The famous

or infamous mystical Midrash on the Penta-

teuch ascribed to
century,

Simeon ben Jochai,

entitled

Zohar

("iniT,

splendour )^^, certainly dates no earlier than the thirteenth

when

there was an intimate connexion

Christianity,

between

Judaism and

and when

false

prophets and

soothsayers appeared everywhere. ^'^

Its advocates themselves

acknowledge that it was unknown even to the great Kahhalistic

authors before that time. This work developes the sexual dis-

Book Bahir ^^ and also the older Sefirot doctrine, by means of a literal Kabbala, into a Trinitarian doctrine ^^, nevertheless openly attacking Christianity ^^ as well as Talmud and Halacha."^^ Anti-Kabbalists and critics have hitherto considered Moses BEN Shemtob de Leon of Guadalaxara (1287 93) as the author of it and the researches commenced by JeUinek seem to confirm the opinion that this author, who is known to have been guilty of plagiarism, was concerned in the forgery, if indeed he was not the principal actor in it. From want of good critical grounds, although not without some
tinctions in respect to the Deity given in the

112

JEWISH LITERATURE.
came

[Period

II

tippearance of probability, Landauer

clusion.

to a different con-

In the course of the discussion, however, some interesting particulars have come to light respecting an author of that time, previously but little known, Abraham Abulafia ben Samuel (nat. 1240 at Tudela)'^^, a celebrated fanatic,

who

has since become the subject of special

"^^

researches.

had been taught the Book Jezira by twelve expositors, and himself composed a pseudonymic commentary on it (1289). He understood Arabic (Grreek?) and Latin, had studied Plato^'', gave himself out as a prophet and " Messias " or considered himself such^^, went by Barcelona to Capua, and is said to have tried to convert the Pope (Martin TV.) at Rome (August 1281/6; but he was persecuted for his opinions, and forced to seek an asylum at Cumino in Malta. ^^ He was the author of more than twenty Kabbalistic (and grammatical) works; part of which he calls " prophetic," frequently adopting the anaAmongst others, there is a grammatic name Raziel. Commentary on the Moreh (1280, 1291), and a book called Zacharia or mKn(the sign or wonder), composed A. r>. 1288 In this he affirms that Jesus was a prophet, at Cimiino. but not yet acknowledged reminding us of a similar opinion expressed 150 years before by the Karaite author Jehuda Whether some of the substance now Hedessi ( 14.). forming the great body of the Zohar was taken from his writings is a question which cannot be answered until both have been more thoroughly investigated. The Zohar, which like many works of that time was intended to be written in pure Aramaic, fell back to some extent upon Hebrew. ^^ but the language It has been since edited in Aramaic neither pure nor correct. is inelegant, and This fact, proved by Luzzatto, may be considered as a complete answer even to those who explain, by means of a miracle, all the objections to the antiquity of the Zohar raised on the score of improbability. They can hardly assert that Simon ben Jochai wrote a book in a style and language used by no one except the followers of the forgery, amongst whom all grammatical knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic was extinct (comp. 16.). Our
;

He

 13.]

MYSTERIES AND KABBALA.

113

various editions contain different original elements and additions,

and without the assistance of manuscripts a

is

critical

history

out of the question.^^

In Spain, where the forgery did not impose upon every one, the only certain and almost coeval witness against it, in an account given by the above-mentioned Isaac Akko, and the book never attained to great authority or popularity

we have

Landauer goes so far as to suppose that But the author has was never brought there at all.^^ recently found it quoted as a work of Simon ben Jochai, in a book by Moses de Leon, and in another remarkable passage of Joseph Ibn Wakkar, of whom we shall have occasion This author, in mentioning the books to speak hereafter. which are to be relied upon, recommends of the "latter" only Moses Nachmanides and Todros Abulafia; "but," he adds, " the book Zohar is full of errors, and one must take This is an impartial and care not to be misled by them." indirect testimony that the Zohar was recognised scarcely fifty years after its appearing as one of the " latter " works,
in that country.
it

and not attributed

circumstances
explained, if
it

to

Simon ben Jochai.

its

Through what
into Italy
is

so

soon found

way

not

we

reject Landauer's conjectures.

His adoption
de Ke-

of the older statement about the date of

canati cannot in
;

Menahem

any case be admitted for the latter wrote his Commentary on the Pentateuch (which is, in fact, little else than a commentary on the Zohar), not in 1290, but about 1330^^, when Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome makes mention of that book. From Italy a knowledge of it spread among the Jews to the north and east, and subsequently also amongst the Christians. There also the first opponents of its genuineness arose at the end of this period during which individuals of the Spanish Philosophical School, and even Germans, as Lippman of MtJHLHAUSEN (cir. 1400), himself an author of Kabbalistic works, took up the cudgels against some doctrines of the Kabbala as un-Jewish.^^
;

Amongst

the Spaniards of the latter half of the 13th cen-

tury there are several authors whose works and even whose names are scarcely yet known, although they are honourably mentioned

by

writers

who
I

flourished shortly afterwards.

114

JEWISH LITERATURE.
of

[Period

II.

Many

them were, or represented themselves to be, pupils and they were perhaps the real authors of some anonymous and pseudonymous works of that period. Some of them quote, as ancient, writers and Avorks which either never existed, or had been forged by themselves.
of Nachmanides
;

Further information is therefore necessary for the history of this interesting period, into the literature of which we
have as yet been able to obtain but little insight. We may mention, as examples, David Cohe??, quoted under the anagram 'Kmi?:^ (Mardochai) Abistee, supposed to be the apostate of Burgos^ and subsequently celebrated as Alfonso
;

OF Valladulid
Girona,

(conf.

13.);

Jacob ben Shesiiet

of

who wrote
epistle,
;

work

against

Samuel Ibn Tibbon,

and an

more zealous than argumentative, against

the philosophers

(Sefardi) of Soria, probably the

:

Jacob Kohen ben Jacob the Spaniard same as Jacob Chiqui-

tiLLA Avho died at Segovia and his younger (?) brother, Isaac Kohen, both of whom were at one time in ProThe latter wrote, amongst other things, an essay vence. containing explanations of the book MaJhush (pyzh'd). He
certainly belongs to the class of suspected authors, and whether himself misled or not, his statements are calculated
to mislead others.
fictitious author,

He mentions a Kabbalistic essay by a Mazliacii ben Pelatja of Jerusalem, brought to Aries by one Gerson of Damascus; and he quotes Joseph ben Abitur and Isaac Ibn Gajjat as With these brothers we must class their Kabbalists, &c. pupil Moses (ben Solomon) ben Simon of Burgos, who quotes Jehuda ben Jakar and Isaac Halaban, &c. In the 14th century Joseph Ibn Wakkar ben Abraham made an attempt to reconcile the Kabbala with philoHe Avas the author of a short unpublished essay on sophy.
the principal doctrines of the Kabbala, which
best introductory
position of the
is

perhaps the

compendium of the
Sefirot

subject.

He

abeady

complains of differences respecting the classification and ex-

names of the ten

as

much to the disgust

of Shemtob ben Shemtob, the defender of the traditional

Kabbala,

and,

against the use of the book Zohar.

mentioned above, cautions his readers At the same time the

14.]

KARAITIC LITERATURE.

115
identified the
;

philosopher

Jehuda ben Moses

of

Rome

Ideas of Plato with the Sefirot of the Kabbalists

philosophers attempted to explain
cal exegesis
;

and not

long afterwards the Kabbala obtained so firm a footing, that

it

by means of philosophi&c. yet but

e. g.

Moses N'arboxi,

The
little

Kabbalistic literature of the 14th and 15th centuries,

principally

anonymous or pseudonymous, and

e. g.

as

investigated, consists chiefly of editions of older

works

by Bechai ben Asher (end of 13th cent.), and Joshua Ibn Shoeib (cir. 1330); and supercommentaries on J^achmanides, e. g. by Isak ben Samuel ex Acco, and by Jacob ben Asher, who substituted for the speculative passages of Nachmanides the trifling but popular explanations of Gematria, &c. and also on Ibn Ezra, e. g. by Samuel Motot (1412). Commentaries on the book JeziRA were composed by Jehuda ben Nissim Ibn Malka (in Arabic) (1365), Joseph Sar Shalo^i^^, Pseudo Abrabiblical commentaries,
;

ham BEN David (1390) ^^, Botarel (1409), Samuel Motot (1412), and others. The Liturgy ( 19.) also
became the object of Kabbalistic exposition
as early as the

beginning of the 13th century; we will here mention only a few authors of monographies of that kind Eleasar of
:

Ezra mentioned above, Menahem Becanati, Isaac ben Todros, Samuel Motot, and Meir Ibn

Worms

and

Gabbai. We conclude this paragraph with the names of some authors in Germany and France David ben Abraham IIalaban (cir. 1300) Hiskia ben Abraha3I, author of the Malkiel ; Sa^iuel ben Simeon (1400); Abigdor and his brother Menahem Kara at Prague (1439) Meshullam ben Moses Solomon, father of Joseph Kolon Johanan Allemanno, Jehuda in France (cir. 1450).^^ Chajjat in Italy, and others, form the transition to the
: : ;

next period.

14.]

Karaitic Literature.

In opposition

to the adherents of the

it is

Halacha and Hagcalled, there stands

gada, or Rahhiiiism (Talmudism) as

at this period a party

which

is
I

distinguished from the Sad-

116
ducees of Period
literature.

JEWISH LITERATURE.
I.

[Period IL

by

a theory carried out in an elaborate

sect, the essence

This party thus forms an actual

(Karaism) and development of which however will be here From the treated of only from a literary point of view.^ fact of their principal residence being in the Crimea, recent events have drawn public attention to them; but the accounts which have been lately given of them are mere repetitions of older works. It seems that no advantage has been taken of this opportunity of enlarging our very small store of Karaitic literature and there is but little hope that amongst the warlike trophies of Sebastopol any Hebrew parchments will be found. The retiring character of Karaism prevented its ever attaining a position of such immediate importance in the general history of literature as Rabbinism, nevertheless it assisted materially at the period of its origin (750 900) in the re;

formation of Rabbinical literature ; so that perhaps this obscure and incomplete section of the history of the latter
itself to
is

up and completed by the fragments of The subsequent separate formation of the Kathe former. raitic literature has, however, some peculiar attractions for
be cleared
the student.

Whatever we may think of the connexion of Karaism with similar Jewish tendencies of an earlier date, the Karaitic literature and sect begin apparently with Anan ben David (cir. 760); for the long genealogies of precedent
Karaitic heads of schools are taken from a Midrash.^

But

the later Eabbinites also were claimed by the younger Karaites as

rities

belonging to them, because they are quoted as authoof the sect

;

by the founders

e. g.

the proselyte

David

BEN Mervan Al-Mukammez,

author of a dogmatic work,

the information on Jewish (Christian and

Muhammedan) sects
*

contained in which appears to form the foundation of the

accounts given by the Arabians Makrisi and Shahristani

Jehuda Ibn Koreish; Ibn Ezra, and

others;

also

a
of

funereal inscription for the converter of the king of the

Chasars, Isaac Sais^jari, was forged, and a great

rabbinical

number

works were

counterfeited.''

On

the other hand,

there are certain peculiarities in this literature with respect to

 14.]

KARAITIC LITERATURE.
;

117

the arguments and metliocl

opposition to
tlie

for instance, a freer exegesis, in

which is however by no means a safe criterion for the Karaism of the author.^ Karaism soon became connected >yith the earliest sect (in
Halaclia,

the narrowest sense) of the

that
(

Muhammedans which

arose at

time, viz.

the Mu'tazUe, and with the Mutakallimun

^^^'j^, Hebrew DniTiri) in general, who, starting from

the

Word

( Ji' )

of God, the Logos ^% tried to bring phi-

not the peripatetic, into harmony with revelation ^ ; entering next upon the fundamental doclosophy, the
atomistic
trines of religion
receivino^ the
(

^,}x\
(

J^^
^

U^"^^"^,
^^

Q^^pX^)^

and thence

name

^^^L

CJ^^^^'iti')

Kadicals," or

more

properly,

'^

Doctrinaries."

were the

first to

On this account the Karaites reckon the number of the (10) Articles of
also in general influenced their
^,

Belief^, and are proportionately rich in dogTaatic literature.

Muhammedanism
theology
^,

dogmatic
^^

and even their religious practice

thus giving

occasion to the conversion of

many

Karaites to Islamism
( 15.).

and

this again

provoked a reactionary controversy

^ ^

The

opposition of Karaism was directed against the

*,

Ha-

lacha- and Haggada-^Iidrash

and consequently promoted a simpler exegesis and grammatical study among the Kab-

binites themselves.

But

whilst the philosophy of the latter

expounds even the Haggada-Midrash in a philosophical manner, the Karaitic was obliged to throw itself solely and wholly upon the Bible, and finally could not help having recourse to the intermediate elements of the sagas and legends of the Babbins, with some modifications received from Muhammedanism. ^^ In religious practice there appears in the place of the despised tradition of the Halacha

a not dissimilar but often false tradition (npnrn) or inheritance (niz^n^n bno)

and philosophy

e. g.

in the Liturgy. ^'^

and a closer reference to dogmatics ^^, and also Levi ben Jefet tells us that Abu Solei^^,

in the rules for slaughter

MAX David ben Hassix

much

introduced into his Litui-gy so of exegesis, demonstrations, and polemics, that the

Hymns can scarcely be recognised as such. At the same time their religious poetry loses the jMidrash materials of
I

118

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

the Pijjutim ( 20.) ; and finally the fantastic and mystic tendency of the secret doctrine and Kabbala could not fail
to dissolve entirely in the firm grasp of rational knowledge.

Karaism, when fully elaborated, was thus opposed to Rabbinism as a theory and dialectical exercise keeping itself aloof from the natural deyelopment of the nation, having

been called into existence by external circumstances, and continuing to propagate itself by its own resources. Happier in attack than in defence, wherever the direct words of the
Bible did not afford a firm footing for the

new

intellectual

movement, Karaism could not fail to be aware of a contradiction and harshness in the Law to their own interpretation of
;

which, however, they inflexibly adhered. ^^

origin

But from its very

some of which professedly separated themselves on account of peculiar and unrecognised customs, while others maintained their consects or schools,

Karaism was broken up into

nexion with the prevailing tendencies of the time merely by

means of
sias

doctrinal statements. ^^

ascribed to the individual founders

Writings are expressly e. g. the Pseudomes;

Abu

Isa

Abdallah

(Obadja),

Ishak ben Jaakub

EL IsFAHANi (754
e.

842): and with some degree

g. the

775), Ismail el Okbari in Irak (833

of probability also to others;
'^

camelherd and Pseudomessias

(not

Abu Amran

Judsoan {^^^y^l Omran ") MusA (Moses) el Saaf-

RANi (^']/^jy^ Al-Tiflisi, contemporary of Okbari, and probably identical with Moses ben Amram Ha-parsi, or

Jehuda

(Al-Jehudi?) Haparsi^^; and

as lost.

Mesue (Moses)

of

Balbek, at Bassra (afterwards baptised).

All their writings

must be considered
is

But

the whole Karaitic literature

so little

known and

so inaccessible, that

any attempt at

its

internal history appears, to the writer of this

work

at

least, too

bold an undertaking^^, particularly since the chro-

nology brought forward by some of their

authors
of
it
is

both arbitrary and contradictory.

ham MiSRACHi,

seems to be an incidental passage of who, in his work upon the differences between Karaites and Babbinites, enumerates, although not in chronological order, about forty names, which he pretends to

own more recent The foundation Elia ben Abra-

14.]
;

l^HAITIC LITERATURE.

119

have met with the list however is neither correct nor free from repetitions. It is again given by Joseph Bagi ben Moses, who is the authority for a passage in "Warner's Col-

and hence Wolf has inserted the names volume of his Bibliotheca. Another list of teachers, piu'porting to be chronologically arranged, was borrowed by Mardochai ben Xisax from Moses Bashiatshi (ob. 1572), and is the foundation of again another list by Si:mCHA Isaac, which is arranged geographically. But even the latter is not much more trustworthy than the former, the part which traces the names up to Anan being, as already observed (p. 116.) an evident forgery. We must therefore content om'selves with some o-eneral remarks.
lectanea at
;

Ley den

in the thii'd

The

writings of the Karaites

now known

to us are princitreatises, biblical

pally^^ religious,

and in the form of dogmatic

exegesis, books of the

Laws

(mi^iT^n 'd), religious poetry,

and a few grammatical works. Some works on medicine and other subjects ( 22.) have been partly preserved by the
Arabians.

Anan and some

of his followers,
-^,

e.

g.

Benlaw on ac-

jamin BEN Moses Xehawendi

in editing their
;

works, wrote in the Halacha idiom of the time

prevalent, the

for,

count of the tendency to dogmatic polemics having become

Hebrew and
ill

Ai'amaic had fallen into the back-

ground, being

adapted to the

new

conceptions, and un-

wieldy in poetry, as we find in the rhyming prose of

Salman

ben Jerucham and Jehuda Hedessi.

Moreover, since the Karaites lived for the most part in countries where Arabic was spoken, Arabic became their principal dialect and, as they thus had less occasion for translations than the Kabbinites ( 8. 11.), the development of the Hebrew fell into arrear, and a more Arabising type was stamped upon it. Subsequently (in the 14th century) their writers learnt of the Eabbinical school, and transplanted a still greater niunber of
;

disposition of their

Tahnudical expressions into then- works. -^ The foi-m and works are strictly scientific, even to peTheir relation to the Masora also
is

dantry.

The most important

are
still

writers, especially those

worth notice.--^ whose works

(?)

extant, are the* polemical contemporaries of Saadja,

or

Chiwi al Balki
'

Belki, and
I

Ben Suta

Sal4Man

120
;

JEWISH LITERATURE.
;

[Period

II.

BEN Jerucham Menahem Joseph ben Jacob (Abu

J.)

EL KiRKissANi EL Bassir {jf^'^, Hebrew n>^nn) ^^, called also after his work Hamaor (^)/-^^ ?) (910 930); Joseph

BEN Abraham (Ibn Zadakab ?) Cohen Haroeh^ and Ms pupil Jeshua (Abu Ali Isa) ben Jehuda Japhet (Abu Ali Hassan el Basri) Halevi (953), and bis son Levi (Abu Said). Munk identifies Jesbua ben Jebuda with Abu 'l Farad j Forkan ben Asad, the author of an Arabic
translation or exposition of the Pentateuch; but,

amongst

several authors

named Jeshua who occur

in the confused lists

mentioned above, there is a Jeshua Aaron or Abu 'l Faradj Harun, from whom Mose Bashiatshi quotes some Arabic passages belonging to an exposition of the PentateuchThe Arabic name Forkan being only a translation of the

Hebrew Jeshua,
that Jeshua ben

it is

not quite so evident as

is

Munk

supposes

Jehudah

the

Abu

'1

Faradj whose pupil

his work into Spain (see below). Moses Ibn Ezra seems to imply that Abu'l Faradj of Jerusalem changed his faith, which however might be interpreted that he went from the Rabbinites to the Karaites. We may mention also Abu Sari Sahal ben Mazliach Jacob BEN Eeuben (1098 1099) ^^ and Jehuda ha- Abel Hedessi (of Edessa) at Constantinople (1149), whose polemical work on the commandments in Hebrew rhyming
;

Ibn Al-Tarras introduced

prose

is

a great authority for the earlier history of Karaism.

this

About

time (1150) Karaism had made an ineffec-

tual attempt to extend itself in Spain,

where Ibn Ezra^^

Jehuda Halevi

(1140),

and

Abraham ben David

(1161) ^^ at the same time as Maimonides and his son Abraham ^^ in Egypt, encountered it with the weapons of
the Peripatetic school.

ben Joseph, weU acquainted with Rabbinical works, tried to oppose it in a way different from the old dogmatics of the Kelam he however proved unequal to the task.^^ On the other hand, Aaron ben Elia the
(the elder)

Aaron

a physician at Constantinople (1294)

Nicomedian, with the most comprehensive learning ^^, wrote

in opposition to the principal

works

-of

Maimonides on phi-

losophy and law a Karaite dogmatical system,

(1346), a Codex of

Ez

Chajjim

Law

(1354), and a

Commentary on the

 14.]

KARAITIC LITERATURE.

121

Pentateuch (1362). But little is yet known of his contemporary and compatriot the Rabbinite Elnatan Kilkes, and
his polemics against Karaism.

Once more

at the

end of this

period the Karaites at Constantinople

fell into

a controversy

with Rabbinism.^^
refuted

The attacks of Eli a Misrachi were by Elia Bashiatshi (ob. 1490). The mediaeval
it is

Karaitic literature of the East, so far as

known

to us,

ends with his pupil and brother-in-law

the polyhistor
^'^

Kaleb Afendopolo,

the physician and biblical commentator

Abraham ben Jehuda ben Abraham at Constantinople, whom the bibliographer erroneously refers to the year 1527, when his grandson Jehuda ben Elia Tishbi finished a copy of his work; the poet Jehuda Gibbor (1502), and
The MS. remains of this period are to be a few others. found in the Crimea ^^, at Kahira, and also in the library at Leyden. Subsequently a literary movement of no great importance appears at Constantinople, in the Crimea, and in Galizia, the principal representatives of which are the dogmatist Moses Pozzi Maroli the writer on Law Jehuda Poki, grand:

son of Elia Bashiatshi

the great-grandson of the latter,

is

Moses Bashiatshi ben Elia ben Moses, who

said to

have composed two hundred and forty-five works before he was sixteen years old, but who on account of persecutions retired into the East, and there met with an early death in Elia Rabbenu ben Jehuda his eighteenth year (1572) Tishbi, who wrote his Expositions of the Introductions to Joseph ben Aaron's Commentary on the Pentateuch, under the title Peer (crown), in the year 1579, and who by an inconceivable mistake of some bibliographers has been supposed to be the son or grandson of Abraham ben Jehuda, mentioned
;

above
digo

Serach ben Nathan Troki, the friend of del Me1620); the traveller Samuel ben Dayid (1641)^^; MoRDECAi BEN NiSAN, the Correspondent of Trigland
;

(cir.

(1698), to

whom

has been ascribed an unpublished essay,

which seems
(1710);
1830).

to belong really to a Rabbinical

KabbaHstic

author; the polemical writer

Solomon ben Aaron Troki ben Isaac Moses (1757), author of an Simcha and
(D'^pniiS

alphabetical catalogue of Karaitic works

m>, Vienna,

122

JEWISH LITERATURE.
following persons wrote on
;

[Period

II.

The

Grammar: (Abu) JussUF

the celebrated Kabbinites

Hasaken (Haroeh ? y^

Sahl ben Mazliach^^; Aaron

BEN Joseph, who borrows from

Chiquitilla^^
;

Jehucla Chajjug, Jonah Ibn Gannach, and Moses Cohen

and

subsequently

Solomon Troki and

insight into

MoRDECAi BEN
only

JSfisSAN.

The

oldest of these authors are

known by

quotations, but a

more accurate
interesting.

their grammatical views

would be

15.] Polemics,'^

The various tendencies

and
religious sects,

of Jewish theology and philosophy,

hitherto treated of, manifest an influence from foreign schools

and an internal contest which a contact In closest connexion with this stands the polemical tendency of the whole of Judaism The treatment of this against what was external to itself. part of Jewish Literature must therefore be kept free from external references and prejudices, calculated to influence the discussion of it; such, for instance, as would arise if any one were to view all Jewish dogmatism and exegesis only with reference to Christianity, and to set down as "polemical " ^ every divergence, however natural, or to consider
of this kind always calls forth.

every occasional expression about persons or things not JcAvish only as a hidden attack, instead of as a contribution
to the history

It

and characteristics of this nation and religion.^ must moreover not be overlooked, that renegades, pro;

and neophytes are the principal representatives of that many works are known only from the quotations of opponents'^ and that many are mere fictions^, or rest upon misrepresentations.^^ Besides this, scientific criticism meets with both external and internal difliculties such as the peculiar, frequently illdefined, and uncertain designation of nations and religions in the Hebrew language^, the suppression and mutilation of manuscripts and printed works from fear or necessity ( 23.), and the connexion of entire polemical literatures, requiring a knowledge as comprehensive as it should be sound. Finally, the, polemics are important, inasmuch as
selytes,

the ever-changing polemical literature

 15.]

POLEMICS.

123
their

the external fate of the

religion.

Jews was made dependent upon

The
work

First Period (that of the

its

Talmud and Midrash),

in

accordance with
to

general character, presents no particular

be noticed here

(except the apologies of JosE;

pnus and Philo,

whicli are quite peculiar)

although, from

the very origin of Christianity to the present time, there

could have been no lack of attempts at conversion both by books and oral teaching ^^; and also many fathers of the

Church and

later theologians

had Jews for their

instructors.

The

necessity to take notice of Cliristians might indeed be

perceptible in the Ilalacha, in so far as Christianity, fed in

a great measure from Paganism, might be regarded in the

same
the

light as

Paganism, or the Sadducees, Kutheeans (Sama-

ritans), or other sects.

What

particular legal definitions in

Talmud

are to be referred to this head requires further

since

investigation,

the

name Nazurites

(DmilD),

subse-

quently in use, does not occur in our editions printed under censorship^;

and other names, subsequently given to

Christians, admit of various explanations.^

Even

the dates the other

respecting Jesus and his disciples, which are in general very

scanty, have not been critically established.^

0n

hand, unquestionable remains of particidar conversations be-

tween learned Christians and Jews, and

also of others with heathen philosophers^^, traces oi Institutes for disputations^*,

and some allusions to Christianity and the relation of the

then Christian Church to the Jewish are preserved in the
as that of

Talmud and Midrash.^^ The accounts of disputations, such Rabbi Julius of Pavia with Magister Petrus

(790)*^, are older than the eTewish literature of Europe.

Even Muhammed, with

his learned weapons the Koran and Sunne, wages war against Judaism as well as Christianity and these works contain fragments of similar disputations, which, throughout the whole of this age, have the character of simple Midrash. In the Second Period (that of Exegesis and Philosophy) we
first

meet with really coritroversial y^viiing^i while in general Dogmatics and Exegesis^ in their scientific foundation, become unavoidably involved in polemics on every side. Exegesis is

124

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

concerned principally with the " Messianic passages " of the

Bible; amongst which Isaiah,
lii.

13., stands foremost: so that

;

we

find

monographies in explanation of these passages

for

by Nachmanides, Solomon Astruc of Barcelona, David de Rocca, Saadja Ibn Danan, and Isaac Elia
instance,

Philosophy of Beligion, on the other hand, treats 1. The unchangeableness and rational foundation of the Law and Tradition, against the 2. The theory of Revelation and doctrine of the Karaeans
of the three principal groups
:

Cohen.

prophets in connexion with the criticism of

human

(natural)

knowledge in general, against

Muhammed and

the Sufi^ and

subsequently against the Kabbala^^, and in connexion with Eschatology and the doctrines of the Messiah, against Millennianism and Pseudomessias^^: 3. The doctrine of the Deity,

Monotheism and
Kabbala.
retaliated

Spiritualism, against Christianity

and the

Lastly, the despised and scorned Ecclesia pressa

and indemnified itself by means of sarcastic and sometimes poetical sallies ( 20.), against its apostate opponents, and also by means of pictures of manners and comparisons which deserve to be noticed.^ The Gospels, and in a less degree the other books of the New Testament, were treated Among the libels on the life of Jesus, the famous critically.
Toldot, or

Maase Jeshu (composed

before 1241), was dissemititles (e. g. nti'X^n

nated in

many recensions and under various

;

even amongst the Karaites, and was interdicted by Benedict XIII. (1405) it was never used by Jewish controversialists, and was even rejected by them as a spurious and mischievous work.^^^ In matters of this kind, forgeries easily recognised by the learned, but often a stumbling-block
I^Vin, ^'hri)y

to the class of readers for

fail

to recur.
life

whom they are intended, will never Thus, while some recent Christian writers

about the

of Jesus were ignorant of the real Jewish

whose aim seems

German book published in 1853, be to give a popular account of their views, pretends to have drawn his information from a manuscript
authorities, the author of a

to

work by a converted Jew

of which
is

of the 11th century, the description

alone sufficient to convince every one

it is

who knows
Jews(
2a.)

anything about Jewish literature, that

a mere fiction.

Apologies in answer to accusations hostile to the

 15.]

POLEMICS.

125

are brought forward in this period in rare and occasional

remarks, such as those on the pretended effusion of blood at

the festival of Easter (1260).^^^
also

Under this head we may mention the scornful and often ignorant abuse of pasTalmud (resembling
the strictures

sages of the

made by

Eisenmenger and others at a later period) which were apparently favoured by the mystic explanations of the Kabbala; such passages were philosophically explained by Moses Ibn TiBBON, Shemtob Shafrut, and others. It is remarkable, that even Christian ideas appear to have been impressed upon Judaism by means of controversy for example, that of the Messias ben Joseph. ^^^ On the other hand, Jewish converts
;

did not scruple to interpolate the

Hebrew
is
:

originals.

A
de-

survey, however, of the tendencies of any age,

when

rived from controversial writings alone,

We divide the

controversies into those

seldom impartial. ^^ A. Against Christi-

anity; B. Against

Muhammedanism,

A. "We know of no entire Jewish work written in the East against Christianity, although Saadja (as early as 913^^) devotes to it one chapter of his Dogmatics, and the Karaite Jehuda Hedessi (of Edessa? 1148-9, at Constantinople) two of his Polemics against Rabbinism ^^, appealPerhaps the works of David ing to many older Karaites. MuKAMEZ and Samuel ben Choeni contained also some remarks upon Christianity. On the other hand, anti-Jewish works in Arabic by Christians are still extant; e. g. by Abraham ben Aun (fl. 854); Isa ben Zeraah at Bagdad, addressed to the Jewish mathematician Bashar (997) Sabar Jesu (cir. 1000) Daniel Ibn al-Chattab (end of 12th century); Jesu-Jabas Bar Malkon, archbishop of Nisibis (1190) the apostate Abd al-Massih at Kahira (1241); and Tekriti.
;
;

"We have also the disputation of the monk Tabarani, and some anonymous writings ^^; and some Syriac works by Theodorus, Abukara, and others. ^^ Concerning the intercourse between Jewish and Christian
authorities in Babylon,

we

are able to quote an authentic

in his description of the life of

anecdote, related

by Mazliach

Hai Gaon

(comp.

10. p. 78.).

When

this

Rabbi discussed

in his academical lectures a difficult passage of the Psalms of

126

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

David, and no satisfactory explanation was given, Hai ordered

inquiry to be

made of the " Katholicos

it.

" regarding

what he
astonish-

had learned about

Upon Mazliach expressing his

Hai demonstrated

ment

at such a thing,

that, according to

the Talmud,

we must

seek information from everybody.

In Europe Moses, christened (1106) Petrus Alphoxsi, wrote Dialogues against the Jews.^^ But the earliest strictly polemical work known is the Book Cusari of Jehuda Halevi (1140), which, however, is directed against the Muhammedans, Aristotelians, and Karaites, and is defensive The oppression of the Arabians rather than oiFensive.^^ after the battle of Tolosa (1212), and the diversion of the fanaticism of the Crusaders towards the west, form here an Direct refutations begin at the end of the 12th epoch. and the commencement of the 13th century, when the General of the Dominicans, Baymund of Pennaforte, introduced Oriental studies for the conversion of the Saracens and Jews.^^ About the same time the persecution of herein France tics led to the establishment of the Inquisition Jewish writings (1244 1254), in Germany Jews themselves were given up, and regents and popes instituted actual disputations (DTTir)'^'!) ^^, the history of which would be worth a monography. The most important authors of independent and recognised
;

works belonging to this part of the subject, the majority of which were scientific treatises of the Spanish school, and narratives of disputations 2^ are:

Joseph Kimchi

(cir.

1160);

(1170), whose work however seems to have undergone some alterations, and needs a more special disquisition^^*; Jechiel ben Joseph, who, together with JuDA BEN David, Samuel ben Solomon, and Moses of CouCY, held a public disputation with the neophyte Nicolaus at Paris (1240)^7; Meir ben Simon disputed with the Archbishop of Narbonne (1245), and Nachamides with FrA Paolo, in the presence of Baymond Martin (author of the

Jacob ben Beuben

Pugio Fidei) (1263); MoRDECAl BEN Jehosepha probably wrote against the same Paul (1270 1280)27a; Moses NarBONI (fl. 1344 1362) translated a controversial work by Ghazali from the Arabic, and defended freewill against a fatalistic essay by Alphonso of Valladolid, formerly

 15.]

POLEMICS.

127

called

Abner of Burgos
anti- Jewish

(conf. 13. p. 114.).

The

latter,

work is the source of Alphonso de Spina, is perhaps the same as Alfontius Bonihominis, who is said to have translated from the Arabic (1339) the letter of
whose
the pretended neoi>hyte

Samuel Marokki ^^

against the

Jewish

faith (see below, B.), a forgerj^

various authors.

which was refuted by Polemics against Alphonso were written

(before 1339),

by Isaac Ibn Polgar

Joseph Shalom,

and Isaac NathAjS^ (1437), author of the Concordantia, Other authors are Chajjim Gallipapo, a liberal author (after 1348), who relates the accusations against and persecutions of the Jews; Moses Cohen Tordesilla(?) (1379)'^^% who wrote against a neophyte of Avila Jonah E.AFA (Bofe?), who composed (1380) a keen satire against the Christian (Catholic") festivities at the Carnival and Easter, in the form of a parody of the Easter Haggada ( 5. b. a) David be Eocca Martica (?) on Original Sin (1370 92?); Abraham Boman, against the Bishop CyrilKs Lucaris (before 1410); and Shemtob Shafrut (1385), who an apostate monk translated ^^ the Gospels into Hebrew
;

Nestor may also be placed among these authors. ProPHIAT DuRAN had, in 1397, composed a polemical work, and subsequently the well-known satirical epistle Alticahotica (commencing "^^miK^ Tin Vi^,) against the neophyte
The latter part of the 14th century, Bonet Bongoron.^^ and the beginning of the 15th, seem to have been the the complicated reamost productive period in polemics sons for which circumstance are to be found partly in the history of the Jews, and partly in general circumstances. The above-mentioned work of Prophiat was popular, and is the unacknowledged source whence Simon Duran drew much of his materials (see below). It was dedicated to the celebrated teacher Chisdai Crescas (conf. 12.), who
;

himself wrote a short essay in Spanish, attacking the principal articles of the Christian faith
principles.

on mere philosophical

work by Joseph ben Shemtob has been recently discovered by the About this author in the University Library at Leyden. time several learned Jews relinquished their faith a later
the
translation of this
;

A copy of

Hebrew

writer,

Joseph ben Shemtob, believes that these persons.

128
being^ led

JEWISH LITERATURE. by

[Period

II.

tbeir rationalistic views to despair of future

happiness, were induced to seek at least earthly prosperity

and ease by embracing Christianity, Amongst them were Solomon Levi, afterwards Paulus de Burgos, and Joshua Lorki, afterwards Hieeonymus de Santa Fide. There is still extant a correspondence in Hebrew between them, in which the latter, still retaining the faith of his fathers, though already beginning to waver, asks the former Under the auspices of Peter de his reasons for deserting it. Luna, Pope Benedict XIII., Hieronymus held in 1413 a
disputation at Tortosa (not Girona), celebrated for both
its

length and the numbers

who attended it.

Shortly afterwards

he published his main objections to Judaism in two small books, and thus provoked a literature extending to the end His opponents were Joseph Albo,. of the 15th century. Moses Botarel, Isaac Nathan, Solomon Duran (1437), YiDAL BEN DON Benveniste BEN Labi, and One of the most imothers, and also Isaac Abrayanel. scientific and the fundamental criticism upon essays portant Muhammedanism and is to found in some be of Christianity of theological separately, a work by Simon chapters, printed Duran (1423), parts of which were introduced by transcriIt bers into the writings of Abraham Farissol (1472). has been asserted, as we have already observed, that he
mainly followed Prophiat Duran ; but why the name of the was not mentioned is not certain, unless it may be, that the liberality of his opinions caused him to be disliked.
latter

A discussion and detailed refutation of Christian doctrines

and attacks are
to be found in

many

chapters of dogmatical

works, such as those of Maimonides, Levi ben Abraham This is still more the (1299), Albo (1425), and others.
since the Christian evidences, exegetical works example of the New Testament, were principally exeThis tendency also consequently found its way into getical. the German-French school ; on which account the Vulgate

case

in

after the

met with
are
to

especial attention ( 17.).^*

biblical

Scattered passages

be found in the

commentaries of Rashi,

Joseph Kara, Ibn Ezra, Kimchi, Nachmanides, Levi ben Gerson, Beghai ben Asher (1291); Jacob ben

15.]

POLEMICS.
&c.2^

129
Collections of such

AsHER, Abravaxel, Arama,

disputations,

passages, or oral biblical expositions partly arising out of

form the greater portion of the productions of

German-French school, which bear the title Xizzachon (pnsiD). ^^ The most famous of them was that by Jomtob
the

LiPPMAXX MtJHLHAUSEN
the collections from
ings, ^^

Finally also

(1400) to which may be added Joseph and Dayid Kimchi's writthe prayers and hymns contain allu;

sions to the fortunes of the peo]3le of IsraeP^;

which how-

ever generally end in lamentations and petitions on account

of persecutions, or in praises of their preeminence and the

glory of their future redemption.

Minds
;

hostile to

Judaism
history

have always dwelt upon

this fact

and, in spite of

all

have discovered in it a hatred of Christianity, as in the prayer Alenu, composed by E,ab at Babylon. B. The polemics against Muhammedanism differ from those against Christianity in some important points. The
criticism,
^-^

and

^"^

former, from

its strict

monotheism,

its

numerous ceremonial

laws, and the Oriental character of the nations which re-

present

it,

approaches more nearly to Judaism.

The

political

and

social position of the

Jews among

the Arabians, the

which they took in their civilisation and science, and the ignorance of the Arabians respecting Jewish literature, and even the Bible ^'', were in general less favourable The literature of Islam (Koran and Sunne) to polemics. begins indeed with disputations ^^ and attacks on Judaism among which, the accusation of tampering with the Bible
share

plays a principal part.^^

But unlike

Christianity, Islam with-

drew

its

records and disputations from the mockery of the

Jews, who from the first considered them only as imitations and distortions of their own^^, and were occasionally even Thus Maimonides, forbidden the use of Arabic literature. who generally prefers the monotheism of Islam to Christianity,
"^^

which he regards as mere Pagan polytheism, forbids the teachino; of the Jewish law and the Bible to the believers in the Prophet, because they deny the authenticity of the Jewish text while he allows it to Christians, who might be
;

The Muhammedan convinced of their misinterpretations. attempts at making converts were fewer and of a more poli-

130
tical character

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

than the Christian, so that their controversial

writings were for the most part connected with legal definitions

on the

political existence of Tributaries ( i[^ jj^

\j^\

),

and on

the toleration of synagogues and churches/^

ity,

One might be

inclined to suppose that the contact of Islam with Christian-

during the Crusades,

first

provoked the persecution of

to them.
"^^

the fanatical Almohades, and called forth various polemical

writings against the

Jews and answers

Although

David Mokammez (in the 9th century) and the Karaite Joseph ben Abraham (920) give some information about the Muhammedan sects, and Saadja (913) and the Karaite Japhet (953) occasionally touch upon Islam in a controversial manner still the first important notices of Muhammedanism appear in Jehuda Haleyi (1140) and MaimoNiDES, whom the Moslems, probably by way of retaliation, charge with double apostasy. Samuel ben" Jehuda (Jahja)
;

Ibn Abbas, who had migrated to the East with his father on account of the Almohades, and there (1163) went over to Islam ^*, wrote an interesting refutation of Jehuda Halevi, from which apparently Alphonso (see above, p. 127.) forged Subsehis famous letter of Samuel of Marocco.^^ works, directed quently we find in the East many Arabic against Christians and Jews alike, by Ahmed ben Idris es Sanhagi (ob. 1285), said to have been a learned Hebraist; Abdallah ben Ahmed el Nesefi (ob. 1300); Ibrahim ben Muhammed, and others unknown.^^ Only one refutation of the Jews in particular, by Ala-ed-din Ali ben Muhammed el Bagi (ob. 1314), is mentioned under this head by the wellknown bibliographer Hadji Chalfa (No. 5421.) but Ave may add a most interesting Arabic MS. work in the Bodleian, treating of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, by Saad ben
;

who pretends to be a Jew by birth (as will This work is in some way a statebe proved elsewhere). ment of the objections made to each of these religions, and the answers preferred by their advocates, and may be cha(1280),

Manssur Ibn Kemunat

Muhammedan, but was

certainly a

racterised as an answer to

the celebrated book

really existed.

De
It

Trihus

Impostoribus, if such a

work ever
el

was sub-

sequently answered by Sarigia

Malathi (ob. 1386).

Simon

 16,]

HEBREW PHILOLOGY.
(1423), in
liis

131

DuRAN

above-mentioned controversial work^^,

professes to

know

of no other special refutation of Islam,

except the few paragraphs of the

Levi.
there ceased to be any occasion to
in Christian
countries.

Book

Cusari,

by Jehuda
of Islam

After the expulsion of the Arabians from Europe

make mention
(ob.

Perhaps, on account of his con-

nexion with the Turks, E.

Jacob Levi

1636 in Zante)

translated a Latin version of the Koran, together with an

introduction, into Hebrew.^ ^

Lastly, an Arabic controversial

of

work by the Samaritan Elmakin Abul Hassan

mention of the
Karaites.''^

Tyre makes

16.]

Hebrew PUlolocjy}

The
object

literal text

of the

Hebrew

Scriptures became the

of great activity in hermeneutical and exegetical

studies, such as in translations,

grammars, lexicography, and

;

notes both critical and explanatory accompanying the text

same time there was but little scope for historical elucidation ^, owing to the high authority of the bibliAfter the Hebrew had ceased to be a vernacular cal records. language it was still employed in learned works, poetry, and and in this use philology exercised a powerful inrhetoric At the same time the languages of other fluence upon it. countries were advanced by the employment of them for
though
at the
;

biblical expositions.

It

is

important also to observe the con-

nexion, often hostile, of the philological study of the Bible

with that of the Halacha and Haggada.^ The " Translation," or rather rendering of certain difficult passages and words, first into Aramaic (Chaldaic and 200 b. c.) into Greek and PerSyriac), and later (cir. 280

sian, combined with public explanations and instructions for These must have youth, is at least as old as the Midrash.

been collected and compiled, like the Midrash itself, from oral tradition, and from marginal notes on manuscripts of
the Bible, &c.^

Subsequently, as the oldest interpretation

{Targum), they were the representatives of the simple

verbal exposition (Peshat), in contradistinction to the varied
interpretations given

by the Midrash and Haggada.

first

On

this

ground, Saadja, the

well-known Arabian translator K 2

132

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Pekiod H.

and interpreter of the whole (or nearly the whole) of the Targum ^, and Koreish (cir. 900) strongly recommends the Chaldee. But Saadja's translation, made after the manner of the Targum, keeps clear of anthropomorphism, changes names into those better known in Arabic^, uses Hebraisms in his Arabic, and in the notes supplementary to the translation makes a beginning of a philological and philosophical exegesis. This important translation was used by all the Jews who spoke Arabic, and was not easily superseded by another even among the Samaritans the subsequent Arabic exegesis and lexicography of particular passages was subsidiary to it. The necessity of similar aids was felt also in other countries, particularly in the case of women and children. Hence arose Glossaries accompanying the Bible*, and running among which translations, particularly of the Pentateuch one in Persian is said to have been composed many centuries before Mahomet"^, and another in Russian (Slavic) in the year Those in Modern Persian, French, Italian, Spanish 1094 (?). (which last is falsely attributed to David Kimchi ^^*), Modern Greek, and perhaps also that in the Tatar language (of The Hebrew the Karaites), date from the middle ages.^^ Bible in some of the Chaldee portions of the translations
Bible ^ frequently appeals to the
; ;

1 ^

respects belong to this part of our subject.

Centuries before

Commentaries of Levi BEX Gersox and that of the Karaite Abraham ben JeHUDA, whose work is extant in the Library of Ley den.

Leusden they

Avere inserted in the

The grammatical
brew text
is

(i.

e.

linguistical) treatment of the

later than the time

Hewhen Hebrew and Chal-

dee flourished in the numerous schools of learned men in Palestine and Babylon, and later than the exclusive supremacy
It began with grammatical terminology, of the Midrash.^^ which, although afterwards adopted by the schools, is not to be found in the Talmud and older Midrash, even for the

common

distinctions of language.^"*

The

first

things which

required attention were the preservation and committal to writing of the traditional and practical knowledge of the Bible.

The

text consisting of consonants alone, had indeed the ad-

vantage of being anxiously guarded

even by the

earliest

16.]

HEBREW PHILOLOGY,

133
(D^><"ip

copyists {Soferim,

4. n.

12.)

and readers

of the Bible,
tical

many

centuries before

the rise of

Kardim) gramma-

study. Hence, exclusiye of the variation between " Eastern and Western lands " (Babylon and Palestine), but few have their origin in older times. ^^ But there was no particular literature on this subject. The rules which were then applied to the copying and reading of the

the

Bible belonged to the Halaclia (see

ditional

4.

and

9.); as tra-

were

also Cdll^di
is

Masora

{7^^^V[i,

DmDp npnrn)^^;
Halacha in
sentences, and

and their history

general.

identical with that of the

They were

originally very short

were subsequently extended to their present length in the Masora Magna; and even now a part of them is to be found in those sections of Halachaic works which treat of the synagogue rolls of the Pentateuch, &c. (see below). We may here mention the titles of some books, quoted by old authorities, which perhaps belong to the earliest works containing Masoretic (and grammatical?) rules. The Book of the Croiuns (]"^Jnn ^D), or ornamental letters, is older than Saadja Gaon (beginning of 10th century), and perhaps still extant but it must not be confounded with the spurious and anonymous Kabbalistic work Tagin (see
;

13. p. 106.).

mblpn)

is

attributed

The Book of the Sounds {^::j\Z^\y Hebrew by Abu'l WaUd to the Soferim. The
it

Book

nVlDNT nVD>^, probably so called because

first

begins with

Masora Magna, which may indeed be taken from the former), is highly commended by Joseph Ibn Aknin (about 1180), and Elia Levita (1538) considers this " small " work to be the only one extant on Masora no manuscript, however, bearing
these two words (like one of the
sections in the
;

this title

seems to be known at present. The division of the verses and a kind of intonation and

gesticulation^^ are also as old as the exposition of the Bi-

ble

and even in early times there existed a variation in

the number of the verses, corresponding to the difference in the course of readings between Palestine and Babylon. ^^

But

this period of old tradition did not require the assistance

;

of any written signs

and certainly the formation of the K 3

134

JEWISH LITERATURE.
(pyy^y:, D'^DI^r)), originally

[Period

II.

system of the accents

to the second period.

intended as

aids for pronunciation,

and afterwards for syntax, belongs Besides the various Aramaic names

of the signs in the later schools ^^, of some antiquity ^^ mention

Palestine.^^

we

find

in authorities

made of

the different accents

and vowel points of Tiberias, of Babylon (Assyria), and of The Haggada of the Talmudic and Gaonic age mentions neither the sounds nor the signs of the vowels
(milpD,
i.

e.

points, T]Vy^r\

= ^_f^

motio'^'^,

which, as well as
of

the accents, were never marked in

the Pentateuch) as separate

the liturgical rolls

elements of the language^^;

while they form abundant matter for the later Kabbalistic

Midrash, and are even made the subject of philosophical But the greatest grammarians and exegetes allegory.^^
(until the 11th century) exhibit variations in their vocalisation^^, division of verses,

and accentuation.^^ All

this indicates

the formation of a simple system of accents and vowel points

suggested by the method of writing and reading practised (Halacha) at the time of the first Gaonim, in Palestine, particularly in Tiberias, always famous as a place where the old "natural" language was preserved, and where several authors of Avorks belonging to this section are said to have lived; for instance, Jahja [Jehuda] ben [Abu?]

Zacharia al-Katib

(i. e.

the scribe).^^

The invention

or

introduction of pointing

(T^p^D,

comprising also accents) was

followed by the use of points

by

transcribers of the Bible,

and afterwards by grammatically instructed punctuators.'^^ When and how the old Masora, i. e. the determination of the original text, became independent of Halachaic literature
5. n. 21.), was assimilated with the rules of accents and vowels, was treated in anonymous monographies and memorial verses, and finally was changed again into glosses on the margin of the text, has not yet been sufficiently in-

(see

vestigated.

From

the
to

want of

historical criticism, the expres-

have been extended over the whole of this literature perhaps as long since as the 11th century and modern students and writers on the subject have designated all monographies or chapters of grammatical works upon accents and vowels as MasoreticP Some minor variations
sion
;

Masora seems

16.]

HEBREW PHILOLOGY.

135

with regard to punctuation were collected by Ben Asher (said to have been of Tiberias) and Ben Naphtali, whose place, date, and names are doubtful, but who were certainly

According to Luzzatto^^ they were Bible punctuators who arranged on certain principles the results of codices then extant.^^'^^ The codex said to have been corrected by Ben- Asher, which is Maimonides' standard, was still in existence at the end of the 15th century, according to a note of Saadja ben David. According to the unanimous judgement of those who have inquired into the subject, grammar properly so called, that is etymology and syntax as an indej^endent literature, took its origin in, and was imitated from, the Arabian so that the oldest remains which have been prenot later than Saadja Gaon.
;

served are written in Arabic. ^^

or collections
sidiary to
()n:i>?)^'*

On the

other hand, lexicons,

of

Hebrew

words, intended as sub-

and explanatory of grammar, or subordinate to were preceded by similar lexicons of the Talmud (for example, that of Zemach, see 91.), which were indeed explanatory rather than etymological. The oldest work of the kind is a small one, which has lately been edited four times namely, an explanation of 70 90 Hapaxlegomena of the Bible (for the most part explained from the Talmudical Hebrew) by Saadja who also wrote ^^ a comprehensive
it,
;

alphabetical dictionary, forming perhaps only a part of his

however, being only a He even took the trouble to calculate and count all the forms which mio'ht be derived from one root, and found them to be 1169. The undeniable influence of Karaism upon this developement
this,

grammar written

in Arabic;

collection of words, contained nothing Arabic.

of philology has been already described above. ^^

Italy,

The general contrast of the tendencies of Palestine, early Germany, and France, on the one hand, and of Babyand
later Italy,

lon, Africa, Spain,

on the other,

is

here par-

ticularly prominent.

The grammatical

writings and lexicons

of the latter were, until the 12th century, almost entirely

Arabic.
'^

The most important

941-2), an anonymous writer of Jerusalem, author of the work K 4

authors are Saadja (ob. " in every kind of study speakers the the chief of

136
j^^'iLa^W,

JEWISH LITERATURE.
the biliteral roots
(at the
(?),
;

[Pebiod

II.

who admitted Temim the Babylonian Samuel ben Hofni

Adonim ben

end of the 10th century) ^^; and his son-in-law Hai Gaon
^^
;

(ob. 1038), apparently the author of a lexicon

in Africa,
(cir.

Jehuda Ibn Koeeish

who
NiM
established
^^
;

(not Karish) of Tahart

900),

the

principle of the comparison of lan-

guage
"^^

and

DuNASH Ibn Librat,

of Fez, author of a

Halevi

in Hebrew AdoHebrew work against

Saadja, afterwards refuted

metrical

criticism of a dictionary written in

by Ibn Ezra, and of a partly Hebrew by

(cir.

Menahem Ibn Saruk

of Tortosa, at Cordova, the fallen

950).

favourite of the minister Chisdai

This dictionary

contains an introductory grammar, and even

Hebrew

voces

memoriales, but adopts no fixed terminology.

He

admits

only of biliteral roots

^^

while the uncertain author of a

(conf.

commentary on the book Jezira

13.) recognises

even roots of one letter. The Hebrew writings of both Dunash and Menahem were already known throughout
Italy and France,

when Jehuda ben David, called Abu Zakaria Jahja Chajjug of Fez, "the father of the
led

grammarians,"

by the analogy of the Arabic,

;

first

carried out in Spain the principle that the roots in

weak

he also established seven vowels. was favoured by Samuel the Prince (ob. 1055), the pretended author of twenty-two grammatical writings, but was vigorously opposed in particular cases by the physician

branches have three letters

He

Jonah or Abulwalid Merwan Ibn Gannah (disciple of Isaac Chiquitilla). Jonah was intimately acquainted with the Arabian grammarians, and was celebrated as the founder of the complete grammar and lexicography, soon also as the "great teacher ;"^^ but he was even at that time regarded with enmity by those who distrusted a method of criticism opposed to the ancient Midrash treatment of the language, and substituting for it the simple meaning of the words.^^ Abu Ibrahim Isaac Ibn Jasos Ibn Saktar, whom Moses Ibn Ezra quotes, together with Abu'l Walid, as " the Sheikhs " of the Hebrew, is the same as the physician Isaac Ibn Castar, whose linguistic works were known to Ibn Abi Oseibia. The author has but recently ascertained this

16.]

HEBREW PHILOLOGY.
MS.

137

identity^

and thereby established the year of his death, 1057,

of Oseibia.

as given in the

Solomon Ibn Gabirol

who was born at Malaga, educated at Saraand died at Yalencia, wrote a Hebrew didactic poem on the letters of the alphabet since which time the Hebrew language, already much cultivated and improved, begins to supplant the Arabic in this department of literature. The
of Cordova,
gossa,
;

French and Italians for translations cooperated For them Moses Hakohen Ibx Chiquitilla of Cordova, and Abraham Ibj^ Ezra at Eome(1140 1167), translated the writings of Chajjug, and Solomon Parchon of Calatayud at Salerno (1161) did the same for the lexicon of Abu'l AYalid this last was also translated, together with the grammar, by Jehlda Ibn Tibbon (1171)
taste of the

in this change.

for Provence.'*^*

Jehuda Ibn Balaam

Homonymik
((^^-j^ss'),

of Toledo wrote a
treatises

lexicon

called

some small

upon

particles, &c. (D'^3^3Pn

nvm>?,

^"^-J^-^

(5\^), verba destill

nominativa, and one on accents in reading, which are

them he compares Hebrew with both Arabic and Persian.^'* We know scarcely anything but the name of Abraham Ibn Kambel (Kamnial ?). After Abraham Ibn Ezra (1093 1168), who, like Jehuda Halevi, reduces
extant
;

in

Hebrew vowels to the three used in Arabic, we find the following Hebrew writers upon grammar and lexicography Joseph Kimchi (fl. 1160 1170), perhaps Jehuda Charisi (see 18.); Isaac ben Elasar Haleyi^^ and ElKANA in Spain and Jacob ben Elasar (not Eliezer)^^, apparently a contemporary of Moses and David Kimchi. The last of them, a schoolmaster in Provence, by his method
the
:

threw

all

the earlier works on the subject into the background

(particularly those in Arabic

which had not been translated),

^^^
;

and caused them

to be forgotten

so that the attention of

inquirers has not until lately been again directed to those more critical and ingenious founders of the study of the Hebrew

language.
critics
;

His reputation

also

warded

off the attacks of his

(cir.

for example, those of

Samuel Benyeniste
Ephodjeus

1300), and that of the philosophical

("'''isx),

more properly Isaac ben Moses, called Prophiat Duran (1403y^, who was the first to recognise in his grammar the

138
true

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

application of the form Niphal, but his arguments were contro verted by Elisa ben Abraham ^^^ as were also the critical remarks of Elia Levita upon Kimchi, by a Pole named Sabbatai (of Przemislaw 27.). A few grammatical works, mostly belonging to the 13th century and to authors of Provence, are preserved in anonymous MSS e. g. nna mto, h^w, n^n^'o; n^, &c. In the East, at mtD npV, the same time, Tanchum of Jerusalem, the biblical interpreter, quotes his own grammatical work, probably in Arabic, which has not hitherto been noticed by the writers on
;

nm

this author.

Bible

The study of the Hebrew language began with that of the but at the same time many independent works were
;

composed, requiring
rently were,

skilful transcribers.

In Spain there appa-

up

to the 12th century, very

many

Bible scribes
philoP"'"fp'^)^

who

were at the same time general writers, Masorets and

the technical names for

philologists;

grammar and
(p"Tp"172

logy, and for their representatives generally

were taken from exactness,

signifying

subtilty,

and correctness, thus

Critics.^^

properly

Criticism

and

Hence the

Spanish copies of the Bible were famed for the correctness

of their punctuation, and were used even by the

and French.^"

"^

As

in the East the Codex of

Germans Ben Asher (conf.

supra, p. 135.), so in Spain and Provence the Codex Hilali

(commonly derived from

sidered of high authority.

a man's name,

Hillel) was con-

Meir Abulafia and Menahem

Meiri endeavoured to gather correct data for a normal codex. From Spain the study of the Hebrew language spread to
to Italy ^^

France and Germany, and (perhaps also from Northern Africa) ; but only by means of Hebrew works, from Seruk and DuNASH (950) to Parchon (1060), which alone were intelligible there. The researches which had been carried on between those periods were introduced into these countries by Ibn Ezra and Kimchi. However, this science continued to be employed principally upon the ritual and in exegesis. Hence grammar was used only by exegetes; and most of the independent writings belonging to this period, except the standard codices of the Bible, are to be referred, for the most part,
to the province of the

Masora and the Halacha.

They

are

16.]

HEBREW PHILOLOGY.
and reading of the
'V^^'^^i

139
rolls

{a) Technical rules for the writing

of the Pentateuch, pimctuated Bibles with the Masora, &c.,

partly in rhyme, and

commonly
and the

entitled
;

{punctuatiori), or

directions for readers,

like

the authors of which are

therefore generally ^Q^igw^iedi punctuators (D^np^), or correct

We possess writings of this kind by ChajJUG^-% Jehuda Ibn Balaam, and Joseph Kimchi.^^ (b) Grammatical Treatises, (c) A^^Qy^ Dictionaries (mniTlD).^^^
ivriters (D^.p^n).^^

The most important

authors of the

first

class are

Jacob
;

BEX Meir,
upon accents

called

Tam

(ob.

1171), author of a Kassidet

;

in forty-five

strophes

Samuel Xakdax

Joseph bex Kaloxtmos, the Xakdan (1230 50), author of a long acrostic poem upon the accents, with a commentary (discovered in MS. by the author); jNIoses Chasax of London (perhaps Bex Joseph Kattab ^), author of
with Chajjug, Ibn Ezra, and
1240)
;

some printed rules upon points and accents^ and acquainted Parchon Samsox (circa
;

and, moreover,

Jekutiel bex Jehuda Hakohex

In the middle of the

(Salmax)

of Prague (12501300).

14th century the ^N^akdanim disappear, and the later scribes

content themselves with the extant rules of their prede-

Grammatical writings, on the other hand, were composed by Abraham ha-Babli, who was probably older than Abraham Ibn Ezra, and whose country is unknown (a small but interesting essay of his, containing some striking grammatical and etvmoloo^ical remarks, has been discovered in the Bodleian Library, and will be published by the author) the above mentioned Tam, who took the part of Menahem Seruk against Dunash Ibn Librat ^ Moses bex Isaac Haxxesia of England (in the 1 3th century) and Joseph Chasax of Troyes. There are also several anonymous writings, amongst which is ^ti'l ''p'np% an explanation of the grammatical parts of Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch Finally, dictionaries were composed; for exam(cir. 1400).
cessors.^^
; ;
;

ple,

by Mexahem bex Solomox (1143), perhaps in Italy, who was unacquainted with Chajjug-^^ Sa:msox of Germany
;

(circa 1200),
biliteral

who, although acquainted with Parchon, admits

uniliteral roots
;

and

Moses Haxxesia, who

endea-

vours to surpass Parchon in arrangement and completeness

140
and Joseph ben
cates his

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

David Jewani, " the

Greek/'

who

dedi-

ben Chananel, and must therefore have lived about 1350; he introduces in his grammatical compendium some mystical observations respecting the form of the letters. Also the fragment of a German-Hebrew dictionary seems to have been preserved ^^, while the abovenamed lexicons and some commentaries ( 17.) give explato Elia

work

nations in the language of the country.

Kimchi's very accessible editions of the earlier independent

works on the subject

lects of Spain,

left

but

little to

be done by the

intel-

France, and Germany, which either became

relaxed or were occupied elsewhere.

The few grammari-

ans

who have yet

to be

named

lived in Provence and Italy,

where the revival of classical philology prepared a new phase Meir ben David (probably for the study of Hebrew. about 1300) criticised, and Joseph Ibn Caspe commenIbn Caspe, who grounded his compentated Abu'l Walid.
diaria

on logic ^% wrote a lexicon, as did

also
;

Immanuel

Rome, arranging it in a peculiar manner ^^ Abraham Bedarshi in Provence (1280), and Solomon Urbino inA Hebrew- ArabicItaly (1480) wrote upon synonyms. Romaic alphabetical glossary (^pTll """^P^) appeared in Italy about 1488, but its Hebrew- Arabic part is certainly older. ^^*
of

Isaac Nathan (1437) composed a concordance after the example of Father Arlot (1290). Works upon grammar were written by Solomon Jarchi (i. e. of Lunel)^ who
states the seven conjugations of verbs

now

generally given

Joseph Sarek ben Jehuda (or Sarko) (1429) ^^ Menahem ben Moses Temar (1449, not 1524) Messer Leon Jehuda ben Jechiel, Rabbi in Mantua (1454) ^^ David Ibn Jahja Moses ben Chabib of Lisbon, in Naples (1486); and others, who form the transition to the following period ( 23.); such as Elia Levita, Abraham de Balmez of Lecci, and Kalonymos ben David (1523), who completed Abraham's work, and whose grammar is written in Hebrew and The Karaites have been already noticed above ( 14.). Latin. As writers upon the Masora we must also mention Meir Abu'l afia ben Todros (ob. 1244); Menahem Meiri
in

grammars;

Aaron Alrabbi
;

of Catania;
;

 17.]

EXEGESIS.
;

141

and Joseph Sason (ob. 1336 ?y^ The well-known the number of the single letters in the Bible are upon verses
(1306)

Gaon Saadja the real ben Joseph Bechor-ShoPw was probably Saadja
erroneously ascribed to the
;

author (about

1200), in France.

17.] Exegesis.^

literature

The form of commentary is of frequent occurrence in Jewish but this fact must not be regarded as indicating a want of independence of mind, when compared with the middle ages in general.^ The exception in this case rather forms the rule the many changes occasioned by external
;

circumstances, which
in the cultivation of

may be traced through a long period, Jewish literature, required and obtained
in the

sanction

by being connected,

way of explanation, with

the old sacred records.

This homiletical character, essential

to the old jMidrash, passes during the second period from an

oral to a written form.
lacha),
ethics,

As during

the

secret

doctrine, sagas,

first, the law (Haand the undigested

matter of the Haggada, generally centred in the exposition

of Scripture (Midrash), and took the form of special expository

Haggada

similarly,

during the second,

philosophy,

Kabbala, and polemics form the subject of explanation in

INIaimonides'

Moreh ^,

the Sohar, and the Xizzachons

and

these again gave rise to supercommentaries.

But
;

in the old

Midrash, as well as elsewhere, the consciousness of a simple

meaning of the text was never entirely lost it was kept alive by means of the polemics of the Sadducees, Christians^ and Mohammedans, in opposition to the Jewish tradition and interpretation of Scripture, although both parties were In this contest Karareally equally fettered in their vieAvs.^ ism boasted of its superiority to Rabbinism in objective exegesis
;

although, as regards
it is

its

own

philosophical, dogmatic,
It
is difficult

or other premisses,
for us to decide

not less constrained.^

how

far the origin

and

first

struggles of this

sect

were the cause or the

effect of their

more independent

treatment of Scripture by means of grammar, etymology, and Arabian and Syrian science.^ This treatment, however, rendered the contradiction between exegesis and the Halacha-

142

JEWISH LITERATURE.
tlie

[Period

II.

and Haggada-Midrash only

more apparent, and the only

resource was to acknowledge, beside the simple sense of the text, the Halachaic in its practical application % and either to
restrict the
it

Haggadaic

to ethics

in a philosophical

manner

( 11.).

and homiletics, or to explain Thus finally we have

viz.

four principal tendencies in exegesis, afterwards designated

by

the acrostic Pardes (di~i3)

(tOt^3),

^,

the simple philological

etliico-

explanation of words
homiletical (iZ/m),

the allegorical (jcn), the

;

amongst Avhich the Halachaic, as the one not generally attacked, had no particular designation.^ This division, as might be supposed, cannot be strictly carried out, and various transitions and combinations are discoverable, as in the case of the Midrash of the first period. TTe have abeady mentioned the allegorico-philosophical, the ethico-liomiletic, the Kahhalistic and the
Karaitic exegesis, in theu' proper divisions of literature
as far as exegesis is concerned with polemics,
also
little
;

and the mystic (lID)

and,

added a polemical

(conf.

15.).

we might have There now remains

besides the grammatico-critical, which also originated

in the East, and which in Europe took its peculiar forms from the several countries so frequently mentioned above. The grammarians and lexicographers of the Arabian school, from Saadja to Kimchi (900 1250), were not merely exegetical expounders of words (linmsn ''ti^:^^ nD''nJ~n3) ^, but many of them were likewise authors of

actual commentaries (Arab,

^^-i ^^r^'j

Heb.

tL^in^i),

"TiK^n,

of which the nomen agentis

tions of them

is D'^ti'lS?:), D'lIK^?:));

so that it is

often doubtful which kind of

by later

writers.

work is alluded to in the citaPure exegesis was emancipated

from the philosophical influence of the Orientals ( 12. n. 27.) From the time of Saadja some attention was first in Spain. but the growing occasionally paid to historical criticism ^^
;

respect for the

little

ground

it

Masora deprived conjectural criticism of the had previously gained. Even Abraham Ibn

Ezra, whose doubts respecting the authenticity of the Pentateuch (noticed by Spinoza) have become celebrated, condemns in strong language the arbitrary emendations of Joxah Ibn The oldest commentary on the Pentateuch still Gajs'XACH. extant is that of Jehuda Ibn Balam (about 107090) in

 17.]

EXEGESIS.
;

143

Arabic
sists

two books of which have been discovered by the

Its great peculiarity con-

author in the Bodleian Library.

both in explaining the text grammatico-philosophically,

translation of

and almost Halachaically, and also in criticising the Arabic Saadja, even as regards the Arabic lexicography.

In Germany and France the literal exegesis of the Bible was connected principally with the practical requirements of oral teaching, biblical lectures chiefly on the Pentateuch, and polemics. The Haggada (Midrash) was not idealised by philosophy, but taken in a simple and literal sense, and thus it could not fail to come into collision with simple
biblical exegesis.

When, therefore, the philology of the Hebrew writers Menahem ben Seruk and Duxash Ibx Lib RAT found its way into the above-named countries, the Darshanim (D''3t2/"n), who explained by means of the Haggada, were opposed by the literal exegetes (D"'3Dti'3) ^^, as authors
of commentaries
(D^'ii'Ti^S,
D'^pl?:)^]),,

following the develope-

ment

The Bible, like the of the Halachaic exegesis ( 9.). Talmud, was at first treated objectively, and mostly ex-

The simple view which plained orally in a natural way. had been preserved by the Targums and even by the Midrash and tradition, was continued by common sense; to which, even now, appeal is made for conjectural criticism.^^
This (and doubtless also the gradual influence of the Spaniards)
not only led the lexicographers by means of compilation and

but also incritical notes, and finally duced individual exegetes to brought about a systematic limitation in the use of the The Aramaic Targum being no longer of any Midrash. ^^ use for general exposition, the language of the country was
^^,

comparison to the results of modern philology

make

adopted both for the explanation of particular words, and

for connected translations ( 16.).

Beside the Darshanim of the

11th century,

Jehuda
(of

Darshan, Simeon Kara, and Tobia ben Eliezer

Mayence)
in Palestine ( 21.), and later probably in

Provence

Machir ben Abba-Mari ben Machir ben Todros, who

collected from all the earlier and later

Midrash his Jalkut upon the prophets and the three hagiographa (Psalms, Job,

144

JEWISH LITEEATURE.

[Period

II.

we may Joseph Tob Elam (Bon-fils) at Limoges, Meir ben Isaac, Menahem ben Chelbo^^% and many others, as forming a transition from the Midrash to exegesis. The latter received a peculiar character from the famous Solomon ben Isaac, called Kashi (^'^li'i), of Troyes
Proverbs)^ and whose writings have been preserved,
consider the lost works of
(ob. 1105) but his works, which arose partly out of lectures, have not yet been critically examined. The important and independent exegete Joseph Kara (cir. 1100)^ nephew of Menahem ben Chelbo, mentioned above ^^, edited and completed Rashi's commentary, particularly the part on the Pentateuch and some transcriber (p'^np7:)n) of the great
; ;

school of the latter

copy^'' after the

made additions (^Tosaphot) to his own manner of the Halacha ( 9.), from which

the commentaries entitled Tosaphot in the 13th century

arose.

In the 12th century there may be mentioned Samuel

BEN Meir (1085 1153),

the " intelligentes "
elder)
;

a sober exegete

who

appeals to
(i.

^^

Meshullam the Great

e.

Saadja, author of the commentary on Daniel

;

attri-

buted to the Gaon the lexicographer Menahem ben Solomon (1130 perhaps in Italy), who was acquainted with Chananel's commentary, and corresponded with Solomon ben Abraham, nephew of Nathan ben Jechiel at E-ome besides

many Halacha Tosaphists also Jesaja de Irani the elder Jacob ha-Nasir at Liinel ( 13. n. 21.) Joseph in Italy Bechor Shor (cir. 1170) in France i^; Jacob Tam of Orleans (killed in London 1190); Shemaja of Soissons; and Menahem ben Simon at Posquieres, pupil of Joseph
:

Kimchi (1191), and therefore more approaching to the Spanish line.^ But although towards the end of the 12th century the writings of Parchon and Ibn Ezra were well known, still about the same time the Kabbalistic tendency of Northern Italy and Provence became apparent in the exposition of the meaning of letters and numbers, and the Halacha discussion {PilpuT) of the Tosaphot was transferred to exegesis, especially to that upon the legal Pentateuch. A great number of super commentaries were written here on RasW^^, as in the Arabian school on Ibn Ezra (12.); afterwards mere compilations, until in the 14th and 15th centuries

17.]

EXEGESIS.

145

biblical studies

Halachaic and Kabbalistic

were obliged to give way entirely to the triflins^.^i But few names cf im-

portance are therefore connected with the German-French

exegesis of this period^ and these have been for the most part

already classed as Kabbalists ( 13.)

mention
(1235

^^

1245),

We may here however Elia Samuel bex Eliezer Moses Coucy

;

author of some short expositions (CDtZ/S)

a profound respect for
;

Ephraim ben Samson, who had

cial; Joseph

Mai-

monides, although he did not imitate him

IS'athan Offi-

Troyes; the anonymous authors of Hiskia ben Manoah of France, author of a commentary ^^ compiled from twenty others, among them that of D. Kimchi; Elieser of ^ID (1270) ^^ Meir Rothenburg -^ and Isaac Haleyi ben Jehuda, author
at

Chasan
[^ 15.);

the Nizzachons

of a compilation rich in authorities.

centuries,

Of the 14th and 15th France (1313) a considerable number of anonymous Midrashim and Scholia (^l^b:!?); AsHER ben Jechiel and his son Jacob (1340)

Jehuda ben Eliezer

in

at Toledo,

who

introduced

German

exegesis into Spain ^^^

and from whose commentary on the Pentateuch the bad but some worthless verbal trifling, often quoted and held up to ridicule by Christian critics, the entire work having been published only in the last century; Jacob de Illescas; Jacob of
taste of succeedino' centuries has extracted nothino;

Vienna;

with Latin (see

Lippmann Muhlhausen Samuel of 15.);

;

(1400),
Spiers;

acquainted

KuNKEL at Mayence and Spiers Kara at Prague (ob. 1439)

ZiUNi
of
Spiers;

(ob. ante 1426);

Solomon Abigdor
in

the Kabbalist
of

Menahem
Worms;

Israel

Isserlein

Marpurg

Neustadt (ob. post 1452); Johanan Luria at Joseph Kolon at Pavia (1466) and others.
;

We

conclude with the names of some important exegetes,

principally from catalogues of

Provence and Italy, whose writings, hitherto MSS., have not yet known any in arrangement: place Jehuda ben definite found a (13th century?), who explained the Saadja, a Spaniard book of Job philosophically, and wrote in Arabic at Toledo some smaller essays, which he subsequently translated into
especially of

Hebrew

at the request of the physician Israel

Kohen

^^

Ra-

146

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

PHAEL Zarphati (clr. 1280) 2^; Nathan beis^ Samuel TiBBON (Rofe) (1307), whose short exposition of the Pentateuch
is

ethical, philosophical,

and

allegorical^^;

Benjaof

min

i^^'nn (perhaps

an abbreviation)

ben Jehudah

Rome

(still

living in 1312),

who

represents the sound and simple

exegesis of the Spanish school, and whose commentaries, abounding with quotations from Jonah Ibn Djannah, Ibn Gikatilia, Ibn Balam, Ibn Ezra, Joseph Kimchi and David Kimchi, are of considerable interest for the history of exegesis
;

Joseph Ibn Nahmias (1330)

;

Solomon (Astruc)
(Lattes),

of Barcelona, author of a homiletical exposition of the Pen-

tateuch

Isaac ben Jacob

de Latas

who

wrote a philosophical and Halachaic commentary on the Pentateuch (1372) Don Abraham ben Isaac Leyi (ob.
;

1393), erroneously called Tamach,

ticles literally

son-in-law

who explained the CanMoses Gabbai and his Aaron ben Gerson Alrabi (1430) of Catania,
and allegorically
^^
;

whose rare supercommentary on Rashi contains passages of

extravagant hypercriticism
^^
;

Abraham ben Jehuda ChaRossi a Spaniard of the loth

DiDA

(?),

according to

De

century;

Jehuda Ibn Shoshan ben Isaac

;

(about 1500)

and Dayid 1492), whose Maecenas,

at Magnesia and the Portuguese writers Joseph Chajcn Ibn Jahja ben Solomon at Lisbon (cir.

Shalom ben Abraham,

figures

among
is

bibliographers as author of their commentaries, and.

confounded with his namesake of the 16th century.

18.]

Poetry, Rhetoric, Stylistic}

The
It
is

history of the later

Hebrew

poetry

is

most

peculiar.

but recently that it has been made the subject of inquiry, and it has been regarded in the most various ways.

Seldom has poetry been developed to the same extent in any language whose existence was dependent on literature
alone,

thus bringing

it

into

such close

connexion

with

philology, grammar, and exegesis.^

even after

it

Avas

The Hebrew language, excluded from common life by the various

;

local dialects

(Aramaic, Greek, and Persian), had always

been preserved in public worship

remains
(e. g.

and the older

literary

the Psalms) were used for poetical purposes.

18.]

POETRY, RHETORIC, STYLISTIC.

147

and

in particular for prayer.^

Hence, without any foreign

also

influence, a kind of oral,

and by degrees
biblical passages,

a written

poetry might continue to exist, which, as an instinctive application

and imitation of

would take

r.n

intermediate position between popular and elaborate poetry

(or rhetoric).

An

instance of this

may be found

in the

additions to the prayers, belonging doubtless to the First

these and the really elaworks which purposely aim at an artificial form) written in Babylon, Africa, Spain, Palestine, and Italy, and even in Germany and France (from the 9th century), this general gap in Jewish literature, extending to the time of the Saburaeans and the first Gaonim, can here be filled up only by a few prayers and fragments in the general collection
( 6.).

Period

The gap between

borate poetry

(i. e.

of prayers, or citations of beginnings (the rest of the prayer

being possibly of a later date) in the Midrashim and apocryphal books of the Talmud."*

Their external (linguistic) form

however, as well

as their contents, give

no certain grounds for

the determination of dates, unless the general development of

the Jewish literature

a guide.^

(Haggadaand

philology) be followed as

It has hitherto

been usual in these researches,

partly owing to external circumstances, either to confine the

attention to " religious," or

more properly "

liturgical " or

" synagogal " poetry

^,

and, starting from the old prayers, to

exhibit the later artificial forms, even

rhyme and metre,

as

possibly an original development

or else to admit the in-

fluence of foreign national and literary characteristics,

and

to decide in favour of the preponderance of the Persian,

Arabian, or Syrian in the various corresponding periods. The person whose position in time and place is made the cen-

and even the interpretation matter of doubt, is E. Elasar (ben ?) a is name whose of " author of nnp," the rhyming acrostic 1BV of Kalir in artificial every respect, are except that prayers, which
tral point of these different views,

they are not metrical.^ here comprise under the term Poetry (and Rhetoric) all literary records in which an artificial form of language is

We

adopted intentionally and according to certain rules, independent of the assthetical standard which we have received
L 2

14.8

JEWISH LITERATUKE.
classical literature,

[Period

II.

from

and

Trhicli is

not applicable to the

as

Bible and Hao-o;ada.^

Arabians, this
artificial

Amono^ the Jews,

amono; the

form of language constitutes the essence of poetry and rhetoric and we must therefore take it in connexion with the history of divine worship as a starting point. The assumption of the existence of a liturgical poetry in Palestine ^S such as that of Kalir, at the time of the Talmud, needs no refutation. Even the Syrian psalmody, which, through the Gnostic and anti-Gnostic poems
;

of Bardesanes and Ephrem Syrus, had been reduced to rhyme and metre (in the 4th century), can have had no influence on Jewish orthodoxy. ^^ It must be admited, for reasons given above ( 6. n. 15.), that the time of the Saburaeans, so wanting in independence, produced no essentially new form of poetry; the later introduction of rhyme and metre, and of the artificial use of the Midrash, will be satisfactorily proved below. In the second half of the 8th century are to be found

the

first

definite traces of

new

additions to the liturgy, a

sanction for which could have been given only

by the

earlier

Gaonim.^^

But

the

assertion,

that

the

artificial

form of

poetry began in this department, and thence passed to others,

by no means established inasmuch as it is doubtful whether some instances adduced in support of it, such as the enumeration of the 613 precepts or Aziiarot ( 19.), were
is
;

originally intended for the liturgy. ^"^

cially

Some

prayers
^^,

artifi-

arranged in strophes, but without rhyme

^^
;

are indeed

older than the 10th century

but

we meet with
^''

others

long after the general adoption of rhyme.

has moreover been
Pajtan, Pajtani
"'^D'^^s),

In order to

establish the earlier existence of a liturgical poetry, appeal

made

to the expressions Pojetes, Pajtono,

(Dt0^^3, iroirjrrjs,

and Aramaicised

KlltO'^S, )tD^3,

which, in some later Midrashim, were confined to

the authors of hymns.

pressions,

But such

a limitation of these ex(tO''''5),

and of the Hebrew form Pojjdt

tO^^3

with the

corresponding denominative Piel,

actionis
et

(like

D^^p),

nomen
]i;n or

acti,

t0V),

Pijjut,

plur.

D^IQT^S,

to

liturgical

poetry (also comprised under the general

name of

m^tn, derived from pn, cantor), belongs to a later age.^^

 18.]

POETRY, RHETORIC, STYLISTIC.

149

rhyme and metre in Asia and Europe found almost as much in didactic as in liturgical works. ^^ It is thus not impossible that the example of the rhyming prose, in the didactic memorial verses of the

The

oldest traces of

are

to be

may have exeron the Hebrew style even before the Arabic had been adopted as a literary language amongst the Jews. Subsequently, the older poetical forms having been found insufficient, others were introduced ; and it was not until Hebrew philology had made some progress in Spain, that the biblical style, and even biblical purism, came into general use. In the meantime the ungrammatical FrenchGerman school, becoming more deeply involved in Midrash and Halacha, brought all their elements of language to bear upon an almost exclusively liturgical poetry; to the tyranny of which over both language and thought, the more cultivated philological sense was always opposed. ^^ stricter theory of the artificial style, a system of poetry or prosody, could be developed only in the grammatical and scientific school of the Jews under the influence of the Arabians ^^ who, in their philological and exegetical researches, appeal to the usages of the "poets" and stylists ^^, in the same way as the German lawgivers and exegetes do to the comprehension
Arabians in the Arabic or Persian language ^^j
cised a general influence

and exposition of the hymnologists^"^, amongst was reckoned as a doctor of Mishna (Tannai).
rical literature,

whom Kalir

Before passing on to the particular kinds of poetico-rheto-

we

will touch

upon the most important of

;

its

general forms

^^,

with their subdivisions

a subject which,

however, could be properly treated only in a special work. It may be here remarked that some of these forms, such as an alphabetical arrangement, are almost peculiar to the

Jews, while others, such as the use of rhyme and strophe, are to be found in their poetry long before they were introduced into the modern languages of Europe. 1. The Acrostic, or arrangement of words, lines, and
strophes according to initial letters, which
into

may be
tlie

divided

two

classes.

(A.)

With

respect to alpliabetical order

]^tO'^n),

(hence

j^t^aiD^n,

subsequently
r 3

with

Arabising

omission of the Vi^^^*), something analogous to which occurs

150

JEAVISH LITERATURE.
;

[rERiOD

II.

already in the Psalms, &c. ( 6. n. 10.) thus some fragments of prayers so arranged may possibly belong to the first

Period, although

we have no
some

definite evidence before the

second
bet

^^

for instance,

Selichot contained in Saadja's

It should be observed that the order of the alphaunderwent various changes, called by early writers K'l'ntOTD:! (conf. 4. p. 16.). Subsequently this conceit was carried so far, that religious and moral meditations were composed, often consisting of 1000 words with the same initial
liturgy.
itself

letter, generally

>? ^^

rjuERA

Abraham Bedarshi,
at Lerida (1308)
;

(13th century) in

by Shemtob PalJadaja Penini Provence; Joseph ben Sheshet Ibn

;

for example, those

and

his son

Latimi
nople

Shemtob ben Ardot (Ardotiel,

2^;

Elia Ha-levi at ConstantiVital of Patras(1532 46), David 150020); ben Isaac of Bisenz in Moravia, at imitator MoSES and his ^^, who composed his prayer of 2150 words at LeipCracow Saadja Longo at Saloniki (MS. in the Bodnik in 1591 leian); the Karaite Joseph ben Mardochai Troki (cir. 1600); Moses Zakut (ob. 1698)29*; Samuel Modon (1725) and even as late as 1820 by Israel (Nachman) ben Joseph Drobiczer. Shorter imitations are to be met with in prefaces and epilogues by Isaac ben Jonathan
not Andrutil) (post 1330)
(cir.
; ;

(1595); Jomtob, probably at Prague (1598); Isaac ben Solomon Levi at Saloniki (1600); in a letter of Solomon Zarfati in Turkey (16th century); in an imitation of the arrangement of the 119th Psalm, where each letter contains eight sentences (thence called ^3K i^^DTOD), by Simon Habillo, as late as the 17th century; and in the Seder Aboda of JoSE ben Jose and Saadja Gaon (see 19.), where each letter contains ten sentences. (B.) Acrostics of names, ivords, and sense, to be found first in introductions in rhyme prefixed to treatises, in letters, &c., at Babylon, Italy, and Spain, from the 10th century downwards, and even in the beginnings of chapters of an astronomical work by Jakob BEN Samson (1123 42) ^o also in the prayers of Jannai, Kalir, Saadja Gaon, and their successors, many of Avhom thus immortalised the names of themselves and others. This practice continued until it was censured by subsequent
of Posen

18.]

POETRY, RHETORIC, STYLISTIC.

151

writers, such as Isaac

Arama towards the end of the 15th and even at a much hiter time Moses ben Israel Landsberg finds fault with its being still used in epistles. There are also acrostics consisting of whole words, passages of the Bible, and the like.
century
;

2.

Rhyme (nnn, Arab,

^t^sl*,

properly a string of pearls,

an artificial form perhaps first in memorial verses on the Masora, and on the 613 precepts ( 19.), and about the same time in the hymns of Jannai and Kalir, in some Selichot of Saadja's Agenda ^^, and in Italy and Spain during the 10th century in Sabbattai DoNOLO, and Menahem Saruk.^^ The German-French
lines ^^) appears as

row of

school, however,
Spanish.^''

cultivated
latter

it

less

artificially

than

the

The

followed Arabian models, and con-

sidered the identity of the consonants preceding the vowel

in the final syllables of a

rhyme

as essential

sometimes

were made to rhyme (DTlV?:) I'^ti'), but a whole word was admissible only at the end repetition of the repetition occurs most frequently when This of the strophe. They also the burden of the poem is taken from the Bible.
several syllables

cultivated

homonymous poems

("T7:i3i3 "l^ti',

Arab,

{j^-^'^r'i ^^)

of

manner of the older Arabians, poems often of many hundred lines with the same rhyme throughout ^^ * a performance which is much facilitated by the Semitic inflexion and iambic accentuation. This was done by the Karaite Jehuda Gibbor in a hymn of no less than 1260 lines; and similarly by Jehuda Hedessi, all the strophes of whose huge Karaitic dogmatical
a peculiar kind, and composed, after the
;

poem end with

class

the suffix of the second person.

To

this

belong also the poems called by the Arabic name TXVl'^

(

Kassida

Is^^i

).

On the

other hand,

JoSE ben Jose,

in his

order of TeMot, and Kalir and his followers, made the same word recur frequently and often without intermission.^^ The

metaphor of pearls and necklaces, alluded to above, is also carried out in some other kinds of poetry distinguished by
special names.
tical verses

The Hebrew p:3P denotes alike the grammaGabirol, and the homonymes of Moses Ibn Ezra and Charisi. The Arabic term ^^^ {'^)l!^'n) Mu~ zcasseh is applied to poems where the rhymes recur every
of

152

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

seventh line like pearls in an elaborately arranged necklace.

This mixed form is said to have been invented by the Arabs in Spain in the 10th century not^ however, according to Almakkari, by Ahmed Ibn Abd Eebbihi (ob. 940), who borrowed it from Mokaddem ben Moarife al-Kabari; and amongst twenty-nine writers reckoned excellent in this kind
;

of poetry

we

find

Abraham Ibn Sahl

Jew

of Valencia, probably

the well-known

It was originally used in ( 20.). encomiastic and descriptive poetry instead of the older and
;

more simple Kassida

but although the term occurs almost

exclusively in the titles of some of the profane

poems of
is

Moses Ibn Ezra, and Jehuda Ha-Levi,

(ob. 1089).

the form itself

already applied to religious poetry by Isaac

Also alternative

Ibn Gajjath rhymes, unknown in European

languages before the 12th century,

may be found

in

Jewish

hymns of at least two centuries earlier. The influence of the love of rhyme and metre extended The Echo ("in) was a favourite even to the titles of books.
conceit of the later Italians
^^
;

and internal rhymes, asso-

nances, and puns of

all

kinds embellish the rhyming prose

Poems arranged in figures after the Arabian To this class probably belongs the Cake The theory of such figures, JVork of Jechiel ben Asher. labyrinths, &c., is treated by Moses Abudiente. 3o i^feifre (n^pr)=^J;, hpVjr^i = ^J}^, scans? ; n^D, mir),
even to excess.
taste also occur.^''*

measure)

consists of

two elements

(.) the syllable

with

the simple sound, nx^IDD (vowel), corresponding to the Arabic

w^--M-j
;

(Z>.)

the syllable with the preceding

SJi^,

shewa mobile

(wanting in Arabic), ITV (peg),

From the various arrange-

ments of these all particular metres are formed. ^^ Their canonical number, as among the Arabians, is nineteen, but

Jacob E,oman extends

it

to fifty-two.

The

oldest

known

example of metre, which as well as its name is imitated from the Arabic, is to be found in Dunash Ibn Librat^^, who must bear the reproach of having introduced a foreign element into the holy language an enormity which had not been committed even by Saadja Gaon (ob. 942). But the
;

Spanish school of the 10th century at

first

only imitated

 18.]

POETRY, RHETORIC, STYLISTIC.

of the

153
of

a few
their

Arabian metres;
to

and,

in

consequence

rhyme, Moses Ibn Ezra compares them to the old Arabic poets before
adhering
the

uniformity

of the

Muhammed.
Hebrew
style

Some

of the poetry of the old Spaniards he

;

was not metrical at all their was natural and simple, not embellished by any artificial means and inventions they neither cultivated the " literae humaniores," nor did they even adhere strictly to grammar. Subsequently most of them introduced mathematics and Astronomy into their hymns, thus "imposing upon
says, especially the religious,
;

the

Hebrew language

that w^hich

it is

not suited to bear

;"

so that devotion degenerated into speculation

and disputation.

After the Berberic invasion (about 1070), which drove

many

Jews

into poverty

and

learning, especially at

and impeded the progress of Cordova, a new generation arose under

exile,

the auspices of

Samuel Nagid, who

in his

work D^bn ]2K

composed metrical prayers with music, which, according to Ibn Ezra, no one did before or after him. According to Zunz he perhaps introduced metre into the synagogue, although it is not often met with in the religious poetry even of the Spaniards. Metre found its way from Spain into Provence and Italy before the 12th century. In the North of France

Jacob Tam
rarely
biti']

(ob.

1170) was the

lay,

first to

adopt

it.''^^^

In
find

contradistinction to the essentially metrical

poems

(h^pv:; ']>'^,

or

"1^12/,

j-^,
for

also 1117170, ligatum),

we

the

rhetorical
41^

speeches in rhyming prose (n^^bn,

HiJ^'^TD,

^^j)

which substitutes

metre the melody of words and

artifices of all kinds.

The

metrical

poem
vhl

consists of verses

or lines in

rhyme

(n''2,

house, tj:^^)^^ which again are

{^\

composed of two halves

(shutter).
4.

^,

viz.

(door),

and ^T\V

The Rhythm and Melody of Hebrew poetry (con-

ceivable either with or without any particular metre, and in

the closest connexion with the use of Music) belong to the most interesting, but, in consequence of the uncertain terminology, to the most obscure parts of the history of Jewish The Prophets often denounced literature and culture.''^ song aild melody at feasts, while the author of the Chrowhich accompanied nicles frequently speaks of the music
"^"^

154
public worsKij)

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

in the Temple, and the headings of the Psalms indicate elements of melody in the old Hebrew poetry.^^ These parts of the Bible gave rise to the sentences in the Talmud and Midrash relatins; to sono- and music (j)'^'il/ ~iDT), censuring or approving, according as they are used in a frivolous or pious manner. In Bagdad, once the seat of the Gaonim, the traveller Petachja of Eegensburg (in the 12th century) heard some traditional psalmody

with instrumental accompaniment.^^

The

lively

mode

i)f

expression prevalent in the East, and generally in the in-

fancy of a nation, which readily combines with a kind of

and gesticulation, together with the practical memory ^^% had established a peculiar mode of reciting biblical passages and the lectures of the Mishna at an early period ( 4.) so that for both these purposes the Accents ( 16.) were invented. treatise of the Mishna was printed with accents 1553.'''^ as late as In what connexion the arrangement of the older prayers and the later poems stand to this recitative, and what influence Arabian music may have had upon it, are not known. Down to the 12th century Saadja is the only writer, known to the author, of whom any fragment on the theory of music is extant ^^; in fact, the theory and expression of music (i^p^DlDH DTDrin), or sequence of sound (]l^]n ^n), belongs, like all similar sciences, oricantillation

use of verse as an assistance to the

ginally to
also

the Arabian school.

Among
^^

the Arabs (and

among

the Christian scholastics connected with them)

music belongs to the sciences, or

poetry
(n-^t^n D^i^bt^,
K1^tO')n><,

seven free arts," and

is

^"-f}^y})

only a frivolous

art^^, the best part of

which, according to the well-known

Aristotelian expression,

HUDA Haleyi
national,

who

is

is deception.^^ According to Je(1140) ^^ the enthusiast for everything said to have given up poetry before his

death,
alone,
his

Hebrew poetry, constructed upon melody was injured by the rhyme and metre of the Arabians;
the old
'^^

contemporary Abeaham Ibn Ezra states the connexion between melody and metre. According to unexceptionable testimony ^^, Hebrew liturgical poetry was already about this time sung and even composed to profane Arabian

 18.]

POETRY, EHETORIC, STYLISTIC.

(D^Jibp,

155
me-

and Romanic
lodies (]nh [

4^^)

airs

^"^ ;

so that the traditional

^^]] Jewish song-books) are still named after the corresponding foreign or Hebrew model airs. Even Israel Nag'ara his songs composed to Arabic and Turkish melodies, (1587) for the purpose of superseding the original words and as late as the 17th century a Sabbath hymn by Menahem Zion, to the melody of the German lay " Steyermark/' was inserted in the Kabbalistic Sabbath ritual. ^^ Jacob Levi of Mayence (ob. 1427) is reckoned the founder of German synagogue music, which was previously based upon no regular system; and, according to Zunz, some melodies, especially those for penitential days, may be nearly as old as the corresponding hymns. On the other hand, pious men
;

DPI^

]"':n3)

of some of these (as in the present

(d^'^TTI, D'^'Tll^i'TD), who used to own music (m^tn, IIJ^i) at the expense of true devotion. ^^ As early as the 12th and 13th centuries they were attacked by satirical poets, such as .Joseph Ibn Sabara and Immanuel of Rome, who quote authorities for the physical

declaimed against the precentors

obtrude their

connexion between an agreeable voice and an empty

skull.

The modern
singers, so

performances, especially those

persons

of the

Polish

much admired by

who once

or twice a

year feel themselves brought back by them to the devotional

feelings of their youth,

deadened either by neglect or by a

so little reference to musical

mechanical attendance on public worship, are characterised

by a kind of recitative, having

time, that
it

spoils

the ancient melodies.

These singers,

moreover, are so wanting in attention to the original simplicity of the music, that their

ornamentation far surpasses

the bravuras of Italian opera-singers and the execution of

modern pianists, them and their

to say nothing of the total disparity

assistants.

between
syna-

The return

of so

many

gogues to a purer musical taste could not be accomplished without at first borrowing the style of Christian composers, and even introducing some of their melodies, and then gradually substituting for

them

original compositions of

Jews

(al-

though not those highly esteemed in the opera and concert-room, which obtain but little favour in the synagogue), or by restoring
the sacred songs to their ancient purity.

The

recitation of

156

JEWISH LITERATURE.
its

[Period

II.

the Sefardim kept closer to

fore

original simplicity,
;

and thereis

but underwent fewer changes peculiarity and vigorous effect of the

it

is

deficient in the

other.

This

owing

to the circumstance, that the nature of their public service

was more rigid and unvarying ( 19.), and retained some of the old hymnology, by which even their own compositions were much influenced. With metre and melody is connected the construction of the Strophe, which is more simple or complicated, according The ancient prayers to the various classes and schools.
of the East, without metre or rhyme, are generally distin-

guished by the acrostic

( 1.),

and imitate the

biblical strophe

constructed on parallelisms (z-^^*^^), or are still more artiThe older pieces of rhyme of every kind, and the ficial. ^^^

unmetrical German-French prayers, are divided into members

by rhyme,

biblical refrain,

and the

like.^^

The Spaniards

imitated the Arabic forms (^Ghasel, &c.); subsequently the

Provencal and Italian literature obtained some influence, and Immanuel of Rome (as early as cir. 1300) contracted the 14-lined Arabic Ghasel to a sonnet of 10 lines.^'^^ The real Terzine, Sestiiie, and the Ottava rima (whose origin

Arabic u^j) were perfected in The strophe of two lines i^.^yt.r^ occurs in some old Italy.^^ hymns, but the term m'^'m appears" not to have been used amongst the Spaniards. The strophe of three lines ijvwh'w)
claims
for the
is

Hammer

common,

as well as that of four lines of different lengths.

Real strophes of more

of either school.

bear the original

lines are less usual in the old hymns But few profane poems of the Spaniards Persian name n^in {yi^^y^, i. e. double-

Beit), essentially the

same

as the

Arabic ^-^j.

Quatrain,

consisting of strophes of four lines with the same rhyme.

The

progression or chain of rhyme, like the triplet,

is

an old

form.^^

Finally, a Mosaic of biblical j)hrases and whole passages

(^^Uikjl

and

|^-./^*i23) 6,

an important and

jDeculiar

element in

poetry, became a special art, influencing the whole style, particularly that of satires and parodies ( 20.) and the

Hebrew

construction of the strophe

^^,

and

assisting in the formation

'yh\^^'^,

of the refrain or repetition of a word ("nVpip

perhaps

19.]
"circular/'
or

LITURGICAL POETRY.
some other derivative from
""I^^D,

157
kvkXos)''^,

the

response or repetition of a sentence (]1DTa^^, originally

any
or

composition in rhyme, probably also

generally the verse termination
( ^->^--^, also n^:!>^nD73)

from

dsiSco,

^^n?:^:!),

the biblical acrostic

^\ and the like. Other foreign terms, occurring only in religious poetry, and hitherto not sufficiently explained, appear to the author to indicate the form^^^ viz. the Chaldee D^nn or HEOinn^^ ("T'ti' the Arabic ^nriD (moved ?) ^\ nnjn, or mVl^Dn ?) 6^ and the Komanic KtDinnDr.^^

nnnm

19.]

Liturgical Poetry {Pijjutim).

The Halacha
type for

to a visible conclusion

had never been entirely fixed, or come it was thus unable to give a general the Liturgy, which was indeed but partially under
itself
;

its influence.^

When,
it

therefore, the

new

style of literature
dif-

and poetry led to an extension of the old and widely

fused prayers,

necessarily followed that the daily service,

for the festivals, should

and

still

more that

be variously mo-

R. Amram GrAON (870 888)^, having received a request from Spain, sent thither his Order of Prayer ("ilD, order, or nHD, also IID^ institution^), which, however, was not adopted in that country to the same extent as it was later in Germany. The name Siddur was afterwards given to the simple collection of the daily prayers, and the oldest of those for festivals, w^hich differ but very slightly in the German and Spanish
dified in different countries.

On

this account,

rituals.

By

degrees liturgical poetry,

;

adapted to every

and occasion, was produced the various kinds being designated sometimes by appropriate technical terms, often ambiguous^ and not sufficiently known, and sometimes by names taken from the titles given to particular collections'* by writers and printers according to the purposes for which they were intended. We shall endeavour to comprise all in the following short and very general enumeration 1. Machsor ("iltnD, cycle, in the more restricted sense)
special time
:

contains only the poetry for festivals

2.

Pijjutim proper.
}>m"ip-^),

Kerohot (mmip, or with a French plural form

is

which

sometimes taken as synonymous with the former, or

158

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

with. Jozerot (m"i251%

from being inserted in the morning

Sabbaths and the
like.

prayer Jozer), including not only the poetry for festivals, but
also that for extraordinary
3.

Penitential Prayers

{r\yr\''h^,

Selihot, ^\wcsl of

nr^VD,

forgiveness, and thus

Thv

Salldh and JTiVd Salhan the author

of such a prayer)
tential

^,

originating in the rite of the great penifirst to

Day

of Atonement, and extended

a time of

preparation preceding that day, then, in the course of centuries, to other fasts and days of a similar character, and
finally, in the following period, to a special

morning service

for every

day except Sabbaths and

(m^^p Kinot, "TnTOn,
a.,

festivals.''

4. Elegies

j^^

^),

properly for the fast

of the

day of the 9th Ab. 5. Hoslannas (niDI^tl'in), particularly for the

feast of Sukkot.
6.

7tli

Petitions (niti'pl)

and exhortations, or religious and

moral meditations for private use.^

Particular pieces of the Pijjutim are named, for the most
part,

from the

first

words of the prayer in which they are

is

inserted ^; thus the song for the end of the Sabbath

called

The Introduction, or Captatio benevolenticB of the singer, who is the composer, called also mt^'T {asking permission) ^^^, and the close (HD^nn = 'rlr^i and Some are PiVd)^^% form the limits of the larger groups. named after the purpose for which they are intended; as, for example, the Celebration of the Dead (Knir)ti'K, nnriti'n).^^** Under the name Zemirot (mn^'QT, songs) were afterwards
Habdala (nbnin).^^*
(

28.) understood

Friday evening.
instance.

particularly those which are used on Others are named after the argument for
;

The Death of Moses (pVJT2 nn^tos), used on the feast The Decalogue (nnmn nnti'P), for PenSimchat Torah
;

tecost, &c.

The

diiferent subjects are generally taken

history and dogmatic theology, the

lacha,

from Haggada, and the Ha;

and are clothed in allegory ^^

their poetical value

is

various.

Concerning the earliest poets and hymns, which, according to Zunz, may belong to Palestine and Syria, nothing has been satisfactorily ascertained. JoSE ben Jose, who is certainly earlier than Saadja, and probably also than Kalir,

 19.]

LITUKGICAL POETRY.
to

159
be a Pro-

was twenty years ago thought by Zunz himself

vencal of a

much

later date.

This

is

a strikmg instance of

the uncertainty of such inquiries.

In the Arabian school, which originated

in

Babylon, the
;

Haggada never occupied a very important

same scientific inquiries which were Halacha to the rank of a science. ^^
fore, takes

place

and the

fatal to it raised the

This school, there-

the

materials

for

poetry alike from the

Ha-

lacha and from science, both of which

for the present history.

must be investigated

In elegiac descriptions of the past

greatness of the nation, in searching the depths of their

hearts, in a joyful

own
all,

communion with the

original source of

they

rise to true poetry, subjecting the materials furnished

by the
feeling,
first

Bible, Talmud, and profane

science, to thought

and
the

and making new creations from them.

From

we

find a representative description of the former service

God on the Day of Atonement, Seder Aboda (nnip niD)^^, forming an important part of. the liturgy and private devotions for that day ("I72PD, l^^Vl^iy^ it was already, in the 8th century, combined with Kerobot and Selichot and cultivated in Italy and Spain in the lOtli century. The oldest Seder Aboda is perhaps the nnD^lJ nrii^ of the Spanish ritual, which Saadja, in his Liturgy, ascribes to " the learned of Israel " (b>?-il^^ K*nVp V^i:^^). Opening a
of the Temple of
;

historical introduction

with the creation, and proceeding to

supposed to have taken place on the seems to be the prototype of the more

the Aboda, which

is
it

Day

of Atonement,

JoSE beis" Jose, discovered by the author in the Agenda of Saadja Gaon, who himself imitates the form of Jose in his hymn, giving ten lines to each letter of Both of these will soon be the alphabet ( 18. p. 150.).
artificial

hymn

of

published (by the author) from a

MS.

in the

Bodleian.

Various other Halachaic subjects, upon which instruction

was

to be given (called, therefore,

minm,

Azharot,

Admo-

on the Saturday before the festivals ^^, were, for the advantage of the great body of the people put into rhyme, perhaps after the example of the Arabs ( 20.), and were This was the afterwards incorporated in the liturgy.
nitions)
^'^

case with an enumeration of the 613 precepts ( 4.),

which

160
were, even

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

cluded in the
is

among the Karaites, considered as being inTen Commandments. The name of Azharot

now

usnally applied to the 613 precepts for the

Day

of

Pentecost, the

Day

of the Giving of the

is

Law

and the

earliest author of

Azharot

considered to be

Saadja Gaon
Ten Com-

(ob. 942.)

^^,

to

whom some
fact,

authors ascribe the derivation

of Saadja contains a very

of the precepts from, or their subordination to, the

mandments.
elaborate

In

the

Agenda

hymn on

that subject, being part of a Keroba to

title ni"int>?.

the

Musaf prayer

of Pentecost, and bearing the

There is also prefixed to it a particular enumeration of the 613 precepts in a more simple form, the same rhymes being continued for four successive lines, and the alternate lines

commencing

alphabetically

in a preliminary note

Saadja

remarks, that he made this to take the place of an incorrect

enumeration, from which people used to recite on that day.

Aboda mentioned In contradistinction to these, there are penitential prayers and petitions (confessions of sin, exhortations, and
pieces will be found in the Seder

Both

above.

the like, for the ten days of penitence), which, according to

the old Arabian custom, begin with the praise of
this follows the

God

after

hymn

itself,

with historical descriptions of

By degrees, dogmatic theology and the Halacha were versified and introduced into the for instance, the celebrated Keter Malchut of Saliturgy
the subject of the festival.
;

LOMO Ibn Gabirol, now to be found in the evening service of the Day of Atonement, is, in fact, a versification of Aristotle's book De mundo. Finally, the different occasions
of
life,

such as birth, marriage, and death, were made the

subjects of sjmagogue poetry.

Notwithstanding

this,

neither

the Babylonian ritual, until the end of the

their liturgy (Agenda), although the latter
;

Gaonim

(1037),

nor the Spanish and Portuguese (^Sefaradic), overburdened

was not quite free from French influence a few only of the numerous poems composed for the service being really recited in it, according to the several localities and various circumstances. For many distinguished teachers opposed any change in the original prayers, the accumulation of prayers in general, and the oband philosophers scurity of some of them to the unlearned
;

 J9.]

LITURGICAL POETRY.

161

objected to the continual anthropomorphism and metaphors,

in fact, to poetry in general, in the

same way

as formerly

the

teachers had resisted

the

precentors.'

The

various

views and judgments on the Pijjutim in general were carefully collected

some years ago

and we

may

here add two

remarkable criticisms mentioned elsewhere in this essay viz., that of Moses Ibn Ezra. ( 18. p. 153.), and that of the
Karaite

Levi ben Jefet

( 14. p. 117.).

The

authors of

liturgical

poems of the Spanish school, especially those whose productions became a part of public worship, were few, but they were very prolific according to Zunz, the five most popular of them composed about 1000 liturgical pieces, besides other poetry. In fact, most of these poets (from about the end of the 10th century to the 13th) ^^ were
;

also authors
20., or else

of non-liturgical poetry, to be treated of in

were men of general learning, and are thus mentioned in different parts of this essay; for instance, Joseph Ibn Santas or Abi Thaur (end of 10th century),

Isaac Ibn Gajjat (not Giat, the Hebrew

P^ti'in)

translation

is

(ob. 1089),

Bechaji (about
others.

1100),

Maimonides,

Nachmanides, and

In contradistinction to this school there was developed at the same time the German-French poetry, the derivation of which from an older Italian rests on a doubtful conjecture.
Their poetry, like
all

the other literature of the

Jews of

Germany and
tirely

of Northern France, was confined almost en-

to the

Haggada and Halacha

Pijijut

their

productions,

and Pajtan became restricted to liturgical poetry ^^, being mere versifications of the Haggada and Halacha, and consisting of short phrases put together like mosaic work, so complex and obscure that it
through which the expressions
is

This soon rendered almost impossible to translate them. an explanation necessary in order to point out the references to the Talmud and Midrash, which were here considered of at least equal authority with the Bible. ^^

The

language comprising the whole range of the Hebrew- Aramaic of the Haggada and Halacha, was but little understood
in these countries ( 15.),

poems written

entirely in

and increased the difficulty; and Aramaic ^ were here more fre-

162

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Pekiod

II.

quent than in the other school, where some in Arabic are to be found. They were originally recited by precentors, who

were rivals of theDarshanim, and with whose occasional pieces, and introductory captatio benevolenticB ( 18.), the general liturgy was continually deluged. For only in the house of God was the Jew of those countries at home.^^ The Haggada had now come to a close, and various collections of it had been made but its philosophical explanation is as rarely to be met with in these countries as most other scientific disquisitions. Thus the hymnical recension of the Haggada, being invested with the charm of novelty, fully occupied the intellectual activity of the time, until it was supplanted by the new and more fashionable Kabbala while the older doctrine formed elements of the mystic the subject of the
; ;

Pijjutim themselves.

The

often-repeated observation of
:

poport

^^

strikingly characterises both schools

'^

RaThe Se-

faradic Pijjutim are interpreters

between the soul and her

Creator, the

nation

German (and French) between the Israelitish and their God." Zunz also remarks, " The poetry
is

of the one

the Pijjut, the Pijjut of the other

is

poetry."

The
his

justly celebrated

older

Eleazar Biribi Kalir (or perhaps contemporary Jann"ai) may be regarded as a

:

prototype of these Pajtanim

perhaps, like the Italian SabBATAi DoNOLO, he obtained the art of rhyme through the Arabs, but his subject-matter and ritual are principally de;

rived from Palestine

posed about 845).

for instance, from the Pesikta (comThese sources were not so accessible to his successors in Germany and France ; and thus as early as in the 11th century Kalir's date and native country were

and he is mentioned only incidentally ^^ by the same author in an Arabic commentary on the book Jezira. Kalir, probably himself a precentor, by versifying the prayers for the whole year (called Machsor,i.e. cyclus), did in the form of poetry what the author of the Pesikta had done in the form of
his poetry does not appear in Saadja's Siddur,

unknown,

Haggada

( 5. B.).

Italy 2^% and afterwards into France,

also Greece,
;

His prayers were introduced first into Germany, and perhaps

ties

and were imitated even by the highest authoriand so this poetical Haggada and Halacha came into contact with the homiletical.

 19.]

LITURGICAL POETRY.
school of Kalir, in the narrowest sense,
cir.
is

163
the flower

The

of the Pajtanic age (ending

1100).

Among

its

members

are reckoned the most celebrated composers of prayers for

such asMESHULAM ben Kalonymos of Lucca, and Kalonymos at Mayence Moses ^^ and Chananel, ons of the latter Solomon ben Jehuda, " the Babylonian," from whom some Selichot are denominated n^DlTobti'^^; the renowned R. Gerson ( 9.); the prolific Simon ben Isaac ben Abun Eli a ben Menahem of Mans, called Ha-SaKEN (the elder) Benjamin ben Serach, perhaps the most prolific writer of this school (1058); Joseph Tob-Elem Meir ben Isaac the precentor (about 1100), at Limoges author of pieces in Aramaic; Joseph ben Solomon of Carcassonne; Eliezer ben Samuel (1096); Kalonymos BEN Moses, and his brother Jekutiel Benjamin ben Samuel Isaac Halevi at Worms, and his pupil Solomon Isaki Elia ben Mordecai and others. In
festivals;

his son

the 12th century there was a great increase in the

number
:

of writers

^,

although not in the number or variety of works

secret doctrine

the form and language were improved at the expense of the

matter and vigour

and philosophy obtained

an entrance, and changed the type of the versified Haggada and the casuistry and dialectics of the Tosaphot attracted
to themselves all thinking
fell into

men.

Thus the Pajtanic school

1

decay, numbering but a few stragglers in the

;

3th

and 14th centuries

the age.

at

which period the German-French

literature in general yielded to the universal barbarism of

The authors are in the main the same as those mentioned above ( 9.) most of the teachers and writers on Halacha being at once precentors, copyists, preachers, or
;

Babbies.

In the 12th century the two main divisions described

above had been in some degree blended, especially in Provence and Italy and, even earlier, different liturgies had
;

borrowed single pieces from each other but at this time a type of Pijjutim and liturgy, approaching more nearly to the Spanish, was formed on the points of contact of the different
:

schools.

To

this class (omitting in general the poets

who

will

be mentioned in

20.) belong

in

Provence

^7,

Jehuda

164

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

BEN Barzillai Barcelloni (fl. 1130), probably at Marseilles Isaac Halevi and his sons the famous Serachja Levi (ob. 1186) and Berechia; Joseph Kimchi and his Jehuda ben Natanel and his sons Samuel son Moses and Isaac (1218); Meshullam ben Solomon; Jehuda Harari of Montpellier Don Kalonymos Moses ben. Jehuda Pinchas ben Joseph Halevi Solomon ben Maimon Solomon ben Isaac Nasi Abraham ben Chajim; Isaac Kimchi (1290); Joseph Ibn Caspi; Abraham ibn Kaslar, probably the physician (1323); Israel Kaslar, physician at Avignon (1327); Jacob de LiJNEL, perhaps the physician at Carcassonne Isaac de Latas (1372); Jacob Solomon (1443); Moses ben
;

Abraham
;

Eli A ben JoAB Benjamin and others later. The Collections of Pijjutim are of
;

(1466) at Avignon 2^^; and others: in Italy ^^ Samuel (ob. 1298); several of the name of
different kinds ^^*:

1.

Liturgies, or compilations of prayers according to the use

(:)n37D, ritual)

of different countries or

cities,

the peculiarities

of which depend upon particular hymns, not always written

persons of the country where they were used.

rituals

by But of these

some have never been published, others are very rare, and very few have been accurately described. The final redaction of some of them was not made until the time when they were printed in the following period ( 28.); and thus it is necessary to examine minutely the MSS. themselves for the history and mutual influence of the various
rituals.

In

this interesting subject so little has

been done,
:

that

we must confine ourselves to

;

a dry enumeration

the prin-

cipal countries

and towns connected with it are, Germany, and afterwards Poland France (n3"i2i) Spain and Portugal
;

(-inSD,

-^aKVlOKp);

Italy (D^triV), identical with

Rome;

the

Levant (Romagna)
towns
pellier,

or Greece (ti>im:i,
as

i<''3tn)2^;

and some

in

Provence and France, such

cities

Carpentras (Cavaillon, Lille).

Avignon ^^, MontThe rituals of the

;

states

and

of Barbary are of Spanish origin

("I'^^n^^
;

for ex-

ample, those of Algiers

reb (mriDTD)
a
;

= '^jlj^^)
;

Tripoli, or
;

Oran

^^

Marocco

Tlemsan

Fas, whence

Mostaa-

MS.

has been recently purchased for the library of Leyden.

 19.]

LITUKGICAL POETRY.
is

165

Scarcely anything

known about

the rituals of Asia and

little

Egypt, where, however, poetry in general was but

cul-

tivated ( 20.); a collection of hymns, from Aleppo as it appears^ in the Bodleian Library, has been recently recog-

nised as such by the author.

2.

A few collections of writings

;

by

particular authors are

known

for instance,

by Simon

DuRAN

and

Reubex ben Isaac

(1400).^^

The treatment

reference to the pubKc service and private devotion

of the prayers and benedictions ( 6.) with ^^ varied

according to the different laws

of rituals,

and gradually

formed a use

(:in2?2)

or ritual.

This subject was not only

treated in the general Halachaic

occasionally in commentaries

compendiums ( 9.), and and glosses but it also called

;

forth particular branches of literature, according either as

the ritual directions were appended to the prayers, thus forming a liturgy (illD, "n^nTD) proper, or as the prayers,
either

by name

or in full,

were inserted in the

ritual diis

rections (^Agenda).

In the German-French school, which

the richest and also the most minute in these writings, the
latter

are

often called Minhagirn or Minliagot (D^JH^TD or

m:in:7:i).^''

The

oldest Siddurim, like that of

Amram Ga-

ON, a recension of which has been discovered by Luzzatto,

were frequently composed from the results of inquiries addressed to famous authorities at a distance ^^, and contained also compositions by these same persons, with explanations of the subject-matter and language. Afterwards other additions were made, such as calendars, small ethical tracts, &c., often written on the margins of the prayers and agendas, so as to form a perfect " Vade-mecum." The earliest works of this kind are apparently all lost, with the exception of one of the oldest, the Arabic Siddur of Saadja Gaon (ob. 942) discovered a few years ago in the Bodleian Library by The frequent quotations made from it by Zunz the author. (according to some extracts furnished to him) show the
importance of this Siddur, of Avhich we shall here give a short description, illustrating the class, though the almost
pedantic arrangement and division are peculiar to the individual work.
treats of the

The

subject

is

divided into two purts

the

first

duty and necessity of prayer, with reference

166

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II-

to tlie institutions during

the time of the Temple, enter;

ing into an investigation of the whole subject

ever, only the
part, inscribed

of this,

end

is

preserved in the

MS.

howThe second

Book of Prayers, Praises, and Benedictions (Jl^^^^2ih^< ns^riD "jnib^l nnKDnbi^l), is introduced by
vine service, in the

some general remarks upon the changes which took place in diway of omission, addition, and abbreviation, through the exile of the nation. It then proposes to give a simple " Canon " of the standard parts of the service, adding

made by some later authorities which were not contradictory to the original purpose of the service, premising that they have no foundation in tradition and it
only the alterations
;

adds the rules for some ceremonies connected with the service

and the cycle of the year.

sections
;

This part

is

divided into two

the

first

containing the service for every day, and

viz. for

the second that for special seasons,

vals,

Sabbaths,

festi-

and

feasts.

Most of the prayers

;

are given entire in the

and it is important to remark, that the author repeatedly mentions that he excludes all niDTTl, by which term he can only mean the '^ solos " of the precentors, so that all that are in the book must be considered as prayers for the whole congregation. For the private or " voluntary "prayer on week-days, or Sabbaths and feasts, he gives
original
his

Hebrew

of which has been

two celebrated invocations (^Ul> j ; an Arabic translation made by Zemach ben Joshua, whom some bibliographers have therefore regarded as the author of the whole work. In this way Saadja preserved many of
the old prayers, with remarkable variations (for instance,

in the Shemona-esre),

some hymns by Jose ben Jose, and some by anonymous authors, and others by himself, some of vv^hich are nowhere else to be found; and it is only to be regretted that it is in some instances doubtful whether
Saadja
is

the collector or the author of them.

the authors of similar works:

ceed to

name

the

We now proGaonim
:

KoHEN Zedek 36; Hai (ob.

at

1037)

and Isaac Ibn France and Germany: Joseph Tob Elem (1050); Meir ben Isaac the precentor; Solomon the Babylonian ^s Rashi; Simcha of Vitry(llOO); Tam^^;

Kairowan;

Nissim and Chananel Gajjat at Lucena (ob.

;

1089)2^:

in

 19.]

LITURGICAL POETEY.

167

Elchanan^s*; Isaac of bomK, Vi37D (cir. 1250-1260); Samuel ben Solomon (or K. Perez ?) ^^ Meir EothenBURG (1270) Chajim Paltiel (cir. 1280); and Abraham Klausner (1380 1400): in Austria, Eisak Tyrnau in Italy, Zidkia An aw, and his epitomiser (cir. 1440): in Provence, perhaps Serachja Halevi, and (1314) ^^* and in AsHER ben Meshullam (cir. 1170) at Liinel^^ Spain, AsHER BEN Jechiel^^*; and Israel Israeli (1330) at Toledo, whose Arabic explanatory work was translated by Shemtob ben Ardutil. The critical and explanatory liturgy of David ben Joseph Abudirahim at Seville The comprehensive work of (1340) is the best known. Solomon ben Nathan of Segelmessa (12th century) in Arabic deserves notice.'^^ The work of Jacob Levi (ob. 1427 in Mayence) is one of the most celebrated. The
;
;
:

Karaites also had writings of this kind

for instance, that of

Muallim (magister)
left to

Fadhel

(cir.

1290?),

who wished

to

meet

the reproach of the Rabbinites that the Karaitic liturgy was

Within this and literature the Easter Haggada ( 6. 26.), interpreted Kabbalistically by Joseph Chiquitilla, forms a branch of its own. These works form the transition to the special commentaries on single pieces and on whole collections, which were
the arbitrary will of the individuaL^'^a

sooQ found necessary for Kalir's productions.

difficulties either scientific or philological

The Halachaic
for instance, the

Pijjutim also, and those of the old Spaniards which presented

;

Joseph Ibn Abitur (in the 10th century) ^^, the Azharot of Salomon Ibn Gabirol, and various poems by Jehuda Ibn Gajjat (ob. 1089)^S were commentated in Provence by Anatoli, Moses Tibbon, Isaac ben ToDROS, and others, and by the Spaniard Simon Duran at The German-French school seems to have Algiers (1417).
Seder Aboda by
Single explanations of here shown the greatest activity. Pijjutim are already quoted as bearing the names of Menahem

BEN Chelbo
certain from

(cir. 1050)'*-^, Rashi, and others; but it is unwhat kind of writings they are taken. Actual commentaries were certainly written by Ephraim ben Jacob

of

Bonn (1171 98)^^

Jacob Nasir
M
4

at

Liinel

13.),

168

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period^ II.

(1227),
balistic

Shemaja of Soissons ^\ and Aaron ben Chajjim Kohen may be considered as the forerunners of the Kab-

method of explanation^ which was applied also to the Later Pijjutim were sometimes 13. p. 115). written with Halachaic and grammatical explanations by the
prayers (see

authors

for instance, the

Azharot of
also

Menahem ben Moses

have commentaries of

Tamar
this

(1449).
;

The Karaites

Moses ben Elia Pasha ili^W^) and Joseph ben Samuel (unfinished)'^^ and a Siddur by Abu Soleiman David ben Hossin (see p. 117.),
kind
for instance, those of

mentioned by Levi ben Jefet.

prayer''^
is

Their

present

order

of

ascribed to
this,

Aaron ben Joseph

^^,

(about 1290).

Even before
to force its

perhaps at the time

into Spain

when Karaism attempted

service several Rabbinical

they had introduced into the poems from that country. It was completed by means of some later Karaitic poems in the

way

biblical style,

and according to Spanish forms.

it is difficult

All kinds of translations of the prayers also take their

origin in this period, although
to

^^
28.).

the exact

time

of the

commencement of each

(see

In the

Bodleian Library are preserved some Arabic translations of penitential prayers which are scarcely later than the 14th
century; the translation of Saadja's prayers (see
p. 166.) is

probably older.

Thus the
radiated in

liturgy forms a mirror for

external experiences, a focus

all directions.

both internal and whence intellectual movements It was more especially the Ger-

man and French Jews who sang their manifold sufferings and persecutions in the House of God, thereby elevating the melancholy sound of their harp to be a significant but mysterious echo of the story of the

human

race.

20.]

Non-Liturgical Poetry.

We

may

here confine our attention almost entirely to the

its

Arabian school and

offshoots in

Provence and

Italy, since

the religious severity of the Karaites restricted their poetry,

nearly without exception, to the liturgy and to theological

controversv.

We

have described the various forms of poetry

20.]
in general

NON-LITURGICAL POETRY.
above
( 18.).

169

With
satire

respect to matter, the secular

poetry, like the religious, is characterised

by seriousness and

morality

wit, irony,

and

appear to have been exercised

the classical literature,'
;

only in the

continual allusions to

-the

Bible, the

Talmud, prayers ^ &c.

a circumstance

which considerably increases the difficulty of perfectly understanding it, and of imitating it in other languages. The poetry of the Arabs, which was the model for the Jews, drew from the many springs of life but that of the Hebrews, which depended entirely on Scripture, could draw only from the hallowed waters of the Temple. Herein, to speak in the language of writers of this time, the neglected " Sarah" celebrates a triumph over the upstart (Pro v. xxx. 23.) Egyptian maid, whose overbearing tones were for a long while alone heard, until the rightful champions of the former arose, and zeal for the holy language appropriated the sweetest sounds of the Arabs to her cause. If the Arabic poets among the Jews had not alluded to and sometimes attacked Judaism, they might have been passed over here without notice, and their writings and names left to be preserved in the history of Arabian literature^; although certain Arabic Pijjutim, for instance those of Marzuk (Saadja), were received into the liturgy.^ Chefez al-Kuti (or al-Futi ?) seems to have versified the Psalms in Arabic; quotations from this work have been found by the author in Moses Ibn Ezra's Poetics he is pro;
:

bably older than Gabirol

( 12.
is

B. p. 101.).

Even Maimonides,
be gained
traditions, possibly

who

denies that there

any

real advantage to

by the reading of Arabian songs ^ and composed poems which found a place
logies
^
;

in Arabian anthoand the famous Hebrew poet Moses Ibn Ezra (1138) exhibits a perfect knowledge of Arabic poetry and

Poetics.

and

Jehuda Ibn Koreish, Abulwalid, Gabirol, Tanchum of Jerusalem quote Arabic poems which
;

quotations were sometimes omitted

by the

translators of their

Arabic writings.^

Samuel Nagid
and

addressed

King Habus
(p. 151.)

of

Granada

in a

poem

of seven Beit, each of which was in a

in several

different language;

Muwassheh

of

Jehuda Levi

the point of the whole consists in an Arabic

170
distich.

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

The
is

oldest authority for the tradition of the

his

Cid

(ob. 1099)

"

Officer," the apostate

Ibn Alfange.

To

the highly prized Arabic poets of Spain belong

Abraham Ibn

OL Fakkhar
1250) (conf.
p.

(ob.

1239?);

152);

Abraham Ibn Sahl (1200 Ibn el Mudawwer; and the poetess

()Tn),

whose date is Hebrew work of Isaac Ibn Crispin (see below, p. 174.) into an Arabic Kassida: it may be added, that of the Hebrew itself was an imitation of Arabic poetry. Koreish wrote some Arabic rhyming prose, and the Hebrew Diwans of Moses Ibn Ezra and Jehuda Halevi were commentated in Arabic.
uncertain, transformed every chapter of the

Kasmune.7

Joseph Ibn Chasan

The

origin of the

Hebrew

poetry, together with that of

science and the

Magreb,

patronage of the minister

may be ben Isaac Chisdai

in Spain,

traced to the
(cir.

950)

it

came
(ob.
far

to

its

greatest perfection under the prince

;

Samuel

had been so most original and able representatives, that even Provence and her rival Italy tried to surpass the poems classical times in artifice rather than in real art written as trials of skill, after the manner of the Arabs and Provencals, were admired; stereotyped poetical phrases became universal there was scarcely any writer who did not and Moses Ibn Ezra devoted a try his hand at poetry
1055
?)

and

as early as the 12th century it

exhausted by

its

special chapter of his Poetics to verses

made
its

in dreams.^*

The rhyming
earliest

prose, at this time as at all others,

from the
in

to the

most recent, maintained

life.

place

the

writings which concerned daily

of the middle ages in the East,

poetry, " to die before

The poetry of the Jews judging by the description

of the Proven9al Charisi (1218), deserved the fate of bad

its

authors ;"^^ he praises only those

who came from the Magreb, such as Jehuda Abbas, Joseph Ibn Aknin, and Moses ben Sheshet.
works on the most various memorial verses for the Masora, grammars, &c. (18.). To this class belong Saadja's and Hai Gaon's rhymes on jurisprudence, and some short astronomical rules by Saadja (21.). Charisi versified Maimonides' chapter on diet in the Jad^^; Palquera (cir. 1250) the Talmudic
find the poetical form in
subjects, for instance,

We

 20.]

NON- LITURGICAL POETRY.

Chullin
;

171

treatise

Mordecai ben Hillel at Regensburg Prophiat Duran a (cir. Matatia Kartin (1363?) wrote a chapter on astronomy. commentary in rhyme on the Moreh Solomon Ten Ajub
1300) the laws of slaying; and
;

of Grenada, at Beziers (1262), imitated the ^^^j^ or 'i^^s^ of Ibn Sina ^^ ; Ibn Ezra, Bon- Senior Ibn Jachja, and
others, wrote verses

upon the game of

chess^**;

an anony-

mous author (probably not Jedaja Penini) alludes in a

;

poem

on the same subject to the game of cards Serach (Sarik) Barf AT (1364), probably in Africa, versified the Book of Job, the edition of which by Elia Levita (1544) has

been erroneously attributed to

the 10th century), and

this writer

^^

the Karaites,
(in

Salomon ben Jerucham, Menahem ben Michael

Jehuda Hedessi

(1149), wrote

polemics in

rhyme against Rabbinism, and Matatja ben Moses (1300 1360) against Christianity and Islamism; DuNASH Ibn Labrat wrote in verse a grammatical polemic,

which was answered in the same manner by

Menahem

Saruk or his pupils in Spain, in^ the 1 0th century; Isaac Ibn Polgar exchanged epigrams with the neophyte Abner, and Prophiat Duran and Solomon Bonfed replied in
satirical

epistles; besides

which, there was the polemical

poetry of the 13th century, mentioned above (11.). In Germany also we meet with the satirical poem of Gumplin
against the

Jews on the Rhine. ^^* Epigrams form the transition from

scientific

rhymes

to

occasional poetry in general, a comprehensive class in which

the Jewish literature can rival any other

to be found among

they are often

for in-

dedications, introductions, epigraphs, heads

;

of chapters, and summaries of treatises and books

stance,

by Jehuda Ibn Tibbon, Jechiel ben Jekutiel,

In their references to individual and national

and
life

others.

they afford rich materials for history and biography.

We

will

mention here only one of the oldest panegyric poems

(recently published), addressed to

Samuel Nagid by Joseph

in his history of

Ibn Chisdai

(after 1027),

whom Hammer

Arabic literature confounds with a later physician of the same family, who was a renegade. The well-known observation that every good poem must be an occasional one is

172

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

remarkably confirmed in Hebrew poetry. Particular attention is due to epitaphs^^, many of which were written by persons for themselves.

To this

class

belong also larger historical

poems not intended

for the liturgy (as

was perhaps that of

Saadja
others.

[cir.

1000])^^; for instance, that of

to have

Palquera
lost,

(cir.

1250), which appears

been unfortunately

and

Gnomonics ^^% which were much used in this period, and which became almost a separate art, are closely conAmongst the Arabs the weaving nected with the epigram.
together of wise proverbs
dition of
first
is considered an indispensable congood poetry, and we find the poets of the Muallakat becoming famous by their gnomes. ^^ There were also

poets

who devoted themselves

specially to writing proverbs.*

is

Semitic poetry, however, in general

not so

much

a conti-

nuous evolution of thought and sentiment, as (to use the wellknown metaphor) a chain of costly pearls strung together, which may be separated and taken independently, or ranged
in a different order (as Anthology)y^

The

older proverbs of
life.

the Arabs originated in their

The Koran, of Jews and the Arabic writings Sunna, perhaps also the Christian elements Christians, and and introduced Jewish
poetical

own

among
riched

them.^^

Translations of the

Greek philosophers en-

them with ideas, which, from

their simplicity, clearness,

and pointedness of thought, may be recognised as classical, even in their Arabic form. The poet paints the thought of
the philosopher, the philosopher analyses the picture of the

poet; and hence arise the stereotyped forms of quotation, "as

says the proverb, the poet, the wise

man (D^nn,

which,

however, sometimes refers to King Solomon's books, especially the Proverbs), or the philosopher," and the like.

The
of

simple proverb

is

often succeeded

by a metrical version

All these remarks are applicable to Jewish literature enriched from Arabic sources. Arabic proverbs are
it. *^

already quoted in the Alphabet of

Ibn Sika^^ by Jehuda Ibn TiBBON^i, by Palquera (1290)^2 and Gavison (ob. 1605) in Arabic, by Albo ^3 (1425), and others; MaiMONIDES 2^ also appeals to the old proverbial poets. In the
translations from the

Koran, Sunna, &c., either the proverbs

 20.]

NON-LITURGICAL POETRY.
"

173

which occurred gave place to others to the same effect from the Bible or Talmud, or else the form of quotation was In this manner (besides the quotations from the changed. Koran to be found in linguistical works by Saadja, Hai Abulwalid, and in the Poetics of Moses Ibn Ezra,) Kalonymos ^''^ quotes the "Prophet," and Ibn Chisdai^^ keeps the first Sure of the Koran as a pattern prayer, although in some places he substitutes poems of Jehuda Levi. With the proverb and the gnome, moreover, are closely connected figures, phrases, parables, and other kinds of poetry. To the gnomic literature, properly so called ^^, belong preeminently the larger ethical collections of proverbs, even when
the particular sentences are

woven

into one continuous work.

Nothing in the Arabic language belonging to this period is known, except the Selection of Pearls by Gabirol (1040),
which, as well as the Sententious Ethics of Gabirol, was
translated

by Jehuda Ibn Tibbon (1167) for Asher ben Meshullam (conf. 11.); a metrical version of the former was given by Joseph Kimchi, and Tibbon's prose translation of it was enriched by the French Jews of the 14th century with appendices (Tosaphot) and commentaries in rhyme it was afterwards frequently expounded, was trans;

lated into various languages, and has ever since remained

Hebrew works by Samuel Nagid, whose Ben Mishle and Ben Kohelet seem to have been exhortations to his son Joseph; Moses Ibn Ezra. (cir. 1138), in continuous
a standard book in this class of literature. ^^

of the same kind were written

homonjmies
to
his

the composer of the bD^U'n IDTO, attributed

;

Hai Gaon^^
imitator,

Joseph Ezobi

contemporary,

(cir. 1270) in Provence; and countryman Levi ben

Abraham ben Chajjim^^% author of a long poem with the same rhyme throughout Benjamin Anav ben Abraham and Johanan Loria in Germany at Rome (about 1300)
;
;

Single chapters full of proverbs are also to be (cir. 1500). found in the comprehensive works of Charisi, Immanuel, With these must be classed the works on ethics com&c.

posed in rhetorical or rhyming prose (conf.

that of

12.)

for example,

Palquer A

the famous
(cir.

Examen Mundi (dVip n^^m)

by Jedaja Penini

1305), so often commentated and

174
translated
;

JEWISH LITERATURE.
the satirical Lapis Lydius
;

[Period

II.

KaloNYMOS in Castile (1323) and similar works by Matatja The moral sentences (1430-50) in Germany, and others. ^^
(]m2
)1K) by

Greek wise men, and the Sayings of Alexander ^'^^, by HoNEiN BEN IsHAK (not Chananja ben Jizchak), were translated from the Arabic by Charisi (before 1235) for some learned men at Ltinel, and became a great mine The famous Disciplina Clericalis of Arabic- Jewish sayings. by the neophyte Peter Alphonsi (baptized 1106) consists A part of this work chiefly of Arabic and Jewish gnomes.
of the
still

exists in the

Hebrew

translation,

and

is

known

as the

Book of Enoch (Idris).^^ Mashal ( 5. 2.), in the

Here, as also in the case of the

didactic

semi-poetry of Fables,

Parables, Apologues, and Riddles, and in the popular Tales

and Novels, the Jews have cooperated in propagating the by the Arabs from India and Persia the same time interwoven their own and have at Europe, into particular traditions ( 5. 25.)^^, thus making many hitherto unnoticed contributions to the old romantic literature. Jacob Ibn Shear a (at the end of the 9th century ?) is said to have assisted in the first translation of Bidpai's Indian Fables of the Jackal, Kalila and Dimna, into Arabic for These were afterwards translated into King"Alzafac"(?). Hebrew, and thence into Latin, by the neophyte John of Capua (1262 1278); both these versions being accomRabbi Joel is mentioned as panied with illustrations.^^ the Hebrew translator of these and of the Mishle Sandabar,^^ Kalonymos translated in one week (1316) the work on the Nobility of Man, one of the fifty treatises by " the Brothers
literature transplanted

of Purity," a celebrated society of a kind of freemasons in

Egypt, whose works were studied by the Jews in Spain at In the Prince and Derwish of Abraham Ibn Chisdai (cir. 1235) the author has first brought to light a translation of the celebrated Greek tale of Barlaam and Josaphat made from a hitherto undiscovered Arabic source. The poetic encyclopaedia of Palquera (1264) recalls to mind a similar work of GhaThe half-poetical, half-philosophical works of Ibn zali.^'' Batrik, translated into Hebrew by Charisi, might assist
the beginning of the twelfth century. ^^*

 20.]

NON-LITURGICAL POETRY.

175

in the solution of
telian

many

questions concerning pseudo- Aristo-

and Kabbalistic writings.^^* MoSES Narboni (1349) at Barcelona wrote a commentary upon Ibn Topheil's philoBerachja Hanakdan sophical romance Hai ben Joksan. in Burgundy (cir. 1260) edited freely and completed the
store of fables then in existence.

The Hebrew

translation

of those of
sources.

^sop^^

is

apparently not taken from Arabic

Peculiar interest attaches to Isaac Ibn

Sahula
lists

(1281), apparently of Guadalaxara,

theless at last yields to the latter.

who

enters the

on

behalf of Jewish originality against Arabianism, but never-

The morals of
;

the fables

bear the stamp of the Kabbalistic tendencies of his time,

contemporaneous Christian works they are with drawings.^^^ The book 1D17D by Isaac Crispin (12th century?) mentioned above (p. 169.) seems to contain imitations rather than direct translations of Arabic satirical novel by Joseph Ibn Sabara tales, poems, &c. (or Sebara, end of 12th century), which has escaped most bibliographers, is an ingenious mixture of narration, sayings, and poetry in the Arabian style, and contains the history of
visible also in

also illustrated

Tobias.

Particular

notice

is

due

to

Parodies, Travesties,

and

Humorous Writings,
application to
life

the literary element of which was the

imitation of the expression of the older classics, while their

was especially connected with the feast is perhaps to be found in the parodies of Hariri.^^ Not only were passages from the Bible itself detached from the context, and applied to frivolous and obscene objects, but even the Halacha, Pijjutim, &c., were parodied and travestied, without its being felt to be any insult to these much reverenced writings. We have pieces and works of this kind by Kalonymos and his friend
of Purim; their prototype

Emmanuel
Bedarshi,

even earlier, Abraham had parodied the Easter Haggada, and the same thing was done during the following
at
(cir.

Rome

1320)

in a serious panegyric,

century in a polemical work ( 15. p. 127.). The oldest parody is probably that of the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, if

we are not wrong in Joseph Ibn Sabara as

considering
the author of

the
it.

above-mentioned

176

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

The Arabic form of the Makamas {pT\'2TM:}) ^^ was certainly used by Joseph Ibn Aknin at Ceuta (before 1185) ^^ probably by Salomon Ibn Vlp^s, a relation of Joseph Ibn Sahl, and perhaps by Isaac ben Israel, the head of a school at Babylon (cir. 1218).^^ Charisi himself had translated the famous Makamas of Hariri into Hebrew, and after his journey to the East (1216 18) he drew up a rival work in Hebrew, which included some older pieces. He was followed by Emmanuel of Eome, who (cir. 1332) added a kind

of Divina Commedia, after the style of Dante.^^ His satires and parodies, which unite religious zeal and scientific earnestness with frivolity of expression, and the novels which he has inserted, rank him with Boccaccio but Emmanuel and his book were soon forbidden, owing to the stricter views on the A great Paradiso in subject which were gaining ground. terza rima, with literary and historical notes, was written by Moses Bieti (born 1416)^^, who excludes Emmanuel from the regions of the blest, and who is also said to have repented of his own poetry as a waste of time. This would show that he possessed more judgment than those who have
;

published this unattractive

work

as the production of the

" Hebrew Dante."

Finally we possess some collections (^Diwans), made either by the authors themselves or by others after them, and some greater poetical works, known only from quotations and catalogues, by MoSES Ibn Ezra (ob. after 1 1 38), and Jehuda Halevi (ob. before 1160), which two, with Gabirol, form the triple star of Jewish poetry in Spain by Jacob ben Eleazar, who wished to imitate if not to surpass the Arabs^2; and by Abraham Bedarshi (1289), and Solomon
;

Provence (1400); besides various anthologies, Jehuda Halevi for the most part only in manuscript. BEN Isaac ben Sabbatai composed (1214) a Contest of Wealth with Wisdom, and (1217-8) a Gift from Jehuda the Woman-hater, a satirical romance, dedicated perhaps to Abraham el-Fakkhar, in which the father of the hero, in fact, the author himself, bears the name of " Tachkemoni," thus occasioning a confusion with the book Tachkemoni by the To the latter of poet Charisi, written about the same time.
in

BoNFED

 20.]

NON-LITURGICAL POETRY.

177

these works he added an appendix, containing an ingenious

parody excommunicating some of

gossa, found in

his

adversaries at Sara-

MS. by

the author in the Bodleian Library.

Nehemiah bei^ Menahem Kalomiti (1418) wrote The War of Truth ^^% and Messer David ben Jehuda Leon
The Praise {and Blame ?) of Womeri.^^^ Non-liturgical poems and rhyming prose epistles are to be found also in Aramaic for instance, those by the conand by Solomon temporaries of Bedarshi in Provence
;
'''',

DuRAN

at
all

Algiers (before

Germany

on the other hand, in knowledge of Aramaic had been lost in the

1444)
;

14th century.'*^

From
persons

the extensive use that was

it

made of the
it
;

poetical form,

and the estimation in which

was

held, there arose

some

who made

a profession of
at

such as the teacher

MS."^^

Jehuda Siciliano
of a lexicon of
to facilitate the

Rome
still

(cir.

1300), perhaps the author

rhymes

extant in

In order

art, lexicons

of rhymes, homonymes, and

;

synonymes, were probably written by Charisi ^'^ and, with special reference to etymology and grammar, by Joseph Ibn Chajjim (cir. 1292) ^^ and Solomon da Piera (1412). ^^

The more

ancient

grammar received

its

superstructure from

poetry ( 16.), and at the same time extended its theories to both prosody and poetics. On this subject we have some
chapters

by Jehuda Haleyi (1140);

Abraham Ibn Ezra

ti'llpn h'pVJ^^',

(1145);
(ob.

Parchon
; ;

(1159); the author of the

Dayid Ibn Jahja

Elia Levita

Abraham de Balmes

Special treatises were 1523) and later writers (28.). composed by Moses Ibn Ezra, David Ibn Billa (1320)^^,

Absalom ben Moses Misrachi^^ Moses Ibn Chabib

of Lisbon at Bitonto (1486), with an introductory grammatical chapter, and
also Excursuses,

Isaiah of unknown date Eccles. v.) by Abravanel (ob. 1505), in his commentaries on Ex. xv. and and others.^^ Almost all these writers must be conIsa. V.

by a

certain

by

Abraham Ibn Ezra (on

sidered as followers of the Arabising poetry of Spain

but

the Italian writers show the influence of classic literature, for

example, Jehuda ben Jechiel, called Messer Leon, who The interesting toak Cicero and Quintilian as his models.

178

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

work of Moses Ibn Ezra, so often alluded to, will shortly be published by tlie author of the present treatise, from a
unique

MS.

in the Bodleian Library.

Besides the historical

part ( 10.), it contains, in twenty short chapters, an ingenious exposition of the beauties and ornaments of poetry, illustrated

by numerous examples from the Arabic and Hebrew.

of the Jews, according to Detitzsch
^"^j

The Hebrew poetry

;

everywhere preceded the national poetry of the particular country but the Jews also took a part in the latter. Don Santo (or Santob, perhaps Shemtob), famous as an adviser of the King of Spain, was one of the most celebrated troubadours of his age (1360); Juan Alphonso de Baena (1449 54) was a collector of poetry, and himself a poet; Moses Chassan (Acan) de Zaragua wrote a poem on chess, beginning with the Creation and containing moral applications, in the Catalonian dialect, which was translated anonymously into Castilian (1350); his namesake, Don Moses, physician to Don Enrique (1368 79 ?), is one of the poets mentioned in Baena's collection Valentin Bar-

RUCHIUS (perhaps in the 12th century) wrote the history of Count Lyonnais (Palanus) in pure Latin. The Disciplina Clericalis of Peter Alphonsi (1106) is, according to Ticknor, the first European collection of tales (or Makama) composed in the Oriental style; and he considers
this popular work, which has been translated into various languages, as a prototype of the Conde Lucanor by Don John Manuel. The Jew Siisskind of Trimberg, in the 13th century ^^, was

a Swabian minstrel.

Some German

legends, for example

The Court of Arthur^ (1279) attracted the attention of the Jews^^, to whom we are indebted for the preservation of a

German
brew
and

edition of this

work

in ottava rima, written in

He1

characters.

To

the middle ages belong some genuine

( 12.), partly translations (
;

popular works, partly ethical

6.)

of David, by a lady of Regensburg, Litte , in the German dialect generally used at the time, interspersed with a few Hebraisms. In consequence of the isolated position of the Jews,
^"^

versifications of the Bible

for instance, the History

and their dislike of change, their language became more and more different from the vernacular this was especially
;

the case with

German,

so that at a later period (see

28.)

 21.]

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.
by them was
as a

179

the language used

called

and was considered

kind of slang.

This fact

" Jewish-German," is not un-

important in the history of literature.

21.]

Mathematical Sciences,
school

We are here principally concerned with the Arabian

and
its

on which, at the commencement of this Period, the knowledge inherited from earlier times exerted a perceptible influence while the Arabian Jews played an important part in the cultivation of this branch of Arabian science. The encyclopaedic method^ which was then in vogue, comprised Mathematics (nmT^V n?Dr)n, or, in the plural, Arab. ^^:!^\ Ss.), as a science preparatory (t^lQ'^ti/n 'n,
off-shoots,
;

^<Ai^^\ ^y>^) to philosophy,

plinae (generally seven), e. g..

and divided it into various disciMathematics in the strict sense

yyt:^T[

(m-i'^SDn,

nnnn

nTrinn omr'^ii^m

'n), including Arith-

metic (lllti'nn 'n), Algebra (nmitiTin 'n, conf. Arab. J.^

j-^0, and Geometry (HTlDn ^n), besides Astronomy and Music ( 18. 4.). Astronomy (D^ir)ir)n DTDDH later HDI^n), is divided, according to Abraham ben Chijja (1134)^ into 1. Astronomy proper ()VTnn ^n, the science of observation), treating (a) of the

form and position of the heavenly

bodies (astrography, spherical and empirical astronomy), and

of their measurements and motions (theoretical astronomy), with scientific demonstrations; and 2. the art of Astrology (]VD3n nr^K^TD, art of experience), depending upon One portion of traditions and opinions of secondary value.
(b)

astronomy is astronomical geography.^ 1. Astronomy. The labours of the Jews in this department have not yet undergone a proper special investigation. On
this head much ignorance is displayed by Christian writers, and even Delambre and Ideler are not better informed than The subject is rendered more difficult by the fact, others.^* that the oldest works are scarcely known except by quotations, and that the later Jewish astronomers were occupied in endeavouring to trace the views they had formed from their own investigations, or had adopted from others, in the old practical

180
ruleS;,

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

or in the precepts scattered about the Talraud and

Midrasli, and generally referred to ancient authorities.

The

entanglement of the subject^ and the complicated hypotheses adopted from time to time, as knowledge advanced, add considerably to the difficulties in the history of Jewish astronomy.
It will be necessary to examine the connexion between this department of literature and the Halacha, Haggada, and Polemics, with reference to Chronology, and between it and Philosophy and the Kabbala with reference to Astrology.

The points of contact of the Halacha with astronomy have been mentioned above ( 5. A.). We must here preIt mise a few remarks upon the nature of the Kalendar. depends upon a regular compensation of the luni-solar cycle by means of Intercalation ; hence m^pn DTDDn, Science of Intercalation.^^ The old Arabians intercalated a month in
the principle on which this was done.^^

every third year ^ ; but there are various opinions respecting The Karaites were

inconsistent in admitting the regular system of intercalation

binical

with a cycle of nineteen years ^, and yet rejecting the Kabmethod of reckoning the new moon, in favour of the
older

way

of determining

it

by the testimony

of witnesses.

They

also,

contrary to the rule of the Kabbinites, admit-

ted the evidence of

Muhammedans on

the point.

"^

It

may

be mentioned, that at an early period, Abu Amran" elTiFLisi ^ adopted the astronomical solar kalendar, so as to In order avoid the Rabbinical postponement of feast days.
to defend themselves against the attacks of the Karaites,

Mu-

hammedans, and
kalendar^,

Christians,

on the mode of calculating the

determination of the feast of

Easter,

Saadja,
at
its

especially

the

NYMOS

Chananel, Meshullam ben KaloLucca, or in Germany ^, Abraham ben Chijja,

(1140), and later writers, tried to claim

Jehuda Hale VI
account of

for the astronomical calculation of the

assert that the

moon a high respect on Some authors went so far as to Greek astronomers were pupils of the Jews ^^,
antiquity.
^^

others even interpolated the Talmud.

Among
of the
first

the most interesting remains of

Hebrew

literature

period, there are, besides the Boraita of

Samuel,

known

only from quotations'^, three astronomical, but unfor-

21.] tunately

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.
much interpolated and corrupted, sections Eliezer ^^, in which the year is made to

181
of the
consist

Pirke derahhi

of 365^ days, the month of 30 days \^\ hours, the cycle

()top

-mv:^) of 4, the period (Vn:i mtnTD) of 28

(=

x 4)

years, the lunar

month of 29

days, 12^ hours, the lunar cycle

the period of 21 (= 7 x 3) years; so that three solar 4 lunar periods (3 x 28 = 4 x 21 = 84 years), form and All this is made to the hour of ft divine day of 1000 years. ^^
of
3^"^,

correspond to the seven planets according to their cosmical

order or regency in the hours of the day, and with reference
to passages in the

Book

of Job.

This work also mentions a

stars
;

cycle of 1 9 years with 7 leap-years, although not in the usual

order,

and the creation of the

(first

novilunium?)

placed at the evening of

Wednesday ^^ it is said that there *^ are in heaven 366 windows" for the days of the solar The Boraita of R. Ada is probably year, and the like. nothing else than another name for the kalendar rules {^Tekufa derab Ada)^^, adopted with the solar year of the Arabian Albatani (880). Connected with this are the remarkable astronomical and astrological works of the physician

According to

Sabbatai Donolo ben Abraham of omn in his own not very lucid account,

Italy (946).^^
his

country-

men
this

rejected entirely, through ignorance, the old and ob-

scure Jewish writings on astronomy, as they believed that

was to be found only among other nations. ^^ He consequently studied Indian, Babylonian, Arabian, and Greek astronomy, but found that they coincided with the Jewish. After a long and fruitless search for a teacher among the Christians, he at last found the Babylonian t2/Y':i:i, and set His about explaining these works, with the help of figures. comparison of the sun to a "roasting egg" is worth notice. In the mean time Jewish astronomy in the East had taken
science
'^^^

part in the

new

studies of the Arabians,

e. g.,

Mashallah

(754_813)20a; Sahl, called Rabban (not " Zein") el Thaberi (800), whose translation of the Almagest is the only one containing the chapter on refraction; Sind ben Ali (829
833), one of the principal contributors to the Maamunic tables; and Jacob Ibn Sheara (? in the 9th century), who is said to have met with some mathematical works in India, and
N 3

182

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

caused them to be translated into Arabic.-^

To

this ao^e also

probably belongs the Babylonian

Faruch.^^^
others
;

Subsequently

Andruzger ben Sadi there occur Bashar ben

(997), Ibn Simujeh (1087), and and in Africa Abu Sahl ben Temim (or Isaac Israeli? about or before 955), who composed an astronomical work by order of Ismail ben Kaim al-Mansuri. The nature of the Kalendar (ll^P, hence subsequently the titles m^nnr, also n-nVim ms^pn, i. e. " Quarter-day

PiNHAS Ibn Shoeib

and ]^ew-i\Ioon" ), from its connexion with the cycle of Holy-days, naturally formed a constituent part of the liturgical writings mentioned above ( 19.)^^; as appears later in the Arabic writer Solomon ben Natan of Segelmas ^^; SiMCHA of Yitry in France Abudirahim in Spain in the Karaitic work Tikkun ^^, and in some general Halachaic Supplements were, however, added Avorks mentioned below. to Solomon ben Natan's short rules by Saadja ben Jehuda Ben Ebjatar in Egypt (1203), who also wrote a commentary on the verses of Jose Alnaharwanai, hitherto unknown. To Nachshon the Gaon(877 885) is commonly kalendar, founded upon a period of the perpetual attributed which proved not quite correct by the was to be 1 9 years learned Spaniards of the 10th and 11th centuries ^^, but
;
;

made the foundation of kalendar tables (mmV, from mV, a table), by some later writers, as Jacob BEN AsHER at Toledo 2^, and has retained a place in some
was, nevertheless,

works nearly to the present time. Scientific astronomy could not

Doo'matics.^''

fail

Avith the Biblical expositions of the

to come into collision Haggada, and also with

The

researches concernino; the creation of the

world, the spheres, and their spiritual movers (the physical

losophers

astronomy of the time), form a leading subject with Phiand Dogmatists, e. g. Meir Aldabi (1360), and Kabbalists, such as Joseph Chiquitilla and PseudoAbraham ben Dayid. Hence many works have been
as astronomical
;

reckoned

which, according to our notions, be-

long to Philosophy ^^
those

and some really astronomical works

were originally parts of philosophical encyclopaedias, such as by Levi ben Abraham and Levi ben Gerson. It

 21.]

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

183

have pointed out this coincidence, and reference to philosophical literature (12.). made a have to In Spain the Jewish astronomy began simultaneously with the Arabian ^^ and we find there a celebrated astrologer as
is

sufficient here to

Cordova (972), perhaps first ( Tekufa and great of R. Ada) as the basis of the Jewish kalendar^^ pains were taken by the physician Isaac ben Rakufiel,
early as
(see below, 2.).
at

810

Hassan, j^idge

established the solar year of Albatani

;

partly at the instigation of less learned Rabbles, to explain the

old Talmudlcal kalendar rules and the astronomical passages
in the Bible

and Midrash, according to the recent

results of

science

by Isaac ben Baruch Albalia (el-Kalaja?)

of Cordova ( 1 035 1094), teacher of mathematics at Granada, and astronomer to the Arabian prince Samuel and by others.
;

Abraham ben Chijja of Spain, at Marseilles (?), first (1 134)

attempted to treat of the whole of astronomy in

Hebrew ^^

Abraham Ibn Ezra (10931168)

logical part at

carried out the astro-

some length; and both wrote special treatises on Intercalation.^^ Jehuda Halevi (1140) devoted a part of his polemical work to astronomy his younger contemporary and opponent, the apostate Samuel Ibn Abbas (15.), renowned as an astronomer among the Arabians, likewise wrote on the nature of the Kalendar and Chronology.^^ Among the most prominent authors of the Halacha,
;

we may mention Serachja Halevi

of Llinel
:

following also composed some valuable works

The ( 9. ). Maimonides,

who treated of the Jewish kalendar rules in an Arabic commentary to the treatise Rosh Hasliana, also in a special work (1158), and again in a section of his Codex of Law (the last-named work was commentated by many later authors, as, Obadja ben David in Egypt (1325), an anonymous Arabic writer (1387), and Levi ben Chabib (cir. 1520)

Abraham ben David (cir. 1160); and others, are lost.^^ works whose all the independent works hitherto named were Nearly written in Arabic, and made use of the Arabic-Greek liteeven Maimonides and his pupil Ibn Aknin rature ^^^ (1185 1190) emended the works of Ibn Aflah, Heitem, and Ibn Hud.^^ But in the 13th century first began the epoch
(30.
);
;

N 4

184
of the

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

Hebrew

translations

and editions of Arabic, Latin, or

Spanish^^ works, comprising those of the

Greek astronomers

and mathematicians, Ptolemaeus, Euclid and his continuer Hypsicles, Archimedes and his commentator Eutocius of Ascalon, Autolycos, Menelaus, Nicomachus ^^, and Theodosius, after the editions of the Syrians and Arabians Honein and his son Ishak^^, Costa ben Luca (864 923), Thabet(836 901), Abu Djaafar Jussuf, and others: moreover, the Astronomical works of Abu Maasher (813?), El Kindi (813 873), Fergani (844), Batani (fl. 880), Kushiar ben Lebban Ibn Shahdi (11th century) in the East; Ibn Heitham (ob. 1038), Ibn Afla of Seville and Al-Zarkala (cir. 1080) at Toledo; Petrongi or Batrugi (1145-54?),

and Averroes (ob. 1198): the Astrological writings of Chalid ben Jezid (ob. 704)^^, Alcabitius ( ^_^--Jil\ , al-Kabissi, 10th cent.)39% Meriti (ob. 1007), and Ablalhassin Ali Ibn Eadand the Arithmetical works of Abu Kamil ( Shadshal sha ben Eslem?), and Abu Ahmed ben ( Abd) el Khassad The Jewish editors, some of whom made use (i:iinb><?).'^^ of Latin ti'anslations, are, Jacob Anatoli, who improved Johann Hispalensis' translation of the Alfergani by comon which paring it with the original, and added a chapter Christmann lays much stress Jehuda ben Moses (erroneously called ben Joseph) Cohen (1256); Isaac (in Spanish "Zag") Ibn Sid (1252 1266) Chasan, precentor at Toledo ^^; Samuel el Leyi AbulafiA; and Abraham of Toledo (1278 9); all commissioned by AlJehuda ben Solomon Cohen of Toledo, phonso X. Moses Ibn Tibbon in Provence (1247)^^; Tuscany in Hamati at Eome (1273 :N'athan 1283) Kalo(1274); nymos ben Kalonymos at Avignon (1314); Solomon Ibn Patir Cohen of Burgos (1322); Shalom ben
"^^
:

"**

Joseph
(later

^nu*;

Wilhelm Raimund de Moncada, who

;

went over to Christianity; Isaac Abulcheir ben Samuel

than 1340) ^^^i Jacob ben Eliah the Karaite Moses ben Jehuda Goli; Solomon ben Abraham Abigdor (1399), who translated Sacrobosco's (ob. 1256)

compendium De

Splicer a^'',

and some time before,

at

the

age of 15, the Medical Astrology of Arnoldus de Villanova (ob. 1312); Jacob ben Jehuda Kabrut at Barcelona

21.]

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

185

(1382); Baruch ben Solomon ben Joab (?) (1451); and others. Alphonso X. had a great predilection for Jews and AraHe commisbians, for which he was reproved by the Pope. the of his secretaries, assistance to sioned several Jews, with translate the most important works of some older Arabic This has been transformed into an " Astronomical authors. Congress " by an uncritical author ; and, notwithstanding the anachronisms which it involves, the mistake has passed current with all modern writers, not excepting Humboldt.

As authors of independent astronomical works, the followJacob ben Samson, probably in ing may be mentioned France (1123 70), whose work, ^li'llbK, known only from
:

a fragment in the Bodleian Library, treats of the

Jewish

Solomon ben Moses Melgueil (1250); Levi ben Abraham ben Chajjim in Provence, whose voluminous work seems to be a rechauffe of Abraham Ibn Ezra, and forms part of a philosophical encyclopsedia Jacob ben Machir Ibn Tibbon, known by the name of Prophiat, Isaac Israeli ben Joseph professor at Montpellier
Kalendar;
;

(1310

30),

author of the important work, Jesod

Olam,

written for R. Asher at Toledo;

Gerondi
(1328

at

Barcelona

System of Astronomy, forming part of his philosophical work ( 12.), is said by Munk to be worth examination; Emanuel ben Jacob at Tarrascona
(

40), whose Neiu

1320

Sheshet ben Isaac Levi ben Gerson

Joseph Ibn Nahmias

Arabic;

about 1346), author of the popular work. The Six Wings at Toledo (130030), who wrote in

Isaac (ben Solomon ben Zadik) Ibn Alchadib

the

{l^rhx,

humpbacked)
in

in

Castile

(137080)^6;

Provence (1392); and many others. In the Jesod Olam, Isaac Israeli quotes from the Almagest a third irregularity of the moon, which has been also mentioned by the Arabic author Abu'l Wefa, and hence mistaken by Sedillot for the variation of Tycho Brahe this confusion has been cleared up by Munk.^^^ In Germany, only Meir Spira and his son Isaac need be mentioned.^^ Most of the above-mentioned writers are known from cata:

Prophiat Duran

loo'ues onlv

and for a true estimation of their relative value, the labours of both the astronomer and bibliographer are
;

186
required.

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

In tlie absence of the former, the author adds such few general remarks as he is able. The foundation of the Kalendar, depending upon the

motions of the sun and moon, was one of the main objects of the study of astronomy among the Jews. And this again,
so far as local circumstances are concerned, is closely con-

nected with other branches of astronomy and mathematical

geography.
fjLsyaXr)

Ptolemy's Almagest

(^tOD'^^iDVK,

also ^Hininn,
his figures,

avvTa^is)

was the text-book, and most of

for instance the

comparison of the spheres to the skins of an onion ^^% remained canonical among the Arabians and

Jews.
are

The same was

the case with his numbers, notwithfor example, that there with the planets 1029^^; that the

standing the advance of science;

1022 fixed
is

stars, or

166f, or, in round numbers, 170 times larger than the and 5000 or 6800 times larger than the moon^^ that the earth is about 24,000 miles in circumference ^, and that Saturn revolves round the earth once in 59 years. ^^ According to Ibn Ezra and others, the year is 365 d. 5h. 19m. 15s. in length; according to Levi ben Gerson the sun moves differently from the zodiac, and advances one degree in 42|-

sun

earth,

years

Ibn Ezra, and Levi ben Gerson Prophatius (Jacob ben Machir)

the obliquity of the ecliptic, stated by Albatani, as 23 33', is reduced by

to

23 32';

Jacob Poel

(p. 188.) calculated that the sun arrives in 31 Egyptian years 15d. 23 h. 34 m. 21s. to the same height, and thus formed

his thirty-one tables for the conjunction

and opposition of

the sun and moon.

The

endless discussions about the

num-

ber of spheres and their intelligences are

now

obsolete, but

they were intimately connected with the theory of the movement of epicycles, &c. The efforts made by the Arabs,

Thabet Ibn Corra, Abu Bekr (Ibn Bage), and his follower to remove this most obvious difificulty in the Ptolemaic system, were shared and carried on by Jews. The numbers, however, in the printed works and MSS. are very often mutilated, and perhaps sometimes intentionally alThe sphericity of the earth, the antipodes ^^, and the tered.^2 regions in which the day and night were each of six months '^^% were known. Whether the five planets and the fixed stars
Batrugi,

21.]

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES,

187

received their light from the sun, was not decided in the

and some works Avere considered necessary to demonstrate the point even in the case of the moon, while Joseph Ibn Chiquitilla ( 14.) maintained that the moon was self-luminous.^^ The Jewish astronomers frequently had their own nomenclature for the stars, and made some ac12th century
;

curate observations
eclipse

thus Saadja (928

941)

tells

of a lunar

at

Bagdad, which did not coincide with the new

writers

moon.^^

Amongst

on the theory, improvement, and inven-

tion of astronomical instruments, the astrolabe, quadrant,

sphere, sun-dial, &c.,

also is said to

we

find

Abkaham Ibn Ezra, who

have suggested the division of the celestial globe by the equator, besides various things which other
astronomers appropriated to themselves ^^''^ ;

Samuel Ha-

LEYi (12801284); Jacob ben Machir (1300), who

invented as a substitute for the astrolabe a kind of quadrant,

known

in

Latin translation of Armengaud Blasius of

Montpellier (1299) as ^Hhat of Prophatius;"

BEN Jacob

85)

Seville
;

Emanuel Jehuda Ibn Verga of (probably after 1450); Mordecai Comtino (1460 Joseph Tattazak Jehuda Farissol at Mantua
;

Isaac Alchadib

Chajjim Vital ^6, and Joseph Parsi who are uncertain perhaps the astronomer R. Joseph, who was a member of the commission which reported on Columbus's project (1480), and recommended the use of an astrolabe at sea to John of Portugal ^^; Leon de Banolas, inventor of an instrument for observation ^^% who is no other than Levi ben Gerson (1328 70), and who wrote a Hebrew poem on this invention; and Bonet de Lattes (1506), celebrated by Reuchlin as a physician, who dedicated his invention of an astronomical ring to Pope Leo X. The Jews were in many ways active, both independently
(1499);
^"^5
;

and in conjunction with others, in the preparation and production of the most celebrated astronomical tables, mmb

n^lJrnn,
patron and

-^;>J)^^^

e. g.

those

ofMaamun, of Alphonso, and

the Persian tables. ^^

Among the learned men, whom the skilful biographer of celebrated Jews, Ahmed Ibn Szaid,

collected about himself for the preparation of the Toledo tables

188

JEWISH LITEEATUEE. But almost

all

[Period

II.

(1080), were twelve Jews.^^^

these works
;

have been hitherto known from uncertain sources

order not to mislead the reader,

and

so, in

few and commentators, without entering into details Abraham ben Chijja, who edited Ibn Ezra (1160), whose translation the tables of Ptolemy of Albatani's commentary on the Chowaresmic Tables of Muhammed ben Musa in question and answer, contains an introwill here give only a

we

names of authors,

translators,
:

duction of historical interest^

whose

tables are

still

extant in

Jacob ben Machir (1300) Hebrew MSS. and in a Latin

as the

translation,

where they are described

" Almanack of

Levi ben Gerson (cir. 1320); Emanuel BEN Jacob, who defended Albatani's system^^, and, in accordProphatius;"

ance with

it,

calculated tables of the variation in length of

days and nights (1365 ?); his opponent Isaac Alhadib^^% Joseph ben Eliezer of Saragossa (1335)^^ Jacob ben
;

David ben Jomtob Poel

who

(1361), called San Bonet Bon-

Giorno (or in a Latin translation in MS., Jacob Boneediei), calculated his tables (p. 186.) for the latitude of Perpignan^^^; Isaac ben Aaron (1368); Solomon ben

Elia Sharbit-Hasahab

at

Saloniki (1490?)^^;

Abra-

ham Zacut,
(1339
?).^''

whose

tables are printed in Latin

;

(the latter in

the Tables

Hebrew characters) The greatest confusion pervades the accounts of of Alphonso.^^ Even writers of our own time

and Spanish and Jehuda Israeli

speak of Ali Ibn Ragel (Wagel?) and Alchabitius (10th century), as Babbies at the head of the commission for drawing

them up

while Bicius, Avho derives his information from

(see

Abraham Zacut but Jews were

dactor.

however

pp. 189-90.) thinks that

entrusted with that

work

none Isaac Ibn Sid

(Cid, 1252) was certainly the chief commissioner or final re-

Some doubt attaches

to the supposition of Bicius, that

these tables, bearing date 1252, were really a revision, ordered

in 1256, in

of stars

by Jehuda ben Moses

consequence of the translation of a catalogue Kohen from the Arabic

of Abul Hasin (not Avicena).^^ The Tables of Peter 111. Accord(1278) have been hitherto entirely unnoticed.^^
ing to Gans^*^,
of Alphonso

Jacob

"'tr/npV^
;

into

Jlebrew

(1260) translated the tables and Moses ben Abraham

 21.]

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.
^^,

'

189

of Nismes (" Kirjat-jearim")^ at Avignon

his pupil

translated the

commentary of John Nicholas ( ? de Saxonia), of Paris Farissol Moses Botarel, however, complains The Tables of of the obscurity of the translation (1465). John Bianchino were perhaps translated by Moedecai In a prefatory chapter, FiNZi at Mantua (1440 6)."^^ belonging to an anonymous work, but probably written by Finzi, the astronomical tables are divided into simple and compound. To the former belong those of Abraham ben Chijja, after Ptolemy those of Emanuel ben Jacob, after Albatani those of Isaac Israeli, after and the Persian all the Toledan those of Alphonso extant in Hebrew. To the second class belong the Parisian the Six Wings of Emanuel those of John Bianchino ben Jacob the work Orach Selula by Isaac Ibn Alhadib; and the Tables of the AhnanacTi,w\i\c^ qx^yq^^iojiis

either general or refers perhaps to the tables of Prophatius

mentioned above

or to those of

Jacob Poel.

The same

author edited also a complete kalendar for the use of the

Synagogues, which, as he mentions, is usually called "T'^'D Tables of this kind are still to be found in the form of sheet-kalendars for walls, while the usual house-kalendars seem not to have been introduced

DDDDH (Synagogue-sheet).

before the 17th century.

In the 15th century the following belong

tioned above

to

the

more

important astronomical writers, besides others already men:

Eli A Misrachi,
Karaite
all at

pupil of

TiNO

(p.

187.)^% the

Mordecai ComEli A Bashiatshi, and

;

Kaleb Afendopolo ^^
Zacuto ben Samuel,
Immanuel

Constantinople

Abraham

professor of astronomy at Saragossa,

and, subsequently to 1492, astronomer and chronographist to of Portugal, some Arabic tracts

by whom were

extant late in the 16th century; his pupil

Aucustinus

Ricius (1521), who wrote a Latin essay on the movement of the eighth sphere, i. e. the fixed stars, and another, said to be lost, in which he proposed to demonstrate the Jewish origin To judge by the quotations in of astronomy and others. the printed work, Ricius derived some of his information from
;

sources

unknown to

us

but his statements, faithfully repeated

190
by many

JEWISH LITERATURE.
later authorities, without

[Period

II.

any allusion

to the proba-

bility of his

being a Jew, are not free from suspicion.

There

are some other writers

who carried on

the mediaeval astronomy

down

to the 16th century, and the time when the Copernican system was introduced; for example, the translators and commentators of the writings of George Purbach or Peurbach (nat. 1423, ob. 1465), and his pupil Kegiomontanus (Johan Miiller, ob. 1476), viz. Moses Almosnino .(ob. 1574 8) in the East, who also, like Matatja Delacrut

Bologna (1550), wrote a commentary on the sphere of Sacrobosco ^2 the celebrated Talmudist Moses Isserls (ob. 1573); and Manoah Hendel (ob. 1612) in Poland. Particular works of Regiombntanus were probably transat
;

lated into
2.

Hebrew

as early as 1466.'^^
it^^,

Astrology, as a science, as the Arabians considered

and according to the Arabian Encyclopaedia a part of Physics, is founded on the supposed influence of the stars (ntosti'D mn:i,
hence also tDSti'Dn n?:)2n, Astrologia and freedom ^^ of men and the forthe sublunary mation of world. Even its keenest philosophical opponents, such as Maimonides, who boasts that he " that error, called a had perused all works on astrology science" written in, or translated into Arabic ^^, and who
D^nDirin,
;

^y^\ ^^\
upon the

Judiciaria)

fate

attributes the general authority of astrology to the simple

belief in every thing written,

and especially in that which

^^,

claims the

or

pretends to antiquity

protests only

against

and opposes to the influence of the stars the mediation of the intelligences which guide the spheres. Nevertheless, some important doctors, e. g. Abraham ben Chijja^^, Ibn Ezra, and others, have
doctrine of chance,

admitted that astrology might have a practical influence. Other pious men, even adherents of the Kabbala, resting on
the Bible and the leading views of the Talmud, struggled
vainly against
it
;

although the general mass naturally paid

homage
of

to the notions prevailing in the surrounding

Christianity.''^^

media

Muhammedanism and

Thus

arose usages

ligious character

which, like most Jewish customs, gradually partook of a re; and which even promoted astronomical in-

vestigation, although they

were not approved by the learned

21.]

'

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

191

themselves. '^^ Intelligent Astrologers tried to harmonise their

views with the genuine Jewish doctrine of foreknowledge

and freewilP

the hope of a Messiah, strengthened by exof the

ternal circumstances and Millennianism, availed itself of the

assistance of astrology^
;

exegesis (especially that

14th century ^^} where the Kabbala already occupied an

authoritative position, admitted astrological elements in philosophical writings
;

and thus astrology

first

ceased in the

loth century to be an independent science.

of this branch
is

But
it.

the study

indispensable, on account of the astronomical

to

and mathematical materials

be found in

The Jewish

astronomers in the service of courts were obliged to adapt

themselves to the fashion of the time, and to the commands
of persons

who

considered the practical object of astronomy

to consist, in prognostications,

Thus we

find the followino-

drawing of horoscopes, &c. mentioned as astroloo^ers Abu

:

DAto
name

at

Bagdad (about 912)

the

BurhIn el Fuluk

(which

means Demonstration of
for

Sphere), perhaps the Arabic

Solomon,
it is

at

although

uncertain whether they

Nineveh (1160-80); and others, left any written books

behind them, such as the Prophecy of

David ben Jacob Meir

(1464) in Italy. The number of strictly astronomical works is very small, even if we include the Arabic translations
(sup. p. 184.)
;

for example, those of Alkabiszi, 10th century,

and Ibn al-Radjal, and

lemy's
Pantiloqiiium.^^

Djaafar's commentary on PtoThe following wrote in Arabic: Mashallah (754 813) el-Andrusger^^ in the East; and Sahl or Soheil ben Bishr (810) in Spain, whom the

Abu

author has recently discovered to be identical with " Zahel

Bembi9

Ismaelita," a

name under which two

in Latin, although one of

astrological

works have been printed

:

tributed in other editions to Mashallah.

;

them is atThe following wrote Abraham ben Chijja Abraham Ibn Ezra, in Hebrew whose works were translated into Latin by Henricus Bates

(1281), and Petrus d'Abano of Padua, about the same time, and whose influence in Italy was so great, that we do not
hesitate to recognize

" Abraham " who represents mathematics in a fresco of the seven arts in an Italian church;

him

in the

Leyi ben Abraham Ibn Chajjim

the otherwise

unknown

192

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

Nehemia ben Samuel (1399?)^^; Joseph bej^- Isaac AsHALMER (?)^^ and tlie apostate Martin of Toledo
;

(in the 15tli century ?).^^

Of

the various branches of Physics

and Medicine connected with astrology, mention will be made below ( 22.). Pure Mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, geometry) were already used in the first Period in various Halacha works ^^, and in the second were applied, in the French- German school, The knowledge to the explanation of the Talmud, &c.^ of them was limited ^^, but the self-taught progress ordy so much the more surprising. The Arabian school investigated the mathematical parts of the Halacha, such as measures, weights, coins (the reduction of which to the standard current in various countries was necessary), in general introductions or monographies for instance, Joseph Ibn Akxin (ob. 1226); and Isaac Alchadib.^^ On the other hand. Mathematics were treated as an introduction to astronomy, e. g. by Isaac Israeli. Many monographies may be attributed to the abovementioned astronomers, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, who used the Arabic numerals, and, besides various other mathematical formulae, is said to have invented that called "the stratagem," on the occasion of a storm, when, it being decided that some of the crew should be thrown overboard, he so Abraarranged that the lot should fall only on infidels ^^ ham BEN Chijja Leyi ben Gerson ; and others. Beside
; ; ;

the editors of Euclid, Hypsicles, &c. (v. p. 184.),

we may here

mention Abu Sahal ben Temim (955, or Isaac Israeli?), who wrote on " Indian Calculations," the so-caUed Gobar, and was acquainted with the calculation of Knuckles ^; Jehuda BEN Solomon Cohen of Toledo (1247), who, at the age of 18 years, puzzled the "philosopher" of Frederick 11.^^ ; Elia

Alfagi; Elia Misrachi; Isaac ben Moses Eli

Oriola in Aragon, whose date
is

(?),

of

and others.^^ We may measure people's acquaintance with Mathematics by their view of the relation between the diameter and
uncertain
;

circumference

of a

circle

the

given already in the 49 Middot of R.

number 2>\ is stated as Natan, mentioned

above

(p. 35.).

Most works, even the commentaries on the

 22.]

MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY.

&c.,
are,

193
by-

Talmud,
diagrams,

many however
22.

whenever necessary, accompanied of which have been lost.*

Medicine and Natural History,

The
tion

labours of the

Jews

in the department of Medicine

belong to that part of the history of literature and civilisais seldom Sprengel ^ mentions three Jews among the Arabians, but omits Maimonides, as well as all those
is

which

generally supposed to be known, but

specially investigated.

Amoreux^, whose information was Jewish physicians only to accuse them of avarice^, although his evidence applies but to Arabians and Christians.^ The laborious Wiistenfeld^ has incidentally collected much information about Arabic works, and translations from the Arabic.'^ The various aspects in which this subject may be viewed greatly enhance the difficulty of dealin

who wrote

Hebrew.

limited^, mentions the

ing with

it.

We

can here only touch generally on some

;

important materials for the History of Medical Science

confining our attention to authors and books,
all

and,

we must omit

mention of hundreds of men known from their practice of

art.

the

For the present Period these consist chiefly of the very numerous but imperfectly known MSS., of which the Hebrew belong to Spain, Provence, and Italy, for the circulation of which there was but little demand owing to the

subsequent progress in science

the few which have been

printed, are rare and bad Latin translations of Arabic works.

A classification of them is the more difficult because a great number of Hebrew MSS. bear the general title HKIID"! "ISD
'

(medical work), l^n

nr)>ib72

and Arab.

mn~i>^;i
is

(surgery).
greatly encopies,

The

difficulty of

determining the authorship

editions,

hanced by the various translations,

and

by

the mutilation of names in various languages, &c.

literature of other languages, although their authors

Many

on practical medicine, moreover, have been preserved in the

not

known to have been Jews

by
*

as in the case of

treatises, especially

Karaites.^

were some Arabic The other parts of Jewish

On

Music, vide supra, 18.

194
llterature give

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II-

but little assistance on this subject, on account connexion with them^^, although medicine, as a part of physical science, was frequently treated from a purely
of
its slight

theoretical point of view.^^

tical physicians are

On

the other hand

many

prac-

known

as writers only, or principally,

art,

from works unconnected with their come under our notice at present. ^^

and therefore do not Moreover, the Jewish ceremonial required, in general, an acquaintance with medicine ^^; and Jews distinguished themselves, not merely as
general practitioners (" Maestri") and physicians in ordi-

nary, but also as

schools of Christians and Arabians,

members of the public institutions and e. g. at Bagdad ^^, Kahira,

its

Salerno. ^^

They

also took part in the establishment of the

School at Montpellier
effect

^^, a fact which was not without on the dissemination of their writings. ^^^

The medical
departments of

literature of the

Jews comprises

all

the

this science cultivated in the countries

where

they were living, not excepting the Veterinary Art.

They
age

wrote independent works, that

;

is

to say, so far as their

produced such they compiled, commentated, and translated the most celebrated works into and from all languages, and were brought, as teachers and writers, into close connexion with Arabians and Christians. With reference to the form and language, we must further remark that Jews composed "" in Arabic ^^ and imitated also medical rhymes ( nnJn>5 ) them in Hebrew. In Persian the author of this treatise
is

acquainted only with the

of which the old

Compendium of Abi Saad ^^, Catalogue of the Leyden MSS. gives an

;

incorrect account, confounding different works

in
^"^

Greek

he knows only the fragment of a certain Benjamin. We may perhaps consider those who wrote in Arabic as the most independent writers of the time; although the

Arabian medical literature begins with translators from the Syriac and Greek such as Maserdjeweih ( not " Ibn Gialgial " ) 2^, whose treatise on the small-pox is not without some peculiarities; Sahl ( 21, p. 181.), who probably translated from the Syriac ^^ and his apostate son Abu'l Hassan Ali (1035 1055), who was tutor to the
:

celebrated Razi and Ainzarbi.

Amongst

the best

known

are

 22.]

MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY.

195

who wrote in Arabic, such Kairowan, Isaac (ben Soleiman) el-Israili ^3, known under the name " Ysaacus" (840 950), skilful in dietetics and uroscopy, the best of whose works were published in a compendium by Abdallatif, appropriated by Constantinus Afer ^^, and variously edited by Jews after the Arabic and Latin at Kahira, Hibetallah Ibn Gemi, in Hebrew Nathanel, physician in ordinary to Saladin, whose
the physicians in Africa and Spain
as,

at

oLij^l
tl^e

is

considered as one of his best writings

his pupil

Karaite

Abuleadhl Daud; Ibn Mubarek (nat.

1161),

Nosocomium Nasiricum, where, among others, and the celebrated Ibn Abi Oseibia was one of his auditors many other Karaites ^^, among whom perhaps was Abul Menni ben Abi Nassar ben Hafidh el-Atth1r ( i, e.
teacher at the
;

the apothecary), a
1260).^^

much esteemed pharmacologist (1259 At Kahira (Fostat) Maimonides composed some

by

general works, for example, compendia of sixteen works

Galen, then in

common

use (perhaps the same sixteen which

Joseph Ibn Aknin recommends) combined with five others and also his Aphorisms (Pirke Moshe) extracted from all Galen's works, with the addition of his own valuable critical remarks, one of which, respecting an observation made by Galen in his book De Usu Partium, against the prophet
Moses, has become a locus
interpolated
classicus,

and has been curiously

by the Latin

translator,

who

joins

Christ to

Aphorisms, which according to Mercurial deserve to be ranked with those of Hippocrates, must not be confounded with Maimonides' commentary on the Aphothese

Moses;

risms of Hippocrates.

Besides these larger works,

we have

some smaller essays, written partly by in whose service he was, Saladin and Malek al-Aziz (1193-8) and Malek these we may mention an essay upon

order of the princes

both his successors,

al-Afdhal.

Among

simple antidotes to

poison, w^ritten at the desire of the Vezir Alfadhel (and

thence called Alfadhelijja) on the occasion of a

been bitten

man having and dying from being unacquainted with any simple remedy (1198); and also the celebrated dietetical epistle to Malek al-Afdhal, extant in Arabic MS., and incorrectly printed in Hebrew and Latin, of which a
by a
viper,
o 2

196
corrupt

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

has recently been published. In Irak and Syria we may mention the two apostates, AbulBERAKAT HiBETALLAH, Called " Auhad cz Zemau " (the
translation
^^

German

only
of

man

of his time) (1161

1170),

Maghreb (1163); and

el Kifti

finally

at

Samuel Ibn Abbas Haleb Joseph Ibn

Aknin

(ob. 1226), the pupil of

Maimonides and friend of

with
a*

the celebrated

(not Kofti).
series begins

In Spain also the

fellow-labourer of the

translator

the

monk
or

Nicolaus,

who was
who

called to

Cordova

to assist in the translation of Dioscorides,

Chasdai
also first

ben Isaac Shafrut

Bashrut

(959)^^,

made treacle (called Alfaruk), at Cordova ^^; Amran ben IsHAK of Toledo (997) is only known on the doubtful authority of Leo Africanus. We may mention, besides the grammarian JoNA (cir. 1040), Joseph ben Ishak Ibn Beklarish (or Miklarish) (1126); Abu Giafar JusSUF BEN Ahmed Ibn Chisdai (1128), the friend of Ibn ess Izaigh, who travelled to Africa Samuel Abenhucar (Ibn
;

Wakkar
1311)^;

?),

physician in ordinary to Alphonso (1295

Ishak, at Cordova ^^; Ishak ben Harun SoLEiMAN, at Guadalaxara (1425 P)'^^*; Jehuda BEN Abraham of Toledo ^^ Joshua ben Joseph Ibn BiBAS LoRKi contemporary of, and perhaps the same as, the apostate Hieronymus de Sta. Fide (cir. 1410); and Ibn Khani, who translated the work of a Spanish Christian on tobacco, and who completes the series. It is worth remarking, that original Medical works in Hebrew occur even prior to the period of translations ( 8.), for example, one by the astronomer mentioned above, Sab;

Harun ben

BATAi DoNOLO in Italy. ^^ The cosmographico-medical work of one Asaf, interesting from his historical introduction,

known

in

France

as early as the 11th century,

and used

by Christian and Arabic authors ^^, may, however, with much

literature.

referred to the Arabic pseudepigraphical In the middle of the 13th century we first meet with translators, commentators, and editors, from the Arabic and from ( Jews, Muhammedans, and a few Christians ),
probability, be

the

Latin,

Spanish,

and Italian (principally Christians).

the authorities of the age, Hippocrates,

The Greeks who were

22.]

MEDICINE AXD NATTTEAL HISTORY.

197

Galen, Dioscorides, &c., influenced also the Jewish medical literaturCj and at the same time were themselves represented

The Arabians, whose writings were edited either directly or indirectly are, Honein (Johannitius) (809 911); 873), and his son Ishak ( ob. 910 Mesne the Elder (Janus Damascenus) (ob. 857), and Mesue the Younger (1015); Serapion (cir. 900), and Ibn Serapion (post 1068) 35a; Razi (Rhazes) (ob. 923 932) Ali Ibn al1004 ) Ibn Sina Abbas ( ob. 994 ?) Ibn al-Gezzar ( 920 (Avicenna) (9801037): Ibn Wafid ( Aben Guefit) 1068 ); Ibn 1068); Ali Ibn Rodhwan ( ob. 1061 (997 Gezla (ob. 1100 )35b; Abulkasem el Zahrawi (ob. 1106); Abu '1 Salt Omaya (ob. 1137); Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) and Ibn Roshd (Averroes) (ob. 1198). Cha(ob. 1162)36 Risi's Hebrew translation of a work by Galen on early burial, which according to ]Maimonides was translated into Arabic by Batrik, and was not genuine, is worth noticing. The principal Jewish editors and commentators of these and the Judaeo- Arabic works were nearly all Italians and Provencals, namely SoLOMOis" ben Joseph Ibn Ajub of Grenada, at Beziers (1259 Q6)\ Moses Ibn Tibbon (1260); Shemtob ben Isaac of Tortosa (1264); Meshulas pupils of the old Jews.
^'^

^'^

Faeadj BEN Salem (Farragut ) of Gircommissioned by Charles d'Anjou (1279); Nathan genti Eliezek, probably of Provence, ben Hamati (or Gad)
LA3I

BEN JoNA

at

Rome (12791283)
are indebted for the

his son

Solomon

(1299), to

whom
Com-

we

Hebrew

translation of Galen's

mentary on Hippocrates' work De Aere, Aquis, et Locis, recently discovered by the author in the Bodleian Library, which proves to be the original of the printed Latin translation of Moses Alatino (16th century), the Arabic being probably lost; Serachja ben Isaac ben Shealtiel of Barcelona (1284), at Rome; Jedaja Pexini, at Beziers
(1298) Kalonymos of Aries (1307) or Montpellier (1298); Solomon ben
; ;

Solomon,

at Beziers
;

Abeaham Ibn Daud

;

Moses Rieti

(at

Rome, 1388-1457

?),

author of a commen-

tary upon the Aphorisms of Hippocrates

and

others.

The works (mostly Latin)

lators,

of the following authors, trans-

and

commentators:

Constantinus
o 3

Afer

(1050),

198

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

whose Liber de Gradibus has not yet been recognised in the well known anonymous m'rPDn 'D Nicolaus Praepositus of Salerno (1100 1150); Jordanus Eufus, surgeon to the emperor Frederick ^^ Gerhard of Cremona (1175) Geraut
;

(Gerbert) de Sola; Bruno de Lungoburgo (1252); Roger of Parma ; William of Piacenza (of Saliceto) (1275) ; Petrus

Hispanus, son of the physician Julian (John

de St.

XXI.)

John

Amand

(de Monte);

Nicolaus Alexandrinus (post

Lanfranc (1296); Bernard de Gordon (1300 Ermengaud Blasius of Montpellier (1306)^9; 1304); Arnaldus '(Bachuone) de Yillanova (ob. 1312), celebrated as an astrologer ^^ Gentilis and Francisco da Foligno, and John Cenobarba (1348)^1; Guy de Chauliac (1363) ^2. Saladin ( Asculanus ) de Montpellier Peter de Tusignano"^^; Antonio Cermisone (Parmesane ?) (ob. 1441); John of Tornamira (1401); Pictioncelli (?) Roger Brocarde ^^ and the work Circa Instans (secundum Platearium)^^ were edited in Hebrew by Hillel ben Samuel
1287);
;
; ;

at

Rome

CHi

at Montpellier (1306);

(Israel

Esthori ben Moses HapparCrescas Yidal de -Kislar ben Joseph) (1327); David Caslari ben Abra(13th century) ^6;
?)
;

ham

(perhaps the same as Bongodas at Perpignan, 1337

Jehuda BEN Solomon (Bongodas) Nathan (1352-9); Moses ben Samuel, known as a Christian by the name of Juan d' Avignon, at Seville (1360); Abraham ben MeSHULLAM Abigdor at Montpellier (1379); Jekutiel ben Solomon at Narbonne (1387); Leon Joseph (?) at Carcassonne (1394); Theodoros ben Moses (1394); Jehuda ben Samuel Shalom (cir. 1400) Isaac ben Abraham Kabrut (1403); Tanchum ben Moses (1406); elACOB Karphanton; Solomon ben Moses Shalom (1441 1486)^^; Menahem; and others^; and also by the fol;

lowing, whose dates are mostly uncertain

Gabriel (ben Jehuda?) 49; Jacob Halevi (1300?)^^; Mordecai ben Solomon; Moses ben Mazliach^^ Solomon ben Abin^^. and others. Perhaps also Magister Maynus (?), who translated from Hebrew into Latin (1304), was a Jew by birth.
:

There are besides a great number of medical works with

polyglot glossaries or indices of medicines (frequently

men-

 22.]

MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY.

199

tioned in catalogues as separate works) which are useful for

comparative materia medica and lexicography.^^

will here

Of

these

mention only the most common glossary, origiwe nally composed by Nathan" Hamati, and appended to his translation of the Medical Canon ; in several editions it bears the title of Synonymes, which seems to be a general denomination for the whole class. There are also copies of Arabic

works

in

Hebrew

characters, such as the

Canon of Avi-

cenna, &c.

As authors of original works the following may be named Sheshet ha-Nassi (cir. 1170 1216), on purgatives ^^ Isaac Lattas ben Jehuda in Provence (1300)^*% Abraham DE Kaslar (ben David) in Catalonia (1349), on fevers and pestilence; Bongodas (Jehuda) Cohen (1353), on midwifery ^^ Theodoros of Cavaillon, on botany ^^; Nathan ben Joel Palquera, who wrote a large work
;

founded upon older authorities, from Aristotle and Galen to Mairaonides ^^ Moses Narboni^^ mentioned above ( 12.)
;

as a philosopher,

who

occurs frequently in his

own and

other

medical writings under the name Yidal

DIti'Vl,

hitherto nei-

ther identified nor interpreted, but perhaps to be explained

by means of the Proven9al dialect Magister Salvi Vida de Murian(?) (1384); Don Meir Alguadez, physician in ordinary to Henry III. of Castile (1405)^^; Jehuda ben Jacob, who wrote on dietetics ^ Jacob ben Dayid
;

Provencal
author of a

of Marseilles, at Naples (1490), said to be the

letter,

recently published, from a Paris

MS. on

the study of science generally, and particularly of medicine, which in its present form is certainly not free from interpolation, especially as regards

some pretended quotations from

older authorities

David ben Jehuda (Messer Leon)

and other Italian physicians towards the end of As regards authorship, date, and names, the this period. Jochanan Jarchuni following are still more doubtful Joseph ben Isaac Israeli, erroneously said to be a son of Abraham the celebrated Isaac Israeli mentioned above ben Jehuda, and some anonymous authors of compendia on urine^^ Abraham ben Solomon Chen, on fever (1349?)^^;
(1490)^^;
:

Galaf (Caleo=Kalonymos?),
o 4

author

(?)

of an Antidota-

200
rium^^
;

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Peeiod

II.

Elia ben Jehuda

tlie

(j

Marigni at Tivoll, author of

;

a dialogue on

diseases of

women ^^

Joseph Alguadez,

whose Spanish work Secreta Medica was translated by the historian Joseph Cohen at Genoa (1546)^^; and Samuel Vn^Str^i^ of Cordova, author of a Spanish Surgery written for David of Jaen.^^ With medical studies Natural History (pnton nTDDH,
<Ux->-ia!l

Ac)

is

closely connected.
^^

Although, according to the

is

scientific classification

of the time, the former

only a

end and object of the study of nature was medicine, and the only attempt then made at Physics, in the narrower sense, consisted in philosophical definitions of conceptions according to the system of Aristotle. Under this head may be reckoned the old works of the " physician Isaac ben Mukatil ^^, entitled " Physics
branch of the
latter, the principal
;

those of the translator

David

''^
;

and those quoted by the

Frenchman Eliezer of "lltD.^^ Natural history is consequently represented by the authors already ( 12.) noticed as philosophical. Here belong only a few individual works, such as
the cosmography of

Gerson ben Solomon

is

(cir.

1290), who,

besides preserving some

old traditions and tales, has brought

forward

much

that

interesting,

from

his

own views and

experience.

Some

particular points of natural history are

works and commentaries of the most mention only one favourite subject, treated also in separate works, viz. jewels and their healing (partly sympathetic) powers. Although Jewish aualso scattered about in

various kinds.^^

We

will

thors connect this

mode of treatment with the passage of the Pentateuch where the jewels of the Urim and Thummim are mentioned (Ex. xxvii. 30.) its origin seems to be foreign, probably Arabic. At all events, the special essays now

known are

almost exclusively translations into Hebrew that quoted in an anonymous Glossary of the Bible of the 13 th century is perhaps by Berechja Nakdan. The library of the Escurial possesses a Spanish work upon 360 stones or minerals, corresponding to the stars in the 48 constellations,
;

translated, at the desire of

King Alfonso

(1250), by

Jehuda

ben Moses Cohen from

had translated
it

the Arabic of Abolays (?), who There is also another from, the Chaldee (?).

 22.]

MEDICINE AND NATURAL HISTORY.

201

Lapidarium from the Arabic of

perhaps translated by the same person; but although

Muhammed Aben-Quloh, De

Castro gives a sufficient description of this and the former

works, the names of the authors have been corrupted, and

as far as we know are not yet deciphered. The Leyden Library posesses a small Hebrew essay on jewels in MS., translated, under the title of The Book of Riches ("iti'ipn 'd),

by Jacob ben Reuben

(of uncertain date, and not to be

( 14.),

confounded with the Karaite of that name

whose

Commentary bears the same

title)
is

in the preface the dis-

covery of the powers of jewels

also a similar

attributed to a fabulous

king, perhaps alluding to Alexander the Great.

We

possess

Hebrew Lapidarium

attributed to Aristotle.

It

is still uncertain, from which of these the above-named Gerson ben Solornon, and perhaps Bechai ben Asher, made

extracts.

A small

essay treating of the 12 principal jewels,

according to the 12 tribes of Israel and the signs of the

quoted by Abraham Jagel (about 1600); perhaps work of Meshullam of Volterra, who is known from quotations by Abraham Portaleone ( 29.).
Zodiac,
is
it is

the

Magic, connected with astrology, and extending

fluence almost to the present time
^^

its

in-

is

the opposite to

natural science.

So

little

has yet been established respect-

ing

its

origin and diffusion, that

we can

venture only to

mention a few names illustrating the part taken in it by the The connexion of this Jews and by Jewish literature. art with the Secret Science (Theosophy) and practical Kabbala ( 13.) is too recent to lead to any decisive conclusion. The principal representatives of Jewish literature philosophers, simple believers in the Bible, and doctors of the law express themselves strongly against the magic forbidden in the Bible and all such things and Salomon Duran (1437) answers the attacks of Hieronymus de Sta. Fide ( 15.), by
"^^

saying that necromancy was a subject of public teaching at

The common people still had recourse to it, Salamanca. To such inaccording to the prevailing tendency of mind. fluences we may ascribe the notes scattered about old MSS.,
sometimes written by their possessors but there could be no real literature in a subject so ill adapted to writing.
;

202

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

II.

It thus happens that whatever appears in a scientific form belongs to the Arabian period; and the few works worth mention bear marks of foreign origin.

The principal sources for the historical and critical treatment of the secret arts of the pagans by Jewish writers on
the philosophy of religion and commentators of the Bible, are the extremely interesting writings of Ibn Wahshijja (903),

which have been drawn from Nabataean (Syriac) authorities. They were studied by Jehuda ha-Levi (1140) and MaiMONIDES ( 21.), whence some valuable information respecting the old Sabseans has been derived by recent authors who had access to the Arabic sources.^^ The work nVDti'lT^ n:DNV7:), ascribed to Apollonius of Tyana, was translated by Solomon BEJ^ Nathan in Provence (cir. 1400).^^ Besides the translations of Arabian astrologers mentioned above ( 21.), we meet with some works in the original language written
in

Hebrew

characters, for instance those of the Christian

Abdallah ben Masrur (9th century) ^^, Joan Gil de Burgos ^^, &c. Of the various branches of astrological medicine and physics there are some germs as early as in the Talmud and Midrash ; they found even some support in the biblical dogmatism and philosophy of the time, as e. g. the Oneirocriticism (mQlVn ]1"ins) ''*, which the Arabians and Jews ascribe work on this subject was supto Joseph and Daniel.

posed to have been written by

ascribed
to

Hai Gaon

(ob. 1038)^^;

and

another on the philosophers' stone (*')1DlV3n ]1K), was

Saadja, who combated the popular astronoOn Augury (minpn np"l), we have the Books of Fate (mV~n:i), some of which were ascribed to Achitophel (2 Sam. xv. 12.); others are by Ibn Ezra^^ and Jehuda Charisi: Meteorogical remarks and rules for agriculture are to be found in the old kalendars and rituals,
mical superstitions.^^
traced by Geomancy Q)^X^T^ DTODH, ^^)\ Enoch (Hermes), Daniel and others, furnishes no names of Jewish authors belonging to this period ^^ the same is the case with Physiognomy (D"^S1Ji~i3n DTDIJn ijl-lll ^2.^^ or the more biblical D"*]!} DiDn) but a complete essay on physiognomy in connexion with the form of the
&c. ( 19.).

^\

the Arabians to

Period

III.]

TRANSITION.

203

letters of the alphabet is inserted in the

book Zohar (Section Chiromancy (]^n r\'0:^r], also D"^1^n JT'^i^-i) there is a tract printed under the title DTK miVlD, alluding to the biblical passage (Gen. v. 1.) from which some Jewish Midrash authors deduce physiognomy later editions give, we do not know upon what authority, Elia Galling BEN Moses as the name of the author, who, if we are not mistaken, quotes an Arabic authority. The pseudo- Aristotelian physiognomy and similar subjects are parts of the Secretum Secretorum, translated into Hebrew from the Arabic of Jahja Ibn Batrik (cir. 800), by Jehuda ChaRisi.^'^ Under the head Soothsaying may be reckoned a work on the prognostications to be gathered from convulsive motions in the limbs of the human body (mS5"i, D1:d"i)), which is not rare in MSS., and has been printed and recently reprinted under the name of Hai ; but it is certainly a translation or imitation of similar Arabic works recently
Jethro).

On

described

by

Prof. Feischer.

PEEIOD

III.

Fkom the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century

23.]
Transition,

inclusive.

The grounds for our division into periods belong partly to the general history of civilisation and of the world, and partly to the particular history of the Jews ; but, as transitions of
this

exclusively to neither period,

kind are never sudden, and some authors seem to belong it will be necessary to intro-

duce their names in this as well as in the preceding. In the middle ages, the Arabic and Latin languages were almost the only organs of Muhammedan and Christian authors, and the two principal groups of Jewish writers
arrange themselves accordingly
nearly
all

but, in this Third Period, ; the languages of Europe, with their important

varieties

and written characters, came into use among the

204

JEWISH LITERATURE.
still

[Pekiod

III.

Jews, the Hebrew

understood.
thoughts,

remaining the only one generally

The

invention of printing was soon hailed

the Jews as an important means of communication

and

by

now

so easily

reproduced a thousand times, actually

flew over the limits of countries and continents, although

wings were certainly bound or clipped by the hostile and often laughably ignorant censures of the clergy, and even of the better-informed Italians. A kind of internal censorship was also imposed by the custom, subsequently pushed too far, of requiring approbations from the rabbles and learned men as a recommendation, and also as a security against piracy, on pain of excommunication. This custom has afforded some rich materials for the history of literature and civilisation. We cannot here follow out in detail all the effects produced on Jewish literature by the invention
their

of printing,

such as correctness of text, &c.

The ex-

Jews from the Peninsula, their migration to the Slavic nations of the East, and the increasing external communication among Jews, changed the scene, and brought fresh influences to bear on the character of their literature but at the same time some particular works became rare, Spain vanishes entirely France others were entirely lost.
pulsion of the
;

(including Provence, but not the

far into the
;

German Alsace)

retreats

background and we lose all sight of Northern The foreAfrica, now under the Muhammedan dominion. ground is occupied by the gestheticism of Italy (including Corfu, Candia, and in some measure Greece), the mysticism which it shared with Palestine, and the controversy, philology, and antiquarian research common to it and to Holland as well as by the casuistry of the Halacha, which was transplanted from Germany to Poland, and thence returned
with over-ripe
the school of
fruits.

This continued until the influence of

the centre of

Mendelssohj^ made Germany

the philosophical and historico-critical movements of the

first reflected from Poland and Italy. From the rise of this school a new period of Jewish literature will be dated. The connexion of the Jewish development with the general chano-e from mediaeval to modern science is difficult and

present times, some rays of which were

 23.]

TRANSITION.

205

obscure, and will

become

clear only after tlie issue of the

it, if

struggle

now going on

within

indeed any issue can be

expected without a general revolution of the world, such ourselves stand too as took place at the former epochs.

We

completely within the circle of modern times, and are in

other respects not yet sufficiently free from the influences of
the middle ages, to be able to describe
all

the characteristics

and features of the movements in Jewish literature which The have followed the course of European civilisation. difficulty is increased by the encyclopaedic framework of the huge and undigested mass, in which the literary form threatens to disconnect itself entirely from the contents ; while sometimes the subject-matter, sometimes the plan of the earlier collective and normal works, has the greatest weight and in which the great variety of language renders a considerable part of the literature unintelligible.

The

prevailing

languages, besides the Hebrew, are Latin, Spanish, Portuguese,

Persian, Turkish,
all

German, Dutch, and, in some instances, Modern Greek, and Polish ( 27.). Nearly knowledge of the Arabic in Europe had at this period
Italian,

died out; and

Joseph del Medigo

(before 1629) declared

that the study of Arabic science was superfluous, since the

Greek sources themselves had become

accessible.

The

fact

of the attention of the learned having been turned from

Arabic science and scholasticism to the pure fountain-head, classical and Hebrew literature, demands a special investigation of the 15th and 16th centuries, during the whole of which time the movement in philosophy, astronomy, medicine, &c., continued. The Jews took part in this in various ways,

and under circumstances no less various. In the middle ages the Jews, by their external position and the close connexion of the Arabic language with the Hebrew, gave independent assistance in the cultivation of Arabian science. In Christian (Romanic) countries the Latin continued to be used for literary purposes even after the rise of its affiliated languages, whose scanty scientific literature was confined to a few learned Jews and apostates from Judaism, secured for the most part from the persecutions of the times by the temporal and spiritual rulers, and

206

.JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

employed as oral or literary interpreters for tlie translation of Arabic works. The controversial use of these languages by Christian theologians, and Jewish apostates, such as Petrus Alphonsi (1106), Alphonso de Burgos and " Greek philosophy" was others, was little to the purpose. from very early times considered as synonymous with atheism and paganism, although individual followers of ArabicoGreek science drew nice distinctions, or altogether denied the The Graeco-Roman mythology could not fail, imputation. even in its most beautiful poetic and classic formations, to offend Jewish spiritualism ( 28.) by its idolatry. The dark and fanciful pantheon of the Kabbala alone was always open for the reception of new forms. Thus the new classical studies could exercise an important influence on the general movement of Jewish literature only when science was freed from theology, and Judaism and the Jews from spiritual and temporal oppression individuals and classes of writers soon participated in the new movement. The Arabian love of books had had some influence among the Jews in Spain and Provence but at the beginning of the 14th century the Italian bibliomania spread generally even at the present day the greatest proportion of Hebrew MSS. Some learned Italians of the 1 5th are to be found in Italy. century are distinguished for their knowledge of Christian literature and the influence of classical Latin is visible in the
; ;

writings of

Abravanel,
the Dialoglii

Jehuda ben Jechiel (1460) ( 20.). Jehuda called Messer Leone Hebreo, author of
d^ Amove

" the Flower of Italian Don Isaac AbraVANEL, who himself had transferred the last spark of Arabian scholasticism to Italy (where the Zohar was attacked by Elia DEL Medigo, and philosophy by Joseph Jaabez), in the same way as Isaac Arama carried it to Saloniki, and Moses Alashkar to Egypt. In opposition to these men, Leo Hebraeus represented the Neo-Platonic School of Pico della Mirandola in its connexion with the Jewish Kabbala. By him and his cotemporaries, e. g. Abraham Farissol, notice was first taken of the new maritime discoveries, which
(1502)
is

called

Philosophy

"

by

his father the celebrated

in fact laid the foundation of a realistic science.

Asarja

 23.]

TRANSITION.
at

207
not only

DE Rossi

Mantua (1514

1577)
He

made himself

the master of the learning of his time, but raised himself to a height only man who did so before the last century

of criticism and historical research which soon excited the

envy of modern

fanatics

and

plagiarists.

has not, however, in

times,

received the credit

due

to

him; and

his

Chi'istian

namesake, G. B.

De

Rossi, has been obliged to

Jew in a work the substance of which borrowed from Asarja. In the last struggles of the Ai'abists it was Jews, principally Italian physicians and public teachers, who translated philosophical, medical, and astronomical works into Latin from the Hebrew (the Arabic being generally lost, inaccesdefend his praise of a
is

sible,

or not understood), such as

Elia Cretexsis

(del

Medigo), public teacher of philosophy at Padua (1493), who translated for Pico della Mirandola (1485, 1486); Abra-

ham DE Balmes

(de Palmis), professor at Lecci (ob. 1523);

Calo Caloxymus (Kaloxymos BEX David) of Xaples, at Venice (1527); Jacob Maxtixo of Tortosa, at Rome and Venice (1534-50); Moses Axatixo, at Spoleto; and Moses Fixzi (1558). Ritter, the Historian of Philosophy,
denies that the

Jews had either knowledge of Latin, or " true love of their work " although he has no foundation
;

for

the

opinion beyond the general inveterate prejudice

against them.

On

the other hand,

to

Renan does them more

than

strict justice in attributing

of Averroes which appeared under the

but he could not

resist

them the translations name of Burana; a sneering allusion at " some money "
Besides these, various
as

as a probable stimulus to the laboiu'.

others wrote in Latin,

( 21.) on astronomy; and Oba^dja Sefoexo, who dedicated to the king of France the Latin translation of his Pliilosophy of

Boxet de Lattes

Religion (1548); others wrote in Italian, as De Pomis. But Jewish Literature was not merely j)assive, it had also an active influence on the study of the Bible, and the Hebrew
language, which was cultivated as well as the classics, and upon which the reformers of the Church grounded their
labours.

The Kabbala

influenced the Xeo-Platonists, the

Christian Mvstics, and even the medical reform of Paracel-

208
sus,

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

and the philosophy of Spinoza. The Bible and Kablatter having been afterwards studied also by theologians were the principal parts of " Kabbinical literature/' and Hebrew literature generally, in which Christian
bala

the

For centuries, the Biblical modern Hebrew literature, from Beuchlin to the Professors Delitzsch and Ewald, were, like Jerome, directly or indirectly pupils of Jews ( 28.). But
students interested themselves.
scholars and students of

theologians expressed their gratitude principally in attempts

at conversion, or applied for instruction rather to those

who
it

understood Judaism in a Christian sense, and made

object of attack.

an

Baptized Jews taught

;

Hebrew

to the

founders of classical studies, as Poggius

the revivers of

not to mention
Seb. Miinster,

Hebrew

studies, Beuchlin,

and

others.

former controversialist against Christianity

taught Agricola (1443-1485);

and

Matthew Adrian

was (about 1513) the teacher of W. Capito (ob. 1541), and perhaps also (a.d. 1518) of Trotzendorf (ob. 1556). In later times Christian de- Pomis was tutor of Wiilfer
(ob.

1714);

Ezra Edzard

of Franke, the

German founder
was
of important

of the Mission; and

Baptist Jona

of Safet (ob. 1668)

the guide of Bartolocci.

literary celebrity

Among

the

Jews

who were

faithful to their creed,

Jochanan

Allemano was
(ob. 1494).

teacher and friend of Pico della Mirandola

Widmanstadt (1532), the pupil of Beuchlin and friend of -^gidius de Yiterbo, speaks with respect of

his teachers,

Dayid Ibn Jahja ben Joseph

of Lisbon, at

Naples (born A.D. 1465, ob. at Imola 1543), and

Baruch

Through the instrumentality of ^gidius, of Beneventum. pupil of the well-known Elia Levita, the who was the above-mentioned Baruch first introduced the book Zohar among Christians and Beuchlin himself was pupil of Jacob Jechiel Loanz, physician in ordinary to the emperor at Linz (1472), and of Obadja Sforno at Rome (1498). To Jacob ben Isaac Romano, teacher of Harlai de Sanci at Constantinople (ob. 1650 at Jerusalem), Buxtorf is indebted
;

for the valuable

supplement to his Bibliotheca Rahhinica.

Hottinger, whose Promptuarium owes much to Manasse ben Israel's materials for a Bibliotheca Rabbinica, was

 23.]

'

TRANSITION.

209

induced to study Oriental literature by the linguist Saadja BEN Levi AsANKOT (1644). Unger's correspondence with

Jacob Aboab at Venice (1727), Isaac Cantarini at Padua, and others, assisted Wolf in his BihliotMca Hehrdica &c. Scaliger, a pupil of Philip Feedinand, confesses that Jews were the only teachers of Hebrew and Ockley asserts that
;

Testament so well as a Jew. Even public educational establishments were obliged to seek Jewish teachers, the number of whom is considerable, e. g. the physician Paul RiCCI at Pavia (1529), protege of Erasmus; Paul Canossa of Venice at Paris (1530); Peter FLtJGEL at Strasburg (ob. 1564); Philipp l'Aquino at In the Vatican, Paris (since 1610); and many others.

no one can understand the

New

Jewish converts, for example, lo. Paul Eustathius, probably the same as Eli a de Nola ben Men ahem (1552), and others, were employed as copyists but they were not always well selected, as is shown by their mistakes, some of which are pointed out by Assemani. The series of anti- Jewish works for the purpose of conversion was considered as the
;

special task of the converts to Christianity.

A flood of these
re-

writings inundated

Germany, where more stringent laws

in

specting
the keen
ricious

Jews were enacted than

it

where, had

not been for

any other country, and Reuchlin's strong opposition, and

ohscurorum virorum, the ava-

satires of the EpistolcB

Pfeffercorn and his associates at Cologne (1509) would have gained as complete a victory in the internecine war against Hebrew literature, as their companions did in Italy, where the burning of the Talmud at the instigation of neophytes (1553 4) was felt for centuries. With what intentions and success other attempts to acquire a knowledge of Hebrew literature were made, we may gather from the instance of Thomas Murner, commissioned by the Minorite Friars, to which order he belonged, to translate more than twenty tracts from the Hebrew, of Avhich only the Passover-Haggada ( 5.) and the Benedictions appeared Soon afterwards the convert Boschenstain (1511-12). concluded a few specimens of the Jewish Prayer-Book with " From these every the following characteristic remark
:

one

may

perceive that the

Hebrews
p

also desire the grace

210

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period III.

and mercy of God, and hope for future blessedness ; " and Aug. Sebastianus at Marburg, who filled up a few remaining pages of his Hebrew grammar with passages from the litany and the Sephardic Selichot (1537), went so far as to say, that these prayers, if recited in a right spirit, might be used even by a Christian. But these were isolated opinions and Arias Montanus in return for his great undertaking, the Antwerp Polyglot (1569-71), was rewarded by
;

the

Pope with

exile,

^'

because he had introduced too

many

Rabbinical explanations.''

Even

the series of better trans-

lations (chiefly in Latin) of later

with Buxtorf (1603 sqq.), who

Hebrew works, beginning may be called the Christian

Ibn Tibbon

( 12.),

were

in general undertaken less for the

sake of instruction than for polemical and other purposes

unconnected with the literature itself; and an imperfect knowledge of the idiom, together with a very partial acquaintance with the various branches of the literature, occasioned
even in the best translations made by Christian writers, from
Seb. Munster (1525 sqq.), celebrated for his perversions, to
Bialloblotzki
(for the

grosser errors than

literature.

Oriental Translation Fund, 1835), would have been possible in any other

Besides this one-sided tendency, there was also the fact

that most

information respecting

Jewish

literature

was

drawn from sources obscured by the

ignorance, and fraud of such persons as

fanaticism, hatred,

Galatin

(1518),

Maegaritha
Geeson

(1530), J.
all

C.

Otto, Naphtali Maega(1605),

LIOT who disbelieved

(ob. 1627),

religion

Brenz

(1614),

and their followers, whose tendency has been justly appreciated even by Christian students By degrees, and like Wiilfer (1681) and Muhl (1701). especially when Biblical study was considered to have become independent of Jewish literature, the latter was entirely left in the hands of the missionaries to the Jews and thus a singular "ghetto" in science was established, almost more inextricable than that which restricts their But to the attacks either political and social condition.
written or
stances,
oral, multiplied by j)eculiar literary circumanswers were not wanting in this period and
;

 24.]

POLEMICAL AND APOLOGETIC.

211

with this class of writings we open our concise survey of the particular branches^ premising, however, that no new kind of
literature appears within the limits of this period,

and that

our

details,

though revised

afresh, will

still

need correction by

means of a laborious study and investigation of particulars, and we therefore claim indulgence from those who understand
the subject.

24.]

Polemical and Apologetic Writings.

of
in

The known authors are mostly of Spanish descent, some them being persons who had feigned themselves Christians

order to escape from the Spanish Inquisition in Holland and

Italy, where from 1584 a compulsory conversion of the Jews was carried on. Hence the writings are, for the most part, in Spanish and Italian but few are in Latin or German (Jewish German), because in Germany so many obstacles were thrown in the way of printing Hebrew works of this kind that it was seldom attempted. The circle of ideas having been already exhausted, little novelty in dogmatic matter was possible; and therefore most persons confined themselves
;

merely to the publication of older writings.

The use of

European languages, however, gave an opportunity of directing this literature more pointedly against the Christian aggressors; while the older literature had aimed rather at furnishing the Jews with weapons for their own defence, and for the preservation of the faith of their fathers. At the same time the reproaches cast upon the Jews, to justify their unhappy fate, are retorted upon their oppressors. Thus

we

find,

closely connected

with the polemical literature,

either lamentable but heart-stirring descriptions of persecutions

as

combined with the hope of the promised Advent, such

Consolacion a las tribulacoens (1553);
tradition,

Samuel Usque's

some treating hisand splendour of the Jewish power and wisdom, and some deserving more attention and better treatment from science and true Christianity, for example, David de Pomis De Medico HehrcBo (1588);
or apologies for
torically of the departed glory

Judaism and

Emanuel Aboab's

Spanish iVbmoZo^za (1629);

P 2

Simon Luz-

212

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Pekiod III,

tracts,

zATTo's Discorso (1638); Manasseh ben Israel's (1650) some in S2>anisli and some in English, e. g, the Vindicim Judceormn, recently again translated, and liis Esperanza de
Israel,

upon the Ten Tribes

Isaac Cardoso's Excellen-

Hebreos (1679); Daniel be Barrios's Spanish works (1683); David d'Ascoli's (1559) ^jooZo^/m against
cias de los

the badge ordered by Paul lY., punished by a long impri-

sonment

and

Thomas de Pinedo's

(1678) learned Latin

which he recognises the merit of Christianity in the struggle against Paganism.

edition of Stephen Byzantinus, in

We

may

also refer to similar tendencies

Joseph Semah

Arias's Spanish translation of Flavins Josephus's work Contra Apionem (1687), and some Hebrew works by Lewa BEN Bezalel, a Habbi of Prague (1599 1600). The following are authors of important and interesting

polemical writings

Mordechai Dato (1575-89)

Isaac

Onkeneira, the pretended editor of a disputation by Joseph l^ASi (Miquez) the Duke of ^Naxos (1577), a brother of the later David Nasi, who is said to have been the
author of a work in which not only the Thirteen Articles of
the Jewish, but also conclusions adverse to the Nine Articles of

the Christian faith, given by the author in a notice of a parody

on the Hebrew hymn h^y, are drawn from passages of the New Testament and Isaac ben Abraham Troki the Karaite (ob. 1594), whose famous CJiizzuk Emuna, completed by
;

his pupil
its

Joseph ben Mardochai Troki,

MS., the corrupt

is

preserved in

original form only in

edition being taken

from a copy altered by a Rabbinical author (eir. 1605). This work is interesting for its quotations from some little-known. Christian and polemical works in the Polish language; it has been made use of by critical writers upon the New Testament from Voltaire to Strauss, and a refutation of it was undertaken by Duke Louis of Orleans (ob. 1752) who was dissatisfied with Gousset's refutation. Some translations

made by Jews

are

still

unpublished,
in

e.

g., in

Spanish by

German by the baptized Jew Michael Gelling in Hamburg (1631-3); in Italian by Marco (Mardochai) Luzzatto (ob. 1799 at the age of 80), who translated also (1753) into Hebrew the Spanish Forta-

Isaac Athia (1621);

 25.]

HALACHA.

213

Abeaham the Proselyte (Peregrine) (cir. 1600) Salman Zebi Offenhausen, author of the Jewish Theriak against Brenz (1615); Jacob ben Amram, who wrote in
lozza of

Latin (1634);
against

Jacob Lombroso,

the defender of Judaism

Grotius (1640); Jehuda di Modena, who boasts in his unpublished polemic (1613) that he has not

Hugo

allowed any anti- Judaic work in Latin, Italian, or Spanish,

to escape his notice
;

Isaac Lupercio, who defended Judaof Seville (1658);

:

ism against a

monk

Saul Levi Mor-

TERA(ob. 1660), the opponent of Sixtus Isaac Abend ana, who carried on a controversy with Hulsius (1669); Isaac Aboab (ob. 1687), whose Spanish work is the foundation of
the Israel venge of

Henriquez (1770); MoSES Germanus

(Spaeth),

having changed his religion several times Jew, and who had a controversy with Wachter (1699); the learned Jehuda Briel( 1702), and David Nieto
after

who

ended

as a

in

London (1705),

the former of

whom

wrote in

Hebrew
and
vic-

and

Italian, the latter in Spanish, against the Inquisition

the Archbishop of Cangranor; and others.

auto-da-fes of the Spanish Inquisition,

The continued
of

many

whose

tims were relations of the

Jews who had

fled to

Holland,

provoked Jacob Belmonte to write some Spanish polemical poems (17th century); perhaps also the Silva coiitro la
Idolatria of
influence.

MosES Belmonte owes its origin to the same Mendelssohn's answer to Lavater belongs
which
characteristic of

more

to the present times, the peculiar polemics of

have the

common

freedom of thouo:ht.

25.]

Halacha,

The most important representatives of this, in the 16th and 17th centuries, were the Rabbles and heads of schools of the Spanish and Portuguese congregations in Turkey and
the Venetian islands.

From

the beo^innino^ of the 16th cen-

tury downwards the schools of the Slavic countries (Bohemia and Poland) began to be held in high esteem, to overspread Germany, and to extend their influence
Italy,

as

far as

burning of the Talmud (1543), study in general had declined ( 23.). Holland and afterwhere, since
the

P 3

214

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

wards England must here, to a certain extent, be considered as colonies, since, in general, the wide diffusion of both the earlier and later literature allows of no such sharp and fundamental division of schools as existed in earlier
times.

The

old beaten paths

are only

two separate

classes to

were still trodden be distinguished

;

and there
1st, that

of Armour-hearers

(''Vd

Kti'lD)

to the

ancients (Rishonim,

W^^Wi^^), i. e. as commentators and the like; 2nd, that of independent Decidentes (jli^^yn miTD), as advocates and judges
in the casuistic doctrine of the

Law

of God,

The former

had, again,

two

principal fields of operation, namely, the dis-

cussion of the

Talmud and Halachaic Midrash, and the Compendia of the Poskim ( 9.) the latter deliberated upon
;

actual or fictitious questions arising out of judgments.

Among

the former,
n'^):i,
i.

who had
mDDin,

the

predominance, the abbreviation

>^17D:i

e.

D^pDIS,

(Gemara, Poskim, Tosa-

phot), signified the entire Halachaic discussions with their

various denominations, such as, Dmi^'^n Expositions,

Novellce, D^2S1"i^n
i.

WX^ym.

Solutions of difficulties,
is

Jacob Pollak,

e.

the Pole (ob. 1530),

regarded as the founder of the

in use in Poland,

Chillukim (D^plb^n), a kind of school disputations or dissertations

&;c.
;

upon a given theme,

this led to the last

still

Hungary,

and greatest degeneration of Halachaic spirit, ni3nn. Amongst those who opposed this abuse we may mention the celebrated David Oppenheimek, a Rabbi of Prague (ob. 12th Sept. 1736), whose pamphlet, written in the form of a Kesponsum (printed before 1707), is almost unknown, being omitted even in the printed catalogue of his library, where there are many copies of it. Various literary and other circumstances caused the Halachaic literature to increase in an incredible manner ; and
although the greater part of
yet
it it

may

not be of general interest,

furnishes indispensable materials for the

complete

history of Judaism, and will reward the patient inquirer

with fruitful results. On the other hand, the practical requirements of the Halacha occasioned many valuable monographies for instance, those upon Jewish names,
:

by soN

Abraham Motal (ob. 1658), Simha ben GerCohen at Belgrade (1657), Samuel ben David

25,]

HALACHA.
in

215
others.

Halevi

Germany

(1668),

and

The study
editions,

of

older writings caused the issue of

many new

and

the adoption (particularly in the 16th century) of references

to passages (Dlp72 nxiTD), so

much

neglected by the ancients,

of various kinds of indices and keys (ninnB/O), and of other

practical aids to the use

and study of the Halachaic and

;

Haggadistic literature ( 26.) for example, the cross references {Masora) of the Talmud (1523), enlarged by Joshua Boas ; the list of the passages of the Bible explained or

quoted in the Talmud (TiD^nn nn:in, 1511), enlarged by

Joshua Boas
(1571-2),

(1546),

Simon ben Isaac

Aschenburg ?)

Aaron Pesaro
;

Samuel (1690) which was published by Jacob Saspostas at Amsterdam (1650); a similar index to Jacob ben Asher's Turim, by
Sabbatai Hassan (1652); the Key (]i-ir!Tn ^d), by Ismael in Egypt (1543); an alphabetical index of subjects by Chijja Cohen di Lara (1753); &c. The commentators, who generally borrowed from their

(1583-4), and Aaron ben a supplement to the Jerusalem Talmud,

Cohen

became very prolix, and often lost sight of primary object, turning aside to something else, and thus approaching more nearly to the Tosaphot ( 9.) we find even in this period supplements to the old Tosaphot, for
predecessors,
their
;

instance one

by Issachar ben Israel (1614).

however, praiseworthy exceptions. of the most widely known, in the order of their subjects.

We

There are, may mention some

(ob.

The Mishna was explained by Obadja Bertinoro

1500

1510)

in the East,

LiPPMANN Heller
(ob. 1689),

and a glossary was added by in Prague (1600), Jacob Chagis

EiHANUEL EiccHi (1714-31), David Chajjim CoRiNALDi (1738-9), and David Pardo BEN Jacob(17o2): a Spanish translation of it was made by Jacob Abendana
(ob.

1696 in London)

and a Latin one by

his brother

Isaac

Abendana, which was used by Surenhusius. Aaron Ibn Chajjim of Fez (1609) wrote a commentary on Sifra; David Pardo on Sifri; and Moses Frankfurt (1712) on
the Mechilta.

The Babylonian Gemara had been

in so-called novels ( 9.)
;

already, for

some time, treated

and ingenious

explanations of this kind, either shorter or longer, in the

p 4

216

JEWISH LITEEATURE.

[Period III,

Meir Lublin (ob. 1616); Solomon Luria (1581-1587) Samuel Edeles (Eidels) (1612 sqq.)j who also, in a separate work, gave a glossary of passages of the Haggada; Meir Schiff at Fulda (1734); Jacob Joshua Lemberg and others critical notes were also given by the learned Eli A Wilna -(ob. 1797). The Jerusalem Gemara was expounded by David Fraenkel at Dessau (1743); and Bezalel Ashkenasi in Egypt
form of glosses, were written by
;

(1530) made a collection from the old Tosaphot. The Halachotof Isaac Alfasi were edited and expounded by Joshua Boas in Italy (1554), and Menacem David ben Isaac

Karo

the code of Maimonides by Joseph and Ephraim ben Naphtali Shor who (1574) completed his work 1615 by Abraham de Boton (1609)

TiKTiN (1597); and

Jehuda Eosanes (ob. 1727); Jehuda Ajjasch (1747); Isaac Nunez Belmonte (1771), &c., whose chief object
was
to exercise their ingenuity in bringing the conclusions

of the great teacher into

especially in

Germany
to it

harmony with the older authorities, (Poland), where the " difficult pas-

became almost a stereotyped expreswas written by Samuel Athia of Tunis (16th century). The four Turim of Jacob ben Asher were commented by Joseph Karo, Abraham ben AbigDOR a Eabbi at Prague (1540); Joshua Falk Cohen (beginning of the 17th century); Joel Sirks (1631-70); and Joseph IscaphA (nSK^pt^-^i^, 1658). An epoch is made in the history of the Halacha by a work said, in a legend, to have been miraculously composed, viz. the Schulchan Aruch by Joseph Karo at Safat (written 1554-7, published 1565), who arranged the practical part of his subject in four divisions, according to the example of Jacob ben Asher, and adopted the brief style of a law book, imitating Maimonides in the exclusion of all discussion. Adsion;

sages of Maimonides "

and a key

ditions concerning the different usages of their respective

most part, in elaborate and were written nearly at the same time by Moses Isserls (1570-7) for Poland, and by Jacob Castro (ob. 1610) for Egypt. These contained the general conclusion and result of the practical observances of the
countries, consisting, for the
ascetic observances,

25.]

HALACHA.

217

exiles,

arranged according to the parts and chapters of the Tur and the Schulchan Aruch, for the benefit of succeeding

writers {Aharonim, U^VD'n^),

practical results.

who

directed their attention to

The

subjects of the 3rd and 4th parts (re-

jurisprudence) found less application in and were therefore less studied. The best-known commentators and editors of Karo's Schulchan Aruch (who generally completed the text from Books of Sentences) are,
specting
practice,

women and

Joshua Talk Cohen (1614); Zebi Hirsh ben Joseph Cohen (1646); David ben Samuel Levi Osteow

Cohen (ob. before 1663 in Leipnik) Abraham Abbele Cohen Gumbinner (ob. 1682); Moses ben Isaac Jehuda Lima of Slonim(1670); Hil(1648); Sabbati

LEE BEN Naphtali (ob. 1690 at Zolkiew); Hezekiah de Silva(1692) Moses Chabib of Constantinople (ob. 1696) Moses Jekutiel Kopman Cohen ben Abigdor (1700); Isaiah ben Abraham (1708) Jehuda Ashkenasi (1742); Jonathan Eibenschutz (ob. 1757) who was very discursive and Chajjim Cohen of Aleppo (ob. cir. 1662) who expounded in a Kabbalistic sense. A list of
;
;

authorities,

with an explanation of

difficult

words, was given

by Moses Zebi Ribkas (1662); alphabetical indices or keys were added by Benjamin ben Jechiel Levi at Lublin (1617), and the same was done to the 4th part only by Samuel ben Alexander (1691). Of various other forms in which the subject of this work was treated, we may mention the Rhymes by Isaac Chajut at Cracow
(1591); Isaac ben Noah of Meseritz (1599); a certain Jechiel (1616) and others; also the forms of Problems or Riddles already employed by Jacob Landau (end of the 15th century), and later by Isaac ben Joshua ben
;

Abraham (1606), and some quite recent authors.

A popular

Hebrew Compendium was composed by Joseph Pardo of London (edited by his son David Pardo, 1686), and another
in Spanish

by

a certain

Meir, probably

in

Turkey (about

1568)

the last-named writer admonished his brethren not to

print his work in Roman characters, as an anonymous author had done in the case of a compendium of Jacob ben Asher's four Turim, for the use of the Crypto-Christians in Flan-

218
clers
(?)
;

JEWISH LITERATURE.
it

[Period HI.

was^ nevertheless, reprinted in that

(1609).

Moses Altaras

Finally

way by Joshua ben Boaz Ibn

Baruch

(1554), in his various Indices mentioned above,

also furnished the

Talmud with

references to Maimonides,

Moses Coucy, Jacob ben Asher, and Joseph Karo's law works, thus establishing a connexion between discussions and decisions. More important and independent collections, however, were made upon the Tur and the Shulchan Aruch, for example, at an earlier period, by Jacob Landau in Italy (1487), and afterwards by Mordechai Jaee at Prague (1594-1599), whose commentator is EliA Spira of Prague in Poland (1689-1712) the most learned of all was written Chajjim Benveniste in the East (1658 sqq.). by form of works older on the 613 Commandments had The in the rhymed and mostly liturgical Azharot already issued ( 19. and 28.), which now became again little else than Such were composed by Dayid Vital memorial verses. of Patras (1536), and Jekutiel ben Solomon Levi The few dissertations on that subject were either (1696), mere balances between the conflicting opinions of earlier writers, like that by Moses ben Abraham Mat of Prze;

mislaw (1581); or Compendia, like that of J. Corbeil's Amude Gola by Jekutiel (Salman) ben Moses (1579), and that of Moses Coucy's work, probably made by MunThere exist some sterus with the assistance of a Jew. more independent works by Eleazer Askeri in the East (1588) and Jehuda ben Thillel of Schwersenz (1693),
translated into Latin

by

Schultenius.

The

trifling spirit

of

the time

is

also here exemplified in the deduction of the

613

to

commands from the 613 letters of the Decalogue, alluded by David Vital, and treated especially by Jacob ben Jekutiel in Germany (1627).
Finally, to this class belong, besides

many

miscellanies

which can scarcely be brought under

Sentences

definite heads,

the

(mmt^m

mVxti'),

generally arranged according

to the codex (or indexed), of

which almost every Rabbi or

collection,

teacher of importance

made a

generally also

" In majorem Dei gloriam." Amongst the hundreds of authors, we will mention only the following
publishing
it

 25.]

HALACHA.

219

(omitting, indeed, the greater number of those who have been already mentioned in this section) Moses Alashkar in Egypt Benjamin (Seeb) ben Matatja (1534) Jacob Berab (ob. 1546); his opponent Levi Ibn Chabib;
:

Meir Katzenellenbogen at Padua (ob. 1565); David Ibn Simra (Abi Samira); Joseph Ibn Lebb (till 1579);
Samuel di Medina (ob. 1589); Isaac Adarbi (1585); Samuel Cohen in Saloniki Moses de Trani and Moses Galante (1608); all in the East; Lowe ben Bezalel (the "high Rabbi Lowe," ob. 1609) and Ephraim Lent;
;

(ob. 1619) at Prague; Chajjim Sabbatai (ob. Serachja Gota (Gutta? ob. 1648); Abraham Broda in the East (1696); Abraham Chajjim Shor in Poland (1628) Simon Luzzatto at Venice (1630-60) Gerson Ashkenasi at Metz Aaron ben Samuel Kaidenower at Frankfurt on Main (ob. 1676); Chajjim Jair Bachrach (ob. 1702); David Oppenheimer at Prague (1690-1737); Moses Chagis of Jerusalem at Altona (1704 1738); Elia Alfandari at Constantinople Elia Cohen at Smyrna Zebi Hirsh Ashkenasi (1719) at Hamburg (1711); Samson Marpurgo at Ancona (ob. 1740) Meir Eisenstadt (ob. 1744), Joseph Steinhard (1747-1774), and Arje Lob ben Asher, at Cracow and Metz (1739 sqq.). Methodological Works were written by Solomon Finzi (not Panzi) of Bovigo (before 1622); Joseph Ibn Verga (1554); Joseph Kara; Immanuel Sefardi; David BEN Simra; Samuel Alvalensi (not Albalnasi); Ibn MusA (the writings of the last four were edited by Abraham Ibn Akra, 15991601); Aaron Ibn Chajjim of Fez (1609); Eliezer Rieti at Conian (1612); Solomon Algasi (1639 1663); Jacob Chagis (1647); Solomon DA Oliveyra (1688); Moses ben Daniel of Bohatin (not Rathen) (1693); Moses Chagis (1704) and David Meldola at Amsterdam (1754), both of whom treated

SCHUTZ
1647);

of

the

ethical

and

disciplinary

part;

Chuja Cohen

de Lara at Amsterdam (1753); Moses Chajjim Luzzatto, who tried to reduce the method of the Talmud to
logical principles,

an attempt which,

at

any

rate,

was more

220

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

honest and meritorious than the pretended mathematical

formulae of Dr. Hirschfeld's
zatto's friend
'^
; Halachische Exegese " Luz-

Jekutiel Wilna, who

work
for the use of
( 1767)^,

also intended to write

young persons; and whose learned work has recently been republished with the notes of Jesaia Berlin.
a Methodological

Malachi Cohen

26.]

Homiletics, Ethics, Religious Philosophy,

and

Kabbala.

Jew, even in its smallest moral and religious sense, was closely manifestation of the
civil

The

and

social life of the

and rigidly bound by the

a dry exercise of

Law
;

the Pilpul was subtle and

complicated for the understanding, and the Pesak

Din was

memory

but

all

these circumstances, to-

gether with the necessity of the unlearned for education and

improvement
as the

in religion

and morals, combined to direct atten-

tion to the old institution of public lectures, which, as early

15th century, had inherited an immense treasure of

connexion of different and presenting every variety of form: Bible, Talmud, and Midrash, seen through the medium of the earlier expositors, and frequently interwoven or simply connected with the Halacha. The Kabbi, or the travelling preacher particularly known in Germany as Moral (jti'ni, Darshan), Teacher (n^r)!?::)), and Expounder of Sagas ("T^^lTD, Maggid),
literature, of great authority for the

parts,

collected his discourses (T\wyi,

xy^VJTs'l)

into a cycle according

as he arranged his

to the Perikope text, in the

same manner

decisions according to the Shulchan Aruch.

Others, often

without any apparent reason, imitated this fashionable and

convenient form of literature.
called,

The

lectures, properly so

were generally delivered in the language of the country (although the exiled Spaniards and Portuguese
carried their

and the North), with oratorical which theoretical and practical rules and they were published either in their original language or in a Hebrew translation for the use of the whole
to the East

own

method and were framed

art, for

Ifiraelitish nation.

But

in

Germany,

after the

16th century,

th^ language, hitherto pure, was corrupted into the so-called

26.]

HOMILETICS, ETHICS, ETC.

221

Jewish German. In the absence of institutions for improvement and instruction (except the Halacha) this system of lectures also either fell into decay, or went astray among
the mazes of the Halacha described above, or else lost itself
in the trifling fancies of the

Kabbalistical interpretations,

against which the censure of well-meaning learned men, as,

for example, that of

Del Medigo and

others,

and the

efforts of

M. Ch. Luzzatto

to introduce general principles for Rhetoric

and Homiletics (1742), availed as little as the mockery of the enemies of the Jews, until the period of the Mendelssohn ian revolution.

The general tendency of Halacha and Haggada to produce something new, and the desire to furnish the young and unlearned with the appearance of learning, gave rise to the novels
(D^tZ/n^n)

18th century;

on the Pentateuch, a fashionable literature of the e. g. one in question and answer by Joshua
at

(Falk) Lisser
(1699 1738);

Hamburgh,

printed at least seven times,

and several collections gathered principally

from the lectures of celebrated Kabbies, such as Israel BEN Isaac Levi, Abraham Broda ben Saul, &c., published under various titles (D'^DDn DS^DK, D^]'i>^;in ^ti^n^n, They were the sources from which the young D^TOrin nm). student at the academy (r\'2^W^), drew his " specimen eruditlonis " called Pslietd or Pshetchen (a diminutive of tot^s),

or Gleicher (a

contrary of what the

distinguished

German Hebraism), being name implies.

its

too often just the

Homiletics, properly so called, in

is

literary formation,

from exegesis

practical

tendency, as

arrangement, especially
the

not so much by by the above-mentioned artificial by its making the treatment of

(

28.)

Haggada and
;

iMidrash a particular, if not

is

the

prin-

cipal, point

and

it

thus connected with the adding of

references, the collections, and the real and verbal explanations of all the Haggadistical authorities ( 5.),
to the Bible

by references methods of treatment used by the writers of the middle ages (Philosophers and Kabbalists) all these have again many points of contact with the Halacha, and, moreover, afford some useful information for modern
and
to the various

criticism

and history.

To

this class belong, for instance, the

222

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period IH.

famous abridgement of the Haggada from both the Gemaras called En Jacob, and in later editions (1566 sqq.) En Israel, and another similar work published anonymously in 1511, and confounded by bibliographers

by Jacob Ibn Chabib,

with the former.

this anthology not only the

Jacob Ibn Chabib intended to give in Talmudical text, but also extracts

from the most celebrated expositors (Rashi, Tosaphot, Nachmanides, Ibn Aderet, Jomtob ben Abraham, and Nissim Gerondi), and occasionally explanations of his own. This he did in the parts which he himself published; but after his death, which occurred before the publication of the larger portion (the seven last Orders of the Talmud), his son Levi Ibn Chabib completed the work in a very imperfect manner as respects the explanations.

The work consequently

;

became the subject of various others

commentaries comprising

some authors wrote a selection from the text, and also the explanations given, which were printed with the work itself, for instance JosiA Pinto at Damascus (1643); others made books of reference to his explanations, e. g. Zacharia Porto (1675), whose list was augmented by
the printer S.

Proofs

(1725).

Some

editors omitted all

the explanations (even the prefaces of the author and his

son, which are only to be found complete in the first and most rare edition), and gave the mere text, or a short exposition extracted from various authors others wrote independent commentaries upon the text (some of which are named by Azulai sub voce) finally, to the passages collected by J. Chabib under 12 heads, Jehuda di Modena 0625) added others with his own explanations. Valuable independent commentaries, or novels, upon the Haggada (nn:in "'iL^lTn) were written by Samuel Edels (1627) and many others and on the Jerusalem Gemara by Samuel Jafe at Constantinople (1590), and Joshua Benveniste
; ; ;

(cir.

1648).

The Easter Haggada

offers (as in the

former

period 19. p. 167.) various points

of connexion with the

subsequent expositions.

Indices of the passages of the Bible

quoted in the Babylon and Jerusalem Talmuds were composed by several authors mentioned above ( 25.) Alphabetical Beferences to the Sas^as connected with Biblical
;

26.]

HOMILETICS, ETHICS, ETC.

223

by Jehuda ben Bendet (1688), and Simon BEN Jehuda Peiser of Lissa (1728); Alphabetical Lexica
personages,
of subjects, and Concordances of the Talmud, Midrash, &c.,

by Moses Pigo (1554); Naphtali Altschuler (1602); Eliezer Eieti (1612); Moses Raphael d'Aguilar
(cir.

1660);

Abraham ben Jehudah Przemislaw

of

Oiianow (1691); David ben Hirz Posner of Krotoschin (1691); Simon Akiba Bar, and Seligman Levi of
Zeckendorf (1702); Samson Modon (cir. 1725); David NiETo(1727); and Isaac Lampronti (ob. 1756) who shows The works of the latter were the most astonishing industry.

bought by the Library of Paris

last

but the publication of the

volumes, at the expense of the government, announced when this essay was first written, is stiU one of the many

pia desideria in Jewish literature. For the Kahhala in particular we have the Neio Jalkut (1648), the author of which

seems to be Israel a Babbi of Belcziz and Lublin the completion of it by Nathan ben Jacob Bonn at Frankfurt; and the Jalkut Reuheni of Reuben Hoshke (1681). Moreover commentaries were written on the Midrashim, and particularly on the Midrash Rabboth ( 5. n. 2.) by
;

Aaron ben Asher

;

at

Haleb

Meir Benvenisti

at

Naphtali (Hirz) ben Menahem KraSaloniki (1560) KAU (1569) IssACHAR BEN Naphtali Cohen in Palestine (1584); Samuel Jafe (cir. 1597); Jehuda ben Moses Gadilia(Gedalja) (1594); and Eliezer Archa at Hebron (1630) a commentary on the Jalkut was written by Abra; ;

ham Gadilia (1630 1640), and a key was Abraham Fonseca at Hamburgh (1627), &c.

composed by In Germany some older ethical and historical Midrashim were also translated: for instance, the book Hajashar ( 10.) by Jacob ben JiRMiJA Halevi (1674), and the Midrash of the Death of
with Hebrew lexicography, are connected the explanatory works in various
also

Moses by Aaron ben Samuel (1693). Talmudic- Aramaic Dictionaries ( 9.), and
languages by
in the East

With

the older

Elia Levita (1527); Menahem Lonsano David de Pomis (1587); David Cohen de Lara at Hamburgh (1638) Benjamin MusaPHiA (1655); and Elia Wilna (ob. 1797).
(1618);
;

224

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

TIT.

Ethics, moreover, are connected with the explanation of

older

writings ( 12.

Abot, expounded

C), such as the Talmudic Treatise by Samuel Uceda (not Oseida) at Safet

(1579)

Bechai's Duties of the Heart, translated into Spanish

by Zaddik ben Joseph Foemon (16th century, printed in Roman characters by David Pakdo at Amsterdam, 1610), and into Jewish German by Rebecca Tiktiner (Prague, and Jedaja Penini's rhetorical Bechinat Olam 1609) explained by Samson Maepuego (1704); the Letters of Seneca were translated, but not published, by Jehuda Beiel (1712), and others. Besides these there were special moral writings for both the learned and unlearned, treating of the vanity of terrestrial things, exhorting to a moral and pious life, inculcating the most important moral and ceremo;

and someand poetical form ( 29.). They are often composed in the language of the country, particularly in Jewish German, or translated into it and, as popular books, they bear the stamp of various stages of cultivation. Thus we find ethical admonitions in the form of tablets to be fixed on the wall, e. g. by Jiftach of Worms (clr. 1660),
nial precepts, introducing Haggadistical elements,

times taking a rhetorical

and Elchanan ben Issachae Cohen of Prostitz, who recommends his Zier- Spiegel (Looking-glass) published in. Hebrew and German (1693) to be used even on the Sabbath.
Indeed, long before Knigge, Joseph

Dacosta in his Tractado

de Cortesia (1726) taught, amongst other things, the proper

manner of behaviour at balls. These books were intended young; and there were also others, for example, one in Portuguese by Samuel da Leon (1712), and a Catechism by Abeaham Jagel (1595, translated into German in 1678) the Spanish Fundumento Solido of J:eh.V'DA Leon Perez at Amsterdam (1729) seems to be something Among the oldest and most widely known writings similar. kind are, the Hebrew Menorat Hamaor by Isaac this of Aboab (first printed in 1514), translated into Spanish, and afterwards into German by Moses Feankfuet at Amsterdam (1722), and lately into pure German by Fiirstenthal and the Sur Mera against gambling by Jehuda de Moden a (1596), which has been translated into almost every
for the
;

 26.]

HOMILETICS, ETHICS, ETC.

225
men-

language.
tion
:

The

following, moreover, deserve especial

Gedalja Ibn Jahja, who wrote

in a rhetorical style
;

on the seven principal virtues of the Jews (cir. 1543) Moses DE Trani (1553); Moses Almosnino (in Spanish, 1567); the Kabbalist Elia de Yidas (1575); his epitomisers, Jacob BEN Mardochai Pogetto (1580), and Jechiel Melli (1623), both in Italy; his German translator, Nathan Heksher (1750); Isaac ben Moses Elles at Cracow (1583); Chajjim ben Bezalel of Friedburg (ob. 1588); Abraham Zahalon (1595) Isaac Obabja ben Jacob in Italy (1597) Moses Henoch, author of the Brant-Spiegel
; ;

(1602); the authors of the anonymous Rosengarten (1609),

Benjamin ben Aaron Salnik called Benjamin Ardono, who re-edited the Weiberhuch (1552) Shmelka ben Chajjim of Prague, who did the same (1629); Isaac ben Eljakim PoSEN (1620); the author of the S&pher Sichronof, Isaac Jeshurun, or according to others Samuel Aboab (1631-51); Jacob Zahalon (1665); Abraham Israel Pereira, who wrote in Spanish (1666-1671) Jehuda ben Joseph Puchawitz at Pinsk (1681-1700); Joseph ben Elimelech at Torbin (1690), who introduces poetry Zebi Hirsh Kaidenover, author of the favourite iwn Ip (Hebrew and German, 1705); Hahdel Kirchhahn, author Solomon ben Simon Wetzof the ^53n nnT^t^ (1707) LAR, who wrote in German Elia Cohen at Smyrna (1712);
and
of
Sitten- Spiegel

(1610)

Grodno (1577), erroneously

Isaac Pinto, the opponent of Voltaire (1762-1774), and

many others. Of those who founded their ethics on Scripture ( 27.), we shall here mention only the celebrated favourite of the women, Jacob ben Isaac Eabbino, author of the Zeenau-Reena, a
It
title

originating in a mistake about the motto.

far

would lead us too

from our present purpose

;

to enter

further into particulars respecting individual works

therefore briefly remark, that in
all

times

we shall and places we find

a struggle going on against abuses of every kind.

We

take

the following instances at

random out of a great mass: the remarks upon study by MoSES ben Abraham Mat (1584-91) the interesting essays on education by Samuel
;

226

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period III.

BEN Jacob (16th century), and Moses ben Aaron MoRAWCZIK at Lublin (1635); and tlie denunciation of luxury in women by Isaac Zoref of Nikolsburg (1715).
Thus the pen and the
press were engaged, with uninter-

rupted activity, in a variety of ways in the cause of religion.

But

the intellectual

movement necessary
nor was
it

for this activity

was

neither

from external disThe struggle of faith and authority with science turbance. and philosophy, to which the most important changes in Jewish literature belong, had already, some centuries before, apparently ended in the dogmatic system founded upon Aristotle, and in the fantastic eclecticism of the Kabbala; and the broad battle-field had now become fertile soil. By means of some exploded applications of scholastic gymnastics Obadja Seforno (1537) easily demonstrated his 15 orthodox theses, speciously and with fatiguing uniformity, using Sometimes single axioms of the " inconsistent " Stagirite
original,

new nor

free

himself as expounded by the Arabs, and at others pre-

tended arguments from the Bible ; and Aaron Berachja tells us, in a manuscript work, that it is said in some
Philosophical Writings that Aristotle denied prophecy, because,
if

any such existed,

it

would

certainly have been

The great changes subsequent to the Middle Ages were much influenced by Judaism, but did The Spanish not produce a corresponding effect in return. exiles, finding Greece and the East recently subjugated by
granted to himself.
the

Turks,

who had not

yet appropriated the

Arabian

learning,

gave

themselves up entirely to the influence of

Neo-Platonism, the first-fruits of the which passed from Constantinople into Italy, There could thrive only on the soil of the JcAvish Kabbala. was not any new philosophy properly so called the Jew The Spinoza was an immediate follower of Cartesius. Christian Reformation in Germany was analogous to the Karaitic movement in Judaism, and was founded upon a knowledge of the Bible, that which related to the Old TesOriental mysticism.
Classical studies
;

tament being derived from the Jews

of the Middle
torious,

( 23.).

The darkness

Ages arrayed

its

latest,

and sometimes vic-

champions against the new and threatening light;

 26.]

HOMILETICS, ETHICS, ETC.

227

Paracelsus and superstition of all kinds found advocates. and his followers tried to popularise the mystic doctrine, in The the same way as others did the sciences in general. same took place also among the Jews. At the beginning of the 16th century the later Kabbala had already found its way into the East and Poland. Je-

philosophy

HUDA Chajjat (1496) Joseph Jaabez, the opponent of David Ibx Jahja, the teacher of Widmanstadt( 23.); Joseph Iaytazac; David Ibn Abi Simra in Egypt Abraham Ibn Saba of Lisbon, perhaps at
; ;
;

Adrianople, in the beginning of the 16th century;

Isaac
called

GiACON

his pupil
(ip'^rt),

Abraham Levi ben Eliezer,

and
in

"the old"

erroneously said to have been

pupil of Isaac

Loria,

Turkey, who, in a manuscript

to private

work, opposes the students of ancient wisdom according judgment (KnnD) unassisted by a teacher, and
cation

was the author of a remarkable treatise against the invoof angels, which deserves to be published Meir Ibn Gabbai (1523-1539) in Italy and Constantinople; the
;

fanatical proselyte

Solomon Molcho at Mantua (1529); Solomon Alkabiz at Safet(fl. 1529-53); Matatia DeItaly (cir. 1530)
;

lacrut in Poland and Moses Cordovero in

;

and the renowned

Palestine (ob. 1570),

who

is

said to

have had a revelation from the prophet Elias, at the end of that century are the names of the authors of the most important monographies and commentaries of this class. The opposition of Elia del Medigo and others had had no
effect.

Isaac de Lattes in Italy

:

collected Sentences for

the printing of the Zohar (1558)

against which the voices of

it

the Rabbies had been raised in consequence,

;

was

said,

of

and Emanuel ben the previous burning of the Talmud Mantua employed his money Jekutiel Benetento at and philological learning in the publication of KabbaHsA new phase of the Kabbala tical writings (1558-1560). was formed by the school of the famous oral teacher Isaac

LoRiA AsHKENASi at Safet (1534-15.72): amongst his followers we may particularise, as an author (see below), Chajjim Vital Calabrese (ob. 1620 in Damascus), and as apostles, Israel Seruk who travelled in Europe, and
Q
2

228
his

JEWISH LITERATURE.
san-in-law

[Period

III.

Solomon ben Chajjim Meinstrel

of

Lautenburg at Safet. In a very short time the master and some of his pupils were made the subjects of miraculous legends; and a new flood of supposititious writings and interpolations threatened to overwhelm the history and The restored Kabbala was not criticism of this literature. a systematic theosophy, but was a bold and conscious intrusion of the Kabbalistic doctrine,
retical

now called the -TheoKabbala (D^^t^P TTb'2p), upon practical and religious life, thus forming the Practical Kabbala (^1VX!J2^12 nb^p). Against the latter it was now necessary for the orthodox Halacha to defend its authority amongst the masses, in the same way that philosophy had formerly withstood the Kabbala in general in the narrow circle of independent thinkersv, until the aberrations of astrology, &c., had laid claim to the highest authority in religion. Now, however, the popularised Kabbala (a Hebrew translation of the book Zohar is at least as old as 1506) made its way into all branches of life and literature. The secret meaning ascribed to the letters of the the signs (vowels, accents, even ornaments), and Bible, to to their Masoretical rules, and the higher intention (riDnD) attributed to the prayers and ceremonies, reached their greatest pitch; and to the exercise of this knowledge was ascribed a powerful influence in the afiairs of the present and It was no wonder that at last this Kabbala future worlds. regarded the Zohar in the same light as the Bible and Shulchan Aruch, and that it led to a degradation of Judaism for instance, to the extravagances of the Sabbatians and of the Chassidim, amongst whom appeared the last effort of
;

mysticism, the apotheosis of their master.

of Kabbala, perhaps
in

A compendium
Luzzatto, extant

by a

pupil of

M. Ch.

MS., and written

;

in the

form of question and answer,

defends these doctrines against attacks from different quarters

and amongst the objections answered are those of phi-

losophers believing only in scientiflc demonstrations,

called the
;

who

Kabbala Anthropomorphism of others who said that it led to apostasy, by suggesting an analogy between the Ten Sefirot and the Christian doctrine of the Trinity
(an observation as old as the 10th century); of others

who

 26.]

HOMILETICS, ETHICS,

ETC

229

merely preferred the simple Jewish faith without speculaof others who objected to learning from tion or philosophy writings without teachers ; and of others who said that life was scarcely long enough for the study of the Talmud alone, and that the Kabbala was too dark and deep to be fathomed.
;

The

strictly Kabbalistic literature of this period consists

principally in

commentaries on the Bible, and the books

kinds)

Jezira and Zohar (the last being also furnished with indices

and keys of

all

and in super-commentaries on Nach-

manides, Bechai ben Asher, Recanati, Gikatilla, and other

older writers, and also on Loria's pretended traditions, and

the

writings of
this,

MosES Corduero and Chajjim Vital.

Besides
ethical,

the Kabbala gave a colouring to homiletical,

and other writings.

that Isaac Loria neither wrote teacher an oral or leader, at all encouraged himself, nor, as his ideas, if such a word is applihis pupils to write down cable to his fancies. If he has any literary merit, it consists in his having written some notes of critical value on the margins of older printed books and MSS., e. g. those published upon the Zohar, some of which, however, even the editor and corIt may be considered certain
rector,

Moses Zacut, did not believe to be by him. Chajjim Vital, whom later Kabbalists pronounce to be the only
it

authentic interpreter of Loria's ideas, thought

apologise for writing

necessary to

down

the mysteries of his teacher

by

the altered circumstances of literature.

a great impulse to his fertile followers

His example gave and not long afterdeclared (in a

wards

Aaron Berechja

of

Modena
down
all

manuthe

script work, 1629) that he

had somewhere read, that

it is

duty of every student

Kabbala.

to write

the principles of the

With

respect to the

authenticity and arrange-

ment of these

writings, nearly

of which bear the

name

of Chajjim, and are extant in hundreds of

MSS.

(the very

few that are printed having appeared together with other older Kabbalistic works at Korez, 1784-5), we find an ^4;?paratus criticus of no less than four recensions and Chajjim himself began his comprehensive work with such care, that he distinguished what he found taught in Loria's name from what he considered as authentic tradition. But his
;

Q 3

230

JEWISH LITEEATURE.

[PekioD

III.

own acount

of the different ways in which he arranged and rearranged his materials, and the accounts of those who again prepared his writings for the press (viz. his son Sa-

Damascus; the polygrapher Jacob Zemach, and his German pupil Meir Poppers at Jerusalem, ob. 1 662), and lastly a comparison of the different forms in which the same formulae and plays upon letters appear and reappear, must make every honest student despair of ever producing light and order out of this vast mass of confusion and we might sum up our judgement, like an ingenious bibliographer, in the words, " The dream of Pharaoh is one." The most remarkable authors are I^aphtali (Hirz)
at

muel Vital

a Portuguese physician in Palestine, 1619-52

Treves ben Eliezer (cir. 1530); Abraham Galante Simon (1568), and Moses Galante (ob. 1618), at Safet ben Samuel (1560) Elia de Yidas in Palestine (1575); MoRDECHAi Dato in Italy (1570-1600) Samuel Arepol (1576-1586); Samuel Uceda of Safet (1579); Israel BEN Moses at Lublin (1592), whose work was translated by Voisin Elia Loanz (1606-1620) Menahem-Asarja Fano at Mantua (ob. 1620) Issachar (Baer) ben Moses Petachja at Krzeminez (1609-1611), who tried in various ways to make the Zohar accessible Eleazar Perls AltSCHIJLER at Prague, who collected older books and MSS. (1609-1616); Sabbatai (Sheptel) Horwitz (1612-17);
;
; ;

his

renowned kinsman Isaiah Horwitz at Frankfurt, Prague, and Safet (1622, seq.), author of the ethical n'^h'^
(She?ie luhot hahrit) of

Jechiel Epstein

in Prossnitz (1683)
;

which compendiums were made by and Samuel David

Ottolengo in Italy (1705) Abraham Jafe Kalmankas (1652); Chajjim Cohen of Aleppo, who was censured for introducing the Kabbala into the Schulchan Aruch ( 25.)
two Germans of the name of Nathan Spiro, the one (ob. 1603) at Cracow, the other (of Jerusalem, ob. 1662) at Rheggio; Abraham Asulai (ob. 1644); Naphtali Hirz BEN Eichanan Jacob in Frankfurt on the Main (1648),
a suspected author
;

Abraham Chaskuni

and

Cohen Herera
PIoshke

(Irira) in Holland (1659);

Abraham Keuben
an imita-

(ob. 1673), author of the Jalkut Reubeni,

26.]

HOMILETICS, ETHICS, ETC.

;

231
(of Lithu-

tion of the old Jalkut ( 9.)

David

di

Lida

ania) at
at

Amsterdam (ob. before 1710); MosES Zakuto Mantua (ob. 1697); the voluminous writer Samson
seq.);

OsTROPOL (1655

Abraham Rovigo
at

Alexander Susskind
1716), against

(1701-1710); Metz, who wrote for Professor

Nehemiah Chajjun (1713vehement controversy was carried on from London to Mantua, among others by Joseph Ergas, David Nieto, Moses Chagis, Jehuda Briel (ob. 1722), and Emanuel Ricchi (ob. 1743); and lastly the remarkable fanatic and poet MoSES Chajjim Luzzatto (1727), who, according to the opinion of Professor S. D. Luzzatto,
Ouseel in Leyden (1708);

whom

attempted to effect a reformation of mysticism. Besides the Kabbala, Religious Philosophy employed
itself

principally in

the explanation of the

:

older recog-

nised and more important writings

sari of

for instance, the

Cu-

Jehuda Halevi was explained by Jehuda MosCATO (1573) and Israel Samozc (ob. 1772) at Brody, and translated into Spanish by Jacob Abendana (ob. 1663) at Amsterdam; the Moreh of Maimonides by Joseph BEN Isaac Halevi (1611-1614), Mordechai Jafe, and others; the Ikarim of Albo by Gedalja LipSHATZ (1618), &c. A compendium of the Summa of Thomas Aquinas was written by Jacob Zahalon (ob.
1693), but never
suses,

printed.

Besides the treatises, excurthe commentaries on

digressions, &c., included in

the Bible, sermons, and popular dogmatical (ethical) writings, there are also

monographies of

all

kinds in various

languages, mostly by Spanish, Dutch, and Italian authors,

instance, the
for which are bright points in this melancholy period works of Obadja Sforno (ob. 1550) Asarja de Rossi ( 23.); Jehuda (Leo) deModena (1571-1648); Mordechai Jafe in Germany (1600) the wandering phy: ; ;

sician

Joseph del Medigo

(ob.

1655);

Manoah Hen-

del

Isaac Jeshurun at Hamburg (1663); Manasseh ben Israel (1632-1651); Leo del Bene (1646); Simon (Simcha) Luzzatto, who in his Socrate, dedicated to the Venetian Senate, proves the insufficiency of natural knowledge (1651); Naphtali Hirsh
in Poland (ob. 1612);
Q 4

232
GrOSLAR
prose;

JEWISH LITERATURE.
at Halberstadt, vvlio a century later

[Period 111.

opposed philo-

sopby, particularly the prima materia, partly in rhyming

David Nieto

(ob.

1728 in London), author of the

Second Cusari against the Karaites and the followers of Cartesius and Copernicus and many others, whose writings
;

were not confined

to the circle of

Jewish readers.

27.]

The Bible and Hebrew Language.

this

The Exegesis of
Homiletics
to such
( 26..),

period, which branched out into

itself all the earlier studies

gathered into
as to

an extent

cause them to degenerate.

The

Spanish School, like the

the

German (which continued

to regard

Haggada and Midrash as authorities in exegesis), became much involved in trite philosophical distinctions and pretended Kabbalistic mysteries and this was the cause of the frequent explanation of the Commentary of Rashi (a Judaeo-German extract of which was made by Jehuda ben
;

that of

Naphtali, 1560) and even of the super-commentaries, e. g. Elia Misrachi (1527). In this manner so rich a
;

treasure of thought, and such a variety of methods of exegesis

were brought

in,

that even literary artifices and tricks

;

were

at last considered admissible

e.

g. the explanation of
(D'lia'iK)
:

passages of the Bible in different ways

in 26

by

Moses ben Jesaia Cohen (1721) in 70 by Eeuben David Tebel (1626) in 210 by Jedidja Gottlieb ben Abraham of Lemberg
(1589); in 50 by
;

Moses Margaliot

(1671); in 252 out of 1000 by Nathan Spira (ob. 1633); and in 345 by Elia ben Abraham Ottingen (1642). Of the fashionable " Novels " we have already spoken above
( 26. p. 221.).

The most important Biblical commentators are the two Jaabez (1492 1583); Johanan Allemanno in Italy (cir. 1500); Meir Arama (1505-12); Joseph Taytazac at Saloniki (cir. 1520) Joseph Ibn Jahja b^n David in Italy (1527-1528); Isaac ben Solomon Cohen at Constantinople (1549); Solomon Athia (1549), who in the preface to his commentary mentions the learned men of his acquaintance the family SroRNO in Italy Solomon Ibn Melech of Fez, at Constantinople (1554), who was
:

27.]

THE BIBLE AND HEBEEW LANGUAGE.

tlie

233

celebrated as a learned compiler of

Exeo^etes,

older graiDmatical

(completed by

and whose works were translated into Latin Jacob Abendajs^a, 1661); Moses ben

EiSAK Engerlein at Cracow (1561); Moses Alshech (more properly Alsheikh) at Safet (1563), celebrated rather than studied, on account of his philosophical prolixity

YiDAL Zarfati (Nagara) (1571), whose

;
;

Fez (1560); Moses ]S"adjara Haggada-Halacha character Baruch Ibn Jaish ben Isaac at Constantinople; Elisha Galliko (1576); Eliezer
at

exposition was rather of a

AsHKENASi BEX Elia, latterly in Poland (1576-1584); Abraham Menahe3i Cohen Porta at Cremona (1582); Samuel Yalerio in the Morea (1586); Abraham ben Jehuda Chas.an at Lublin Solomon Duran ben ZeMACH in Africa (1593); Baruch Ibn Baruch at Yenice (1598-99); Solomon ben Isaac Kalevi (1600); Abraham Gavison, an Arabic scholar (ob. 1605); Moses Albela (before 1600); Samuel Laxiado at Haleb
;

his

Yenice (1603 1619); Ephrai3I Lentshutz (or Lenczic) at Bamberg and Prague (1608);
son
at

Abraham

MoRDECHAi CoHEX at Safct (1610); Aaron ben David Cohen at Eagusa Chajjim Fixzi at Urbino (1631); the
;

physician

Jacob Lombroso, who gave

a grammatical ex-

planation and translated the difficult words into Spanish

(1639)

Abraham Heilbron

at

Lublin (1639)

Samuel

Cohen

of Pisa (1650), whose works were of a philosophical

Moses de Mercado (ob. 1652 at Amsterdam); Solomon Marino bex Isaac (1652) Seeb Abraham of Brzesc (1685); Moses Chefez, called Gextile of Trieste,
character;
;

at

Yenice

(ob.

1711

at the

age of 48, not 103 years), author

of a philosophical
prolixity,

exposition of the Pentateuch, of great

literature;

and exhibiting much research in recent Christian Selig bex Isaac Margaliot (1712); David

Chasan bex Chajjim

(not

at Amsterdam (1724); Chajjim Abraham Chajjim) Cohex of Poland (?) at Hebron (1750); and the physician Aarox Emrich, super-commen-

tator of

the various

Ibn Ezra (1765). Commentaries and glossaries to Targums were written by Mardochai Loria

(1580);
nologist

Jacob (Koppel) ben Samuel (1584); the hymMoses Cohen of Corfu (cir. 1588), not published

234

JEWISH LITERATURE.
;

[Period

III.

David ben Jacob Sczebrin at Prague (1609) ChajjimPheibel (not Abraham) ben David at Hanau (1614); Eljakim Rothenburg (1618); and Mardochai ben
JSTaphtali of Cracow, wlio died while his work was print-

and their Chaldee version, have been neglected by Christian, and even by recent Jewish, authors on the subject. We may here mening at
all

Amsterdam (1671-7);

these authors

works, although useful for a knowledge of the

tion also the

Hebrew

translation of the 2

by David ben Elia (Constantinople, 1732).

of the Biurists, or latest exegete, begins

Targum Esther The period with Mendels-

sohn's edition of the Bible

in the meantime.

they wrote under the influence

of Christian biblical studies, which had

made some progress

With
arid

the various editions of the Bible are connected

critical annotations,

based upon the comparison of MSS., on grammatical and Masoretic studies, and monographies
;

on the Masora such as those by Elia Levita, the founder of the true view of the origin of punctuation; Jacob ben

Chajjim
;

of Tunis,

corrector

of the

first

Bible printed

with perfect Masora (1525), afterwards baptized (ob. before

1538) Menahem Rabba ben Moses at Padua (1582) Joseph ben Shneor Cohen at Constantinople (1598); Joseph ben Samuel Ibn Rei (? "'n), who adds some ethical applications

hem LoNSANO

(1607); and the sound grammarian Menaof Jerusalem (1618), Sixty ponderous

old works, and many MSS. of the Bible, among which was that of Toledo of the year 1277'(now Cod. Rossi 782), were the sources from which Solomon JSTorzi at Mantua (1626) drew his celebrated remarks, forming the foundation of Hahn's Bible. The expositions of Elia Levita were completed by Samuel (Shmelka) ben Chajjim of Prague (1610), and others, who however gradually introduced critical, Kabbalistic, and other unsuitable explanations. Among the latter we may mention Jacob ben Isaac, Rabbi at Zansmer (1616); his son Jehuda (1650); Meir Angel at Safet (1622); Jedidja Gottlieb ben Abraham at Cracow (1644); David (Teble) ben Benjamin of Posen at Hamburg (1663); Aaron ben Samuel, who published a
:

 27.]

THE BIBLE AND HEBREW LANGUAGE.

235
;

Joseph ben Moses Frankfurt (1725) Anschel Worms at Mantua (1748) his adversary Joseph ben Dayid Eschwe (1760); and Kabbalistic sense, Jacob (Koppel) ben Aaron of in a
specimen (1690);

Dayid Yiterbi

Saslaw (1686-7), an. extract from whose work was made by Jekutiel Lasi ben Nachum (1718); and in an ethical sense, Eliezer ben Jehuda Eabbi of Pinczow (1723).
Translations of Biblical writings, especially of the Pericopes, are

met with

at

an

earlier period ( 16.).

The need
;

of educational works for youth, and of books for females and

persons ignorant of Hebrew, was on the increase

in

and con-

sequently the translations which were at hand were published

Hebrew

or other characters (e. g. in the different

Con-

stantinopolitan

Polyglots of
;

and extended or rewritten

booksellers

1546 and 1547), emendated they were intended by the

the use of Christians
also.

or publishers for

Moses ben Elia Pobian (1576)

Modern Greek
as
;

translated the Bible into

the Karaites of the Crimea have a Tartar

Bible and Liturgy; Turkish translations are extant in MS.,

well as a Polish translation of the Psalter by

Moses
Ferrara

BEN Mordechai

(1510); and a learned society

at

published a Spanish translation of the Bible by

Abraham

Usque

(1553), parts of which were re-edited or translated

anew by IVIanasseh ben Israel (1627), Jacob Lombroso at Venice (1639), Jacob Jehuda Leon at Amsterdam
(1671),

Mendez de Castro (1672), and Joseph Franco Serrano (1695). Rhymed paraphrases were published by David Ibn Atthar Melo (1626) Juan (not Moses) Delgado Pinto, who dedicated his poetry to Cardinal and Daniel Israel Lopez Laguna Richelieu (1627)
;

Jamaica (1720 not 1742). Homilies and reflections or paraphrases in prose were given by Isaac Aboab (1681), Moses Diaz ben Isaac (1705), and Isaac Acosta The Grlossary, r\72hw pwn, (1722), all three at Amsterdam.
at

was edited by Gedalja Corduero (1588) the Targum of the Canticles was translated probably by Moses Laniado De Pomis (1571) and others (e. g. Isaac Moro(1619). siNi, 1586, and Ephraim ben Johanan, 1589, both in MS.) translated some parts of the Bible into Italian, but
;

236

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

the complete translation, planned by

Jehuda (Leo) de

MoDENA, dwindled under

the scissors of Catholic censure

into a translation of the difficult expressions and passages,

and an alphabetical glossary (1612). similar cause may have hindered the publication of a perpetual glossary to the Bible by Jedidja of Rimini (1597), and also the Hebrew translation of some Apocryphal books by the same Jehuda

DE MODENA. In Germany
without
its

Luther's translation of the Bible was not

;

influence on this literature

and Luther himself

complains that an edition of the Prophets (according to

the same as that of

Wolf
same

Worms, 1527) was made with

it

the assist-

ance of Jews, although

as his

was in

fact substantially the

own.

that

it

The Jewish-German had become so indispensable was used by baptized missionaries, such as Michael
translation of the Pentateuch and Megillot

Adam, whose

(Constance, 1544),

made with

the assistance of Paul Fagius,

and published together with extracts from Hebrew commentators, was erroneously ascribed to

Elia Leyita

this

work produced a

lasting effect

upon the Jews

(see below).

Indeed it seems strange that not only Biblical translations, but generally speaking the most valuable and popular ( 28.) productions in the German language (all printed in Hebrew characters), originated away from Germany, or at least only on its frontiers, in Italy, Switzerland, and (later in the 16th century), in Poland as if the German Jew felt the want of his native language the more in places where it was not spoken by his Christian countrymen. How the Jews viewed this circumstance may be illustrated by a striking instance.
;

Chajjim ben
manual
explaining
the

Menahem

of Glogau, the author of a short

for the use

of females (shortly before

1717), in

orthography of some names of towns in Poland and Germany, says, that in Germany the " Ishmaelites

(meaning Christians) speak

like the Israelites," as if

German were the Jews' own language. But at the same time (1710) Phobus of Metz, in a similar publication, expresses the opinion, that the neglect of Hebrew philology among the German Jews, in contradistinction to the Spaniards,
is

to be attributed to the different

amount of pains

 27.]

THE BIBLE AND HEBREW LANGUAGE.

237

bestowed by tliem respectively upon their vernacular lanIn fact among the various political and social cirguages. cumstances which explain the singular course of the JewishGerman language, we may reckon the impulse and example given to the many German Jews in Northern Italy by their Spanish and Italian brethren. To return to our special subject, the Bible, we find far fewer strict translations than paraphrases, rearrangements^ and versifications, the last perhaps originating in the preceding period. But the whole subject has never been treated by itself; and even the notices collected by Wolf have
not sufficiently attracted the attention either of the Germanists ( 28.), or of biblical scholars (e. g. Gesenius, in his essay on translations of the Bible, De Wette, and others),

although Wagenseil confessed that he had learned the sense

of some passages of the Bible from Jewish expositions rather

than from any other source.

In fact a due appreciation and

proper classification of the various branches of this literature, a part of which, perhaps, yet remains to be discovered, would
require a more careful investigation than the author of this
essay has hitherto been able to apply to
ficial
it.

Only a superomitting

survey will therefore

publications,

be attempted,
of Avhich

the
older

anonymous

many

may be much

than the editions as yet known.

A translation of the
name
of

Psalms, published in 1545 under the

afterwards often anonymously

Elia Levita, and

reprinted (and also inserted in prayer-books), was revised

by

Eljakim ben Jacob, corrector of the press at Amsterdam (1703), and republished with an interlinear text, by Michael Cohen ben Abraham of Fiirth (1723). A
Jewish translation of the whole Bible was not completed much before the end of the 17th century; but then two rival
editions appeared almost simultaneously.

The

first

translator

was Jekutiel Blitz (1676-8), corrector of the press for Uri Phobus whose translation was revised by Meir Stern ; and another revision (especially with respect to passages considered as anti-Christian) was published by Josel Wit;

ZENHAUSEN,

a compositor at Athia's printing-office, with

the assistance of the bibliographer

Sabbatai Bass.

After

238

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

this meritorious undertaking, although another translation

was published by Eliezer Sossman

his brother-in-law the historian

in conjunction with

Menahem ben Solomon

Leyi (1725-9), no real progress was made, until Mendelssohn by his translations gave an entirely new direction
to

Jewish

literature.

Another kind of

literature

was

origi-

nated by
at

Jehuda ben Moses Naphtali

revised (1560) Michael

or

Lob Brzesc
translation

Cremona; he

Adam's

of the Pentateuch, and added extracts from Kashi, in

German, which Isaac ben Samson Cohen, at Prague (1608-10), enriched from the Midrash, &c. This was the origin of the
Teutsch

Chummasch

or

German Pentateuch, which

in va-

and in some parts of Poland and Russia continues to be, a favourite book with women; it was so popular that Isaac's grandson could not procure a perfect copy of the earlier editions when he undertook the third in 1687. But it was soon rivalled by a similar edition of the Pentateuch by Jacob ben Isaac at Janow, known as the Zeena-u-Reena (by mistake, see 26. p. 225.), the earlier editions of which were so rapidly exhausted, that we know only that of Basel of 1622, which seems to be at least the third. The same author wrote a similar work on the Prophets entitled Maggid{^'^yc^, 1623-7), published probably after his death and also an exposition of the Pentateuch (1622), compiled from various sources. Of those who paraphrased various books of the Bible, inserting
rious slightly altered forms became,
;

ethical applications or legends in the historical parts, generally

from the Haggada in Midrash and Talmud, or translating from the Targum, we shall only mention the following, who were almost all Poles and Bohemians Isaac Sulkes Naphtali (1579), Mordechai ben Jacob (1582-97)
:

Moses Saertels ben Issachar (1604-5); Jechiel (Michael) Epstein (1707); Joseph BEN Abraham Issachar, and Simon Frankfurter, at Amsterdam (1711); and Aaron ben Mordechai (1718). The historical part of the Bible and also of the Apocrypha
;

Altschuler (1595)

(the latter after Luther's translation) was published by ChajJiM BEN Nathan (1625-30 ?). The versifications of Biblical and especially the historical books, whose prototype is the

 27.3

THE BIBLE AND HEBREW LANGUAGE.

still

239

Samuel-Buch (probably 15435 or

i.

older), in

" 8 Gesetz,"

e.

Ottava rima, bear considerable resemblance to the lastclass,

mentioned

although their style and form present some

interesting peculiarities;

they form the transition to the

of this class of poe.g.:

popular songs

( 28.).

But few authors

etry are at present

known,
;

Aaron (ben

Israel?);

Jacob ben Samuel of Brzese (1583), who versified the Targum of Megillot Moses Stendel, whose Psalms were copied and published by Rosel R. Fischels (1586); Abraham ben Moses at Prague (1602); Dayid ben Menahem Cohen at Amsterdam (1644) and Jacob ben Isaac Levi (1692 ?). Some Apocryphal books were trans;

German, as the book Ecclesiasticus from the Dutch by Joseph von Maarssen at Amsterdam (1712); and the New Testament was translated or transcribed by one Jewish convert, and published by another, as early as 1540, some parts having previously appeared in Hebrew. The following lexicographical works are less etymological than explanatory of the Hebrew Italian and Latin, by PoMis (1587); Portuguese, by Solomon de Oliyeyra (1682); Jewish-German, by Anschel at Cracow (1534), and Jehuda (Arje) ben Zebi of KJrotoshin, at Carpentras (1719-1721), who wrote also on synonymes and nomina propria ; a Hebrew-Arabic nomenclature was composed by Manasseh ben Israel a Hebrew-German vocabulary, and a Chaldee and lexicon, especially on the Targumim, by Elia Leyita a practical Hebrew-German-Italian-Latin vocabulary by
lated into
:

Nathan ben Moses Hanover

etymological curiosity,

long before
at

of Russia (1660). As an we may mention the attempt made, Dupuis and Kanne, by Dayid Proyencale

Mantua

(cir.

1570) to deduce
a

all

languages from the

its

Hebrew.

Hebrew Grammar reached

conciseness,

new

stage of

progress in

Elia Levita's (nat. 1472 near Nuremberg, ob. 1549) clear

which resembled that of David Kimchi

( 16.).

Both were
late

leaders of the Christian grammarians who,

down
Their

to the middle of the 17th century, did Kttle else than trans-

or

rearrange materials

furnished

by Jews.

authority was, however, so great as to throw independent

240

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

investigators into the shade.

When we remember
all practical interest

that the

Jews were

destitute

of the encouragement derived from

;

the hope of distinction

of

in other

Oriental languages, except the Chaldee (a knowledge of

which enabled Joseph Zaefati, son of the physician of Pope Julius IT., to become interpreter between the first Syrian scholars in Europe and Theseus Ambrosius, the first teacher of Syriac, 1539); that they had no need for the philological study of a language still in use, and that faith in the authority of antiquity, and the supremacy of the Midrash, the Kabbala, and Halacha, were opposed to grammatical studies we must with Luzzatto think highly of even
;

Of the important commentaries of Ben Melech, LoNSANO, Norzi, and Lombroso, we have spoken above. Beside the authors of compendia and tables for teaching, we may name as grammarians, the brothers Proyencale
the small performances of this period.
critical

grammatical and

(1535 seq.) at Mantua;

Emanuel

of Benevento (1557);

Amsterdam (ob. 1620), whose grammar was provided with a Hebrew and Spanish index of technical expressions by his pupil Isaac Nehemia (1627); Abraham BEN Raphael at Prague (1623); Sabbatai of PrzeISAx4.C misl, who defended Kimchi against Levita (1622) BEN Samuel Levi of Posen (1627), who, even before
Isaac Uziel
at
;

Alting, based the theory of language on phonetic laws;

Spinoza (1677) whose views

are not without peculiarity;

Moses Abudiente (1633); Moses Raphael d'Aguilar (1661), and Solomon de Olivet ra (1689), at Amsterdam, who wrote in Portuguese, the latter also on Chaldee JeHUDA Lob Neumark (1693), who wrote on accents; Alexander SiissKiNDat Kothen(l7l8), author of a work
;

on the same subject in the Jewish-German language (probably after Wasmuth) and Jehuda (Arje) ben Zebi, who drew up some rules in rhyme (1719). Among the primers of minor importance, we will mention that of Phobus of Metz (1710), on account of his general remarks, and his desire to awaken a taste for grammar although his own knowledge One of the most important writers was inconsiderable. was Solomon Cohen (of) Hanau (1708-1762), who, like
;

 28.]

POETRY AND LITURGY.

241

Kimchi and Levita, was a travelling teacher of children, and gained some credit for his knowledge of the doctrine The unusually severe criticism with which he of accents.
attacked the
ancients,
especially in his
earlier writings,

gave

rise to

some

ill-will,

and met with opposition from

Reuben Levi
(1765);

(1744), and

Aaron Moses

of

Lemberg

on the prayers were attacked by MoRDECHAi Dusseldorf (1738), and Jacob Emden (1769); he, however, fought his way, and met with an imitator and a plagiarist in the converted Jews, Christian David Bernard (1722), and Professor Sonnenfels at Mendelssohn's school introduced the Vienna (1757). grammatical and critical researches of learned Christians among his countrymen and co-religionists, and thereby laid the foundation of the general philology which subsequently
his strictures

and

flourished again.

28.]

Poetry and Liturgy,

The

elegant literature of this Period was developed in

a different
the older

way from that of Hebrew artificial

the

first ( 18.).

The use

of

forms, generally imitated from

the Arabic, was, unfortunately for philology,

much

too fre-

quent to allow the various classical modes and their modern imitations to be followed out with anything like the same The poetry of the Christians, in its readiness and success. new mythical garb, did not exercise any considerable inThe isolated position of the nation, the Halafluence. cha, and the Kabbala had deprived poetry in general of Moreover, in the voluminous proall freedom of spirit. ductions of the former period, the Liturgy had already reached its culminating point. But to the Jews the house of prayer had become, in some degree, a home, a school, a forum, a club and although the letter of the appointed rule of prayer (^Siddur), and the Pijjut of the Machsor as a " Usus " (:in3D), had been subjected to the decisions of the
;

Halacha, and the free liturgical literatiu*e of the preceding period ( 20.) had terminated in the Schulchan Aruch, still
mysticism, especially that of the East and South, which in

242

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period III.

general began to chafe against the fetters of the

to introduce the mysteries of

Law

and

Theosophy
suggested

into the prayers

and hymns

(ni'T'tiT^ Tin*'T[ ^^'il/),

new

ideas to the
;

imagination and extended the sphere of the Liturgy

e.

g.

by

vigils

(miin,

mniTrjIi'r)),

especially

of Pentecost and Hosianna {I'^H

those of the feasts

]^p''r),

mmii^

]1p^n,

and other D^SIpTi), ascribed to MosES Coedovero and Isaac Loeia. In the 16th century there were formed,
particularly in
Italy,

pious

societies

for a daily

matins

(npmV nnmti^), which laid the foundation for the literature of nnDPTD or ')p^^'n Dl^r^Wi^, compiled from the Bible and the prayers. The multiplication of the prayers (D'^niTDT/O,

msnn,

mtt^pn, niVsn) used

on

all

occasions, such as birth,

marriage, journeys, death, &c., was

quite in
all,

accordance
of

with the

spirit of the

age

and above

the circumstances
lai/s

of the times led to the composition of historical

lamentation and repentance (m^p, DITI^Vd) written in blood

and

tears.

Some

imitations of old forms, not intended for

recitation nor for insertion in the liturgy,

were made, on account of the interest which attached to the subjects of the original compositions e. g. Asharot and Keter Malchut (after
:

Benbeveniste

David Ibn Simea and Joshua 1634-62); and psalms were written by Abeaham ha-Jachini in the East (1655), M. Ch. LuzZATTO, both considered as heterodox authors, and by others. But although the creative genius was extinct, much laborious work remained to be done. It now became necessary to fix the old and new rites of the many wandering congregations by means of printed forms, a matter which occupied There are collections editors, commentators, and poets.
Gabirol) were imitated by
(cir.

for different

countries, cities, societies, &c., J^elonging to

Poland (1522), Mantua (1612), containChananja E. Kieti Italy (1627) by Joseph Jedidja Kaemi and others in the 17th century; Jerusalem by Joseph ben Moedechai Cohen and Michael ben Moses Cohen (1707-1708); Corfu (1718); and Q^^0L SLud Cochin--^^b'(1757), in which there is something by the Babylonian physician Ob ad J A Cohen ben Mystical collections were made by the Russian UsiEL.
this Period: e. g. for

ing compositions by

 28.]

POETRY AND LITURGY.

at

243

Nathan ben Moses Hanover

Moses Chagis
and Chasidaic
is

Jassy (1662), and

collections.

(1703); there were also various Sabbataic The Chinese Siddur, however,

from the Psalms. mention a few more hymnologists, composers of prayers, and authors of special collections (for the most part
said to consist almost entirely of passages

We

will

Kabbalistic), as,

Moses Hammon,

physician in ordinary at

Constantinople (about 1524);

Aaron the Blind

of Safet

(1561); Solomon Loria (ob. 1573), who wrote a comMordechai Dato in Italy mentary on his own songs
;

(1575-1600); Moses Abbas, physician at Magnesia (cir. 1580); Moses Cohen of Corfu (1580-1600); Israel Nad JAR A, the most talented man of this period (1587-99) in Palestine, whose hymns form the main part of a collection

by Joseph Shalom Galliago

his imitator

at

Amsterdam (1628 30);

;

Joseph Ganso at Brussa (cir. 1630); Akiba Frankfurt ben Jacob (ob. 1597) Elia Loans Rabbi of Worms (1599); Ephraim ben Joseph Chelm at Cracow (1605); Chan AN JA Asael Rieii (1615); Aaron Berechja de Modena (1624); Moses Jehuda Abbas in Egypt, and Abraham Samuel in the East (1650); Moses Zacuto (1645-97), at Venice and Mantua; and Moses Pisa, at Amsterdam (1750). Among the various commentators on the old and new hymns and prayers of different rites and collections we may mention, Johanan Treves at Bologna (1540); Abraham (ben Abigdor?) of Prague (1550); Benjamin ben Meir at Saloniki (1553-5); Naphtali Treves (1560); Mordechai ben Jehuda (1567); Moses Pesante (1567); Zebi Sundels and Mordechai ben Abraham Cohen (1571-1578); Moses Shedel (1585); Moses bln Machir (1594); Joseph ben Abraham Cohen (1598); Isaac ben Jehuda Levi (1600) Abraham ben Jehuda Levi (1605) and Israel Kimchi at Smyrna (1737). Translations of
;

prayers, published subsequently to the

commencement of

this period, served to render the Hebrew text intelligible, and realised the old maxim of praying in a language under-

stood

by the people

instruction in
R 2

tended also to female children.

Hebrew German as

prayers was exwell as

Hebrew

244
hymns

JEWISH LITERATUKE.

[Period

III.

for the synagogue probably existed as early as the Middle Ages. The attempt made by Aaron ben Samuel, of Hengershausen (1709) to bring the German element into

common
by the

use at the expense of the Hebrew, was frustrated

interdict of the

Rabbles

whom

he attacked

but the

German made
of the

only so

much

the more progress in everything

except obligatory prayers.

The High-German

translation

Bible by Mendelssohn became a standard in lan-

guage for the liturgy (e. g. Isaac Euchel and D. Friedlander's translation of the Prayer-Book), which was however combined with new elements; but it would exceed
the limits of our essay to discuss this subject.

The form
ployed for
fied, e. g.

of poetry and rhyming prose was gradually empossible subjects.

all

Biblical books

were

versi-

Moses Cohen of Corfu (end of the 16th century), and Saadja ben Levi Asankot at Amsterdam (1647); the Psalms and Lamentations by Moses
Esther by
(1719), and as early as the 16th
;

Abraham Cohen of Zante

century by

Chananja Ibn Jakar (unpublished) Ruth by de Milhau (1786); the Halacha after the Talmud Moses by Abraham Samuel of Venice (1719); the Schulchan Aruch by various authors ( 25. p. 217.); Grammar by Elia Levita, M. Proyencale, and others ( 27.); the Kalendar by Joseph ben Shemtob ben Joshua (1489) and David Vital a poem on chess was composed by Solomon ben Massal-tob at Constantinople (1518-40);
;

and even sermons were,

introduced with a

after the fashion of the Pijjutim,

DW)

( 19.).

Larger
tant,

ethical

and didactic or

often with commentaries

collective poems (Diwans), by the authors themselves, are ex-

by Samuel Archevolti (1551); Jacob ben Joab BEN Elia Fano (1554) Jehuda Sarko (1560) and Saadja Longo, both in Turkey and poets of the first rank Menahem Lonsano (cir. 1572); Isaac Onkeneira
;

(1577), whose subject

is

the dispute of the letters of the alpha;

bet at the time of the Creation

(cir.
;

Meir Angel

at

Belgrade

1620) Moses Abudiente (1633) ; Leo de Modena (ob. 1648); Solomon Oliveyra (1665), and Samuel de CacTeres at Amsterdam; Jacob Frances (Francese)

 28.]

POETRY AND LITURGY.

245
is

(ob. 1667), of

whose works a poem against the Kabbala

1677);

the only one printed (1704); his brother

Emanuel; Leo
(not Belilios)

DEL Bene
(1683);

(ob.

Daniel Belillos
at

Isaac Cantarini

Padua (1718);

Samson

MoDON

(1725); Jacob London of sterdam and in Italy, who besides

passages used;

Lissa (1737), at

Am-

a commentary on his

subject-matter added references to the Biblical words and

Mordechai Samosc ben Meir

(1745);

and Jehuda Hurwitz ben Mordechai (1765) whose cotemporary Isaac Belinfante at Amsterdam wrote after the model of Wessely. The Gnomics of this period were little else than versified compilations from the Bible, Abot (by Sabbatai Marin ob. 1748), Talmud, &c. such as those by Saul ben Simeon (1557), and Saadja ben Levi Asankot, author of a Hebrew translation of the Arabic proverbs of Ali and others, extant in the Bodleian, but never published. Eiddles are to be found in the writings of Isaac Onkeneira (1577); Akiba Frankfurt, mentioned above; and more recent authors. On the other hand there is a copious literature of occasional poetry and epigrams, com;

posed at births, marriages, deaths, consecrations of synagogues, and dedications of Thora-rolls, &c., by learned and
literary societies, especially in

Italy

and Holland

(in the

17th century), beside those occurring in dedications, approvals, prefaces,

&c.

Wit and
;

productions of this kind

satire found a place in but the broader expressions of strictly

humour and parody were more

Chanuka, by the
stiff

than ever confined to

the occasion of the privileged national festivals

nival squibs, such as the

Purim and
Carolder)

and rigid morality of the time.*

anonymous (and perhaps

;

Jehuda ben Jacob

DnriD nVjTD (1507-18), and other trifles, were written by of Chenciny (1650) David Raphael PoLiDO (1703); and others. Songs or Pijjutim, either
Spanish, and Latin languages, and even mystic

translations or original compositions in the Jewish- German,

Italian,

The author

will enlarge

upon

this
it,

subject,

and give more particulars of

the curious literature belonging to

elsewhere.

246

JEWISH LITERATURE.
tlie

[Period HI.

poems, were made on

sacred drama
(e. g.

occasion of feasts.

A kind

of

the plays of Ahasuerus, Goliath, Joseph,

first who took offence at a parody on the Talmud (which De Rossi did not recognise as such in his codex 1199.) was a Karaite. similar parody was applied to Chanuka by Joshua (Abraham) Callimanki

&c.) was tolerated, and the

battle

(1617) at the age of 13. Elia Loanz (1600) sang of the between water and wine Samuel Sanwil ben
;

and an anobetween Chanuka and the other festivals, in Jewish- German. The influence of classical and modern literature on Jewish poetry is most prominent in Italy, and subsequently also in The earliest specimen of the non- Semitic drama Holland. (on the theory of which there exists an unpublished work by Jehuda DEI SoMMi in Italian) is the Spanish Esther,
(1693), the praise of tobacco
;

Aaron Sofer

nymous

writer, the battle

probably by

Solomon Usque,

the translator of Petrarch

(1567) at Ferrara; Joseph Penco at Amsterdam (1673) was hailed in Latin epigrams by his contemporaries, as the first author of a Hebrew allegorical " Commedia;" Chajjim
JVIarini (ob. 1748) translated Ovid after Anguiland Dr. Isaac Luzzatto translated a canzonetta of Moses Zacuto and JeMetastasio at his desire (1779).
lara
;

Sabbatai

huda Olmo

" Divina Commedia."

(1720) followed the older imitators of the In Germany the period, not yet

closed, of poetical translations, with their curious offshoots,

could not have commenced before the revival of the study of

German.

characteristic feature of

them

is

the combina20.)

tion of languages in alternate strophes

(cf.

and in

poems (even

liturgical) written

throughout in two languages

(Hebrew and

Italian, Spanish, or

celebrated epitaph

German), for instance the by Jehuda de Modena, and an epi;

thalamium by MoSES Catalano

art of

this extension of the old

Homonyms
we

( 20.) did

not escape censure. According

to Delitzsch

find reference also to musical performance in

Raphael Meldola's
published

Solomon de Eossi songs (1742). Hebrew songs (1623) in from 3 to 8 parts. Finally, we must bestow a few Avords upon a kind of

poetry, which, although included in the great class of " oc-

 28.]

FOETRY AND LITURGY.

particular
origin.

247
men-

casional poetry" noticed above, deserves tion on account of

its

special object

and recent

We
being

might

call it

"loyal

" or "patriotic" poetry, its object

the celebration of days and events connected with the history

where it was written and their end of the last century, the progress of the emancipation of the Jews themselves. The language is either the Hebrew or the vernacular, or both together. The oldest Hebrew specimen known to the author of this essay is a Hebrew and German song on the birth of Leopold I,
and
politics of the countries

rulers, and, since the

(1676) by Noah Abraham Asher Selig ben Chiskuja. song on the victory of Frederic II., 28th December

1745, by the Rabbi of Berlin,

Dayid Fraenkel, was

re-

cited with music in the synagogue,

and translated into Gera student

man by Aaron ben Solomon Gumperz, then

;

" der Philosophic und Mathematik beflissen," and afterwards mentioned as Dr. Gumperz by Maupertuis this translation was altered into miserable Jewish-German by Mendel Schwab. Whether the German Freuden-Lied on the wedding of Joseph I. of Austria, which is directed to be sung to the air " Baba-Buch" (see below), is of Jewish origin or only transcribed we cannot decide but we suppose the latter to be the case with two elegies on the death of King Ferdinand (1654), and a song on the coronation of Leopold I. (1658), although the melody of the last is said to be that of a Jewish song. Manasseh ben Israel in 1642 addressed a Portuguese and Latin " congratulation to Prince Frederick Henry, when he visited the synagogue and in 1655 he published a panegyric on Queen Christina of Sweden, whose Hebrew books it was proposed that he should catalogue and complete. Joseph Penco de la Vega celebrated the king of Poland (1683), and William of England (1690), in Spanish. All these are isolated cases, and occasioned by the special relation in which the poet stood to these royal personages but ever since the time of Mendelssohn the Jews have tried to show (and sometimes to make a show of) their loyalty in answer to the accusations of their enemies, as
; ;

well as

their real gratitude to their benefactors,

I.

such as

Joseph

of Austria, the French Assembly, and others.

K 4

248

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period in.

In external form elegant literature remained nearly as

described above until
style " ( 20.)
it

entirely degenerated.

and its play upon words used> for example, in the absurd but witty publications of Joseph Concio
(or

The

^^

mosaic

CoNZio)

at Asti

spiritless affectation

sunk, especially in Italy, into (1627) and quaintness. Nevertheless we must

all

admire the marvellous dexterity shown in

guistic productions, such as
his contemporaries in

kinds of lin-

those of

Saadja Longo and

Turkey (1550, &c.), which will never although it must be be equalled in any other language admitted that there is seldom any object in these exhibitions
;

of art, beyond a display of poetical and rhetorical skill. have a specimen of these conceits in Benjamin Mussaphia's (1638) History of the Creation, in which he exhausted the words of the Bible without a single repetition. At the beginning of the present century this singular production was used as a book of instruction in the Hebrew language, and glossaries both German and Turkish, the latter by a Karaite,

We

were added to

it.

A new period in this branch of

M. Ch. Luzzatto
the friend of Mendelssohn.

literature

commences with the mystic

and N. H. Wessely

in Italy,

Hebrew poetry and rhetoric were occasionally treated by PoRTALEONE (1550); AsARjA DE Eossi (1573); Simon ( Simcha) C allimani (1751); the grammarian Elia Levita Emanuel Benevent (1557); Archevolti(1602); Joshua Benveniste (1635) MS. Abudiente (1663); Aguilar (1661); Jacob Romano (cir. 1630 at Constantinople), who is said to have treated of 1348 (? ?) Hebrew forms of poetry in a monography Emanuel Francese (1677), whose essay and Raphael Rabbenio, who wrote some is not published
;
;

works against Clericus (1709-1710).. Lexicons of rhymes were written by Solomon be Oliyeyra (1618) at Amsterdam, and Gerson Chefez at Venice (ob. 1700 at the age of 17): the latter was edited with additions by S. Callimani. Forms and instructions for business and other letters were brought out by Archevolti
Italian controversial

(1553) in the anonymous

^^13
;

ns^ (16th century); by

Jehuda

DE MoDENA
(1689)
;

(not printed)
others.

Joseph Rakover ben David

usual acrostics and references to

and

The

28.]

POETRY AND LITURGY.

249

the Pericopes were treated

by the anonymous authors of

D^r2^b'^ riMm (1534), and ISD nV:!7D, and by their shameless book of instruction in German, printed in plagiarists.

the modern

Hebrew

cursive characters

cut expressly for

at

the purpose, was published by

Joseph van Maarssen

Amsterdam (171 3-15). The Chaldee language was studied by few except the That the Jews often took part in the poetry Kabbalists. of the countries where they lived is proved even by the A remarkable instance of incomplete accounts we possess. this is to be found in the cultivation of German in Poland,
Italy,

where

and of Spanish in Holland, versified the book of Job, and wrote against the Inquisition ; and in Italy, where Dr. Jacob Uziel published a heroic poem called and other countries
;

for instance

Jacob Belmonte

Among the best Italian authors are two David (1624). women, one of whom, Debora Ascarelli, translated the Latin also was not religious poetry of M. Eieti (1602).
utterly neglected.
sian,

Some

Spanish, Proven9al, Slavic, Per-

perhaps also Tatar poetry, presents considerable peculiarity in the intermixture of Hebrew words and Biblical
passages, which, in the

Jewish-German of the
is

period,

carried to such a pitch as nearly to destroy

its

was Germanic

element.
(nat.

The

first

High-German poet

Ephraim Kuh

1731 at Breslau, ob. 1790), known from Auerbach's romance; and, as early as 1771, the Poems of a Polish Jeio were published by Issachar Falkensohn at Mietau. The

Jewish-German literature has also its popular poetry, which, though devoid of originality to its very titlepages, formed a not unpleasing mosaic of older Jewish and Arabic elements in combination with Romance and German.* To this
class

verbs taken from Charisi

(or rather 49) proand increased, partly from ( 20.), older sources, to the canonical number 70 by Jehuda ben

belong the Kleine

Br ant- Spiegel, 50

Samuel Regensburg,
(1566)
*
;

called

Lob
made

Vin^ti' of

Lunde^burg

Paradise and Hell from Emanuel's Divan (ch; 50.)

of the present essay has
it

The author

but few additions to this part

of the subject, as

is

principally interesting to the

fully elsewhere.

German

reader,

and he

intends to treat of

it

more

250

JEWISH LITERATURE.
;

[Period HI.

by Moses Eisenstadt Berachja's Fables of the Fox, translated by Jacob Koppelmann ben Samuel of Brzesc
(1583-4), which, together with Sahola's fables, forms the Cow-hook of Abraham ben Matatja (1555), known only

and many ethical works Eben Bochan of Kalonymos (p. 174.) The principal books of by Moses Eisenstadt (1705). amusement consist of legends and stories (nii'PD, "Ti3"^D) collected from the classes above mentioned, among whicb
from quotations of bibliographers
(see

26.),

e.

g. the

the well-known Maase-huch (1602

?),

partly transcribed in

the original language and partly translated into High-Ger-

man by
the

B.

Clir.
;

Hehdcus (1611), was taken

chiefly

from

the Seven Wise Masters of Rome, or The life of Erastus son of Diocletian, was taken from a German edition

Haggada

of the Mishle Sendabar ; and the German edition of Jacob VON Maarssen was probably made from the Dutch. In Jewish-German we meet with other favourite popular books and legends, such as the Baba-buch of Eli a Levita (1507) the Arthus {Arthurs) ^o/of Josel Witzenhausen (1683,
different

from the older work mentioned

p. 178,);

Siegmund

und Magelone, Floris und Blanchefleur, Kaiser Octavianus

Bitter von der Steuermark, PrcBtiosa,

Lalleburger, &c.

For tunatus, Eulen- Spiegel, and even a part of Boccaccio was translated

from the Dutch by Joseph

yan Maarssen

(1710).

To

this class belong also the versifications of Biblical books ( 27.), and a mass of songs partly historical ( 29.), the very

existence of which has escaped the attention of bibliographers, even of the Germans, to whom they are of great interest not only in themselves, but also for their inscriptions, indicating the proper melody by the names of popular German songs, several of which are otherwise unknown. The author has been able to collect a list of more than a hundred
pieces belonging to this class, almost all extant in the

Oppen-

heim

collection of the Bodleian hbrary.

29.] History^ Geography, Antiquities,

and

Miscellanies,

Chronicles (comprising also the general events of the world),

comprehensive historical works, and essays on the biography of

 29. J

HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC.

251

learned men, were composed at the end of the preceding period

by Joseph ben Zaddik at Arvalo (1467); Saadja ben Meimun Ibn Danan in Spain (1485) and Abraham Zacut ben Samuel (1505), whose work was published with arbitrary omissions and additions by Samuel Shullam at Constantinople (1566), and again with notes by Moses IsSERLS (ob. 1573). The Spaniard Jehuda Ibn Verga wrote a history of the persecutions of the Jews, which was completed by his relative Solomon and his son Joseph (1554), and was subsequently translated into Jewish-German (1591), and into Spanish (1640) by Meir de Leon. Of Elia
;

Kapsoli's various

historical compilations

and interesting

narratives, continued to his

own

times (1523), there exists a

MS. copy

purchased by the British Museum.

and an imperfect one has been lately Joseph Cohen wrote a history of France and Turkey (1554) containing an account of the rebellion of Fiesco at Genoa, where the author
in Italy
;

lived, inserted

with a

German

translation in the

Anthology

of Zedner,

who

points out the strange blunders of Biallo-

blotzky the English translator of the whole work for the OriHe also gave an account of the ental Translation Fund.
persecutions of the

anonymous

writer

Jews (1575), which was continued by an down to the year 1605, and has been lately

published with the valuable notes of Professor S. D. Luzzatto.

nology.

As. de Rossi (1575) investigated ancient history and chroGedalja Ibn Jahja's Chain of Tradition (1587) was called by Del Medigo a Chain of Lies. Compendium

(down to 1587) was mostly taken from Zacut by Solomon Algasi, and a larger Chronicle was composed by David Gans (ob. 1613), according to Zunzthe first German Jew who took a lively interest in history, geography, and Manasseh ben Israel compiled a Bibliotheca astronomy. Rahhinica (see p. 235. and p. 247.). On the Jewish learning of the East and South in the 16th and 17th centuries, the chronological work of Dayid Conforte (1677-1683) is a valuable authority. A profound critical work on the learned men of the Talmud, made use of and plagiarised by many recent authors, was published by Jechiel Heilprin, Rabbi at Minsk (ob. after the year 1728), who also took up and comof Chronology

252

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period

III.

and knowledge, the Bibliogra(Bassist, subcantor of Prague, The Jewish poets in the Spanish language were 1680). celebrated by D. L. de Barrios (1683). To point out
phical List of

pleted, but with less ability

Sabbatai Bass

Bartolocci's hostility to the Jews,

and to correct

his errors,

Sabbatai Ambrun determined to prepare a new Bihliotheca Hebrdica (1712). Menahem ben Solomon Levi of Amsterdam wrote a German continuation of Josippon, compiled
from second-hand sources (some of which were Christian) with more fidelity than judgment (1741); a Dutch translation with notes by G. J. Polak (partly corrected by the author of this Essay) has just appeared. Biographical and

many and distant journeys, was written by Ch. D. J. Asulai of Jerusalem at Leghorn (1777-1796). Joseph del Medigo shows his
Bibliographical Lexicon, collected in
critical taste in his

Literary Letters to the Karaite Serach

(ante 1629).

Ancient history was the subject of a Jewish-German work by Alexander ben Moses Ethausen (1719). Of the rhyming versions of the books of the Bible, we have spoken above ( 28.) connected with them are the above-mentioned ( 24.) Apologies of Usque (1553), Aboa.b (1629), Cardoso (1679), Barrios (1683), and Luzzatto (1638); the translations of Flavins Josephus's Contra Apionem by
;

Samuel Shullam
other

(1566), of Pseudo-Josephus(1607), and

;

Haggada works ( 26.) and the edition of the Historv of BoSTANAi, with other accounts of the Ten Tribes, by
Isaac Akrish (about 1577). There are special historical works on particular cities and events various memorabilia were preserved by Josel of RosSHEiM (down to 1547) and a history of the sultans Soleiman and Selim (1520-74), by Moses Almosnino, is quoted in a MS. in the Bodleian Library. An account of the Austrian persecution of the Jews in 1420-21 was translated from the German [printed 1609], by Jechiel ben JeDIDJA about 1582, and again translated into German in The earthquake at Mantua (1570) was described by 1725. As. DE Kossi the accusation of murder at Ragusa, brought especially against Isaac Jesurun (Oct. 1622), is recounted by
; ;
;

29.]

HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC.

253
of the

Aaeon ben David Cohen Ragusano.

rebellion at Constantinople (1622)

A history

by an eyewitness, extant in a MS. in the Bodleian, has not been recognised as such by Uri. The Legends of Worms were edited from the notes of the sexton Jiftach Joshua ben Naphtali (1623), by

Eliezer Liebermann, together with an elegy on town by the French (1689), by Isaac (Saekel) ben Liebermann Leti. An anonymous author
his son

the burning of that

gives an interesting account of the calamities brought on

Jerusalem by a rebellious pasha in 1625 (a remarkable parallel to the present events at Hebron), through which the

Portuguese congregation of that town was almost ruined.

Abraham Catalano

describes

the

epidemic at Padua

(1631) in an unpublished work. An interesting sketch of the Jews at Mantua during the Italian war was pubKshed

by
the

Abraham Alluf Maseran

Cossacks and
Tatars under

(1634).

The

cruelties of

the

leader

Chmelnicki

"), beginning at the town of Nemirow, were described by many authors both in prose and verse some of these elegies and penitential hymns afterwards became a part of the liturgy of the Polish fast day of the 20. Siwan (the anniversary of the persecution A. d. 1171). Amongst those who have given more graphic descriptions of Sabbatai Cohen Meir ben this event we may mention Samuel Szebrzin his semi-plagiator Joshua ben David

(" Chmel's calamities

of

Lemberg
of

Samuel Phcebus ben Natan, who

gives a

more than 140 towns involved in it, with the number list of Jewish inhabitants in each, the total number of heads of and Natan ben Moses families murdered being 600,000 Hanover (1653), whose pamphlet was translated into German by Moses ben Abraham (1686). Amongst the
;

we may name Ephraim ben Joseph of Chelm Gabriel ben Joshua Jacob Margaliot Jacob ben Naphtali of Gnesen Joseph ben Eliezer Lipmann, who also sang of the persecution of Kremsir in a. d. 1673 Lipmann Heller; Mordechai ben Naphtali of Kremsir Moses Cohen Nerol Sabbatai Hurwitz and others. The siege of Prague by the Swedes (1648), was described by Jehuda (Lob) ben Joshua and in the
poets
;

254
Schwedisch Lied,
of the

JEWISH LITERATURE.

TPeriod

III.

reckon the publications of

Among the histories we may perhaps also Manasseh ben Israel in behalf establishment of the Jews by Cromwell (1650). Meir
was
killed

a youth of Prague, who, with on the way to Nicolsburg by the Christians, left a diary, kept during the siege of Vienna by the Turks (1683), which was published by one of those who assisted at his burial. Isaac Cantarini describes, in his distorted manner, the persecution at Padua (1684); and the fate of that same congregation was also the subject of a
several others,

BEN Perez Schmelkes,

MS. work by

his

nephew Moses Chajjim Cantarini.

at

An
of a

unprovoked persecution

Posen (1696)

is

the subject

German narrative published in 1725, and also of a song by Isaac ben Menahem. At the beginning of the 18th

century two
the
first

women

of Prague published a legend about

settlement of the

Jews

in that town,

which seems

to have been the foundation of a recent publication on the

subject in the collection Sippurim

Chajjim ben Jacob,

Jews
the
at

of Erbich,
first

and in 1718 the printer brought out a more

Spanish
was, probably,

authentic account of the

in Holland.

settlement of the

Joseph van Maarssen

German translator (1707) of a Dutch account of a tumult An anonymous German writer Amsterdam (1696).
Jews
at

described the procession of the

Prague

at the birth

Solomon ben Jehuda Levi of of Leopold (1716). Dessau gave an account of accusations brought against Jesaia Segre, at Reggio the Jews at Hamburg (1730). (17 34), related the Italian war partly in ottave rime Joel (Lamel) ben Selke Levi described the siege of Glogau (1741); Israel Fraenkel, at Nicolsburg, wrote on the persecution of the Jews in Moravia (1742) Jacob Berab^ at Tiberias, described a catastrophe which befel the Jews of that place at the hands of the sheikh (1742) and Jacob
;
;

Emden,
It

at

Alton a, published a compilation of documents,

&c., referring to the history of various sects (about 1752). would lead us too far if we were to pursue the reasons

why
little

the reformation of Mendelssohn and his school did so to promote Jewish history, compared with the other

branches of science.

 29.]

HISTORY, GEOGEAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC.

the liturgical

255
name

Historical poetry adopts sometimes

and form of

Seliclia,

Kina, &c.

( 20. 28.),

without being

always intended for public or private worship. Some poems are accompanied with a German translation, or were composed
originally in

German

{Klaglied, &c.).

The following

chro-

nological enumeration of subjects and authors (omitting the

few already mentioned), although incomplete, will give an

idea of their variety and interest, since every one of them supplies

some

particulars concerning historical events.

Jacob
Ancona

BEN JoAB Elia Faxo

(1556); and
the death of a

describes the massacre at

Menahem Chajjut
young
scholar (1590).

the

fire

at

Posen, and

Special SeUchot were

composed by Moses Maegaliot, and, according to Zunz, by Samuel Edels, on the Polish martyrs (1596-1603); by Ephraim Lexczicz on the Passover Calamity at Prague by Lipmanx Heller on the conquest of Prague (1611) (10th November, 1620) and by Meshullam Sullam (or Salem ?), who, at the order of the Deputies, wrote a Kina on the burning of the synagogue at Mantua (1610). The plundering of the Jews at Frankfurt on Main, and the
;
;

scandalous conduct of Yincenz Fettmilch (1614-16) are described in the

Vine-Lied of

Elchanan Helen.

Several

martyrs and victims of cruelty and extortion in Poland (1631, 1636, 1666, 1676, 1690-91) were celebrated by

NaTAN SpIRA BEN SOLOMON, ZeBI BEN MaRDOCHAI, tWO anonymous authors, Zeeb (Wolf) ben Joseph, and Samuel Auerbach. The expulsion of the Jews from Vienna (1670) was sung by the precentor Jacob. The conflagrations at Nachod (1663), Prague (1669), Frankfurt on Main (1711), and Altona (1711), were recorded by Zebi BEN Joseph, Jechiel ben Abraham Salman, Dayid ben Schemaja Saugers, Samuel Schotten, Rabbi of Frankfurt on Main (in a Selicha), by an anonymous the epidemic of Niauthor, and by Samuel Hekscher colsburg, and the persecutions connected with it (1680), by Jacob ben Solomon Singer Hurwitz; and that of Prague (1713) by Issachar ben Issachar Gersoni, and Moses Eisenstadt, who particularises the sufferers and
;

the medicines employed.

To

these

we may add an

ano-

256
nymous
prose

JEWISH LITERATURE.
account
in

[Period

III.

German, of a great calamity where the Turks killed, amongst others, the Kabbi Nathan ben Moses of Ostroh The Prostitzer Kedoshim, celebrated by Chajjim (1683). BEN Shalom (about 1684 ?), are two thieves who preferred hanging to apostasy. Aahon ben Joseph, a captive of Buda (1686), sings the fate of his Jewish fellow-captives and the generosity of their liberator. Sender Tausk of Prague The youth Simle Abeles, who was converted to (1688). Christianity, and whose grave is still shown to the visitors at the Teinkirche at Prague, is also the subject of two Klaglieder on the sufferings of his congregation (1694). The cruelties perpetrated at Kaidan and Zausmer (1698) formed the subject of special Selichot, with a commentary by
at Ungarischbrod (in Moravia),

the author,

Joseph ben Uri Shraga of Kobrzin. Lastly, MoRDECHAi Zahalon wrotc a poem on the inundation of
Legends
and
e.

Ferrara (1707), &c.

martyrologies,
partly

taken

sources, and generally published anonymously,

circulation,
g. those

from older were put into

on K. Amnon, Meir ben Isaac (before

1696), Eleazar of Worms, Solomon Molco (1532), Adam Baal-Shem (1564-76), Isaac Loria, Sabbatai Zebi, Shechna at Cracow (1682 ?), Joseph deUa Reina, and a German elegy

on the death of Lipmann, precentor at Prague (before 1674). There were also some miraculous and superstitious accounts, for instance, those on exorcisms atNicolsburg (1696) and Korez (17th century?); and others pretending to be true, such as the History of Shusan (Susa), or of R. Chanina Albeldi and his ten brothers, who bound themselves These form the transition to real fables and to the Devil Autobiographies were written poetical inventions ( 28.). by Jehuda de Modena (ob. 1648) and his grandson Isaac
!

Levi (born 1621); Abraham Conque, at the beginning of the 18th century, related the events of his two missions
others

gave

interesting

particulars

in

their

wills,

e. g.

Pinch as Katzenellenbogen (cir. 1760), whose curious account of the celebrated Saul Wahl (said to have been King
of Poland for one day) has been lately published.
historical

Other

materials are inserted in prefaces and epilogues.

29.]

HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC.

257

by the Spanish exiles, as Abravanel, Joseph Ibn Jahja, Jehuda Chajjat, and later by Solomon Ibn Athia (1549) (v. sup.). In memory of general and
especially

memorial

days were instituted, and (nVlD) written, e. g. by Meir ben Jechiel Broda at Cracow, called Meir Kadosh (1632), and by LiPMANN Heller (1645); and Selichot by Abraham Auerbach (1673) and others already mentioned. To this head belong the funeral orations ("TSDn) and some important contests between the Rabbles and the congregations
particular events, feast
rolls

and

fast

Levi at Ferrara of Berab Avith Ibn Chabib Alashkar with Kapsoli Misrachi and Nehemia Ch ajJUN with their different adversaries (1714); Jonathan Ebetnschutz with Jacob Emden; the history of a divorce by Moses Proyencale that of the taxers at Padua
as that of
; ;
;

(1711) by Isaac Cantarini, &c., which are to be found in the Sentences ( 25.). Also the statutes (D''3lp^n, m^pn)
of various congregations,
e. g.

of

Mantua (1620, 1711-17),

Prague (1654 and 1702), Moravia (1655-1722), Amsterdam (1711, &c.), Flirth (1728), and others; and memorial books, as that of Worms by Jehuda Kirchheim (1625), have
been partly printed, although the greater number remain MS. and await the labours of the learned historian. The literature of geography and ethnography increased in proportion to the means of communication, and to the interest taken in travels, which received a new impulse The principal subjects of in the 15th and 16th centuries. writers on travel, at this time mostly Kabbalists, were Palestine and its tombs, the journey thither, &c., on which we have works, treatises, letters, and the like by Bain

ruch (1522) an anonymous writer (1537); Gerson ben Asher Scarmela (1561); Elia di Pesaro (1563); Uri ben Simeon (1564), who made drawings of the tombs; Solomon Schlimel ben Chajjim (1606 1609); and Gerson ben Eliezer (1635), whose Jewish-German work MoreAvas publicly burnt in Warsaw by the Jesuits. over, MoRDECHAi BEN Jesaia Littes (1649) and Moses ben Israel Naphthali of Prague (1650) wrote in JewishGerman. Samuel Phobus ben Nat an describes the
;

258

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period TIL

towns in Russia and Poland, with the number of their Jewish inhabitants mtirdered by Chmelnicki's gang (sup. Gedalja of Semiecz (1716) and Joseph Sofer p. 253.). (1765, in Jewish-Grerman 1767) described the sufferings of the Jews of Palestine. We have besides the travels
of

David Eubeni,

the pretended Prince

of the

Jews

in Abyssinia, to

whom

the celebrated proselyte Solomon

;

Molcho attached himself (1526) and those of Pedro Texeira (ob. at Yerona in the 17th century), who made a journey to India and Persia. The latter also wrote a history of the Persian kings, taken from Persian authorities,

Moses Pereira de Paiva gave some

Jews

account of the

in Cochin- China (1687, translated into Jewish-Ger-

man

The pretended discovery of the Ten Tribes in 1688). Abyssinia or Arabia gives ample matter for the discussions

of travellers and their interpreters. On this subject we have the writings of Isaac Akrisch (cir. 1577); Abraham Ibn Megas, Soleiman's regimental surgeon at Haleb (1585); and Aaron Halevi (Antonio Montezinos), who escaped from the Inquisition, and whose supposed discovery of the Ten Tribes in South America (1642), supported by Manasseh ben Israel's interpretations, provoked much controversy. MosES ben Abraham, a proselyte and printer at Halle, collected all the earlier information on the subject in Jewish-German (1712). There is also a doubtful letter of R. Samuel and Asher of Susa, who are said, on the testimony of Jacob ben Eliezer Ashkenasi, to have arrived in 1579 at Safet; and another letter written to the Beni Musa in the year 1647 (?). topography of Palestine was written in Latin by Jacob Zaddik ben Abraham (1631); and a geography of the same country (in Hebrew), by

Chajjim Pheibel ben Israel of Tarnigrod (1772). Moses Almosnino's description of Constantinople (1567) was translated by Jacob Cansino (1638) into Spanish; JoNADAB (1575) described Africa Menahem ZiOn (Emanuel) Porto of Trieste (1640) wrote a Breve InstU
;

tuzione della Geogrqfia

Meir Neumark
into

(1703) translated
;

some geographical works

Chagis

tried to pi*ove

Jewish-German MoSES that the wall shown at Jerusalem as

 29.]

HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, ANTIQUITIES, ETC.

is

259

that of the old temple

DE Lara,
years;

bookseller at

genuine (1738); Isaac Cohen Amsterdam, published a Spanish

Guida da Passageros, together with a calendar for thirty and Benjamin Croneberg descvihed geographische und historische Merkiourdigkeiten (1752). There are maps extant, e. g. by Jacob Zaddik and Abraham ben Jacob
the proselyte, the latter (1695) with

Hebrew

letters.

The

Jewish-German Hand-book for Travellers by the grapher Sabbatai Bass (1680) contains posting

biblio-

routes.

Plates, plans, &c., are to be found in editions of the Easter

Haggada. N. H. Wessely (1782) laid great stress on the importance of geographical instruction in Jewish schools
and B. Lindau (1789) devoted a chapter of his elementary work, published at the end of this period, to geography. The investigation of Jewish antiquities is immediately connected with the most varied Halacha subjects. We will mention the works and treatises referring to the ancient worship of the Temple, vestments of the priests, music, these works are in some degree connected with the &c. treatise Middol ( 5.), and are generally accompanied with illustrations: viz. those by As. DE Eossi (1575); L.
;

Heller
(1612),

(1602)
is

Abraham Portaleone ben David

who

the most important writer on this subject;

Jacob Jeh. Leon, who wrote some essays in Spanish, and was called Templo, because he made a model of the old
Temple (1646), which he exhibited amongst others to the king of England (1675); Nathan Spira ben Reuben
(1655); EliezerRichetti(1676);

Moses Chefez Gen-

tile (1696); Alexander Ethausen, in the supplement to his Jewish-German history (1719); Emanuel (Chai) Ricchi (1737) and Jacob Aboab, the learned correspondent of linger ( 24.), who collected stones and aromatics for a work on the breast-plate of the High Priest and the frankincense of the Temple. Among the Miscellanies on various subjects, or sug;

gested

by passing

events,

may be mentioned,
Constantinople
s 2

Hebrew
the

translation of the prophecies &c. of

Nostradamus by Moses
(cir.

BoTAREL BEN Leon

at

1561);

Mnemotechnics of an anonymous writer according

to the

260

JEWISH LITERATUBE.

[Period

III.

system of Pierre Fran9ois d'Orvieto; and a similar work accompanied with a historical introduction on Jewish Mnemotechnics by Jeh. Arje de Modena (1612), who, like Gesvaldo a little earlier (1592), treated also of AmnemoneuSecret or cipher writing was cultivated by Men ahem Porto (1556); Abraham Colorni, ambassador of the Duke of Ferrara at Prague, who dedicated his Scotographia (1593) to the Emperor Kudolph II.; and by Jacob ben Eljakim in his mathematical work (1613)o Meir Magin
tics.*

of France at E-ome wrote to Sixtus Y. (1588) on the use of silk ; Joseph Penco de la Yega illustrated the business

of the stock-exchange from a moral point of view (1688);

and Jehuda Bolat attempted to make an encyclopaedical enumeration of all the sciences (1530). The pseudonymous treatise of Jehuda de Modena against tradition and the Rabbinical system, which has been lately published by S. J. Reggio^ is unique and full of 19th century ideas.
30.

1
.

Mathematics and Physical Science,

Mathematics had in the preceding period been developed and in its newer theories came so little into collision with the peculiar tendencies of the Jewish literature, that had the times been more favourable to, or even tolerant of, a taste for theoretical and scientific subjects, independent original works would doubtless have been written, or those of foreigners translated, besides the writings which were intended to throw light on the mathematical parts of the Halacha and other antiquities ( 29.): e. g. that by Moses Isserl at Cracow (1570); MoRdechai Jafe at Prague (1595); Jacob Koppelmann of Brzesc(1598); and Jehuda ben Chanoch ben Abraham
to a considerable extent as an independent science,

at Pfersee (1708).

The

successors of the commentators,

&c., in the former period ( 21.),

to

whom
led

belongs

Moses Provencale, who was

and some other writings of the Jews on

in some degree by a passage in

* These

that subject are not

meni.

tioned in the article Geddchtnisskunst in the Encyclopsedia of Ersch,

vol. ir. p. 411.

sect.

An

analysis of Jeh. de
'

Modena has been

given, with supple-

mentary notes by the author of

Blatter," 1845, p. 709. etc.

this essay, in the

Journal " Oesterreichische

|30.J

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

to

261

the

Moreh

compose a

treatise

on a theorem of Euclid,

by Joseph Shalit (1550) and into Latin by Baronius (1586), and erroneously ascribed by the are followed by Joseph del latter to Moses Narboni,
translated into Italian

INIedigo, an independent mathematician and rival of a learned

Kahira (1606); he wrote a book on mea Karaite of that place, and author of an able supplement to Euclid he also makes a quotation in his astronomical Paradoxa from the catoptrics Multiplication tables (cir. 1610) and arithof Ptolemy. metical puzzles were framed in Germany by Jacob ben Eljakim (1613), for primary instruction and an exercise and arithmetics were written by the Italians of subtlety Emanuel Porto (1627) in Hebrew, and Iseppo (Joseph) LuzzATTO (1670) in Italian. Subsequently similar works appeared in Jewish-German by an anonymous writer at Amsterdam (1699), Moses Hetda (1711), and Moses Eisenstadt ben Chajjim (1712); and in Hebrew and
at

Muhammedan

chanics for

Jacob Alexandri

German by MosES Serach Eidlitz (1775). Asher Anshel ben Wolf of Worms (1721), Samson Gijnzburg, and Elias ben Moses Gerson of Pinczow (ante

Baruch Sklow (cir. 1777) 1765) wrote on geometry. and Israel Lyons (ob. in England translated Euclid;
1775) wrote on the differential calculus. Although Astronomy had lost its practical interest through the general method of determining the Kalendar which was
this time in common use, still the reverence for ancient independent works and treatises on the Law, the complete revolution which had taken place in Astronomy, its

by

influence on dogmatic theology,

and the

afforded for constructing the Kalendar,

production of exegetical, historical,

treatises

which it conduced to the polemical, and practical

facilities
all

upon

this

science.

Thus we

find perpetually

come.

mentaries on Maimonides'
g.

Laws

of the Kalendar ( 21.)

by Mardochai Jafe (1594), J. L. Heller (1632), Arje (Lob) at Lublin (1667), Jonathan ben Joseph (1720), and others also, on the Astronomy of Abraham ben Chijja, by the same Mordechai Jafe and Jonathan (1746); and on the Six Wings of Emanuel ben Jacob, by
;

262

JEWISH LITERATURE.

[Period III.

Isaac ben Jechiel Ashkenasi (1558), extant in a MS. at Leyden. Various works were explained, and extracts

made from them, by Chajjim Lisker

the 17th century), probably of Brzesc.

(in the middle

of

The theory of the Kalendar (m^nnp) was discussed by Issachar Ibn Susan at Safet (1539-1575); and Solomon Oliveyra invented some Spanish and Hebrew tables (1666, &c.). Of the Ka-

lendars calculated for a longer or shorter period, furnished

more or less with general rules, and in various languages, and sometimes referring to the Christian and Muhammedan Kalendars, we will mention the Threefold Kalendar in

rhyme by Joseph ben Shemtob (1489, printed 1521), with a commentary by Daniel Perachia at Saloniki
(1568),
rare

who added
that

the

astronomical tables of

Abraham
the

Zacut, not however

edition;

to be found in all the copies of that

of

Abraham Zahalon

(1595);

Kalendar by Dayid Alvalensi (cir. 1660); the Spanish by Abraham Yesigno for 1626-1666; different Hebrew Kalendars by Moses ben Samuel Zuriel for 1654-1674, by Chijja Oabriel of Safet for 16751710, and by Isaac i>e Lara for 1704-1734; an anonymous one for 1713-1827 one in Hebrew and Spanish by David ISTieto for 1718-1800; and the Lunario perpetuohj
Italian
;

Astronomy in general, (1657). more important branches, was treated by Dayid Gans at Prague (ob. 1613), who corresponded on scientific subjects with King Rudolph's astronomer Kepler (subsequently to 1599 at Prague), with Tycho Brahe, for whom
or in
its
.

Aaron Franco Pinhero

he translated a part of the Alphonsinian Tables, and who was also in communication with Johann Miiller, Gans, although acquainted with the system of Copernicus, followed the Ptolemaic, considering the former to be the Pythagorean; he also ventured to assert that the Prophet Daniel made a mistake in computation. Menahem (Emanuel) Zion Porto wrote a Porta Astrorum (1636), and a treatise dedicated to Ferdinand III. on the astronomical miracles of Joshua and Hezekiah (1643). Solomon Esobi (Azubius
the teacher of Plantavitius
?)

composed (1633)

for Schick-

hard, at the instance of Pereira, an introduction to some as-

 30.]

MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

263

tronomical tables, three centuries older ( 21. n. 61.). Meir Neumaek translated from the German (1703); Tobia Co-

hen (1708) argued against the Copernican system and even David Nieto in London (1714) wrote against the Coperni;

cans, the Cartesians, and the Karaites, with a zeal

which

sometimes led him into

his subject

error.

Raphael Levi Hanover

(1734) showed considerable diligence and knowledge of and the same may be said to a certain extent
;

also of

Israel Samosc
and

(ob.

1772), the teacher of

the
first

Menthe

delssohn,

Baruch Sklow,

editor

of

astronomy of Isaac Israeli, which he illustrated with diagrams (1777). Israel Lyons was appointed by the English Admiralty to accompany Capt. Phipps (afterwards Lord Mulgrave) on the Arctic expedition (1773), and was
intrusted with the charge of the ship's reckoning.

On

longing to this period

Astrology there are but few independent works beof these we may mention The Book ;

of Lots, by Eliezer "the astronomer" (1559), and various productions by the Portuguese Comes palatinus Jacob

KosALES
treatise
2.

at Hamburg (1624 seq.). Joseph del Medigo's on practical Kabbala has never been printed. The Medical literature of this period, which is very

poor in
others

Hebrew works, is
on their
art,

opened, notwithstanding the papal

Italian physicians,

restrictions

by some

and by

who

derived their origin from Spain and Portugal.

Among

these

Amatus Lusitanus

(1547)

first

observed the

valve of the unformed veins, and must have been very near
discovering the circulation of the blood

LEONE (1564)
gold.

Abraham PortaJews the first medical use of Two medical treatises by Abraham Nahmias at
;

claims for the

Elia Montalto,
royal family,

Constantinople were translated into Latin (1591, 1604); and physician in ordinary to the French

is said to have been the author of two Latin works (1614) on the same subject; Rodriguez de Castro, at Hamburg, wrote on the duties of a physician (1596), and on the Plague; this subject was treated also by De

PoMis (1577), Moses Staffelsteiner (1596), Abra-

ham FoNSECA
authorities

(1712), and in a compilation from foreign Zacutus Lusitanus by David Landshut.

S 4

261
made

JEWISH LITERATUBE.

[Period

III.

a critical comparison between Greek and Arabian medicine (1629-1642). Joseph del Medigo translated

(1629) the Aphorisms of Hippocrates from the Latin, and wrote various treatises on physic another Hebrew trans;

same Aphorisms, published in his own name by Gaiotius (Rome, 1647), was certainly not made without the assistance of a Jew, if indeed the editor had any share at
lation of the

the translation. Ezekiel da Costa (1642) wrote on the diseases named after beasts Chajjim Buchner composed a work on diet (1669), published with a Latin translation by Wagenseil. Jacob Zahalon (1683) describes, in his Comprehensive Pathology, amongst other things the state of Rome during the plague (1651); the introduction treats the subject theologically, and the 13th section is devoted to the infirmities of the soul. In the 18th century we have scientific dissertations written for the deojree of M.D., which was now more frequently conferred. Besides these there were the Kabbalistic mystical works of the
all in
;

Polish miracle-workers (called

possessor of the

Baalshem,

DtS'Vpn^,

i.

e.

the

name

of God),

whom Tobias Cohen (1708),

physician to the imperial family at Constantinople, opposed in his learned encyclopasdic work, undertaken as a vindication of Jewish science against the calumnies of the
intolerant professors at Frankfurt,

and carried out with remarkable learning, and the experience of an extensive prac-

tice.

He was also

the

first

to treat, in the

Hebrew language,

" Plica polonica," from personal observation. Amongst the writers of this century we may mention Joseph Stella Silya (nmr)) ben Abraham of Ferrara, in Vienna (1714) at Paris, who, according to Voltaire's judgment, did better service by his practice than even by his highly prized work on blood-letting (1727). Pereira, at the royal library at Paris, made the first researches on the cure of the deaf and dumb, in a treatise read before the Royal Academy (11th June,
of the
;

1749, earlier than

De

I'Epee).

De Castro Sarmento,
wrote on the on Brazil diaon the English who promoted

Fellow of the Royal Society of London, use of Peruvian bark, on small-pox, and monds (1755-1762); Israel Lyons wrote Flora; and Jacob Marx, at Hanover,

 30.]

MATHE^IATICS AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

tlie

265

the use of acorn-cofFee, answered

of

exaggerated attacks

Herz and

others on the

early interment of the

Jews

(1765-1784).

Several well-known physicians were brought

up
for

at Berlin, such as

ob. 1772);

Leox Elia Herschel (nat. 1741, Mordechai Gumpel (called Prof. Leyison), some time professor at Upsala (ob. 1797 at Haman opponent of Mendelssohn
;

bui'g),

the famous icthyo-

logist

1799 at Karlsbad); and Professor Herz (ob. 1803). These close the Third Period, and commence series a of Jewish writers on medicine and natural history have who not yet been brought under review.

Bloch

(ob.

NOTES.

PERIOD
1.

I.

Page

1.

1 have scarcely any compendious account of Jewish literature The Spanish might be collected not written in the Hebrew language. out of De Castro's '^ Bibhotheca Espanola," if this work could be relied Of the printed Jewish-German literature, the author of this upon. essay has given an alphabetical list of 385 books or works (after a MS. catalogue of the Oppenheim collection now in the Bodleian, and But this is Wolfius) in the German journal Serapeum, 1848-1849. now superseded by the Catalogue of the Hebrew books in the Bodleian

We

by the present author. A monograph on the Jewish hterature in the Arabic language, and the translations from that and other languages in the Middle Ages (comp. 11, 12. 21, 22.), was promised by the author ten years ago, when he began collecting materials for that purpose ; but the specimens of his researches given in the Catalogue mentioned above will be sufficient excuse for still delaying the completion

2.
1

Page

2.

Zunz, Gottesd. Vortr. (see note 13.), pp. 22. 31. Rapoport, Osterr. Blatt. f. Lit. u. Kunst, 1845, p. 580. 3 Zunz, G. V. p. S3.; conf. Geiger, Der hamburg. Tempelstreit^ p. 17.; M. Sachs, Die relig. Poesie der Juden in Spanien, p. I67. 4 Zunz, G. V. pp. 44. 98. 120. 170. 5 Jellinek (Franck, Die Kabbala, Germ. Transl. by Jellinek), p. If, 292.; Schlesinger, Einl. zur Uebers. des Buches Ikkarim, p. 21. with certain modern authorities, we ascribe to Zoroaster a higher antiquity, the Parseeism which influenced the Jews is not much older. 6 Krochmal, Kerem Chemed, v. QS.; Frankel's Zeitschr. ii. 301.
2

On
7 8 ^

the

canonical

number 70-72

see

Steinschneider's essay in

the

Zeitschr. der d.

m. Gesellsch. iv. 147. See Rapoport in Frank. Zeitschr. i. 355., and also below, I6. Concerning the early separation of these see Zunz, G. V. p. 44. The Samaritans are excluded from this account of Jewish liteZunz, G. V.
p. 36,

rature.
10

268
^^

NOTES TO
Krochmal,
loc. cit. in

3.

note 6.

^2

The Mishna Abot

(see p. 40.) contains opinions

Great Synod, &c.

1. c.

See Rapoport^ Ker.

Chem.

vii.

by men of the 16?.; conf. Zunz,

for 3. 5, 6.
^^

Gottesd. Vortrage &c. Brl. 1832) is the main authority The popularising "^ Aphorisms " in Fiirst's Litteraturblatt, 1841, are suited to no class of readers.

^3

ZuNz (Die

Jason^ Fuscus, and Theodoret (Wolf. Bibl. Hebr. See Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. d. hebr. Poesie, pp. 28. 134. That Phocylides was a Jew has been recently demonstrated by Bernays.
iii.

Among whom
c.)

667

are

to

be reckoned.

3.
1

Page

5.

The Midrashim Tanchuma Jelamdenu, Esther Rahha, Midr.

example^ have two kinds of redactions. part of the is introduced into the middle of Wajikra Rahha, and a fragment of the Pesikta Rahhati is subjoined. The genuine Pesikta, a name claimed also by two later works, has been lately reconstructed from fragments discovered some years ago in different recensions. Even the Halachot gedoloth and pesukoth were long known simultaneously in their separate and their combined forms. The frequent titles 5<2"l (great) and XJOIT (small) are important; and perhaps, as with persons ( 19-):' ^^7 denote old and young. 2 See the author's remarks in the Serapeura, 1845, p. 294. sq. 3 Id. p. 289. ; Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. p. 385. ^ Zunz, G. V. pp. 41. 322.; comp. Formstecher, Die Religion des Geistes, p. 262. ^^ ^ Ben Bag Bag (Abot, 5. 22.). As early as the times of Aristeas, Hillel, Jonathan, Philo, and the Apostles, Biblical interpretation was a wide-spread study and an honourable occupation." Zunz, G. V. p. 323. ^ Respecting the Jewish origin of the Peshito see Frankel, Vorstudien zur Septuag. p. 184. (and pp. 170, I7I. 197- 210, 211. 217. 223. in the notes upon the influence of the Talmudical exegesis, upon which subject Frankel has since published a monography). Rapoport, Frankel's Zeitschr. i, 358., where more valid grounds than those refuted by Rodiger (Encykl. sect. 3. vol. 18. p. 29^.) are brought forward. ^ Luzzatto, Geig. Zeitschr. iv. 412., v. 124.; Rapop. Ker. Chem. v. 178. sq. 224. sq., vi. 172.; Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 111.; A. Levy, Geig. Zeitschr. v. 175. sq.; Lit. bl. vii. 337- sq. See also below, I6.
Tillim, for

Tana

debe Elijahu

note 3. 7.
^ Zunz, p. 38. The opposite to these were the Idiotae (]>"li<n DV Pagani), by which terra men of the wildest immorality, guilty of murder and the like, are generally to be understood in the Talmud (in opposition to Jost, Gesch. iii. 110., Anhang, p. 150.); conf. Rossi, Delia Vana Aspettazione degliEbrei del loro Re Messia (Parma, 1773), The distinction of " clergy " and '^ laymen " is but an inp. 209-

vention of modern Idiotse. 9 Respecting funeral discourses see in particular Dukes, Rabb. Blumenlese, p. 247. sq.
.

NOTES TO
10

4.

269
Zeitschr.
v.

Zunz, G. V. 323. 331. 337.;

Jahrbiicher, vol.
c.

Geiger,

67.

Cf.
5.

Wiener
11

p. 93.,

and on the Pesikta beloWj

note 108.

Zunz, G. V.

p.

308.

4.
'

Page

9.

1 The modern works and treatises on this subject, viz. by Brtjck:^ Chorin, CreizenacH;, Fassel^ Frankelj Geiger, Holdheira, S. Sachs (Frank. Zeitschr. iii. 133. sq.), and others^ form a literature of themselves^ a sketch of which would exceed the limits of this article ; conf. ZuNZ^ Kurze Antworten auf Cultusfragen (Bed. 1844), p. 15. 2 It is important to observe that the same expression is also applied to the prophetical books (Zunz, G. V. 44., contra Briick, Rabb, Cerem.

p. xi.).
^

the later signification of Kahhala, see 13. note 15. notion that Jewish practice has grown up principally from this kind of interpretation of Scripture (cf. Maimonides, Introd. to the

On

The

late successfully combated. Zunz, G. V. pp. 42. 421., 13. ^ So, for example, even after the termination of penal jurisdiction, up to recent times, the Jewish "Court" (|n D''^) could enact the most severe disciplinary punishment (niTlD. fl^D) for transgression of the ceremonial law. This is still the case in Turkey, &c. The expression pi, judgment, remained in the ritual decisions of later times. To the writers on Jewish law and rabbinical authority mentioned by Zunz (Kurze Antw. 90 we may add the names of Frankel, Fassel (cf. Lit. bl. viii. 203.), Saalchutz, Bodenheim^ Stein, and others. ^ Creizenach, Tharjag (conf. Geiger, Zeitschr., ii. 548.) j Briick, Das Mosaische Judenthum, and 1. c. p. 1. On the part of the older Kara4

Mishna-Comm.) has been of

ites,
7

Zunz,

the treatise of Hedessi, 242., must be mentioned. p. 43., cf. Jalkut, 1000.

8 The Chaldee Paraphrase has n'^hn for the Hebrew DSK^D (Ezech. xxi. 9-) for which the Chaldee ^^''JID (rad. ^5JD) was then
;

adopted

corresponding to the Arabic bj^^\ (Nathan,

s.

v. in

Dukes,

BlumenL, conf. Zunz, G. V., pp. 42, 43.); and thus it originally meant the simple thesis, doctrine, in contradistinction to K^IID, study, investigation (see also Targum Koh. 12. 12.); then also the result of investigation, tinal judgment (Gerson in Buxtorf, Lex. s. v.), as a rule for practice (ncyo), and finally everything relating to Respecting Eisenmenger's practice, in contradistinction to Haggada.
Glossar. zur

Besides Zunz's enumeration mistake, see the foot note, supra, p. 18. of authorities, see also Succa, 28., and especially Sanhedrin, 101., conf.
Jalkut, Proverbs,
against
5. n. 11. \ founded wish here to remark, once for all, upon this and all other technical terms used in this article, in consequence of which the determination and development of the various periods of literature are rendered extremely difficult, and have frequently occasioned various mistakes and anachronisms.

Zunz

The remarks of 953. are, like some others (cf. n. 53.

I

Graetz (Gesch. p. 489.)

and

on a distortion of his views. the extreme uncertainty of

270
9

NOTES TO

4.

as
V.

The Midrash, after its manner, interprets the end of Ecclesiastes a warning against apocryphal books, as Krochmal (Ker. Chern. similar case is found in the Muhamme80.) acutely remarks.

dan

literature,, vid.

Hadschi Chalfa,
p. 37.

ed. Fliigel,

i.

p. 97.

conf.

Mills,

Hist,

du Mahommetisme,

The Gauls

also

were prohibited from

committing their traditionary songs to writing. Csesar (De Bel. Gal. recognises in this a precaution against levity in learning them. Thamus (see Plato, Phaedrus) makes a similar remark on the disadvantage of writing. See Grimm's preface to the Kin derm ahrchen (Gottingen,
vi. 4.)

1843),
^^

p. xvii. note.

These must have existed long before the date assumed by Briick, See also 5., and cf. n''"n^?1 (Mehlsack), Lit. bl. xii. 143. p. XXV. ^^ The main authority for this part of the essay is an unfinished work by Krochmal, prepared for the press by Dr. Zunz, with the assistance of the author, in which the first attempt is made to arrange in a historico -philosophical manner the origin and development of the Halacha. That work has been since published, (Lemberg, 1851,) but
is

printed very incorrectly.

^2

The

corresponding chapter

is

the 13th,

p. l6l. sq.

Even later great litterati retain that name (Kelim, 13. 6.) afterit was used for transcribers and notaries, teachers of children and prelectors (conf. t^lp, l6. rem. 15.). Hupfeld (De Rei Gramm.
;

wards

p. 2.) takes it as
^3

a denominative participle of "ISD, and says of Gese'^^

nius's satisfactory derivation,

Nihil cogitari potest absurdius."

For the transcription from the old Hebrew into the square character, the testimony of Eliezer ben Jacob (Sebachim, 6'2.), an authority (Cf. the dissertation of in matters of tradition, is of some importance. M. A. Levy on the inscriptions on the vessels discovered by Layard, in Azaria de Rossi (see the Zeitschrift der d. m. Gesellschaft, ix. 476.)
is to be considered as a leader in these investigations, The expression D^iaiD Hl^'pn, therefore, does See Erubin, 14. b. not occur, as Krochmal remarks, p. l6'7. ^5 Krochmal, 1. c. p. 169-:, gives authorities. That the beginning of

23.)
14

is probable, although the expression It is Soferim may be referred to the younger transcribers (note 12.). worth mentioning that Joseph Ibn Wakkar (see the article in Ersch, sect. ii. vol. 31. p. g6. note 3. c.) designates the variations of Keri and Respecting the changes of puncKetib " variae lectiones " (niXriDIJ). tuation for euphony, after the manner of the Targum, see Luzzatto, Proleg. ad una Gram. Ragion. &c. p. 21. and below, l6. 16 Hither, according to Krochmal, p. I67., is probably to be referred the warning of R. Ismael, Erubin, 13. (^contra Jost, iv. Anh. p. 225.). On DnDID ^Jlp^n, Buxtorf, in his Lex. Chald. p. 2631., says, '' Explicationem prolixiorem, imo tractatum justum, res ista requirit." ^^ See the commentary to Succa, 28 a. Ibn Ezra, Zachot. According to Kircheim (Lit. bl. v. 674.), perhaps grammatical rules; on the This subject still requires other hand, see below, I6. rem. 49. further light to be thrown on it. See Krochmal, p. 173. 15

the Masora reaches so far back

By

a similar

metonymy

mD

signifies a

certain

ethical

deport-

NOTES TO

4.

271

ment, a virtue, nilO (in the plural), the attributes of God, character, See below 12. B. and 13. ^^ Synh. 7' b. Krochraal, Parallel instances of the derivap. 175. tion of such expressions for judgment, &c., from roots which signify to cut, to cut off, &c., have been collected by the author from the new Hebrew and Arabic in his notes to Maimonides, Maaraar Hajichud,
ethics.

p. 9. note 8.

cap. 4. conf., on the subject of '' Judges of SenKetub. cap. is. 20a Frankel, Die Lehre vora Beweis nach jud. Rechte, p. 60. 2^ On the language of the Mishna there have appeared, besides the essays of Hartmann, Reggio, and Luzzatto (mentioned in Luzzatto, Proleg. p. 6Q.), special tracts by Geiger and Dukes ; conf. also the author's Die Fremdsprachl. Elera. in. Neuheb., &c. (Prague, 1845), p. 24., and Lit. bl. vii. 325.

20

Megil. Taanit.

tences "

(nnnj

^:)>n),

22
23

is the common active participle ; the Chaldee a frequentative, and consequently equivalent to " Repetent" (note 29.) j conf. sup. note 8.
'^

See below, note 29Repeater." The Hebrew form

24 Krochmal, p. I76., still takes 'Xno: for HD^E^H, ''completion," comprehension of tradition, and discussion for the purpose of practical results; but see Zunz, pp.43. 324. sq. On ^1070, as a method of teaching, see note 55., ^5"lDII, to learn (from others), in contradistinction to "l^D, to discuss. Sabb. 6S a. (Dukes, Blumenlese, p. 195.). 25 Sabb. Schekal, 3, 2. Krochmal, p. 184. 8. 1. 26 The expression ypEJ^J, ''"sunk," was used with respect to elements interwoven in this way, e. g. the Mosaic Halachot in the Mishna Krochmal, 1. c. 27 Krochmal, Conf. Ker. Chem. v. 183., on the compop. 193. sition of the '* Testimonies," and ib. vi. 98. ; also below, 5., end of

note
28

1.

Krochmal,

p.

187-

Conf. also Lit.

bl. vii.

325. rem.

6.,

and the

(^^\)z>-\ of the
28a
29

Koran.
9.

Moed. Katan,

Greek devripcocng (conf. mifl n^l^Ki Deuteronomy); hence. Second Thora, or oral law in general ns ?y2E^ (which expression is used already by Shammai, Labb. 31. b., see Wolf, ii. p. 663.), so that Mishna at first would signify the whole Halacha, and have been later applied to single Halachot the expression Ml^'pn HJIK^, however, would be the denominative of But if we start from the supposition that the Halacha must n^^'O. have been handed down orally, and diligently repeated, then ilJS^D Jbn Balam (ad V. Mos, might mean originally a repeated Halacha.
repetition,

nJ^D means

= mm

v. 4.)

derives niJI^O from pK^(!).

Chaldaic plur.
i^TT'^jriD

pn^^D
is

in singular
''^^i^

The following is worth notice: the corresponds to both nVJ&J^D and nO^D, whilst 5^n''"'"11 (see below, note 49.) ; and the freil^lK^.

quentative

appears in the same sense as the simple participle

Conf. also on pn'PD^ and J^JlPDtD, Zunz, p. 47. note, and Krochmal, Briick (p. xxii.) makes the Synedrion of Hyrcanus introduce p. 195.

272
a

NOTES TO

4.

new book of the Law^ the Mishna^ and appeals to the fact that Nehemiah is called Mishna. See, however, above, note 22. so Conf. As. de Rossi, Meor Enajim, cap. 15., and Stein Schneider, Fremdsprachl. Elemente, p. 9. note I7. The author has collected
some information on Jewish Mnemotechnics in the Oesterr. Blatt. 1845, Nr. 91, see also below, note 58., 5. note IO6. Some more general remarks " Ueber die sogenannte Hamiltonische Methode der Juden are given by Dukes, Lit. bl. xi. 382.
;

2^
"I

^2 33

There are no notes corresponding to these numbers, the in the text jumping from 30 to 33.

series

See the journal (published by Jost) Israel. Annalen, i. 108. 131. ; periodical Jerusalem, ii. 56. ; we need some special investigations on the subject of the composition of the Synedrium. Cf.
the

Hebrew

Frankel, Der Beweis, &c. p. 68.

the Maccabees on the
34

also

on the influence exercised by

Hebrew

style.

iii. Anh. p. 148. note 9., p. 150. note 13. ; Bruck, p. Zunz, p. 45. 331. ; Jerusalem, ii. p. 62. sq. ; Kerem Chemed, vi. 143.; Frankel's Zeitschrift, iii. 211. 35 Jost, iv. 318.; Formstecher, p. 311.; Geig. Zeitschr. ii. 41?.; M. Sachs, Rel. Poesie, p. 144. ; Frankel, Der Beweis, &c. p. 94., and on the practical influence, p. 53. 36 Edujot, i. 3. conf. Ker. Chem. v. 172. 181. ; Frankel's Zeitschr. ; ii. 171.; Rapop. Gon. ad Quaest. 9* a. ; Lit. bl. vii. 622. Respecting the names of the schools conf. also Wolf, ii. 914., iv. 446.; Lit. bl.

See Jost,
;

xxiii.

cf.

100. See Ker- Chem. vi. 138. 38 lb. V. 217. 25. 2^ On what follows next see Rapoport's letter to Slonymski, trans lated into German by Delitzsch in Lit. bl. i. 195. ^0 See the quotations in Zunz, p. 46. ; Briick, p. xxvii. 41 Rapoport, Kerem Chemed, vii. 175. 42 See the Biography by Schwarzauer, Lit. bl. iv. 630, sq.
viii.

37

43

44

Zunz, p. 49. Rapoport, Ker.

Chem.

v.

153.

sq.,

and Erech

Millin.

Cf.
see

Y'bnn, a. 123.
45

On

the opinions of Geiger, Luzzatto, Rapoport,

iv.
;

and Reggio,

412., v. 68. tended object see S. Sachs in

Geig. Zeitschr.

Bodek, Jerusal.

ii.

53.
iii.

On
205.
ii.

the pre-

Frankel's Zeitschr.

On

the

sections,
46

Bruck, Pharis.

Sit. p.

10, (after Geig. Zeitschr.

56.).

See

also 5. n. 19-

A
ii.

explains i53''1K,
48

iv. Anh. p. 242. be found in Zunz, G. V. p. 336. ; cf. Zion, 58. ; Lit. bl. v. No. 18.; Frankel's Zeitschr. iii. 174. "^^ ni is Babylonian, ^21 Palestinian. Fiirst, Lit. bl. viii. 18. n. 76., " "

Some antiquated
correct view

notions are quoted by Jost,

more

is

to

of Areka

Rapoport, Ker. Chem., vi. 143, sq., vii. 158. sq. (against Fiirst's Gesch. der Babyl. Lit., Lit. bl. viii. 107.) in the preface to the Responsa Gaonim, ed. D. Cassel (Berlin 1847) fol. 10., coinciding with Geiger, vi. 17.; cf. also the articles i?5<"l2J^ pJ< in Rapop. Erech. Milhn.
49

Conf. Briick, p. xxxi.

NOTES TO
^^

4.

273
p.

fc<n''jnD,

Always in the sing., see above n. 29- Wolf (ii. which however should be written NnX''jnD

662)

reads
it

as in

Scherira

NHN''")!.

The

usual spelling Boraita has been adopted, although

ought

to be

vocalised either Boraito (Chald.) or Baraita (Heb.).

On An

the obsolete Hi'ino see Y'hnn, i. 64. Hedessi, 224. ^^ Conf. supra p. 16. and Landauer, Lit. hi. i. 743., ii. 34. obscure hypothesis, Lit. bl. viii. 410. See Ker. Chem. ix. 23.
52
53

Rapoport, Ker. Chem.

Id. vii.

vi.

l6g.; Lit. bL

viii.

506.

I69.J and the article Jochanan in Ersch and Gruber's Encycl. by Zunz, whom Graetz, however, attacks, Gesch. p. 482. (p. (Cf. 17.) On the interpolations 290.), with his usual sophistry.

330. 253. n. SQ. ^^ Rapop. in Zunz, G. V. p. 53. sq. ; and in Ker. Chem. vii. l64., cf. vi. 232. 248.; Lit. bl. iv. 753., vii. 325.; Bruck, p. xxxii.; Chajes in Bikkure haittim, 5606, p. 14. Frankel also (Vorstud. p. 29.) admits that the Babylonian Talmud injures the more correct ideas contained in the Jerusalem Talmud by many unwarranted additions and inexact statements, and has given examples in different places of his new Monatschrift. 5 The expression "!1D?n was thence used in the signification of method of teaching, see Rapoport, Ker. Chem. vi. 127. 57 See Rapoport, I.e. p. 100.; Zion. i. 108. 126. 58 Zunz, Conf. Ker. Chem. vi. 254.; p. 53. n. 2.; Briick, ii. p. 9. Frankel's Zeitschr. ii. 326. 59 Jost, V. 225. 319.; Ker. Chem. iv. 187. On the other hand, Geiger, Zeitschr. vi. 103. ^^ See passages quoted in Zion, ii. 83. sq. ; Ker. Chem. vi. 250., conf. Beer in Frankel's Zeitschr. iii. 473. note ; Rapoport, Erech
later sources conf. also Lit. bl. viii.
54

from

Jost, iv.;

Anh.

p.

Millin, p. 10., conf. supra, n. 30.

818.) considers

|'!p''"lDD

to

and 5. n. IO6. have been secret writings

Jost (Lit.
at the

bl. vi.

Christian persecutions; see m. Lit. bl. vii. 326., and the article ^' Abbreviaturen," printed as a specimen of the intended Jiid. Realencykl. by Cassel and Steinschneider, 1844. According to Jost, iv.
p. 35.,

time of the

mention

is

made

of sympathetic ink in the Talmud, Jer. Sabb.

cap. 2.
in

On

the later interpolations in the

b.; Chajes,

Zunz, G. V. 141 Lit. bl. X. 312.

6^

Talmud see also Rapoport Mebo ha-Talmud, p. 256.; Oppenheira,

Elem. p. 20. sq.; Frankel's Debarim Attikim, ii., and Nachtrag zu

See

the
iii.

author's
i

Fremdsprachl.
in
1

Zeitschr.

179*

Jellinek
Leipsig,
see

Sefat

Chachamim,
5^2")
SS^'irOK^,

847.

On
2,

the

Persian literature of the

J

Jews
^2

see 8. n. 13.

M. Konitz,

3.

5.;

Conforte, ed. Cassel,

it

a.,

conf. Jost, v. 319.

Sabbatai, sub voce, ascribes

however

to the

Gaonim,

Soferim, and Zizzit cf. the fragment of Jehuda ben Barsillai at the end of Asheri, Tr. Tefillin. (cf. Zion, i.
.'*

conf. 5. note 23. treatises Tefillin, Sefer Tora,

Perhaps

it is

the foundation of the small

97.)
63 See Zunz, p. 89. sq. 310.; Briick, p. 11.; Zion, i. 136., 165. 181.; Rapoport, Ker. Chem. vi. 247.; Frankel's Zeitschr.
ii.
i.

85.

357.

n. 2.

274
6'^

NOTES TO
Jost, V. 229.;

5,

Anh.

p.

341.

restored, see Zunz, p. SO9. n. 6,

The Semicha has however not been The Gaonim composed few works,

because the oral tradition was still continued and preferred to written Meiri, Introd. to Abot. (Revue Orientale, ii. 34.) documents. 6^ Conforte, 3 a. Against Rapoport's artificial derivation of the title (Ker. Chem. vii. 26'8.) see Jellinek, Lit. bl. vi. 172. The time of its origin requires to be defined more accurately. R. Jose (early in the sixth century) is already called Gaon, while IMaimonides (Introd. to the Mishna Comm.) speaks of Gaonim in Spain and France. He designates their writings as Responsa (DUIS^^H), Comm. on the Talmud, and Decisos (nip1D2 Dl^'pn). ^^ Rapoport, Ker. Chem. vi. 230. sq.
67

Bruck,
Conf.

p. 13.

Rapoport, Nissim. n. I6., and epistle to the assembly of Rabbles at Frankfort- on -Main, 1845. 6^ Rapoport's treatise, Ker. Chem. vi. 233., gives some new and interesting dates. Conf. Geig. v. 441.,- see also Zunz, p. 57-; conf, Zion, ii. 159.; Allg. Zeit. d. Jud. 1840, No. 30.; Briick, p. 15. sq., is also here one-sided. It is, however, remarkable that an anonymous Arabic work on the killing of cattle (composed in the twelfth century) always mentions Jehudai Gaon before Simon Kahira, whose Aramaic statements are said (f. 95.) to be given word for word in the Hebrew moreover, the DDt^'n ^IID (see above, p. 27. ; cf. Zunz, p. 281.) same work calls Simon simply i^"l^Xp (^sic only f. 80., in the subsequent places always t^lX^p), '' the author of the m'PnJ niD^Pn ;" while Jehudai Gaon is mentioned without the title of his work, and in onlytwo places (f. 80. and 94.) the quotation is literally " the 1X1 niD'^M, attributed (n2"lDJ?0?X) to Jehudai Gaon." Jeshua, the Karaite (1 0th century), quotes both these Hebrew titles without naming the authors. "^^ See [^Note to " Halacha," p. 26. of text, line 13. from bottom.] On the also Dernburg in Geiger, Zeitschr. v. SQQ. (and note GQ-)different redaction of Joseph Tob-Ele3i see Rapoport, Introd. to the Resp. Gaeon. 5., and Luzzatto, Biblioth. f. 53. 71 Ker. Chem. vi. p. 242. 20.; cf. Hedessi, Alphab. 131. 151., and Xnp^DS NHD^pn, Aboda sara Ta. 72 Rapoport's Emendation (1. c. p. 240. 244.) is confirmed by the new edition of the letter of Scherira (Chofes Matmonim, p. 82, 83.). 73 [Page 27. line 2. of text.] Conf. Zunz, p. 279* l conf. Zeitschr. der d. m. Gesellsch. iv. 148. '^ Hn^^^n^ pnn, Rapoport, p. 246. 75 Printed at Venice, 1545. ''6 The best edition is Dihrenf. 1786, with the excellent notes of J. Jesaia Berlin. Zunz, p. 56. ; Briick, p. I6. 77 [Note to '' Gedolot," p. 27- of text, line 10. from bottom.] Zunz, p. 309. ; Rep. Ker. Chem. vi. 235. 246., and 5. n. 23.
:

5.

Page

28.

[On the whole Section conf. Rapoport in the article n^^^ of his Erech Millin (published since this esfay), and Abraham Schik's Introd. to En, Jakob.

NOTES TO
1

5.

275
ii.

Zunz,

p.

322.; conf. Frankel's Zeitschr.

"^

383.;

M.

Sachs, Rel.
vi.

Poes. p. 147. 2 See the author's

Miscell." in Zeitschr. der d.

m. Gesellsch.

539.

11.

6.

^ Conf. M. Sachs, 1. c. p. 150. From the Judaeo-Muhammedan legend of the Covenant of God with all souls, arose the Muhammedan dogma of the Covenant of the Prophets. ^ Zunz, cap. 4., conf. pp. 43. 324. ; Zion, ii. 107. sq. ^ 6

195, 324. 344. ^ On the later meaning of TD"!, see 17. n. 8. ^ Sachs' remark, 1. c. p. l6"2., must be restricted to
p. 354., conf.
^
10

Zunz, Zunz,

p.

354.; Frankel's Zeitschr.

ii.

385.; Sachs,

p.

174.

this.

Zunz,
j^^Q

p.

325.
L<wJ5

sq., conf.

sup. 4. n. 30.

explanare, hence originally

'>

synonymous with

^*'\1

while a later period distinguishes between Pashtanim and Darshanim ( 17.)' ^^ ^^^ Arabizing style of the l^^' ^^^ simple in a metaphorical and herphilosophers, Dlt^S is
(Geig. Zeitschr. v. 289.)

meneutical sense.
^^

See also

inf. n.

102.

Zunz,

p. 59.

On

the later exegetical

meaning

see below, n. 102.

Id. pp. 60. 325. 341. 13 The limits here traced out are of course not to

12

be taken in too

exact a sense.
1^
15
^6 17

Zunz, p. 358. conf. Rapop., Ker. Chem. Zunz, pp. 172. 324.
;

iii.

p. 48.

Id. pp. 84. 86.

Zunz, p. 85. ; Discrepant MSS., Oppenh. 627. The way in which Graetz has distorted Zunz's views is shown by the authof in Catal p. 1435. conf. 10. n. 14. '8 Zunz, p. 86. -9 On this Geiger and Bruck founded an alteration in the division of the Mishna. See 4. n. 44. 20 Zunz, p. 110,, also see inf. 2 a. 21 Id. p. 95. (and sup. 4. n. 6I.), and inf. I6. n. 17.
;

22
23

Id.

377

e.

conf. I9. n. 10. sq.

Conf. sup. 4. nn. 60. 75. 24 Conf. Zunz, p. 93. 25 Jewish authors meet with neglect and contempt from foreigners. According to Jehuda Halevi (Cusari, ii. 64., iv. 31.), medical
notices are found in the

Talmud, which were unknown

to Aristotle,

An author of the tenth century (Lit. bl. vi. 564.) speaks Galen, &c. of a medical work by R. Gamaliel Ha-nasi, " who is called Galen by the Greeks," which was translated from the Hebrew into Arabic (conf. The assertion that the learned Greeks were pupils of 21. n. 10.). the Jews is found as early as in the works of Aristobulus (Formstecher, Die Relig. des Geistes, p. 317.)^ Josephus, and Eusebius (D. Cassel on Cusari, ii. 66. p. 172.) ; and afterwards it became a prevalent opinion.
authority

by Buxtorf on Cusari, i. 63. (whose principal Moscato on the same), might be multiplied ; e. g. Palquera, Komm. Moreh, p. 7. j Joseph Ibn Caspe (Cod. Uri, 365.

The

instances given
is

f.

172

b.

see the author's article in Ersch,

s.

ii.

vol.

xxxi. p. 72. n. 74.

276

NOTES TO

5.

where he remarks that Roger Bacon already protested against the Christian authorities who took the same views) ; Aaron hen Elia^ the Karaite^ Ez Chajjim, p. 4. ; and others, especially with respect to Medicine see also Assaf's Introduction [see 22. n. 34.] ; and Jonathan ben Joseph^ who, in the commentary on yi^T] Jlll^, speaks of Aristohulus as the person who communicated Solomon's Philosophy. On the other hand,
:

direction to that supposition.

5.

the Kabbalistic opposition to the Peripatetic philosophy gave another Moses de Leon (nnyn pK^D, MS., chap.
cf. n?33nn SJ>DJ at the end of chap. 2.), the book Zohar, and M, ; Recanati (in Az. de Rossi, ii. chap. 2., about the end), pretend that the old Greek philosophers were more in conformity with the Rabbles, and Abraham Levi ben Eliezer that Aristotle took a different turn. to the old fiction, which makes ('Tin\"l'' 'D MS.), however, returns Aristotle a pupil of Simon the Just, and attributes to him '^ secret The same author believes that writings " containing his true opinions. " the " Philosophers " took some doctrines from the " truly wise Kabballsts), although they did not interpret them in a (riDXn 'D^n literal sense, " which occurred also to some Jews." Joseph ben Shemtob (see that art. in Ersch, Enc. s. ii. vol. xxxi. p 92.), an orthodox philosopher, contents himself with the conditional statement, that "i" Aristotle had met with the Jewish wise men, he would certainly have adopted Moscato also doubts the genuineness of the epistle of their creed. Aristotle in which he confesses his return from philosophy to positive On a passage of belief (on that epistle conf. Catal. p. 743. op. 6.). Moses Isserls see Catal. p. 1832. The Jews, moreover, were not alone The in these opinions ; and perhaps they did not even invent them. Arabian " Brothers of purity" (see 12. n. 1.) derive science from the* Jews (Nauvverck, Notiz., &c. p. 41., and in Hebr. iii. cap. 7.); and a passage of Averroes to that effect has become a locus classicus.

also it was usual to derive arts and sciences from (Roger Bacon, 1. c, and Sprengel, Gesch. d. Med. Cf. also on '' Greek wisdom " below, note 9^. ii. 25.). 26 Conf. Rapop. Bikk. haitt. 5588, p. On Jewish medicine, 14. especially of this period, the following authorities are quoted by several but only a few of them which were accessible to the author authors J. P. Spekth, De Ortu et Progressu Medicinse per Judseos (8., Hamburg, at the end of the seventeenth century; see Wolf, iii. p. 742.); some materials have been collected, but principally in the later periods, and those in a hostile spirit, by Schudt in his Jud. Merckw. (4. F. a. M. 1714-17); GiNZBURGER, Medicina ex Talmudicis illustr. (Getting. 1743); J. H. Lautenschlager, De Medicis veterum Hebraeorum (Schleitz, 1786); Meyer Levin, Anal. Hist, ad Medic. Ebraeor. (HaL 1798); D. Carcassonne, Essai hist, sur la Medic, des Hebr. anciens et modernes (Par. I8I6, Montpel. 1818); Lilienthal, Die jiidischen Aerzte, eine Inaugural Dissert. (Miinch. 1838); Israels, Tent. Hist. Med. ex Talm. De Gynseol. &c. (Lugd. 1845); Cohn, De Med. Talmud. (Vratisl. 1846) ; G. Brecher's long-promised comprehensive of which work of the medical parts of the Talmud and Midrash Das Transcendentale, &c. (Wien, 1850), is a prehminary part. The work D''21 TM^D on this subject is known only from the Add. to Buxt. Bibl. (according to Jacob Romano?), and Sabbat, (conf. Israels,

In Christian Europe

Biblical personages

NOTES TO
1. 1.

5.

277

pp. 8. 29. ; the book on the Hundred Maladies of the Indian Tanfestal in A. Sprenger, De Orig. Med. Arab. [Lugd. 1840], p. 14.; Miah Kitab of Abu Sahl in Amoreux, Essai, &c. p. 14?.;

and Wustenfeld, Gesch. der Arab., Aerzte, 118. 1.). On Carmoly's work see 22. Whether Sprengel's Jong-promised work on Hebrew

The medicine has ever been published, is not known to the waiter. Jewish medicine is the niXIDI "ISD (cf. n1^51S-| h^ s'pnD [tabula] Talmud Jer. Pesachim, chap. 9-) of King Solomon, said to have been set aside by King Hezekiah, and to refer to Sabaism (contra, Dukes, Blumenl. p. 29-), see the author's Fremdsprachl. Elemente, p. 10. n. 20.; conf. Moreh, iii. c. 37. p. 259v ed. Scheyer ; Joseph Ibn Aknin's Comra. on Cantic. (Ersch, s. ii. vol. xxxi. p. 53. n. 60.) ; A!lemanno, pL^'^^ "iV^^, p. 17. (conf. Carm. p. 5.) ; S. Sachs, n^nnn, p. S2., cf. Jalkut Reubeni, f. 25 a.). Of the Physicians in the Talmud, Abbaja, Samuel at Babylon (see n. 32.), and Theodos in Palestine (contra, Carmoly, see Geig. Zeitschr. v. 462. ; conf. Zion, iii. p. 16.); and besides these, MoschioxX (perhaps a.d. 117 138) is worth mentioning, as a translator of Jewish writings into Latin. See Bergsohn, Lit. bl. iv. 86. sq., and the Magazine for the History of Medicine, Janus, 1853, p. 657. 27 Conf. Franck, Kabbala, Germ, transl. by Jellinek, p. 58., with Sachs, Rel. Poes. p. 230., Reifraann, Pesher dabar, ii. Q. sq. (uncritiearliest record of

cally used, Lit. bl.

28

viii.

40.).

Beer, Lit.
treatise

be a

Sure, 73. v. 20. of the Koran, seems to 311. against the three watches of the night (ni1170C'i<) : see
bl. viii.

the author's Fremdsprachl. Elemente, p. 18. n. 38 b., and 21. n. 4. 2^^ The author's treatise, Orientalische Ansichten iiber Sonnen-und-

mondfinst. in the Magaz.

30

f.

die Lit. d. Auslands, 1845, no. 80.

On

the contrary opinion see Israeli, Jesod

conf, Sloni.mski,

Olam,

iv. cap. 6. ed.

104. (Jesod ha-lbbur, p. 33) ; Rapoport, Ker. Chem. vi. 186., vii. 255. 264. sq. ; conf. Jost, On the Christian calcuiv. 197. Anh. p. 253., and inf. 21. nn. 9. 17. lation of Easter, see the author's refutation of Ideler in HJITl, p. 29. ; see 21. n. 15. ^1 Rapoport's letter to Slonimski (quoted There are 4. n. 38). other astronomers in the Talmud, e. g. R. Chijja, Simon, Zeira the father of Simlai, Johanan, Nachman, Raba, and others (see following note). 31^ Not '^Hajarchi," '"''the lunatic," as Ideler (Handb. d. Chron. i. The derivation " of Orchon " is proposed 574.) erroneously calls him. by Lebrecht in the Allg. Zeit. des Judenth. 1849, P- 657; cf. Lit. bl. 1850, p. 398. where Fiirst claims the priority over Bohmer. 32 Slonimski (n^lTl p. 4. n. 4.) explains "linyn TlD as congregation held Cod. Vat. 285. 11. (conf. Wolf, i. for intercalation; but see n. 102. 2130.) begins with a sentence of Samuel's (see n. 26.) on blood-letting, which even Assemani has grossly misunderstood. In a Machsor MS. of 1426 a short piece inscribed HTpn pjy (of blood-letting) begins in the same manner. The same is probably the case with the Cod. Vat. 387. (Boraita of Samuel), see inf. 21. n. 12. 33 Conf. sup. 4. 28. Different views upon this subject are quoted by
v.

Goldberg;

Ker.

Chem.

the author, Catal. p. 2032. (conf. n. 6I.). T 3

The

Orientals are generally

278

NOTES TO
;

5,

fond of' combinations of numbers

cxiii. p. 11. 34 The precept

see

Hammer, Wien.

Jahrb.

vol.

are God's/' %ic.,

^^

Hammer

of the N. T., '' Render unto God the things that properly a Halacha precept of this description. (Wien. Jahrb. cxiii. 1. sq.) goes too far, if he removes
is
;

imperatives from Gnomonics to Ethics in the Ethical such distinction can in general be carried out.
all
3-5^

Haggada no
in

See the author's article on the

iii.

history

of

Hebrew Poetry
d.

Frankl. Zeitsch.
p.

135. Lit,
S6

bl. viii.

405, 394.

conf.

Delitzsch, zur Gesch.

Heb. Foes,

Arab. J^t^, See, see Dukes, Rabbinische Blumenlese, Leipz. 1844, p. 6. (His Zur k abb. Spruchkunde, Wien, 1851, is an appendix to it); Hammer, 1. c. pp. 3. 18. 46.; conf. DeUtzsch, 1. c. p. 32., where the Indian (.'') Juda and his son Samuel are noticed, see n. 54.
Chald. ^hn'D,
37

Hofer, Blatt.

f.

lit.

Unt. 1844,

p.

387;

conf.

Dukes,

1.

c,

pp. 5. 12.
38 Dukes, p. 48.; also his Introd. to Proverbs (in Cahen's Hebr. and French Bible, Paris, 1847), p. 25. 39 Conf. Dukes, In the Palestine Talmud there is an entire p. 10. Greek proverb untranslated, of course in Hebrew letters, see Lit. bl.

330. Proverbs of Corporations " (Dukes, p. 11., eonf. p. 41.) are, however, not a scientific category. 41 Dukes, p. 18.; Hammer, pp. 3. 5. 46, ^^2 Geiger ("^Was hat Muhammed," &c., p. 92.) has pointed out some sentiments from the Talmud in the Koran, but not all ; see for instance the author's Miscelle " in Zeitsch. d. m. Gesell. vi. 538. n. 5.y where a varia lectio in the Koran is decided by reference to the Rabbinical source. In the Sunne, see nos. 215. 491. 593. 651. (in Hammer's collection in Fundgr, des Orients) &c. ; conf. also Herbelot, art. Hadith. On the N. T., Menschen has already collected the most imporviii.

40

*^^

'^'

" Krit. Untersuchung (Lit. bl. viii. 733. from various literatures in Dukes, Introd. p. 48. n. 18. Examples in Dukes, pp. 13. l6, sq., and in the author's '' Manna," Berlin, 1847, p. 94. sq.; conf. also inf. 20. n. 18, 44 Only writings arranged in parallelism, like Sirach, use Biblical phraseology (conf. Dukes, pp. 43. 35.). The funeral orations also in the Talmud adopt parallelisms and Bibhcal phrases ; against Dukes
tant points; see also Zipser's
sq.). 43
''

Parallels

p. 253., see p.
45

256.

n. 4.

Dukes,
p. 4.

p. 44.

46

Conf. Weil,

Muhammed,
c.

pp. xix. 47- 408., and his Einl. in d.

g.

Koran,
47

Hammer,

1.

p.

7-

e.

Prov.

i.

1.

in

Hammer,

p.

47. conf.

Fundgr. No, 33.

passages.

The

prayer

(ib.

110. 673.) consists also of Biblical

48 Freytag, Prov. Arab. iii. no. 3265. (Decalogue!) 1904. 2314. 2810. 2815. 1886. 29O9. as also 522. II6O., the oniy sources for which known to Hammer (p. 41.) are the Gospels! Parallels in other languages are to be found in Dukes, Introd. to the Proverb. Salom. pp. 17. 22.; Lit. bl. viii. 518. n. 10.

NOTES TO
^^

5.

279

Dukes, zur Kenntn. der

rel.

Poesie, p. 114. sq., Blumenl. pp. 7. 44.

^^A^'x:],

conf. p. 10.

Hammer

(p. 46.)

compares the

but

to this artificial later pro-

form, as also to
ductions
50
51
;

..^^V,

Hebrew

parallels are first

found in

see 18. n. 60.

On

the Biblical phraseology in the

Talmud

conf. J. Weisse^ Introd. to Jedaja Penini, p. xix.

Dukes,

p.

49.
to this,

Id. p. 17.

52

According

Sachs' views (Rel.

Poes. p. 333,)

must be

modified.
53 Conf. Dukes, p. I6. Trivial and obscene proverbs (as e. g. Freytag, 111. 354.) are not found liere. 5^ References in Zunz, p. 100.; Dukes, Annalen, i. 100. sq. (Blumenl. pp. 7. H-)' whence Landsberger, Fabulse aliquot Aram.,

Pref. p. 9- sq. The fables edited by Landsberger (DIDIDT riTlT'D) are considered by Jellinck (Leipz. Repert. 1846, part. 32. p. 211.) to have

been translated in Syria from the Greek at the latest (?) in the sixth century, and perhaps used by the composer of the Arab. Lokman. But the recent composition of the latter leaves a large margin ; and the

Jewish origin of the Aramaic fables has not yet been proved from the MS. in Hebrew characters. Landsberger's further communications (Lit. bl. 1849) contain some erroneous statements (lb. p. 7O0'
fact that they occur in an Oriental
54 Stein (Kohelet, pp. vi. xii.) suggests '^ stories [told] to the washers" (conf. Synh. 38. b.); on the improbable emendation D''2D1D ''Tt^D " Proverbs of the stars" see Lit. bl. xi. 6l3). Of the works n'pin and r\:V^ see Wolf, i. p. 932.; Delitzsch, p. 32. (sup. n. 38.); Lit. bl.
2.

iv.

250., conf. 20. n. 32. Rapop. Lit. bl. i. 37- sq. (Pesher dabar) is absurd.
55 56 57

The

explanation given by Reifmann

follows see also Dukes, Blumenl. p. 23. sq. author has refuted Dukes' supposition of a third Ben Sira in the '' Spruchbuch fiir Jud. Schulen," (Berlin, 184?) p. 102. See also Azaria de Rossi, chap, ii., at the beginning, and 20. n. 20. 58 Zunz, p. 106.; Auerbach in Busch's Jahrbuch f. Israel, i. 159. Also see inf. n. 68. and Lit. bl. sq. ; Rapop. Ker. Chem. vii. I66. Frankel, in his Monatschrift, has also tried to carry out x. 414. 428.

On what
The

under a new and pompous title (Der Lapidarstyl, &c.) the old idea (see Samuel ben Meir, Ker. Chem. viii. 49.) of a reference in these sentences
to the history of their authors.
59 want of information in this respect occasioned the errors committed by Uri in Cod. Bodl. Hebr. 238., conf. inf. I9. n. 42. ^0 But in no wise mystical, still less " with the stamp of mysti," as Stern (Perlen des Orients, &c. Wien, 1840, p. iii.) fication .
.
.-

designates the sayings which he leaves untranslated.

61
it

Conf.

Lit. bl. vii.

823.; according to Geiger, Zeitschr.

vi.

20. sq.,

was composed from later Midrashim in Palestine ; but even in that case there is no reason for identifying its author with that of the Middot.
Conf. also Catal. 1. c. in. n. 33. 62 Conf. Allg. Zeit. d. Jud. 1842, p. 447. and Catal. p. 251. n. 1636-7, and p. 1874. op. 23.
T 4

280
^^
^^

NOTES TO

5.

Ven. 1598. Prag. sine an. (soon after I676), with a coramentai-y. Zunz, p. 248. In the Talmud and older Midrash some precepts are ascribed to the prophet Elias (H3D, the old), so that there existed some older collections on this subject ; conf. the Seder Eliahu above, A " Rabbi " Elias appears only in the Midrash Chasith. On p. 32. Fiirst's preposterous hypothesis, that the author is Elia ha-Saken, quoted in Jellinek's not less preposterous combinations (Beitrage, ii.
79-)? see Catal. p. 74-9. 65 See Catal. p. 596. n. 3793., where Sal. Isaki is to be added.
66

the

ed.

1802

in

Dn^lD

of

Zunz, chap.

viii.

The

author's article

Zur Sagen-und Legendenloc.

kunde, in Frankel's Zeitschr. ii. 380. sq., iii. 281. sq. 67 Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 26. and Emendations ad
67a

E.g. Baba Kama, 80.

b. (Lit. bl. viii.

812.).

68 See also the author's article on the Talmudical indices rerum, Among similar in&c. (Serapeum, 1845), p. 295. and sup. p. I7. fluences there was developed the Arabian history of the learned ; see inf. 10. n. 5.; conf. also Rapoport, Pref. to the Resp. of the Gaonim, f. 10 a. 69 And indeed so early that it is taken as tradition see Treuenfels, ; With respect to numbers, the Lit. bl. vii. 62. and inf. nn. 73. J 04. author has collected some striking examples in his treatise on the

numbers 70-73

(see above,

2.

n.

6.).

The number 24000

in

Maimonides's lOt^H n"lJJ< (p. 12. in the German of Geiger) might On Ibn Ezra's and Maimonides's be also brought under this category. views on such pseudepigraphical works see infra, 20. n. 4. '^ The author's article, " Ueber das Verhaltniss der Muhammedanischen Legende zur Rabbinischen," in the Magaz. f. d. Lit. des AusSee p. 286. sq. (used in his usual manner by Fiirst, landes, 1845. Lit. bl. xii. 290, 291.) and the author's translation of the section upon the Jews by Hamza el Isfahani, with annotations in Frank. Zeitschr. ii. p. 321. sq., 447- sq., and the illustration of a passage in the Koran by the author in Zeitschr. der d. m. Gesellsch. iv. 148.; and on the Samaritan see the author's " Manna," p. 114. 71 Zunz, pp. 155. 282 d. 149 b. ''^ See Dukes, Beitrage, p. 91^ Geig. Zeitschr. v. E. g. Saadja. Conf. on the saga of the " Biirgschaft" the author's remarks in 311. the Magaz. f. Lit. d. Ausl. 1845, p. 208. 73 So e. g. on the tables of nations, see Dukes, Beitr. p. 48. sq. and, with respect to the example of the Berber, the add. to 56. sq. the German note in the Catal. pp. I8O6. 1912. &c. 74 References are given by Zunz, p. 11 9. sq. '"5 Zunz, p. 121. On the ''Roll of Susa," \m^ n^:iD (Susanna or Judith), see Ker. Chem. vi. 256.; Lit. bl. iii. 814. ^6 Zunz, Formstecher, Relig. des Geistes, p. 285. ; conf. p. 120. Jost, Gesch. ii. Anh. p. 58. sq. Zunz, p. 137. Reifmann, Zion, ii. 6]. sq, (from whom the references made by Mecklenburg in Edelmann's ed., Konigsberg, 1845, are to be derived. See Lit. bl. vi. 659.). Landshuth, Maggid. Mereshith, a historical commentary on the whole Agenda, with a German essay by the author, has been recently published.
;
'^'^

NOTES TO
^8
79 ^0

5.

281

See Bloch in Geiger, Zeitschr.

iv. 221.'

Zunz, pp, 129. 278.; conf. Geig., Zeitschr. v. 441. Id. p. 128.; Perhaps 1 Timothy^ iv. (conf. iv. 7^ sq.)

is

directed

against writings of this kind.

In the authorities for this Zunz (p. 128.) sees, with great prohaonly a metaphorical expression ; conf. also Dukes, zur Rabb. Spruchkunde, p. 67 ; on the correction of S. Sachs see 22. n. 76. ^2 Trkuenfels (Lit. bl. vii. 9conf. 81. 83., and the late opinions about this book ; the same author in Lit. bl. xii. 270.) hastily concludes from Hieronymus, " apud Hebraeos," that this book was originally
bility,
',

*i

written in
^3

Hebrew
i.

(conf. also 13. 4. 2, 3.).

Hammer

Thaalebi, p.
^^

on Fliigel's ed. of the Faithful Companion, &c., by (by Muharamed himself), in Wien. Jahrb. ex. 16'., Tal140.

mud, Synhedr. 42.

according to an anonymous author in Zion, ii. Isaac Troki also (Chissuk Emuna, i. 43.) ascribes the historical Apocryphal books to Christian authors. ^5 On the Hebrew and German translations and their ed., see Catalogue, p. 20t'^. It has been printed in I80I by Fihpowski in Aramaic, together with [Gabirol's] Choice of Pearls. ^6 See Catal. p. 609., where Bartol. i. GSQ. and the French free paraphrase in Carraoly's Revue Orient, i. 181. are wanting. ^^ E. g. that Nimrod will cause the sun to rise in the west (which, according to the Muharamedan legend, belongs to the signs of the last day) ; the quarrel between Gabriel and iSIichael, and other things of the same kind. (Cf. Catal. p. 6O9., by which Jellinek and Beer, in Monatschr. iv. 59- are to be corrected.) ^^ Catal. p. 586. no. 3740., where Asulai sub. U'D""!, is omitted. A copy of the Oppenh. MS., and a different recension in a collection of sagas in another old Bodl. MS., were sent by the author from Oxford in July, 1855, to Jellinek, for his 3rd vol. of Bet ha-midrasch. ^^ See Catal. no. 3449. sq., 3996. sq. On the ]2 ^DVl n'C*V^, see

Zunz,

p.

157.5 of Christian origin.

m2

Wolf,

i.

no. 951. p. 555.

The
90

2pV^

432. (neglected ib. viii. 12.). conf. ^hn^: n^^llV (id.) belongs probably to Germany
;

cf. Lit.

bh

ii.

12. n. 41.

Manna,

p.

101.

Sabbat,

bl.

1846,

p. 6I.

and generally on

all

these works see the author's Catal. sub vocibus.

91

On

this

and the following

'^'^

Paradise and Hell" literature, which

is

not yet exhausted, see some addidons in the author's catalogue, sub Mose de Leon, p. 1849*; and his further communications to Jellinek
(see note 88.).
9-'
'3

See Catal p. 585.

the two recensions, the difference between which was unknown even to Zunz and the editor of the Bet ha-midrasch, see Catal. p. 588. A work of the same name by Asher ben Meshullam, no. 3751. sq. with an introduction by (his brother.^) Jacob (see Reifmann, Lit. bl. v. 481.; conf. Ker. Chem. vi. 181.), probably the Asher of Liinel, about A. n. 1180; perhaps a Commentary of the Pijjut of Simon ben
Isaac
93 a
}

On

See I9. n. 20.

See the author's Schene and Ker, Cliem. vi. 181.

Hammeoroth,

praef. add. to p. 11. n. 11.,

282

NOTES TO

5.

93 b L. c. cap. ix. On Landaueh's p. 157. sq., cap. xxi. p. 402. sq. Remains in Lit. bl. vi. vii., see inf. 13. 94 Franck, La Kabbale, &c._, Germ, transl. by Jellinek (Leipz. 1844-); (conf. La Cabbale, &c., Compte-rendu par Louis Dubeux, Paris, 1844-^ and 14.); Gratz, Gnosticismus und Jiidenthum (Krotoschin, Formstecher (pp. 102.265. sq.) takes the Kabbala as the par1845.) ticular, and the Talmud as the general term. 95 The exiles, on their return thence^, brought with them the names of the months and angels. See Formstecher, pp. 124. 279-1 Franck,

p.

261.
9*^

M.

Sachs, Ker.

Chem.
i.

vii.

Frankel's Monatschr.
to be the first to Pesach. 74.,

175.,

273., who is neglected by Landau in where Johanan ben Zakkai is supposed

who founded
Chag. 13.

real schools for secret doctrine

with reference

On

the forbidden JT'JV ilDnn, see Reggie

and Gfrorer in Geig., Zeitschr. ii. 347.? lost, iii. 146.; Briick, Zerem. 83.; Formstecher, p. 317.; Kircheim, Zion, ii. S3. ; Hirschfeld, Halach. Exegese, 40. Jellinek, in the notes to Franck, pp. 206. 209. Graz, Lit. bl. vi. 796. Dukes, Sprache der Mishna, p. 6. Szanto, Busch's Jahrb. vi. 244.; conf. sup. n. 25. and 28. n. 13. ; and the old explanations of p*"!!!!, given by Joseph Ibn Aknin and others
xxiii. n.
;
; ;

(see Ersch,

s. ii.

vol. xxxi. p. 51. n. 31.; cf. 12. n. 3.)

Lembke (Gesch.

von Span. i. 245.) laments that heathen writings were forbidden among the Western Goths. 9^" This designation itself does not admit the idea of chapters of a
particular science.
98

(Franck, p. 40.) ^p, 1 Chron. xiii. 6. (according to Zunz, l64, sq. ; conf. Fiirst, Lehrg. d. aram. Sprache, p. 50. ; but might we not read D^ ?), as in
^^\ (Wetzstein, Lit.
bl. ii.

later times

55. n. 2.)

is

hence probably not

an original euphemism. The " Name of the 72 " (Letters) (l"y p Q^) is older than Geiger (Melo Chofnajim, p. 49.) thinks; and the number 72 is, like 70, a sacred number among the Jews and Muhammedans. See the author's essay on that subject, mentioned above, 2. n. 6. 99 Formstecher, Beitr. zur Angelologie, &c., in Israel. Annalen, i.
361.

and his Religion des Geistes, p. 124. conf. sup. n. 95. Maimonides, Moreh, i. 33, 34.; conf. nnJlDJ Jer. Sota, ix. 11. (Jefe Mareh).
sq.,
;

100

101

On

his views, see Franck, pp. 35.

215

see inf. 13.

TiD in the Talmud does not signify this (metaphysical) mysticism, but everything confined to the narrow circle of the initiated, e.g. "Iinyn "TID (IsraeH Jesod Olam, iv. 14. fol. 29 a.; Ker. Chem. vi. 187. j ]))S^n, ''D^JS (-jin ?) answer see sup. nn. 10. 32.). Later n^J:, nDDJ
102

and j^\^ (the quotation of Beresh Rabba, cap. 45., inBuxtorf, Lex. Chald. p. 1560., cannot be found); see Maimonides, Moreh, ii. 25. and the emendations and translations in Simeon Duran, (Keshet u-magen, f. 18. 1. 3. fr. hot., where lege pxnPS PHwS, accordJoseph Ibn Aknin (in Ersch, ing to the Cod. MS. Michael, no. 412. Emanuel on Prov. i. 6. (in Dukes, Ins. ii. vol. xxxi. p. 55. n. 79.). The alletrod. p. xi.), accordingly distinguishes b^D and HVf^PD.
to the

Arabic

^\^\j

gorical or mystical interpretation

is

called

IIDH

'Tl^5'3.

Arab.

^.

NOTES TO
see the author's
n. 8.

5.

283
ii.

remark in Frankel's Zeitschr.

112., and inf. 17.

and

13. n. 19.

'^^ See Leon de Modena, Ari Nohem, cap. 22. The passages of the Talmud connected with metaphysics, magic, &c., have been very care-

fully collected in
103 a

Brecheb's Das Transcendentale, &c.

sq.

See sup. n. 26.

Zunz, cap. 10.

'04 Id. 170 a.; Furst, Zion, iii. p. 3. sq. ; Dukes, Beitr. p. 49.; the author's compilation on Arabian names in Frankel, Zeitschr. ii.

273., and sup. n. 69. 105 Even the Haggada recognises a kind of (free) tradition
n^:in),

(nilDD

326. '06 The author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 10.; conf. Lit. bl. viii. p. 233. ; conf. Ker. Chem. vii. 280., and sup= 4. n. 59. ; cf. Jellinek (Debar. Attik.) on Levi ben Sisi, and the quotations of Jona Ibn Gannah in his introduction, repeated by Moses Ibn Ezra and Joseph Ibn Aknin (Ersch, s. ii. vol. xxxi. p. 56. n. 84.). On Notarikon see sup. 4. n. 5S. So also the Chinese assert of the Book of " Great Wisdom," that even the particles in it have a meaning. Zeitschr. d. m. Gesellsch. ii. p. IO9. ^^^ References in Zunz, p. 17 1. '08 According to Zunz, the vv^ord 55np''DS means in Chaldee the same
p.

Zunz,

Hebrew (cf. Frankel's Zeitschr, ii. SSQ.). Almost at the same time a notice of the old MSS. of Oxford was given by the author in the Add. to this essay, at the end of vol. xxviii., and in his CataL p. 631. no. 4002., and privately to Zunz ; and by Luzzatto of his MS. (see Rapoport, Erech Milhn, p. I76., cf. p. I70., and Dukes, Lit.
as ^'^I'O in
bl.
xii.

The

358., on the MS. de Rossi, 26l., inscribed n"lD2n t^niD). sagacious exposition of Rapoport is not free from an excess of

but there are some authors whose errors are more instructive ; than the truths of others. '09 According to Rapoport, Ker. Chem. vii. 17.j, composed shortly Chap. vii. unquestionably calls eighty-four years the before a. d. 781.
sagacity

hour of a divine day, see 21. "0 [Note to '' Vajosha," p.

n. 15.
5?i.

of text, line 9- from bottom.]

On

Midrash Vajosha and

(Paris, 2063.

its

two

different recensions (formerly

unknown),

see the author's Catal p. 585. no.

3734.

sq.

cf.

Cod. Vatic. 30320.

all

?y

In concluding this section, we

may remark

that a survey of

the

by Zunz, p. 304., and a short conspectus of those printed and mentioned in the author's Catal, is given there, pp. 582-3. We ought to mention here that M. Jellinek, a very industrious editor, had also begun the meritorious undertaking of gathering the smaller Midrashim into a single corpus, when the corresponding part of the author's Catalogue was already printed. But as only a few articles of the latter were communicated to Jellinek, he was not sufficiently informed about the bibliographical apparatus necessary for such an undertaking (e. g. on Eldad he has even neglected a notice of Dukes in the Litteraturblatt) ; nor was he able to purchase always the We are, nevertheless, oldest or best editions when he began printing.

Midrashim according

to periods is given

indebted to
abstains

him for the publication of some inedita. The author here from entering upon a criticism of his views and hypotheses.

284

NOTES TO

6.

6.
^

Page

54.

which is closely connected founded on Rapoport's Biogr. of Kalir (see Geig. Zeitschr. i. 390. sq., 397') ; Zunz^, G. V. p. 366. sq., who gives a historical survey of the Liturgy, Some remarks and deductions by MoRTARA are to be found in Israel, Annal. i. 209- sq. ; Dukes, Zur Kenntniss der rel. Poesie, and M.Sachs, Die rel. Poesie^ p. l64. ; a continuous historical commentary to the prayer-book, ed. by Landshuth (Konigsb. 1846), (conf. Lit. bl. viii. 68. sq.) ; also for some particulars in the most recent controversial writings on public worship, see Geiger, Der Hamburger Tempelstreit (Breslau, 1842), p. I6. sq. 2 Conf. the author's article, Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. p. 388. 3 E. g. Sachs, p. 173. 4 Dukes, Z. K. 137.; cf. Zunz, p. 377- note b. 5 Berach. 29- h., conf. 33.; Sabb. 113. (conf. Lit. bl. viii. 223.); Geig. 1. c. p. 2 1 6 E. g. instead of Zech. i. I6., the prayer of Shemona-Ezrah, 14., is quoted with the formula "IDi^iSJ' in Midrash Ps., see Zunz, p. 267 aand conf. Weisse, Introd. Jedaja Penini, p. 22. ^ Bor. derabbi Eliezer^ sup. 5 B. p. 53., conf. Zunz, pp. 281. 377. ^ Zunz, p. 315. On the intentional interweavings in the later artiinvestigations of this paragraph,
are

The

with

19.,

ficial style, see Lit. bl. iv.

60. n. 94.; Manna, p. 97- lin. penult. 5. n. 68.) was read on the Sabbath as early Since it was as the ninth century (Rapoport, Introd. to Resp. 9 a.). and is allowable to pray in any language, there might have existed
^

The

treatise

Abot (

Persian and Greek prayers, possibly also translations of the typical Hebrew, conf. also Geig. p. 21. 10 In this Targum (on which see Zunz, pp. 80. 120.) Reifmann
(Zion,
^^
i. 75.) detected the later alphabetical form (inf. n^an? the obligatory prayer (Maimonides, Coram,

18.). to Berach. iv. 2.,

;

ix. 5.),

answers to the Arabic

^A^

(Sure,

ii.

40., ix. 72.

cf. v.

15.

with respect to Jews), which form (Chald. ^5^1^^), like LZJt^j, (expressing the alms which purify the rest of the property like the riDIID) as well as the thing itself, is to be deduced from Rabbinism, as will

be further explained in the author's notes u-magen, f. 19 b.

11

to

Simon Duran's Keshet

Thence

&^nynt^, see I9. n. 10.

See Zunz, Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher, ii. p. 11 6., conf. Frankel's Zeitschr. ii. 356. n. 2., and against Lit. bl. viii. p. I7. n. 72., On the p. 182. n. 270., see Rapoport's Introd. to Resp. Gacon. 10 b. combination of the judicial office with the functions of public worship
|''''l) see Jer. Jeb. ix. 1., Jefe Mareh. passage noticed by Sachs (Rel. Poes. d. Jud. 172., conf. 265.) certainly does not show that people remained in the synagogue the Simeon Duran (Keshet whole day, but only a considerable part of it. u-magen, I9 b.) deduces the five daily prayers of Muhammedans from

12

C1DI |Tni
13

The

the five prayers of the

Day

of Atonement.

On

the seven daily prayers

NOTES TO
among the hammedan
Sabaeans (Herbelot, Sabi,
sects, see
iv.

7,

8.

285
some Jewish and Mu-

10.), and

the author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 180. and his essay Die Beschneidung des Araber, &c., (Wien, 1845) p. 27. note (conf. 14. n. 10.). Museilama reduced them to the (Jewish) three;
see Weil, Khalifen,
1^
i.

p. 21.

The

discussion in the

Talmud, on the
from "

errors of the reciter, itself

speaks in favour of his having recited by heart.

also is possibly to be derived
to offer, to

The Aramaic
-,"

^mp
Dukes,

bring in

conf.

Z. K. p. 32.

7.
1

Page

59.

Jost, ix.

Index, p.

4.

See the author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 2. and the note, Lit. bl. vi. 247. 3 Delitzsch, Hebr. Poes. p. 140. Respecting the author's special work on the Arabic Literature of the Jews, to which he refers in the
2

German

essay for special points, see note to 1.

PERIOD
8.

IL

Page

60.

'

metrical

After the example of the Arabians, symbolical, rhyming, and titles were introduced, which also, for certain kinds of writing,

became
2

Examples would occupy too much space ; but an intypical. stance will be found in D'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature.
Rapop. Introd.
to

Parchon, p. xiv.

Ker. Chem.
these
;

vi.

245.

Com-

pare

De Rossi, Annal. Ssec. xvi. n. 57. With Muhammedan Fetwas correspond even in form

Judgments the

compare, for example,

the stereotyped phrase 'DDCi^ |D t^rT" IISEJ'i, and others of the same kind in the Zeitschrift der Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch. i. 330.
3

Rapoport was

the

first to call

attention to the consequences of this

upon the progress of Jewish literature. Notwithstanding many important contributions, the whole details of it are not The extensive use of Latin was a principal yet thoroughly understood.
opposition, and
its effects

hindrance

(Zunz, Z. G.

understanding of Christian literature in Germany Conf. 23. p. 205. It is questionable whether Hebrew was anywhere spoken by the Jews ; the passage of Mos. Gikatiha, quoted by Zunz, 1. c. p. 187-, is rather doubtful. 4 The Genealogy in Zunz, G. V. p. 36'5. ; conf. Rapoport, Ker. Chem. vi. 22. Il6., vii. 15. j Resp. Gaon. 12. b. ; Landauer, Lit. bl. vii. 45. sq., and recently Luzzatto, II Giudaismo, i. 30. ^ To the important subject of the chronology of the learned men of
to

the

p. 181.).

286

NOTES TO

8.

the 10th century, the present time has contributed

sults,

some valuable

re-

but also many superficial and hypercritical suggestions. The authorities are given by S. Cassel in Frankel's Zeitschr. ii. 226. sq._, 231. sq. ; also LebrechTj ib. p. 422. sq. ; S. Cassel, Histor. Versuche, p. 80. sq. ^ Later, the word Gaon is merely a title of honour ; Chisdai Crescas applies it to his older contemporary Nissim. Conf. 4. n. 65. Geiger (Lit. bl. der Israeliten, 1846, p. 134.) names as emigrants to Provence, Abrah. ben Chijja, Judah ben Barsillai, Tibbon, and Kimchi ; and to the East, Jehuda Halevi and Ibn Ezra; although with regard to some of them he has but slight grounds for doing so. ^ Jourdain, Researches, &c., in the German transl. of Stahr (Forschungen liber Alter und Urspr. d. lat. Uebers. d. Arist. Halle, 1831), pp. 97. 100. 106. 215. 271.; conf. Humboldt, Kosmos, ii. 283. ^ Charles employed Faradj ben Selam (see 21.). Zunz (in Geiger, Zeitschr. iv. 189- ; conf. Lit. bl. iv. 20.) names also Peter III. (1280) ; see, however, 21. n. 68. The translations into Latin by R. Isaac (Carmoly, Hist, de Med. p. 94. ; conf. Anal. i. 6S.) belong apparently to the inventions of Carmoly, since Judah Romano himself translated mostly from Latin, 12. n. 9^0 Innocent III. complained of the preference shown by Alphonso Concerning the for Jews and Muhammedans (Jourdain, p. 146.). envy entertained by Christians towards Kalonymos see Zunz, Geig.
''

Zeitschr.
^1

ii.

317.; conf. Steinschneider,

the INIidrash itself

Lit. bl. iv. 25.

From

we

can, for the

most

part,

obtain no

on this point. 12 Concerning the decline of it see above, still prefers it for Talmudical discussion.
definite results

n. 2.

Joseph ibn Megas

13 The Persian translation of the Bible, see 16. n. 10. ; ^X^Jl HVp apparently of the 12th century ; see Munk, Not. sur Saadja, &c., On a medical work p. 87. ; compare Herbelot, Odhmat. (iii. 688.). Persian elegy (riJ''p) in Munk, 1. of Abi Saad see 22. n. 19'

c.

p= 68.
1^

(conf. Lit. bl. vi. 6I9.).

quoted in Steinschneider's Fremdsprachl. Goldenthal (Zion, 27.; conf. Geig. Melo Chofn, 92. Chijja as the founder of the Hebrew iii. p. 2.) considers Abrah. ben scientific style ; but Ibn Ezra (born in 1093) and the Karaite Jehuda Hedessi about 1140 ( 14. n. 24.) are his scarcely younger contempoDr. Goldenthal has recently published (originally in the Memoir raries. of the Academy of Vienna) a specimen of a Lexicon of this branch of literature, professing himself to be the first who had given attention to the subject ; his assertion (which he proves, p. 423., by a fragmentary quotation from Lit. bl. iii. 823., without mentioning, however, that this very quotation belongs to an older essay of some length on the same subject) has been repeated in nearly all the journals, except the Litteraturbl. (xi. 419.), whose editor remarks that Goldenthal has omitted to give an account of his predecessors, and names them. 15 can here name only a treatise by Zunz (zur Gesch. 230. sq, Even M. Wiener, who knows the value of his authoconf. 206. sq.). rities, believes (in Frankel, Monatschr. 1854, p. 118.) the pretended Cf. Zunz, zur date, 157, on a tombstone in Cologne, to be a. 397 Gesch. 394. 570.
See
the
authorities

Elem. 1845,

p.

We

'

NOTES TO

9.

'

287

9.

Page

67.

of the Halacha has, as yet, been scarcely independently, on which account this section demands Notices in Rapopoet, Chananel, the special indulgence of the reader. n. 30.; Geiger, Zeitschr. i. 22. sq. ; and Bkuck (Pharis. Volkssit. p. 15. sq.)_, who has much that is one-sided and false. Zunz (zur Gesch. S. 188.) gives a review of the teachers of the Law in Germany and France, conf. p. 192. sq,]
further history
all

[The

treated at

For example Hai in the Comments on Taharot.

(1. c. 7.

See the author's Catal no. 7051. sq. ; conf. Maimonides n.65.). 3 Several of such by Karaites are older, see ^14.
2 *

Rapoport's Biogr.
j

n.

SO., conf.
bl.

Geig. Zeitschr.

i.

398.

sq.

(see

n. 6.)
^

conf.

Landauer
s.

(Lit.

vii. 3.),

received with caution, see Catal. sub no.

whose chronology must be 6677'

See Catal.

v.

According rished in 1050.

^

Lebrecht (Frankel^ Zeitschr. iii. 422.), he still flouRapop. Biograph. n. 30., incorrectly repeated in Geig. Zeitschr. i. 399v conf. Ker. Chem. vii. 185. Some MS. Commentaries on the Talmud have been falsely attributed to him ; they are by a later author, Chananel ben Samuel (12th century), see S. D. Luzzatto, Lit. bl. 1850, p. 241. 7 Catal. p. 1837. no. 6494.
to

Conf. Frankel, Beweis, p. 106. Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 474. ^0 Geig. Zeitschr. ii. 557.; Mauksch. Lit. bl. v. 155.; Zunz ad Benjam. p. 260., conf. Lit. bl. i. 705. In the authorities quoted in the German essay, Frankel (Monatschr. iv. 77-) might have found all that is wel] founded in his invectives against Reifmann, the recent biographer of Serachja, aimed indirectly against D. Cassel's critical recension, and indeed against all history of literature. 1^ See Lebrecht, Frank. Zeitschr. iii. 430.; conf. p. 232.
^

12

Geig. Zeitschr.
Catal.
s. V.

i.

22.
article

^3

The

'^'^Gerson" in the Encycl. of Ersch,

by

D. Cassel,
14 1^

is

now

in the press.

Lit. bl. iv. 5.

Zunz, chap. 18., refers to Rapop. Ker. Chem. vii. 4. sq., see Zunz, zur Geschl. pp. 6l. 566. 1^ Not as his immediate scholar, as the author of this essay (Lit. bl. iv. 5.) formerly asserted on the authority of Geiger. 1' See Catal. p. 1853. 18 Dernburg, Geig. Zeitschr. i. 118. 214., conf. the author's treatise in the Serapeura, 1845, pp. 290, 291. ; Frankel, Beweis, p. 106. sq. 1^ Dernburg, Geig., and Zunz, Geig. Zeitschr. 212. (conf. v. 458.), Zunz, zur Gesch. 74. According to Frankel (Monatii. 309. 556. '' the most ingenious (scharfsinschrift, iv. 75.), Abraham ben David is nigste) critic of the science (^sic) in general," and not less admirable than Maimonides. But we must suppose that his conception of '' science " is especially derived from that Talraudical dialectic which the same

288

NOTES TO

9.

author has somewhere else called peculiar to Judaism Abraham defended the great teacher of the Law against

Jomtob ben

Abraham ben

David and Shemtob ben Abraham Ibn Gaon

Conf. see n. 28.
21
iii.

20

Catal.

p.

196'8-9.
p. Sp.

Concerning
188.
;

(conf. 13.).

the influence on France,

Zunz, zur Gesch. 472. 476. 22 ZunZj zur Gesch.

23
i.

sq._,

conf.

Beer in Frankel, Zeitschr.

p. 59.

Id. p. 39., conf. p. 57.

With

regard to the determination of the

p. 90.

time, conf. Zion,

24

Q^.,

and supra,

Zunz, zur Gesch. 184., conf. Lit. bl. i. 108., iii, 686., vii. 521.; pu in Zunz, 1. c. 518. among the Spaniards; and concerning other real or honorable titles, Rapop. Nissim, note 32. With respect to Haggadaic authors, conf. Zunz, G. V. 236. note d. 25 Beer, 1. c. 47926 Zunz (zur Gesch. 188.) draws attention to the contemporaneous dissensiones of the old glossators of the Roman Law, conf. Levi ben Abraham in yVHTl, ii. 19- For the like casuistry in Muhammedan
conf.

rehgious practice, see Wien. Jahrb. Ixviii. p. 7, sq. 27 See the list in Zunz, p. I92. 28 Imxiz, 1. c. 160. sq. 29 Id. p. 182. sq., conf. sup. 4, 2. A.
.

^^ See n. 20. A nilVDH 'D by his somewhat older contemporary, Samuel, of Falaise, see in Zuuz, p. 37. Between these, the Asharot ( 19.) and the ethical writings, stands the work 7DJ^n IDX^, v. Catal. no. 3709. 31 Cod. Rossi, 571. 803. 3- Proper Liturgies, v. I9. 33 Catal p. 678.; Mieri, f. 41b., ed Wien., conf. 13. n. 21. 33a Catal. no. 5004. and Add. ad locum. S4 Zunz, p. 475. 35 MS. Michael, 653. 673. 26 Zunz, 477.:, conf. Lit. bl. i. 704. 37 Those of the latter are published by D. Cassel (Berl. 1846), with the life of the author, conf. Catal. p. I29I. 38 Conf. Frankel, der Beweis, &c. p. 11. sq., where a superficial

bibliographical note
3^

is

given.

See sup. n. I6.

^0

Zunz,

p.

120.

"

Gamah

vel Agur."

Rossi (Cod. 140, 2. 180, 2.) calls the author The author of this essay conjectured formerly

might be the Arabic (-^l^) and the Hebrew (IIJX), both work (conf. I6. nn. 30. 34. and 52.); but neither Rapoport (Erech Millin, p. x.) nor Dukes, in his notice of Stern (Lit. bl. xii. 357.), had alluded to it. The former, however, comes to nearly the same conclusion. Indeed the quotation yoi p^5 ^K1D2^? shows that yDJ was referred to the author by a person who was almost contemporaneous with him, but who, however, had no other authority than the ambiguous inscription of the work, where "11JN 'iS^IT'SI yOJ nJDJOn seems to refer Dukes would have done more wisely not to into the first word nisn. scribe his notice " Samuel Gama." The name Joseph ben Jehcda Darsham (Lit. bl. ib. p. 359.) has been neglected by Geiger, Parschanthat this
titles

of the

NOTES TO
data, p.

10.

289

A compend. of the "Tny of the 13th century. Cod. Vat. 11. Hebr.467. (in Mai. Collect.); conf. MS. Mich. 604.606. Dukes, Sprache
Wilna
;

der Mischna, p. 1741 Asulai, ii. 66. ed.

Lit. hi.

ii.

S3, sq.

10.

Page

75.

no special dissertation which we can quote for the first part we recommend the Hebrew and German Anthology " Auswahl historischer Stiicke," &e. (by J. Zedner, Berlin, 1840).] 1 Vide Cassel, Hist. Vers. p. 4. This seems to have, been done not only with reference to passages in the Bible, as in Gen. xlix. 10. conf. De Rossi, Delia vana Aspett. p. 70., Bibl. jud. Antichr. no. 47. 79., and Concerning the Beni the writings in Zunz on Benjamin, p. 212. Musa, the author's quotation from Schahrastani's work on the sects (ed. Cureton, p. I68.) has been repeated by the editor of the ^^"non n''3, ii. p. xxviii. (see following note), conf. Sacy, Christ. Arab. i. p. 360. sq. ;
[There
is

of this Section; but

Lit. bl. vi.

140. 2a Concerning the three different recensions of Eldad, see Catal. p. The falsifications of Carmoly have recently found an advocate 923.
(a writer in Frankel's Monatschr. iv. IO6.),

who

is

himself no judge

of forgeries by so great a master, and has so little critical acuteness, that he denies that Ibn Caspi wrote an exposition of Ibn Ezra's
*'

Secrets," notwithstanding that the author of this essay has enumerated

so

many MSS.
3

of

it still

extant

See 12. n. 31.

Vide 14. n. 6. 4 For example, Maimonides (upon which see the author's remarks, Frank. Zeitschr. iii. 280., and see 13. n. 26 a.), Ibn Ezra, Zion, ii. 154. ; conf. Zunz, G. V. 140. ^ The Arabian history of learned men also took its rise chiefly from the Sunna and from practical interests, as, for example, appears from the writings of the teachers named in Wiistenfeld's Akad. der Araber. 6 Completely and critically edited by Luzzatto, 1839. Conf. Zunz, G.V. 361. ; Dukes, Beitr. p. 1. Concerning the edition of Joseph TobElem, see Rapop. Resp. Gaon, 6. On a work under that title by Joseph ha-Levi, according to the very suspicious authority of Carmoly
existing in Cod. Paris,
a. f. 285._,

conf. the author's Catalogue, p. 1549,,

and

455. 7 Zunz, Notes to Benjamin p. 245. 8 Concerning the new edition of Goldberg, see Rapop. Resp. Gaon. 10 a. sq. A historical work by Jacob ben Nissim was not in existence
Lit. bl. xii.

(see Catal. p. 1117-)^ ^^^ ^^^ expresses in his ''Clavis" his intention to compose a work on the chain of tradition. 9 It is worthy of remark in relation to this subject, that the Karaites completed their genealogy from the Seder Olam suta (see n. I6.) ; conf. also Rapop. Resp. Gaon. 10 a. 10 Zedner, Concerning the last chapter in Josippon, c. p. 50. 1. attributed to him by Rapop., see Catal. p. 1548. >i H. Michael, apud Zunz, ziir Gesch. l63., conf. Catal. p. 21 62, Upon an anonymous author (I29O.) see Zunz, p. I66.

290
12

NOTES TO

10.

1^

Zunz, zur Gesch. 478. Published by Ben- Jacob (Leipz. 1846').

rests^

The name Aaron ben

doubtful
authority

Abraham
Carmoly.
1"*

indeed,

upon only

the rather

of

Catal. p. 14S5.

and

see supra, 5. note I?.

15 ^6

See 4. n. 47-

Zunz, ad Benjamin^ p. 6. j conf. Zedner, p. 93. n. 5. ; Lit. bl. 7S9. 1' Catal. p. 1548. Concerning some translations of Josippon, conf. Ewald, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Morg. Gesellsch. i. 338., and n. 18. 1^ mistake of the author in Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 327.^ has been corrected (but only half the correction printed) ib. p. 448. Graetz, however (Frankel, Monatschr. iii. 315.), implies that the Arabic version is older than, and even a source for, Josippon. But it should be observed that Graetz had only a short time previously (Novemb. 1853) received notice, in a private communication from the author, of the existence of that Arabic version extant in print and in some MSS., which do not agree together, and which require more profound study and judgment than has been shown by that author in other subjects of this kind ; conf. sup. 5. n. 17-:, see Catal. s. v. Sacharja ben Said. 1^ Catal.no. 3581. It is worth mentioning that the Hebrew was originally printed in l625, contrary to the wish of the Rabbles of Venice, and not until the celebrated Jehuda de Modena had purified the MS. from some passages which he thought too strange, and which he considered to be "^lies" {sic); vide Ari Nohem, p. 60. 20 Delitzsch, Hebr. Poes. 80. 122.; canf. Wolf, i. p. l65. n. 1051. Conf. the Hebr. journal Zion, ii. 104. note 21 Adler, Annal. i. 91- sq. ; Kirchheim, Lit. bl. vi. 737.; conf. Jellinek, who pubHshed in 1854 the 29. n. 37.; Catal. p. g6S. account of Eliezer ben Nathan, did not notice the contradiction in Joseph Cohen, who must have confused the two authors named in the
vi.

text ; conf. also Kerem 21a Catal. p. 1228.

Chemed,

ix.

49.

2^2 Whether the letter printed this year at the end of Ibn Verga, ed. Hanover, from the pretended MS. of Carmoly, is not simply a fabrication of the latter from Gedalja Ibn Jahja, we have no means of deciding ; the preliminary remarks by the owner of the MS. contain a curious blunder with respect to Jehuda ben Asher, and a superfluous proof that Chisdai was still alive in 1391. See 12. and 15. 23 Ersch, Encykl. vol. ii. p. 31. s. v. ^a xhis account is quoted by Moses Ibn Ezra and Joseph Ibn Aknin (see Ersch, Encykl. sect. ii. vol. 31. s v.), and is, perhaps, the n^i^DD (l^g. n'pXDtO of Mazliah quoted by the author of the twelfth century mentioned 4. n. QQ. ; conf. also Catal. p. 2041. 24 Israeh, Jesod Olam, iv. 14.; As. de Rossi, chap. 23. sq.; conf.

also

Kerem Chemed,
Nissim, Lit.

v.

I98.

24 a

bl. viii.

569.; conf. Geiger, Zeitschr.

vi.

107-; Abr.

ben Chijja, Astron.

25

Sup. page 79- read n^^^^n 22. at the end. See the learned treatment of this subject by Rapoport, Busch's
p. 73. (conf.
i.

Jahrbueh, iii. 258. and Erech MiUin, by whicii Ideler, Haiidb. d. Chron.
Conf. 21. n. 26.

Annal.
is

ii.

I60. sq.),

350. 568.,

to

be corrected.

NOTES TO
2^* See Afendopolo^

10.

291
dif-

Completion of Aderet Elijahu^ upon the

ferent Taarich.
^^

According

to

before the destruction of Jerusalem.

f.

Jewish chronology, however, Christ died 121 years See Sim. Duran, Keschet u-magen,

11 a.; see below, n. 34. Upon the alterations of the chronology of the LXX. for Christian purposes, see Graetz in Frankel, Monatschr. ii.
432.,
27
iii. 121. A Zunz, G. V. 114., and p. 153. the interpolation of Josippon. simple reckoning by the years of the world is found, however, in Aboda Sara, 9. b. The Arabian accounts of Jewish chronology are worthy of examination; see Abu Maascher, Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 235.; Herbelot, art. Cainan, ii. 72. of the Germ, transl. 28 See sup. 4. n. 58., 5. n. 106. 29 Rapop. Ker. Chem. v. 198. The abohtion of the Seleucidic Conaera is ascribed to R. David Ibn Abi Simra, Asulai, i. 7- 19cerning the chronological formulae used in MSS. and in printed works, see ZuNz, zur Gesch. p. 214. sq., and the art. Judische Typogj-aphie in

Ersch, vol. xxviii. p. 2730 Ker. Chem. v. 181. 31 See Geig. v. 465.; against Carmoly's determination of the date
of a Parisian
32
1 6 n. 50. authors from Sherira to Conforte (2 b.) state the Hegira to have occurred in the year 4374 of the world, except Cha-

M S.

Bible, see

The Jewish

who makes it a. 4381. (See Rapop. Biogr. p. 34.) Concerning the fact that in 1381 this aera of Augustus was given up by the Christians, and that of the birth of Christ introduced instead, see Abr. Sacut, f. 133 b. ed. Cracow; cf. Zunz, Zeitschr. p. 159-; Geig. Zeitschr. ii 564.; Melo Chofn, 98.; Dukes, Introd. p. 47. n. 44. Concerning the name "IDV or ")SVN as applied to Edom and to Christians, see the author's Analecta in Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 327.; and also Herbelot, art. Benu Asfar, L 623.; Rum. iii. 792.; Rumiali_, P' 794. (where also concerning isVj, conf. Zunz^ zur Gesch. p. 484.). Sacy (Not. et Extr. ix. 437-) derives it from Flavli ; this derivation has also been recently proved by another Oriental scholar who knew nothing of De Sacy's opinion. See the author's notice in Zeitschr. der Deutsch-morgenl. Zeitschr. iii. S(^3. ^^ For example, in Meir Katzenellenbogen, quoted by Jost, viii. I96., the common name of the month is more frequently used, e. g., in a Responsum of Leon Jehuda ben Solomon, dated 1 calend. (''^''^p) August. and 14 Mai. 278 (1518). Soon after the introduction of the aera nativitatis, "nascimento" (see note 33,), Prophiat Duran alludes to it in chap, xi, of his polemical work mentioned supra, p. 12735 Conf. Zuxz's dissertation On the Geographical Literature of the Jews (in the 2nd vol. of Benjamin Tudel. ed. London and Berlin, 1841, p. 230, sq.), p. 310.; and the author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 17. sq.
nanel,
33

36

The

belief in

m^^nO

'piJ^J

appears already in Jerusch.

Kilajim,

ix. 7.;

Ketub. 112.; Lit. bl. ii. 422. n. 40., iv. 297.; Zunz, Benj. p. 3C9.; and see Wolf, i. p. 268. 3'^ They should not, however, have been employed as they were by Leon de Laborde, concerning whose plagiarisms from Zunz's treatise see Deutsche Jahib. 1842, p.- 259.; Archives Israel, 1843, p. 56. sq. u 2
conf.

292
On

NOTES TO

11.

the geography of Palestine from Jewish sources Zunz himself contributed somewhat in his extracts from Esthori ha-Parchi^ Benj. Some other valuable contributions are given in S. Munk's p. 393. sq. Palestine, 1841 (a part of L'Univers), which is, however, less de-

rived from Jewish sources.

1845

also translated into

Schwarz, German by his

in his

Hebrew Works
;

(since

brother), has the advantage of

Talmudical knowledge and of a residence in Palestine

but a

little

more modesty would

become a person so deficient in general The geographical part of Rapoport's Talmudical Lexknowledge. icon Rerum (Erech Millin, 1852) has been attacked^ although not The MS. geographical always by those who have studied the subject. index of the Talmud which was used by S. Cassel (Ersch^ vol. xxvii. p. 27. n. 2., it ought to have been quoted also p. 18(S.) was made by B. PoRGES, director at Prossnitz (see Lit. bl. vi. 130.), who is still employed in extending it to Midrash^ &c.
better
38 39

Ziinz,

1. c. p. 312. See 15. n. I6.

^ The German text had numbers in brackets referring to Zunz's above (n. 35.) mentioned treatise ; but this essay being chronologically arranged and furnished with an index of authors, it was thought super-

fluous to introduce
^^

^2

them here. Vide sup. n. 2. Ed. Asher (Berlin, 1841);

;

see the author's article Lit. bl.

1
,

ii.

395,

sq.

S. Cassel, Hist.

Vers. p.

sq.

The

researches published re-

cently by

Carmoly

are probably a reprint of the

Revue

orientale,

the
v.

plagiarisms and forgeries of which are exposed by Geiger, Zeitschr.

469.
-^^

sq. ; but the author has not had an opportunity of seeing them. a [P. 82. 1. See Catal. p. 1778. 3., where the reference is omitted.]

sub Moses Aschkenasi of Crete. ^'^ Concerning Carmoly's forgery of a book, Actan (!) of Jacob de Nemez, and the probable introduction of its title into an Oxford MS.,
see Ersch, vol. xxxi. p. 59* n. 12.

Catal p. 1405. n. 5845. cf. n. 3926.; conf. Humboldt, 292. 45 Maltebrun and Depping in Zunz, p. 265. (whence in Carmoly, Hist, de Med. p. 124.), conf. 21. n, 58. We may here mention that Columbus put ashore the baptized Jew Louis de Torres because he possessed some knowledge of Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Arabic ; see Humboldt, Kosmos, ii. 462.
See
Kosraos,
ii.

44

11.

Page

82.

Whether they were reduced

;

certained
2

conf. 15.

On
iii.

to a regular system is not yet asthe term Epicurean as used in the Talmud, p. 22.

see the author's Fremdspr.

Elem.
404.
v.
1.

Frankel's Zeitschr.

sq.

Geig. Zeitschr.

i.

399-

85. sq.
c. v.

(conf.

also Alfasi in Geig.

the subsequent text, as far

as

Melo Chofnajim, p. 57- note ; The main authorities for 112.). Hebrew writings are concerned, were

NOTES TO
originally the

11.

293

essays

of

Geiger

(Zeitschr, v. 82. sq.),

author has also used for

see p. 86.
4

v. 2. sq.) and and some independent disquisitions ; the his revision some MSS. previously unknown,

Rapoport (Kerem Chern.

Jourdain,

1.

c. 10(5.

204., conf. 192. 201.

The

title

"

Be Physica

perfecta " is a plain misunderstanding. The author has given only a list of Johannes' works in his Catalogue, p. 1702-5., but is now in possession of some supplementary matter. a. d. 1224, Alnasar also caused all

philosophical books to be burnt (Abulfeda in Sprengel, Gesch. d.

ed.
^
i.

Med.

vol.

however, many Arabians are set down as Ali ben Radjal, Chalid ben Jasiki (Jesid), ChaNANJA (Honein) ben Ishak (who professes to have translated from the Hebrew) and his son Ishak (see 21. n. 38.), Ishak ben AmRAN, and JosuA ben Nun (by Carmoly), El-kindi, Abu Naim (by Casiri), the family Ibn Zohr, and others ; as also Costa ben Luka

On

271.). the other hand,

ii.

Jews,

e. g.

(mentioned as Lucas ben Costa in Grasse, Allg. Literargesch.

P' 99^'^-^'

ii.

2.

The

strange

name

of

Pharao Jud^us,

translator of the

Gospels (in Hottinger and Le-Long, quoted in Wolfius, i. p. 995.), is certainly a corruption of the name of a well-known Christian author, frequently quoted by the same learned men, viz. Abulfaragius BarWolf and others have fallen into mistakes Hebrseus, the son of a Jew. of this kind, especially through the circumstance of Arabic works being written by Jewish students in Hebrew letters. In the recent Catalogue " of the Vienna MSS. (no. 149-), this has been noticed as "^ remarkable in an Arabic work of Maimonides ; while it is well known that the Arabic writings of the Jews were nearly all written in Hebrew characters.

See Ritter, Getting. Gel. Anzeig. 1847, P- 604. sq. Sefer hammada ; a later compendium of which in the Arabic language, translated by Isak ben Nat an, has been edited by the author, together with three astronomical responsa of Abraham
6
"^

The

title " Schene hammeoroth,'' &c. (Berl. 1847). See the author's remarks in Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 112. n. 17.; conf. Aaron ben Elia, Keter Tora (Lit. bl. i. 534.), Hedessi, Alphab. 168. 174., and see 17. note 9., Geig. Zeitschr. v. 94. 293. ^ Maimonides' (?) Letter to his Son, f. 2. b. (Amst.) (Zunz, zur Gesch. 199')^ Abraham ben David in Geig. v. 92.; conf. Palquera in Minchot Kenaot, p. 183. j Ker. Chem. v. 8. 18. Abraham Maimonides (Epistle, f. 12. 31., ed. Hanov.) thinks that the opponents in MontpeUier, as regards their sensualism, differed but little from Christians.

Ibn Ezra, under the

^

p. 1751.,

Conf. also the verses of En-Vidas Meshullam ben Solosion (^CataL ha-Paht, p. 48.), and Cod. Munchen, 239. d. 10 Conf. Geig. Zeitschr. v. 111. 113., conf. 101. On the symbolical interpretation of Abraham and Sara Ibn, as form and matter, conf. N. Roschd's Short Logic (in Hebrew by Jacob ben Machir, called ProphiatTibbon [as it should be printed p. 92., cf. n. 24.], ob. cir. 1307), ed. Riva, 48. b., where the latter figure as man and wife ; and cf. Narboni, Comm. Moreh, ii. 30. (cf. 406.), and i. 72. (Adam and Eve) and i. I7. ; Shemtob Shafrut, Pardes, f. 76.; cf. also Emanuel's riddle on the uXr/ (cf. Noblot Chochma, f. 64. b.), David de Rocca,

u 3

294

NOTES TO

11.

U"li< niDT (see Catal. p. 1958.). Jehuda ben Mos. Romano (ad Genes, i.) says^ that some recent exegetists, whom he would not mention by name, explain the first chapters of Genesis according to the theory of the eternity of matter (niDHp). The book of Proverbs was also explained

in a similar

way

as early as

1247 by Jehuda ben Salomo Cohen

but on the other hand Joseph Caspi opposes this, although he himself considers the history of Cain and Abel to be a mere allegory, making the pun pnn 7'2n ''^ (see Ersch, Encykl. s. v. vol. xxxi. p. 66.). ScHEMABJA of Crete called his work on Matter and Form " The Union
of

Man and
^^

Wife.'*
v.

Ceremonial Law was associated ii. 125.) requires farther investigation. Allusions made by Shemtob Palquera (niD''1), Isaac Sahula, (pref.), and Joseph Caspi (Testam. chap, xi.) may partly allude

Plow

far actual transgression of the

with

it

(Geig. Zeitschr.

101. 106. 115., conf.

to converts.
'2 See the author's essay. Lit. bl. iv. 24. The position and importance of Provence were first shown by Zunz (see the references given in Zunz, zur Gesch. 481. n. f.).

lated a

oldest known by name are Isaac ben Reuben, who transHalacha Avork of Hai Gaon in 1078, and Moses Chiquitilla translator of the grammatical writings of Chajug ( l6.).
^^

The

''* From the introduction (in Delitzsch, Catal. p. 306.) the author concludes that the revision was made later at Naples. To Anatoli is referred the citation in Jourdain, p. 175., from which are to be deduced the date of the famous letter of Frederick II. (conf. Humboldt, Kosmos,

ii.

MS.

448.), and the identity of Michael Scot with Michael in the Malmad (see the author's essay in nT'Tl, p. 31.), as also that of the works

there mentioned with the middle commentaries of Averroes.

^^
16
1'^

Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 85. Catal. pp. 1420. 1951. The letter printed in Ker. Chem.
s.

v. 18.

contains only extracts;

see Catal.

v.

18 Geig. V. 89. 97. Rapop. Lit. bl. vi. 739. (not mentioned in the ; reproduction of Fiirst, Lit. bl. xi. 446.) ; cf. Cod. Rossi, \66.^^ incor-

rectly

reproduced by Deutsch, Catal. p. 82. ; on Samuel ben Nissim 1313. 1^ Zunz, zur Gesch. S5. On Daniel ben Saadja, the Babylonian (i. e. of Bagdad), see the author's Additt. to Uri, n. 225. 20 Catal. p. 1440. ^1 Ker. Chem. iii. I69. On Solomon Petit, see nnjJ mrDn f. 18. -2 The misconception of Geiger, Zeitschr. v. 108., has been weU refuted by S. Sachs, Ker, Chem. viii. 195. On the figure of the lion see Sprengel, Gesch. d. Medic. (1st ed.) ii. 46l. it is mentioned at the end of chapter vii, of the Hebrew translation of the pseudo- Aristotelian '' Secretum Secretorum," and in a medical extract ascribed to Razi, in the Michael MS. 51. f. 148 b. ; hence Jellinek's note to
at Haleb, see Catal. p.
;

De Anima, pp. 8. 23., is to be supplied; cf. 22. at the end. Delitzsch (Ez. Chajhn, p. 344.) sees in him the beginning of mysticism.
Galen's
23

23a Geig.
24

1.

c.

The Jews

p. 114. of Provence, like those of Arabia, have generally a

NOTES TO

12.

295

ignorance of which 25 A list of the

vernacular, besides their Jewish, name (Zunz, zur Gesch. 462.), from many errors have arisen ; cf. e. g. Catal. pp. 2112-13.

men

is

given by Zunz. zur Gesch. 477ii.

On Levi
1.

BEN Abraham
22.), from

see Geiger in |>lSnn,

12. (and S. Sachs,

c.

in note

whom Carmoly

Francais ; whence it 122., without any reference to its real origin. 26 Rapop. Ker. Chem. v. Geig. (p. 122.) leaves this term p. 1. miHoticed. 27 Geig. pp. 108. 122. 28 E. g. Rapoport, Ker. Chem. v. 9., vi. 1 1 0. j cf. Reggio, Thora and Philos., Chajes (see note to Ez. Chajim of Aaron ben Elia, p. 343.).

has borrowed his notice in the Atheneum has found its way also into the Monatschrift, iv.

12.

Page

94.

have not found much new material, or reason for alterations, in the essay of Munk on Jewish Philosophers (translated from the French, with notes, by B. Beer, 1852), for our general sketch ; the undeniable
merit of that essay consisting rather in notices of individuals.] 1 On the Mutakallimun and Karaites see 14. n. 6. ; on MoThe doctrine of the Retributio brutorum is to be karamez, ib. n. 3. met with in Saadja (see the author's remark in Lit. bl. 1841, p. 332., see Frank. Zeitschr. iii. 404. n. 6,), and in Joseph the Karaite, perhaps (Abu Jacob) the author of the work '"l"liD?J< (in Joseph Ibn
p. xxviii. n. 1.

[We

conf. Schlesinger, Einl. zu Albo, p. 1571-) head belongs the objection of Maimonides to Saadja's division of the Commandments into rational (DIvDE^) and positive (nvyJDS^*) (conf. Ez. Chajim of Aaron ben Elia, p. vi. n. 11.). Saadja and Hai are probably called MutekeUimin in its peculiar sense by iMoses Ibn Ezra (see the author's Catal. p. 2J 83.). It is^ worth noticing that Saadja's psychological system is not truly Aristotelian ; see the Platonic division of the faculties pointed out by

Zaddik, p. 70., see Catal.

To

this

Munk, Notice, p. 10. (cf. p. I6. j Geiger, Zeitschr. ii. II6. ; Goldenthal, Preface to Averroes, p. xvi. ; Scheyer, Psychologie, pp. 24. 66.). Also among the Freemasons at Bosra, the Brothers of Purity (about a. d. 98O ; see supra, p. 98.), whose writings were attributed to the Mu'tazelites (Schmolders' Essai sur les Ecoles phil. chez les Arabes [^Par.
1842],

(Hammer,

Jews were probably to be found 67. sq.) ; conf. also 5. n. 25. Schmolders (1. c. 106.) asserts that the Jews could not be pupils of the Mutakallimun, since the latter, as simply orthodox (which is however an arbitrary assumption and untrue, see 17- n. 7-)^ ^^^y endeavoured
p.

200. see
\yien.

20. Jahrb.

n.

23

a),

ii.

c.

But the Jews to combine philosophy with the dogmas of the Koran. might have borrowed the scholastic method even from the orthodox.
2

Gazzali

Arabians. sophiques.
3

is considered as the representative of scepticism among the See Munk's article in the Dictionnaire des Sciences philo-

See Jellinek, Lit.

iii.

bl. vi.
;

Zeitschr.

I98.

sq.

(Mashal hak. 16. b.)

622., and the author's corrections, Frankel, and 21. n. 1. Conf. Sahula Alfonso in De Castro, ii. 625,, cf. Nachmanides^
cf.

18. n. 48.

u 4

296
SermoiT,

NOTES TO

12.

xxxiv. 6.

20. edo Jellinek, Joseph ben Eleasar on Ibn Ezra, Exod. the expression ]Vi^r[ in the Talmud, the passages of Joseph Ibn Aknin, Jacob Anatoli (who is referred to by Abraham Abulafia,

On

p.

and also beyond doubt by

in his preface
to a

ben Isaac ben Jehuda by Mr. Schorr at Odessa), Shemtob Palquera, Hillel ben Samuel, and Joseph Caspi, will be given elsewhere; cf. also Geiger, Melo Chofn, p. 411. and 5. note " Sermoniales/' in the celebrated letter of Frederick II. (in 96.
translation of the Logic, copied

Abraham Shalom

Jourdain, p. 17^.), does not mean physical but logical science. David Mokammez (Lit. bl. viii. 620. 64?.) gives the first place to metaphysics, like the old Karaites (Cusari, v. 2.), as Mutekellim (see 14. n. 7'); and Jeh. ben Barzillai (p. 1130.) reckons him among the 1pnt:n ^hV2, which is not to be translated "philosophers" (Lit. bl. viii. 616 6l9)" Grazzali thus arranges the opinions of the philosophers logic, metaphysics, physics, with the express remark that it is contrary to their own custom. Some other expressions are neither quite clear nor consistently used. Mokammez himself distinguishes between

npHDH
latter

'n

and ^l)pr\ 'nDD

'n (ib.).
'EJ^JK

Ibn Ezra (Shne hammeoroth,

(^^l^j-wo?) and n^^lJin
'X,

p. i.)

distinguishes between
ascribe a

npHDH

which

his pref. to

more exalted soul to the moon. Sam. Ibn Tibbon, in Deot ha-Phil. (like Isaac Aboab, Menorat, 236.), identifies "IpriDn 'n with philosophers (conf. pref. to Abot, and Jikkawu hammaj, passim). Palquera and others frequently uselprtDH 'D^n for thinkers in general ; in Mebakkesh, f. 240., it is applied to Saadja. Aaron ben Elia the Karaite opposes them to the philosophers ; conf.
14. n. 7.5

16. n. 49.

On

the seven sciences as connected with

21. n. 1. MS. Mich. 176. according to the author's emendation. Register, p. 350., and MS. Reggio, 44., from which the statement p. 9^..is taken. 4 On religious differences see 20. nn. 24 a. 25.; on the development
ix. 1. see 18. n. 49-,

Prov. 2^

treat of the character

The author has promised to of language, 8. n. 14., conf. 23. n. 9and importance of this literature of translations in
which
is to

his Judaeo-Arabic Bibliotheca, the second part of

comprise

the translators and translations.

^

Examples, besides those

in

p. 96., are to

be found in the present

article,
^

e.g. 21, 22. Even Rapoport (Resp. Gaon. 2 b. in fine) ranks

!

and Boethos

And

yet his views, denounced

him with Zadok by Shemtob (in Geig.

Melo Chofn,

p. 63.), do not differ from those of Gazzali (conf. S. Duran, Keshet u-magen, 18 b.), whose work was translated by Albalag and completed by Isaac Ibn Polkar (so that the date, 1307, ascribed

Gazzali probably spoke of the philosophers ; and a similar opinion is to be found (see Strauss, Glaubenslehre, ii. 546.). But what is most in Luther curious is the fact that a passage of Albalag, to be found in all MSS. hitherto examined, recommends the reader to seek an answer to questions
in the

to Albalag, is rather to be referred to Polkar)

name
!

not solved by philosophy in tradition ( ilblp !), and even praises three See the author's Kabbalists of the end of the thirteenth century But Albalag Catalogue of the Leyden Hebr. MSS., Cod. Warner, 6. B. Beer is not the only authdr denounced by fanatics and mystics. has recently shown that even Samuel Zabza, who is said to have been
!

NOTES TO
burnt,
is

12.

297

to the translators

With respect raore orthodox than his mystic calumniators. of Arabian philosophy, the author considers every

general conclusion respecting the tendency and position of these men All of them profess to have within the sphere of Judaism premature.

undertaken their labours for the honour and glory of the true faith and who would, without sufficient ground, accuse them of hypocrisy and deceit ? The question is only what every individual considered to be that faith. Cf. the remarkable attacks of William of Auvergne (ob. 1248) in Jourdain, p. 279. ^ The author has here omitted Saadja ben David of Aden, whom, in the German essay be had conjectured to have written an Arabic

commentary on Gazzali's ^^\^^

[i^, in opposition to Nicoll, p. 563.,

who
title

denied any reference in

DIDJ^t^

it

to Gazzali,

and did not well read the

nXTI instead of n5<2T. Oxford MS. is nothing else than the work of Gazzali {Catal. p. 1001.), and since the same appears in an autogi-aph of Saadja, it will be hardly possible for an impartial judge to acquit Saadja of plagiarism. About Ssaid ben Said, mentioned in the German note, see the author's Catalogue, p. 1114., and infra, 21. n. 29- SQ a.
nX3T
;

a marginal correction reads

The

truth

is

that the

9 10

See

8. n. 9-

MS. Mich.

80. (conf. Zunz, Benj. p. 9. n. 13.), emendated in

the author's Index auctorum to the Michael Catalogue, sub voce, p. 334. 11 MS. Mich. 766. See the author's Index, sub voce, p. 348.
12

The

author has given in his Catalogue,

p.

1811., the Arabic

name
n. 3.
13 14

of the

work
to

translated under the

Dukes supposed
Catal. p.

be genuine.

On

Arugat ha-Bosem, which a work cited by Bechaji see 14.

title

1897.

See inf. 13.

14 a Zunz, G. V. p. 401., zur Gesch. l6'o., but confused in the index with an older author (p. 65.). On the dissemination of the Moreh among the Arabians see the author's pref. to Maamar hajichud, Thomas Aquinas was probably acquainted with a Latin transp. iv. lation quoted by the commentator Moses ben Solomon (cf. Cafal. p. I896.). From the estimation in which the Moreh is held by Christians and Muhammedans, Joseph Ibn Caspe (about 1320) makes out a reproach against his Jewish contemporaries, who neglected it. 1^ In Zunz, Benj. p. 259-^ improperly classed with the geographers. 16 Zunz, Additt. to Dehtsch's Catalogue of the MSS. at Leipsic, p. 326.; Dukes, Lit. bl. viii. 11 6. 456. 1'^ According to Carmoly, Annal. i. 156., a. d. 1405 The correct date is given by Biscioni (i. Cod. xxviii. g.), who nevertheless would identify him with Jehuda Parsi (see 14.), mentioned by Ibn Ezra. 18 Zunz, ad Benjamin, p. 29-^ not '' unknown " (Dukes, Lit. bl. x.
!

707.).
19

Id.,

20

zur Gesch. p. 123. Conf. Jellinek's pref. to

n. 1.

Ben
1040

Jacob's edition

(Leipsic,

1846),

p. x.

(?) in the Arabic compendium of a recent Karaite (Lit. bl. xii. 738.) is in itself of very little authority

and xxi.

The

date

until

we know the source whence it Jacob of Lunel already wrote on Ethics

is
j

derived.

Meshullam ben
ii.

Zunz, Geig. Zeitschr.

310.

298
2^

NOTES TO
At an
early period

12.

Gesch. 124.).
the preface
conf. Geiger^

Meshullam ben Kalonymos (Zunz, zur The most prominent older commentators are named in and partly quoted in the Commentary of Sara. Uceda
Moses ben Maimon.
p. 5Q.,

and the author's

Cafal.

p.

One of the oldest commentaries, of which three somewhat discrepant MSS. are extant in the Bodleian Library, has been falsely ascribed to Jacob ben Samson (cf. p. 185.) by Dukes (see the author's
228.
sq.

Catal. p. 2033.).
22 See the author's bibliographical note in Kerem Chemed, ix. (not yet published), p. 48. 23 Conf. sup. 5. n. 89. 24 See the author's refutation of an unfounded attack in Ersch,

Encykl.
25

s. ii.

vol.

For " 1387 " read

Catal.
s.

xxxi. p. 52. n. 56. '' before 1394."

See Catal

s.

v.

Serachja

Jewani,
26 27

V.

Sahal in Dukes, Kuntres, p. 80. ; conf. Ibn Ezra, Intfod. to Commentary on Pentateuch (in Kerem Chemed, viii. 6?., no reference to this essay is given). Saadja himself, although he speaks of being brief, has been blamed for his prolixity ; conf. Jacob ben Nissim (? ), Lit. bl. vi. 563. The same is the case with Mokammez ( 14. n. 3.), KoREisH, Jeh. Chajjug, Gabirol. Abu Sahal himself (1. c. p. 73.) claims the merit of brevity of expression for the Arabians_, later Jewish writers with more justice for the Talmudists. 28 Catal. The author has but recently discovered a quop. 1116. tation from a Pentateuch Commentary by Aaron Serjado (?) a con-

Abu

temporary of Saadja (see Catal. p. 2159.) J he is probably the '^ Aaron Gaon " quoted by Ibn Ezra. Fiirst's great display of erudition with respect to Aaron (Lit. bl. x. 265.) is one of his usual plagiarisms from Zunz j as also is his notice of Chefez ben Jazliach_, to which he refers (1. c. p. 270.). Munk also (Notice sur Aboolwalid, p. I98.) refers first to the Lit. bl., with the remark on peut aussi consulter une note de M. Zunz," &c.
'^'

29 30

Zunz

in Geig. Zeitschr. iv. 193.

Del Medigo saw 24. ; Vide Geig., Melo Chof. 27. On an interesting supercomm. of an uncertain author, but probably about 1300., see Catal. p. I696. 31 See the author's article Gatigno in Ersch, Encykl. s. i. vol. 54. Kirchheim, w^ho spoke of this author, although not quite corp. 357. rectly, in his notes to Asulai, p. 252., ought to have known that his double Commentary is an imitation of Caspi, who he says (Frankel Monatschr. 1855, p. 107- on a MS. of Carmoly) gave no explanation of
;

the mysteries.
32

Zunz, G. V. 416.

sq.

422.

The

masc.

is

more used

in the signi-

fication
e.

of quaestiones

J^L.^, from
,,j-. is

K^m

quaestio^

investigation; so

g. Alfarabi's Jj\^yil\ p.

translated

D^^mn

py (vide Index

to

322.) ; the D^S^^m of J. Roshd and others are quaestiones (Jourdain, p. 104.) corresponding to m^XSJ^ {Catal. p. 1972.). On the history of the development of the Derashot, see also Asulai,
Catal. Mich.

Waad,
33

7. 17-

Zunz^ G. V. 400., zur Gesch. 51 6.

NOTES TO
^^
^5

13.

299

Munk,

in Isr. Annal.

iii.

94.
see

Catal. p. 1181.

On
vii.

Commentary of Salman Zion

Zunz_,
conf.

zur Gesch. p. l66.

36

Dukes, Lit.
iii.

bl.

779-

The

Departicul.

mnoS (<^),
translations

Lit. bl.

678., was found by the author in

''

MS.

from the

Arabic.
37

[Note to

Al-Chalil," p. 104. line from the bottom.]

.xt!' C-jI::*^

See the inte-

resting and useful notices about the

collected
vi.

in Jewish authorities

by the author

in the Zeitschr. der deutsch

morg. Gesellsch.

414.

13.

Page

104.
is in

Our view

of the history of Kabbalistic Literature

general the

same as that given in Zunz's short survey (G. V. chap. ix. p. 404. sq.), and in Landauer's Literary Remains. The latter were not left in a form fitted for publication, but were arranged and perhaps altered by another hand ; so that they are not altogether free from contradictions (conf. vi. 180. with vii. 125, 126.). His views are the more weighty and instructive,

racter (see Annal.

because he originally commenced with opinions of an opposite chaiii. 70., Lit. bl. vii. 812.), and changed them only after a study of the rich store of KabbaUstic literature in the Library at cannot say the same of his follower Jellinek. Munich. He published in 1844 a German translation of Franck's work (mentioned 5. n. 94.) with notes, in which he endeavoured to remedy and correct the ignorance respecting Hebrew Literature and its history evinced in the French text (see note 4. and the analysis and refutation by CarMOLY, Revue Orientale, i. 430., ii. loQ., reprinted in his Itineraires, Since 1852, Jellinek has devoted some short tracts 1847, p. 265.). These were specially to the history of the Kabbala and its literature. reviewed in a special report by J. M. Jost (entitled Adolph Jellinek und die Kabbala, Leipzig, 1852, also printed in the Wiener Vierteljahrschr. 1853, ii. 22., without mention of the separate edition), who concludes with the remark that Jellinek was the man most suited The author to develop the essence, history, &c., of the Kabbala. considering it his duty to accompany the short references to his authorities with some hints as to how far the student may trust them must in the present case briefly give his reasons why he differs from the opinion of Jost with respect to the validity of the arguments, and of In his first and most the method and principles adopted by Jellinek. valuable researches about Moses de Leon and the Zohar (vide supra, p. 111.) the author ought to have begun with an analysis of the collective Zohar, in the same way as Zunz did with the Midrash (conf. Zeitschr.

We

d.

m. Gesellsch. vi. 298., and for specialities Catal. p. 1847.). As to the short analecta given in the Lit. bl. and published separately under the title Beitrage zur Geschichte der Kabbala (i. and ii.), we must
defend the author against Jost, who complains of several omissions, as But we must decidedly proif a systematic history had been intended. test against the readiness with which the writer adopts the forgeries and
defective criticism of

and attributes

to

some Hebrew authors as the basis of his opinions, some older writers the frao;ments found in later

300
authorities

NOTES TO

13.

; for instance, identifying, only on account of the name, the author Chisdai Nasi, whose existence is rather doubtful, with the minister of the 10th century, and attributing to him a Hebrew work, while no Hebrew work whatever was written at that time in Spain, to But we might justify our judgment simply say nothing of the subject. by alluding to the points wherein Jellinek himself has more than once altered his opinion (see instances in Catal. pp. 755. 1469. 1853. 1964.). will not hold him responsible for the want of MSS. and good editions, but only for quoting authorities which he has evidently not consulted (Zunz, Add., quoted in Beitr. ii. 48., cf. p. 64. and the refutation in our Catal. pp. 2091. 2093.), and neglecting authorities like

We

Wolfius (see Catal.

the work,

p.

2058.).

One

striking instance will suffice

in

Auswahl Kabbalisticher Mystik, 1853, p. 20., he attributes a Commentary on Exodus to Samuel Chasid, and the passage in the note is taken, without mentioning it, from the old Oppenheim Catalogue
in 4to fol. 2. ; but there we find, not ^IIDD, but ^13D , an obvious misprint for 13iD, i.e. the grandson of Samuel, as he might have found in the edition of 1828, p. 21 6.; but why not consult Zunz, zur Gesch. p. Ql., where all the German exegetists are mentioned ? And on such foundations he builds many of his conjectures, as will be shown in the following notes. His notices respecting some authors of the 13th century might have ^been more correct if he had consulted the notes in Carmoly's Itineraires, Bruxelles, 1847, where there is a larger store of correct and original information than we usually find
in that author.

With

respect to Jellinek's editions and republications

of

Hebrew

mention a Dialogue sur la Kahhale et le Zohar, et sur tAntiquite de la Ponctuation, The &c., Paris, 1852, written twenty-five years ago, cf. supra, p. 112. older Christian authors are given by Wolf, ii. p. 1243., iv. p. 742. Amongst recent authors we may mention Molitor ; but the present author does not hesitate to confess that he has not spent much time in reading large works, whose principal aim is to show, without any solid support in Hebrew literature, that Christianity was anterior to Christ. The Trinitarian school (n. 38.) will never lose its attraction for the The author must conclude with the remark that he Christian student. is far from claiming any authority for himself in this department ; he was prevented by a sudden illness in 1855 from cataloguing, as he proposed, the Kabbalistic MSS. at Oxford; and he only wishes to state, that if ever the special history of the Kabbala is to be made clear and evident, it can only be so by researches more profound than those hitherto undertaken. 2 The 48 prophets of the Jewish tradition (Seder Olam Rabba, cap.

some of the following notes. Finally, we have to Hebrew Essay by S. D. Luzzatto, with a French titlepage
text, see

21.), or 200 or more (Megilla, 14 a.), recur in the Muhammedan Further historical vouchers and deductions cannot be given legend.
here.
3

See also notes 3. and 27. considerations shortly alluded to in the text ought to be treated in a special essay, as they have been unnoticed ever since this essay first appeared ; a striking instance will be given in 22. n. 34. will restrict this note to a short comprehensive remark connected

The

We

with that

case.

Amongst

the typical titles stereotyped in the mystic

NOTES TO
literature^ those taken

13.

301

from mystery itself are of course most frequently adopted by the Arabs and Jews ; and every book or quotation must be carefully inquired into before we identify any two of them. Thus the pseudo-Aristotelian Secretum Secretorum (cf. 22. n. 84.) existed in Arabic certainly as early as the 8th century. At the beginning of the 12th century, perhaps, a work, Secreta Secretorum, is quoted as containing an explanation of the Tetragrammaton (see the quotations in CataL p. 1851., cf. p. 338. pTIT J^T"), a part of the Zohar). Shortly afterwards Ibn Ezra (Exod. iii. 13., short recension), speaking of the name of seventy-two letters, quotes from the D''T"in 'D (7J<''T") in the retractation to Exod. xiv. 19.^ cf. Zunz, p. iQ^., whom our text, p. 107. follows), something about Oneirocriticism (cf. 22. n. 80.). book of the same title as the last is mentioned by the Karaite Salmon (about 900-30) (cf. the German text) ; and this simple notice is made by Jelhnek (Bet-hamidrasch, ii. p. xxx., where most of his matter is taken from the Catalogue, mentioned in note 6.) the basis of identifications and irreconcilable conclusions (vol. in. p. xxxii. ; on the book Raziel, see inf. n. 25.) ; he neglects even the note of Dukes (Lit. bl. xi. 508.), who gives us to understand that nothing special is mentioned in Salmon ; see 22. n. 34. It is worth noticing that the fragment in Raziel, f. 34., is called in the beginning " a book of the hooks of mysteries " which were given to Noah. There is still extant a 'D in MSS. (e. g. Opp. 1075. Q.) which JelHnek (Philos. und Kabbala, p. 42.) justly considers to belong to the pi'actical Kabbala ; but he seems to suppose that no connexion subsists between this one and those mentioned above. Cf. also Zunz, Synag. Poesie, p. 146., and a book 5^2"! i<Tl mentioned in the Responsum of Hai, concerning

Dmn

which see notes 7. and 21. Some interesting discoveries in Jewish pseudepigraphy might perhaps be found in the Arabic work "^ Keshef," &c., or in extracts from it (Nicoll, Catal. p. 563. ; Assemani, Naniana i. no. xxxviii. conf. Herbelot, i. 440., ii. 5Q5. 808., iii. AUemanno (vide 499., iv. 210, 211.; the author's CataL p. 2057.). 22. n. 76.) reckons thirty works of Solomon from the works of Abu Aflah and Apollonius, amongst them also the book Raziel. 4 Many doctrines of the Zohar brought forward by Franck, 1. c, as characteristic are only an Aramaic translation of the Midrash and the Philosophical Writings (see e. g. the author's notes on Maimonides on Franck must here be certainly the Unity, p. I6. n. 25. and p. 24.).
;

accused of ignorance. 5 Conf. Jost (against Franck), Lit.

^

bl. vi.

811.

Franck (p. 84.) considers the celebrated Book of Avicenna (9801036) on Oriental philosophy as lost. This very part of the \y^ \h.L\\> also extant entire, is to be found in Hebrew characters in Cod.
^

Uri, 400. ^ ; quotations are to be met with, e. g. in Samuel Ibn Tibbon, Chajjim ben Israel, Mos. Narboni, &c. ; conf. Ker. Chem. viii. 224., Schlesinger, p. 647. and Renau, Averroes, p. 73. (Roger Bacon). Rapoport admits some influence from the Szufi (conf. Zeitschr. der deutsch. Morgenland iJesellsch. i. 259-) on Hai Gaon (Maim. Treatise on the Unity, p. 22. note).
:,

Hagi

Chalfa (ed.

Fluge'l,

iii.

p. 584.),

No. 7053.

[^^\

J^),

302

NOTES TO

13.

designates some Arabic works as " after the

the other

Hebrew manner."

On
ii.

hand

the first of these works

is

said (sub voce, no. 1890.

p. 62.) to be

"after the manner of the Copts and Arabians!" According to Casiri (i. p. 402.), the Arabians had the Kabbala from the Jews (see 22. n. 78.)- But Casiri (on Cod. I6l4. and 1438.) says
Nairn, celebrated as learned in tradition qui ex Rabbin, genere in Persia natus plura ex fabulosis Hebraeorum Tradit. in Muhammetanorum sectam invexit;" and even of Bochari, "^ Unde conjici merito (!) licet Albocharaeum vel secta Judseum fuisse vel Rabbinorum ope absurdissima hujusmodi mendacia confinxisse " Just as the old Leipsic cataloguer said of Ali
also of the
"^
!

Muhammedan Abu

(oh. 1039):, ridiculisque

ben Rodhwan (Frank. Zeitschr. iii. 198. n. 6.), " Ali Ismaelita (gente puto, nam religione non Mohammedanus sed Judaeus fuisse videtur^ professione medicus, superbia Pharisaeus, &c. !" Conf. on Khaled ben Jesid, inf. 21. n. 39-; on Alkendi, 21. n. 74.; on Abdallah ben
Masrur,
22. n.

7l6.

A work,
The

^>U.sJ^ ^oj &c.,

is

mentioned by Hag'i
see also

Chalfa, no. 6522.

n. 67.^ 22. n. 76.

(iii.

p. 477*)^

without explanation;
titles
"itJ^Tl
:

21.

following are

was

called afterwards practical

;

Kabbala

of older works on what (perhaps that mentioned

in our text, p. IO7.

MS. under the same title in Miinchen is perhaps by Abraham Abulafia), HE^DT Xnin tn"l 5^IJ^1D^K> (see Catal. p. 2010.),
a
besides
see the

some fragmentary "^ bits " (? niriDDID, perhaps Responsum which is ascribed to Hai, and printed,

jj^Uji^

.^).

as it seems,

with interpolations (Catal p. 602. no. 3843.) ; cf. also Zunz, Synag. Poesie, p. 146., and sup n. 3. 8 V. Minchat Kenaot, p. 185. ; conf. Geig. Mel. Chofn, p. ix. sq. 9 Landauer, p. 213.; conf. Formstecher, p. 321. Something like it is to be found in the older mystics, see Sprengel, Gesch. d. Med. ii. Conf. also Zunz, Synag. Poesie, p. 145. On r\J2)p 1)^^, ex137. plained in a philosophical way, and on its connexion with physiognomy, we have the interesting opinions of Saapja, Nissim, Maimonides (Geig. Beitr. 1 847), Hai (communicated by the author to S. Sachs, Ha-techia, p. 41.), and others (cf. Dukes, Lit. bl. xi. 509. and Catal. pp. 1027. 1974.). ^^ The Arabians also have all kinds of writings on the form of the alphabet, &c., a comparison of which would be very useful. See
Balathi, i. 564.; Lathaif, iii. 182.; Lauami, p. 179-; 287-; Mefatih, p. 36l.; Tafhim, iv. 342. ^1 Landauer, Lit. bl. viii. 213., considers this as Pythagorean (?\ Hammer (Wien. Jahrb. C. V. 139.) compares the Sefirot with the Persian Sipehr. For the older meaning of n"l'*SD there is a locus classicus in Ibn Ezra on Exod. xxx. I6., in the shorter recension compared with the larger. On the title of the book see MS. Mich. 317.

Herbelot,

art.

Mamun,

p.

Saadja has merely

\\

c^^^^JuI'j

"'which was attributed

to

Abra-

ham."

So likewise the dubious commentator soon after Saadja (Lit. bl. vi. 562.), who distinctly speaks of "arbitrary additions." Saadja's views on the antiquity of matter, viz. on the philosophical theory of creation, not contained in the work of which we are speaking, are closely connected with those in his writings against the Karaites (see Cata.1. s. v.). There is no reason for giving up the views of Zunz (G. V. l64.),

NOTES TO

13.

303

made. The treatment of the chapter on the creation was called, in the period, of the Talmud, ni^^n (v. sup. 5.) ; hence our book of Jezira divided into Halachot nT* has received the name given to it by later authors (v. Jost_, Lit. bl. vii.
in favour of the uncritical objections recently

anonymous translation of the Emunot Wedeoth). by no means proved by this (as Jost, 1. c, assumes) that mention is made of our book Jezira in the Talmud. These, which are the principal grounds given by Franck (pp. 48. 55. and Jost) for its higher antiquity, rest, however, besides (according to a remark of B. Beer) on an introduction of the words hT'V D 2 y from a commentator on the Talmud Cf. also Reifmann, Pescher Dabar, ii. 64., where an old " printed edition," is mentioned, unknown to the author and perhaps a Franck's proof of its ^' genuineness " (!) has no better mistake ? the dragon, is not Chaldee (p. 58.), but Arabic; see foundation, ""^n the author's article '' Orient. Ansichten, &c." in the Mag. f. d. Lit. des AusL 1845, p. 319. The designation " Friend of God " for Abraham (p. 61.) first becomes typical at a later time (see the author's collection in the Sabbatbl. 1846, p. 79-)^^ ^^^ division of the letters see For a simple symbolism of names in Sar.Shaloai Gaon, 16. n. 27. see Rapop. Resp. Gaon. 8, b. ^2 There exist several Hebrew MSS. bearing the name of one of the two authors mentioned in the text, or that of Abu Sahl [or Dunash] BEN Tamim (cf. JeUinek, Beth ha-midr. iii. p. xliii.) ; and Munk has tried to prove that the grammarian Dunash ( I6.) is the author of at The author thus concludes his least one of these commentaries. German note " There are probably two Hebrew translations, or the commentaries of the two contemporaries and countrymen have been The same opinion was soon afterwards brought fused into one." forward with more confidence by Geiger (Moses ben Maimon, p. 44.), but is considered very " problematical " by JeUinek, Beitrage, i. 6., who The whole transaction is shortly (p. 70.) returns to Munk's opinion. reviewed in Catal. p. Ill 6. 1244., see also p. 2032., whence it will be clear that we have, in all MSS. hitherto known, only different editions of one original work, and that the authorship of it is dubious. JeUinek, 1. c, has given a survey of the commentators of Jezira, perhaps independent of this essay, since he puts (p. 8.) Jehuda ben Barzillai into the eleventh century, and gives (p. 75.) as an addition a remark to be The commentary of Jomtob ben found in the German note 29.
811., similarly in the
It is
!

Abraham

(Beitr.

ii.

78.)

is

a mistake recognisable in the authority

!

Jehuda ben Balam, omitted by Jacob Chabib, where we read ''SI See Catal. s. v. the author and JeUinek, never wrote a commentary. 1^ The authorities for Hechalot are collected in the Catal. p. 531. and p. 1 465. ; the edition of JeUinek (in vol. iii., cf. Philosophie, p. 42) is made from a copy of Goldberg from Cod. Michael, 317. ("417" in Catal. p. 532. is a typographical error, of which JeUinek was perhaps not aware, since he identifies no. 3457.). The relation between Hechalot and Henoch is stated there ; and the author has first proved that Eliezeb ben Hyrcanos belongs to the heroes of Hechalot and that the eschatological part of his '^ Testament " is quoted in the older authorities {Catal. p 1849., which part was communicated to JeUinek before he edited vol. iii., but was not mentioned there), to

304

NOTES TO

13.

which may be added the " twenty-four secrets " erroneously ascribed to Nachmanides (MS. Opp. l665. Q.)- On Raziel see Catal p. 640., and conf. nn. 3. and 25. On Midrash Konen see Catal. p. 587. On "W^n see n. 7. 14 More particulars in Zunz, G. V. p. l67. sq., and Catal. p. 519. From S. Sachs is taken what Fiirst gives in the Lit. bl. xi. 525. It is quoted by Salmon, (see Jost^ Lit. bl. vi. 814., and again in Dukes, Lit. bl. xi. 508., in Esthori, p. xxiv., in bnj, p. 32.); cf. Jellinek, Bet ham.
III.

p. xiv.

15

The

expression

the

'^'^

( sophical style of the translators, aU positive (also HJID,

as

Halacha tradition

TV>2p, 7lpO signifies, in the Talmud, time of " nVIOi^* 4. n. 2.), subsequently, in the philo-

rical,

distinguished

{h^^'n nVD, ])'Vri tradition" would be itself contradictory (hence

nnjn) or histofrom the a prioj'i or purely rational, matter IVD), according to which n^^W >^h:ip " speculative

Landaueb,

Lit. bl. vi.

Theosophy 195., requires much correction ; see Zunz, G. V. 402.). was first characterised as traditional, although, and even because, it was
not so, in the twelfth century ; and this argument would suffice to show the forgery of some tracts, or at least of their titles (see n. 18.) The expression JT'EJ^yD TDIp ^' practical Kabbala," is quite modern, v. sup. n. 7The expression n^Spn 'hv'2 in Palquera ad Moreh, ii. 6.,
p. 87. infra, is instructive.
16

Rapoport, Nath.

n.

57., Additions, pp. 97- 99-

Zunz, G. V,

404 b. Can ^\^^^p-= t^no be the same as Eha ? (Conf. 5. n. 64.) The whole of the twelfth century is a mythical period for the history of the rise of the Kabbala ; and we have not even yet any sure footing respecting the authorities (cf. inf. nn. I7. 21.). Kashisha is named by Shemtob Ibn Shemtob (cir. 1390-1400), who was a fanatic partisan
of mysticism or rather an opponent of criticism, and consequently, if not himself forging, collecting whatever he met with to give authority to the new revelations. It is the business of scientific research not simply to believe his suggestions to be " old traditions " (Jellinek,

Auswahl,
a

p. 27., Beitr.

tigate his authorities.

ii. 64. ; see inf. different notes), but to invesIn the present case the author has discovered in

MS.
;

of his

fuller

own (f. 88.) the same thing as in Shemtob (f. 39 b.), only the source however is said to be a " tradition of Elazar Worms

of the academy of Mata Mehasia,"(!) &c. See Catal. p. 1321. sub Jehuda Chasid, where other confusions are corrected.
is an extract from Elazar Worms' Comm. on Joseph del Medico in his ambiguous apology for the Kabbala, f. 14 b. (cf. Shemtob, 1. c. f. 40.). According to an emendation of Rapop. (1. c. and Ker. Chem. vi. 23.) we read " Ahu Harun j" and this being a common Arabic cognomen for Moses (Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 13. n. 28., and inf. 14. n. 19-) ^^ niight have
i'^

The

authority

prayers, given by

designated the above-mentioned R. Moses. A notice in Landauer^'s Remains (Lit. bl. vii. I98.) has unfortunately not been published. Botarel (see Catal. p. 1781.) mentions one Aaron Praeses, &c., whom Geiger (Melo Chofn, p. 99-) considers to be a mere fiction ; Fiirst, however, seems to identify him with the opponent of Saadja(Lit.l3l.x. 265., see 12. n.28. To David ben Jehuda, amongst others, is ascribed a work, in which Luzzato thinks he finds a knoworiginally

NOTES TO
ledge of the Zohar

13.

305

(cf. Jellinek, Beitr. ii. Hebr. part^ p. viii.) ; a work of the same title in Cod. Uri^ 318., is perhaps that of Moses de Leon. In a mystical exposition of the alphabet (omitted by Uri, n. 340.) the author quotes his Comm. on Jezira^ and calls himself in a final rhyme
;

David

Jehuda Chasid he derives his knowledge from Nachmanides The writer " Tab-jomi " is perhaps Lipmann iMuhlhausen. See also Catal. p. 868. It seems superfluous to prove again that the
it is

not quite certain whether he designates

'^'

"

as his grandfather or father, but

!

Gaon and

fragments, &c., collected by Jellinek (Beitr age, ii.) as those of Hai ^' the Kabbalist-family " (lO-llth cent.) are spurious; it

will suffice to

compare the genuine answer of Hai communicated by

the author to S. Sachs (reprinted by Jellinek elsewhere), and even the Jellinek's comlonger one printed under the dubious name of Hai.

binations

about Elia

Babli

rest

on various erroneous suppositions

Saken, and 5. n. 64.; and the author's remarks on a spurious ]\IS. note belonging to the spurious Responsum reprinted by Jell. p. 11. and another in Shemtob, flf. 34. 47- neglected by(see Catal. p. 949. sub Elia
Jell.

Auswahl,

p. 8.,

which

will be soon published).

On

Josia

Babli

see Catal. p. I949.

Conf. Formstecher, p. 321. Conf. ^ 5. n. 102. In Ibn Ezra and Maimonides the allegory (iriDJ, TlD) is not yet tradition (HP^p) ; and both contend against those who seek only for mysteries (Ibn Ezra, Comm. in Pent., in trod, n. 4.; Maimon. Introd. to the Articles of Faith, and nn. 3. 8. ; Treatise on Resurrection, Introd. fol. 31 b. ed. Frankf.). Abraham Jarchi (on
^^

^^

prayer, 47-) quotes D''D''J2n

D''1i)D.

The Arabian

sect of the a.^^ \^\

(Wien. Jahrb. ci. 25.) affords an interesting comparison with a passage in the Zohar (in Franck, p. 48.). 20 Zunz, G. V. 403., conf. Landauer, p. 343. ; Jehuda ben Solomon Cohen (a pupil of Meir Abulafia, who was himself inclined to mysticism) of Toledo, in Tuscany (1247)^ is also to be noticed as a mediator between philosophy and mystic doctrine (conf. Serapeum, 1852, p. 61.), and Isaac Sahula ( 20.) as an allegorising poet and commentator on the Canticles (conf. Zeitschr. d. d. m. Gesellsch. vi.
298., Catal. p. 1151.).

defended Anthropomorphism against Maibut the Kabbalists do not refer so much to him as to his son Abraham's Talmudical teacher was a pupil for their special doctrines. of Meshullam ben Jacob at Liinel (cf. 11.), whose two sons were Jacob the Nasir, and Asheb the Ascetic (ti^"ns). The latter is to be
2^

Abraham ben David

;

monides

distinguished from
is

Asher ben Abraham ben David,

as

the

name

quoted by the oldest known authority, Todros Abulafia (see sup. p. 110.), mentioned by Zunz in Geig. Zeitschr. ii. 312.; the author has consulted a MS. of "lUHH "1^*1^?, from which the same passage is quoted by Hirz Treves; and the name occurs in the same form in the MSS. of his exposition of the thirteen attributes (which Todros calls "^a great book," and is probably alluded to by the general title "Iin\~I 'D, cf. Catal. p. 216?.) in Paris, Turin, Oxford, and tw^o in Munich, 42. and 91Asher is a brother of Isaac the Blind according to Zunz, 1. c, who however remarks, that M. Gabbai calls him Asher ben David ben Abraham ben David (cf. Ghirondi, p. 45. autogr. !), so that he would be a nephew of

306
Isaac.

NOTES TO
According

13.

to Landaler (Lit. bl. vi. I96.) Asher himself calls This must be known in order to understand -why Jellinek (Ker. Chem. viii. 159., cf. iVuswahl^ p. 14., and inf. n. 28 a.) gives an extract of Cod. Mun. 9I. [92.] under the latter name. Some mistakes and conjectures of Jellinek, in his different writings connected with these authors, &c., are illustrated in Catal p. 602. 629. 678. 1074. (and cf. nn. 24. 28 a.). The authorities are all given by Zunz (1. c, where read niJIDtsH, f. 36 b., see Zar Gesch. p. 74.). We attribute,

Isaac his uncle.

indeed,

little

authority to

all

these legends about the appearance of

or his teacher

EUa

Jacob Nasir ; but if Beer (Philos. p. 68.) believes that he can prove by the version of Isaac Acco (quoted already by Zunz !) that the beginning of the new Kabhala is to be placed before 1140, or even in the eleventh century, and Jellinek derives from the same source (Ausvvahl, p. 5.) '^ a. genuine tradition " of the chain Jacob Nasir, Abraham Ab Bet Din (cf. sup. 9' n. 33.) we answer briefly 1. the oldest authority is not Isaac Acco but Shemtob Ibn Gaon (quoted by Isaac Acco in the very passage, but not mentioned by Beer and Jellinek), who distinctly says that Elia appeared to Abraham ben David, who taught Isaac the Blind. 2. Abraham ben David died in 1198, Jacob Nasir's brother Aaron, the defender of Maimonides (see 11. p. 87.), died in 1210 (or 1205, if the conjecture in Catal. p. I69O, is correct); and how then can Jacob Similar Nasir be the teacher of Abraham ben David's father-in-law ? revelations are subsequently ascribed to Recanati and Chajjim Vital (see Abraham Jagel, Bet Jaar Libanon MS. sect. ii. cap. 3. f. 6 a). 22 Lit. bl. vi. 215. (conf. Jellinek returned to the 591.);, vii. p. 5. same opinion ; see Catal. p. 524. 956., adde Jellinek, Philos. p. 42. -3 Landauer, Lit. bl. vi. 182. Other titles in Zunz, G. V. 404. On Nechunja and the spurious literature connected with his name, see Catal. p. 2056. (adde Aderet, decision, 220.), and p. 2058. about Chachinai or Chanunai and the books nt^vS and HJp. 2* For the complicated inquiries about Ezra and Asriel, the authorities are given in Catal. pp. 775. 973. 2092., adde Bet ha-midr. iii. p. xxxix. On some authors mentioned p. 110. (and partly p. 114.) see Catal. p. 1949. &c., on MENAHEir, see Catal. p. 1736. ^5 Catal. p. 919. Jelhnek, who (Lit. bl. vii. 255.) had the book autograph" (!) seems now to ascribe the 7i^''n printed from an whole to Eleazar (see Bet ha-midr. iii. p. xxxii., conf. n. 3. and 22. n. 34.). The relation of some of it to the works of Donolo ( 22.) has been stated by Luzzatto, Lit. bl. viii. 343. (cf. llGiudaismo, i. 38.), and by the author (Serapeum, 1851, p. 6I.), not mentioned by S. Sachs TMonatschn i. 278. see Ker. Chem. viii. 102.) and Jell., Ker. Chem. 1. c. ; see also Donolo, p. v. n. 6., and vi. ^^ Landauer, p. 213., and 3. n. 47. 27 The false names are founded on the transposition of letters, and their numerical value (conf. Lit. bl. vi. 181.). For names framed on ''&5, conf. Zunz, G. V. p. 407. When Maimonides (v. sup. 10. n, 4.) attributes to Abraham theological (but still not the book Jezira), and to Solomon m.athematical works (see on Maamar ha-Jichud, p. 23. and Kidd. hachod. I7., conf. Gans, Nechmad Wenaim, 9 b.), this does not refer to particular writings ; but later writings were composed with reference to such passages; cf. Catal. s. v. Solomon ben David.
the prophet to

Abraham ben David

'^'^

NOTES TO
27a V. Landauer, Lit. bl.
28 vi.

13.

307
bl. vii.

194., conf. Jell, Lit.

is

I98.

CataL

p.

1027.

On Nahshon and
Nahshon Gaon

Nitronai, see Cato/. p. 2020.

A work
in a

(^Alphabet) of

quoted by Zidkia ben

Abraham

MS. work.

28 a Cfl^a/. p. 836. and the Catal. of the Hebr. MSS. of Leyden on Cod. Warner. 24. Jellinek has made different remarks based on the book JVy, but he recognised too late (Bet ha-midr. iii. p. xxxix.) that only two pages of his edition belong to that book, and if he had read the Catalogue of De Rossi, whose MS. he quotes (Ausw. p. 9-)' he would have found that the rest of the work was in the book out of which he printed the fragment, &c. Isaac Cohen says that he found ^' the book of Chammai " in the possession of only three persons in the whole of Provence. 2^ Perhaps R. Ezra is the author of the Comment, on the book Jezira (Abulafia, Lit. bl. vii. 6Q6., Zarzah, f. 3., cf. Motot, Margal toba, 45 b., and Jochanan Allemanno, 7 a. 51 cf. S. Sachs, nJIM, p. 42. ; cf. Jellinek, Phil. p. 4. ix., and see sup. nn. 12. and 24.). 20 References on particulars in Zunz, G. V. 405. sq. The Arabians also from similar grounds forged mystic works, and ascribed them to men like Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ghazali, &c. Abelard of Bath (in Jourdain, p. 259-) designates the same custom as one of Christian scholastics conf. 5. n. 25. ; on the book Semiphoras ascribed to John of Barro,
!

cf.

Graesse.
^^

Is this the reason

for his exaggerations

list

and inventions

.f*

See a

corrected and completed

striking instance of

how
ib. p.

of quotations in Catal. p. 1781., and a such forgeries afterwards are introduced into
Sd>,

valuable authorities,
32
^^
'3

1713.; cf. Pasinus ad Cod. 225. On his mysticism, v. Geig. v. IO6., conf. Lit. bl. a Catal p. 1536. ; Zunz, Addit. p. 317.
Lit.

bh

vi.

vii.

700.

34 35

See note 51.

Catal. p. 2092-4.,

where the errors committed by several authors

are corrected (cf. n. 3.).

Page 111. [^The new statement about Joseph Chiquitilla is taken from a MS. of Abulafia's work now in the Bodleian library, and quoted
in the author's Catal, p. 1462., as well as

Carmoly's statement about his

was afterwards confirmed by JelHnek, Bet ha-midr. iii. p. xii. and p. 41., where an extract is given from the same MS. (in neither place is Carmoly or the Catal. mentioned, although the leaf was communicated to Jellinek some time before).] 36 On these and similar titles for Kabbalistic writings from the "" Glory " of the other world, see the author's work, Die Beschneidung der Araber, u. s. v., p. 22. n., and on Maim. Treatise on the Unity, p. 24. 37 Vide Nicolaus laments over the Judaizing Christians 8. n. 10. (Jost, vi. 315.). Jedaja ben Nahshon, who wished to be baptized (Land. 228.; conf. Zunz, zur Gesch. 469-), speaks of many Judaizing countrymen, who fasted, &c. (Ker. Chem. iv. 10.), conf. 15. n. 18., and see 13. n. 47. In 1295 two pseudo-prophets appeared at Avila and
birth in 1248, which

Ayllon (see the authorities in Schudt, iv., Cont. ii. 238-9-, Jost, vi. 332. 385. ; Jellinek, Beitr. i. 25., quotes Jost, Allg. (!) Gesch. vii. 313. (?.?), and instead of Ayllon he gives Leon, on which name he built a very

308
ingenious conjecture
!

NOTES TO
On

13.

a legend of the apparition of the cross on the

Jell,) see

Jews and

a pretended

work of Moses de Leon (neglected by

iii.

Catal. p. 1851.

Jellinek (Bet ha-midr.

p. xxxvii.)

points out a

passage in the Zohar where he finds an allusion to the death of Pope Nicolaus III. in 1280. 3^ Landauer, p. 215. on the Shechina, and Jos. Chiquit. Catal. p.

1469.
39

Zion,

i.

155.

Land.

p. 422.,

conf.

471. 473. (343.)

Chofes

Malmonim,
40
4^

p. l6.

Land, 588. 590.; Jost. Lit. bl. vi. 811. Land. p. 571.; Franck (conf. p. 170.) is ignorant of, or does not pay attention to, this important element. ^p= [The author has not been able to follow out the special researches on the Zohar begun by Jellinek ; and in fact the subject requires a The edd., commentaries, and authorities are given large monograph. in his Catal. s. v. pp. 538 544. and the various works of Moses de Leon (printed and MS.) critically enumerated, pp. 1847-56.] 42 We are indebted to Landauer (Lit. bl. vi. 89. &c.) for some information about Abulafia and his works, sufficient for the purpose of this essay ; Jellinek has lately published some tracts and given some more particulars, especially in his " Philosophie und Kabbala" (1854), and has promised (Ker. Chem. viii. I60.) to publish all his works ; most of which exist in the Bodl. libr. and in many other libraries (see Land. pp. 318. 417.; Jell. pp. vii -x.). 43 Land. pp. 381. 472. 488. 589. ; conf. Geig. Mel. Chofn. xlviii. n. 44 Id. p. 488. ; Jell. p. v., where the explanation of the word '' Philosopher " proves nothing cf. Sam. Ibn Tibbon, Glossary s. v. ; ^-^ On this idea of the Messias, vide Lit. bl. vi. 5S^. Perhaps he is the Zacharia who proclaimed the advent of the Messias in Spain, A. D. 1258 (?) according to Basnage ? 46 Land. p. 381. sq. 47 Land, however (p. 489.) confounds the false prophet Abraham BEN NissiM of Avila, author of the nDDnn nii^Ss, with Abraham AbuJellinek, Beitr. p. lafia in Sicily (conf. Zunz, zur Gesch. 51 6. 625. 31. neglected this note, but derives the same information from Joel, Die Keligionsphil. des Sohar, 1849, p. 69.; notwithstanding, he relapses into the same error by enumerating the work as one of Abulafia,

see

Abraham or Nathan of Cologne (conf. Phil. pp. viii. 46.). Cassel, Rabbinervers. p. 9.) is probably Abraham ben Alexander (sup.

n. 26.). This conjecture was made first by the author ; but no evidence On the name, and the MSS. neglected by has been given anywhere. Jellinek, see Catal. p. 675. (where Cod. Dubno 10. and Rossi, 1390. to be added) ; the book jID^I nitO^H^ (Land. p. 418.) is the polemic Abraham and Nathan are also called pupils of Matatja ben Moses. of Abulafia (Zunz, 1. c). 48 The Munich MS. (Land. p. 341.) is important; another said to be *' 491 years old " in Geiger, Zeitschr. iii. 286. n. S9-, and a later Hebrew translation, will be mentioned in 26. (cf. also Wolf. iii. p. 1129- n. 2143 b.). ; conf. also on Maimonides' Treatise on the Unity, p. I6. On the comparison as well as the delineation of the celestial n. 25. spheres as the husks of an onion (Sachs, Rel. Poes. p. 230.), see the

quotations in 21. n. 47

a.

On

a passage in the

Zohar see the author's

KOTES TO

14.

309
On
another

explanation in Mag. f. J. Lit. d. Ausl. about Antipodes see 21. n. 21.

"''

1845, p. 319-

^^ Land. It is remarkable that Landauer (like pp. 195. 326. 590. Franckj p. 71-) pronounces the Pastor Fido" (conf. Sachs, Rel. Poes. On the '^ Tikkunim " cf. Jeilinek, Philos. p. xiii. p. 229-) to be later. ^^ Lit. bl. vi. 325. 710. Joseph ben Shemtob, the son of the fanatic Shemtob (n. 15.) in Spain,, designates the authorship of Simon ben Jochai as '' hearsay " (D^DIX ^nyDJ^), see Ersch, vol. xxxi. p. 89. ^^ Catal. p. 1734. Recanati is still a problem for criticism. ^2 Vide 23., Zunz, G, V. p. 409. and p. 408., note, the passage in the Sentences of Isaac ben Shesht, repeated by Goldberg in Chofes Matm. p. 15., and Jellinek, Beitr. i. 10. The anti-Kabbalistic opinions are collected in Jehuda di Modena Ari Nohem. On Lipmann's Kabbalistic writings see Catal. p. 1413. and Ker. Chem. viii. 206., where some things are incorrect. Also at the end of Cod. 0pp. 862. F. there is a note, '' I will begin to write the Alphabet of R. Lipmann." ^^ Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 520. ^^ According to others Josef Aruch (see Catal. p. 1446. and Jellinek, Bet ha-midr. iii. p, xliii., on whose false statement aboiit Peliah and Kana, cf. sup. n. 23. I^ Page 114. [The statements inserted here are taken mostly from the MSS. themselves ; cf. also n. 3. About Jacob of Segovia see also Jellinek, Bet ha-midr. iii. p. xliii., where B aruch the teacher of Abulafia is perhaps the author of some MSS. in Oxford. Abulafia, however, is not to be considered as a reliable historical authority. On Joseph Ibn Wakkar, hitherto little known, see the author's article in Ersch,
:

vol. xxxi.]
^5

Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. l65, I66.

conf. Lit. bl. viii. 195.

14.

Page 115.
literature will

The

authorities

on Karaitic

be found in the author's

Catalogue of the Leyden

shortly after this essay.

MSS. prepared for the press, and to be printed Two important works on the subject by Pinsker
editor of
ix. 51.).
v.

and the Karaite Firkowitsch (the

said to be in the press (Ker.
2

some recent

editions) are

Chem.

Vide sup.

10.; Zunz, G. V. 425.; Rapop. Ker. Chem.

203.,

conf. vi. 250.

Catal. sub voce. Schaffarik pointed out, in Rapop. Ker. Chem. v. 197. sq. 232. a private communication to the author, the name Sangari in Slavic authors. On Koreish, vide 17. n. 5. H. Michael suspected an interpolation in the letter of Joseph del Medigo ( 20.), and Ibn Ezra
3
4

( 16. n. 1.)
5

is

interpolated in

MS. 0pp. 939- foh

(see Catal.
s.

(Lit. bl. xi. 302.).

E.

g.

Menahem
ii.

Ibn Seruk

v.),

Abraham ben Ezra,

;

and

others.

Inversely the Karaites forbade flesh and milk

see Geig.

117., Lit. bl. i. 468. 5a The explanations of this and the following expressions, given by various authors of different nations, will be found in the authorities
Zeitschr.

The older Jewish writers (e. g. Samentioned 12. notes 1, 2, &c. muel Ibn Tibbon, in the glossary, Jos. Caspi, p. 76. &c.) have the
X
3

310

NOTES TO

14.

etymology; hence, by degrees, they entirely lost the origin of the expression, and were confused by the use of the term limn r\'D^r\, for logic ( 12. n. 3.\ and, perhaps, by the uncertainty of the Arabians themselves. Even the learned Joseph ben Shemtob, in his note to the polemical work of Chisdai, chap, iv., in quoting Maimonides' opinion, that the D''"inn no^n was derived from Christian scholars, remarks that the science, called Theology, is the very D''")2in 'PI, " which means a science
practical object of explaining the subject matter, rather than the

the doctrine of which is not founded on perception, or on reality, but only on words." The real etymology, however, was known to Samuel Ibn Tibbon (see his note to Moreh, i, 71.) and to PaJquera (p. 152.), who observes upon the difference between the above expression and rT'pti (not T'pD, see Munk, Saadja, p, 17.), quoted by Renan (Averroes, p. 80.) from Haarbriicker, who quotes a later authority.
^ Vide 12. n. marks in Frankel,

Against Schmolder's views see the author's reDernburg, Heidelb. ii. 113., iii. 404.; Jahrb. 1845, p. 422. ; conf. also Geig. Zeitschr. v. 271.; Schesinger, On their method conf. Cusari, v. 2., with Schmold, p. 643. and xxv. The distinction between the Dogp. 223., and supra, 12. n. 3. matists and '' Philosophers " was of great importance ; and Maimonides reproaches Samuel Levi (see 11.) with confusing them; the text of Maimonides_, however, is imperfect in some editions. Hammer, Wien. Jahrb. xcii. 6.5., ci. 1., cii. 65.; Ez. Chajim, pp. ii. 311. 338. conf. Lit. bl. i. 698. n. 4. The expression HJID.S ^2^12^
2.

Zeitschr.

'^

and the
61.),
iii.

like

abound in Cusari,

as

ii.

81.

(conf.

Sabbatbl. 1846, p.
p. iv.
1.

65., iv.

and supra, L 21., p. 187.

11., V. 1, 2. (conf. 12. n. 3.), 17- (conf. Ez.

Ez. Chajim,
Chaj. p. 4.
v.

n. 6.,
5.

27., p.
sq.,

1.

11. ab inf., with Cusari,

iv.

11. fol. IQ. ed. Brecher

15.
is,

and the book Cusari itself (comp. 1140. which is thus much earlier than Maimonides, who is considered the first important authority, see Ritter, quoted by Beer, Philos. &c. p. 60.) not yet mentioned anywhere, or made use of, as an authority for the doctrine of the Mutakallim. (iii. 49.) D^^l^ is even used for tradition against the Karaites (according to which Schlesinger, p. xxix., is to be corrected; conf. also supra, n. 3.), and Munk's conclusion (Beer, 1. c. pp. 14. 98-), that the Karaites ^''called themselves" Mutakallim, is not warranted even by the perfect text of v. 15.; and Joshua ben

conf. Afendopolo, p. Iv.), some editions, corrupted,

The

principal

passage,

in

Jehuda (Cod. Warm. 41. ff. 68. 76-) says distinctly that he is following a method different from that of the DmiD, or pD^PDHD^i^, without referring
especially to

Karaites.

The

designation subsequently

became more general ; according to Joseph ben Shemtob, Saadja and Bechai "inchne " towards the Mutak. (Ersch, ii. voh 31. p. 85. col. 2.), and David ben Jehuda Leon calls Maimonides himself a ''^'\\y (MS.
Reggio, 41.). It is natural that the Karaites in general should have remained longer in the older system, and perhaps the opposition of Joseph Ibn Zaddik and Abraham ben David ( 12.) to the '>hv2 "inn riD^n was not without reference to Karaites. These two are also valuable authorities, and older than Maimonides, although their works have not long been published. On the views of the latter and their correspondence with the sect Makariba, or Benjamin Nehawendi, see Gugenheimer. Lit. bl. xii. 526, The later expression npHDH ^bDH (conf.

NOTES TO

14.

311
of Abul-

12. n. 1. 3.) still requires investigation. faradj (in Sacy, direst. Arabe, i. p. 326.)
^

The comparison
is

altogether distorted.

Sclilesinger, p.

640. xxviii.

belief (see Reland^ de Rel.

Can the ten Muhammedan articles of Muham.) have had any influence ? It is

hymn 'P'13'', on the 13 articles, was entitled "^on " (See Munk, Annal. iii. 94.). 9 See the author's D. Beschn. d. Arab. p. 26. ; conf. Dukes, pp. 92. The three or four sources of religious knowledge (not " Rules of 194. Hermeneutics," Lit. bl. vii. 22.) are Muhammedan conf. Lit. bl. i. 246. 610. ; Ez. Chaj. v. n. 10. ; also Abulafia (ap. Jellinek, Auswahl, p. 21., who neglected this point); and conf. 11. n. 8., the author's Catal. p. 2163. On the accusation of corrupting the Bible, see the author's essay on Maham. Legends in Mag. f. Lit. d. Ausl. 1845, p. On the doctrine of prophets 286. (conf. Strauss, Glaubensl. i. 214.). see Maimon. Treatise on the Unity, p. 33. ^^ Steinschneider, Beschneidung der Arab. p. 26. (conf. p. 15.; see Lit. bl. vii. p. 18.; conf. I7. n. 5.); seven daily prayers, v. sup. 6. n. 18. ; Kible (i.e. direction to turn to in prayer), vide Zion, i. 56. ; The degrees of relation, Zion, i. 129-^ Jost, Kalender, see 21. n. 5. in Busch, Jahrbuch, v. p. 159. ; dreams as a sign of full age, Jeh. Hedessi, Lit. bl. vii. 20. ; conf. Gulistan, Germ, transl. by G. Wolff, p. 263. ; Hammer, Gemaldesaal, i. 347. On the intention in cattle-killing, conf. Zeitschr. der Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch. i. 11. ii Munk, Annal. iii. pp. 84. 86. ; Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 109- ; conf. Annal. i. 218. 1^^ Hence also, conversely, attacks in the Midr. Jelamdenu (850), Tobia ben Eliezer (cir. 1100), see Zunz, G. V. 236 c. 297 d. ; conf.
curious that even the the

Ten

Articles

S^5
^2

a.;

conf. also 21. n. 95.

On

Exegesis, see 17.

sq.

195. n.) Leg. d. Muh. p. 78.) 181, 182.; conf. 148. I6., and the author's note to Maim. Treatise on the Unity, p. 27.) to which the author could now
(conf.
Lit.
bl. iii.

Aaron ben EHa, Ez. Chaj. 156.

ab
inf.

152.

].

(the fishes in the deluge, conf. Weil, Bibl.

add
13

older writers.

Hedessi, I68. 173.

175.; Zion,

i.

conf. Kirch. Lit. bl. vii. 20.; also rhlpT]

55. 128.; Ez. Chaj. p. 6.; 'piD, in Hedessi, 16'9. Of

less success

course the Karaites try to establish an essential difference between the

Rabbinical and Karaitic tradition, but with

tack the inconsistency of
ciple

than they at-

Saadja, who denies "' analogy " to be a prinof law (against the Karaites), and yet admits it in other cases.
;

Benjamin Nehawendi
Codex
1^

introduces a part of the Rabbinical laws in his

cf.

Schlesinger, p. 642. n.
V.

Geiger, Zeitschr. v. 277. on the age of thirteen years, see Ker. ;

Chem.
15 16

226.
g.

a-'on "iiD^ '^-in ^^^, zion i. 57. The same thing which R. Simeon ben Conf. Jost, I.e. p. 142. G. ( Chulin, 4 a.) asserts of the Samaritans is true also of the Karaites, viz. that they perform most scrupulously the religious duties which On this account the Karaites are preferred are recognised among them. to the Philosophers by some people, see Zunz, zur Gesch. 478. ; conf.

E.

Cusari,
1'^

iii.

22. 65.
;

This circumstance has not yet been noticed

and hence the essence

312

NOTES TO

14.

of those sects, whicli can be conceived only in connexion with the Muhammedan sects, is generally misunderstood. Mukam3iez was probably the authority for JMakrisi and Schahristani (vide n. 3.), whose

work upon
are the

the sects (lately translated into

;

gives also an account of the Jewish

first

German by Haarbrucker) and according to him the Karaites

;

^;.^t:x^

(i.

9^.)

see inf. n. 28.

Mukammez's

date

is

not yet ascertained ; but probably he was the authority of Joseph ben Abraham the younger, who speaks much of Muhammedan sects he was probably also used by Hedkssi. The references in Jost, Index, p. 158. (conf. Zunz, G. V. 396. a); DeHtzsch, Michael, Lit. bl. i. 737. sq. 801. sq. ; Dukes, Beitr. p. 8. (Lit. bl. vi. 141.), &c. ; Jost, Busch, p. 143. sq. (conf. also J 5. n. 6.), must be compared, to avoid over-ingenious explanations, like those given occasionally by Jellinek, see inf. nn. 18. and 28. It is worth mentioning, that Hedessi is the first author who mentions the Assassins (Jost, p. 145.), and Benjamin of Tudela the first European who gives a full account of this remarkable sect (see Asher, ii. p. 158. ; cf. p. 63.).
:

vi.

The name ,.,lc(ifcj {sic) is correctly given by Jellinek, Lit. bl. who seems to have forgotten it in Beitr. i. 53., see Catal. p. 2164. On his doctrine compare Abdallah ben Saba ( 7-), who
^^

568.,

asserted the return of Ali (Makrisi, in Weil, Khalifen,

^9

i.

259.).

Perhaps an adherent of the

Muhammedan

sect of the

same name;

on the names of

conf. 13. n. I7. 20 Conf. Geig. Zeitschr. v. 278.; conf. 21. n. Okbari (probably the same as Balbeki), see Catal. p.
21

Abu Amran,

6.

On Mesue

2l68.
;

Delitzsch, Ez.

Chaj. p.

iii.

sq.,

and

Jost, p. 154. sq., give the

in

periods,

which the author hesitated

to aflirm

the text

against the

former see Jost, Annal. iii. 288. With respect to the authorities for chronology mentioned first in this translation (pp. 118, 119')? ^^ must remark that the date of Elta ben Abraham (see Catal. pp. 1334-35.) is uncertain; but probably lie was older than Jehuda Hedessi. must add another unauthentic tradition of Jephet ben Zair, who, according to Pinsker (Lit. bl. xii. 770.), wrote in 1268 also an anonymous ^' Book of Tradition," which seems to agree with Moses Bashiatshi (Lit. bl. xii. 741. n. 7^ ^nd see the end of this note); and again, another chain of teachers given by Daniel ben Moses in his Arabic compendium of Bechai ben Joseph (conf. 1 2.), as late as 1682 (Lit. bl. xii. 13Q.). We confess that we expect but little certainty even from a more intimate acquaintance with those hitherto unedited authorities ; for the Karaites of the 12th century seem to have already lost their knowledge of the older chronology ; one reason for which, probably, was the great gulf of 150 years (1000 The only 1150), during which no remarkable author is mentioned. chance of useful information would be from thorough critical researches in the older works themselves ; but even here the difficulty is increased by the circumstance that we have, for the most part, only translations and editions, in which later quotations are inserted, or older dates reConfusion has also arisen from certain passages referring to peated. the date of the author (see Lit. bl. 1. c, where there appear to be some Another important fact is, that we have scarcely one certain errors). Joseph ben Jacob author of any extant work older than Saadja.

We

NOTES TO
KiRKisANi

14.

313

is placed either in 9IO, or, more probably, in {)30 (cf. Catal. Hence the conclusions drawn by Geiger and Munk, that 2163.). in Saadja and Jephet some general quotations refer to Karaites, rest The date 46lO (850), given on slight foundation (cf. I6. n. 49.). for " the chain of tradition " in a MS. of 169^5 by Daniel, n. 3. in the Catalogue of Karaitic MSS. (v. inf. n. 35.^, is of no authority, since this catalogue is incorrect; it is, however, we understand, to be reprinted by Firkowitsch.

p.

^^

Not "'exclusively;"
Geig. Lit.
;

Jost, p. 155.

(cf. p.

152.), goes too far in

this respect.
23
bl.

des Israel, 1846, p. 150.; conf. Sabbatbl. 1846,

p. 86.
24

cf.

supra, n. 13.

Conf. the author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 27. and reference, iii. 226. 680. ; conf. p. 195. 25 Vide 16. n. 21. 27- Okbari (Jost, p. 148.) already declared himself against the Keri and Ketibh and admitted the Samaritan readings ;
Lit. bl.

conf. also Hedessi, 48. 173.

text (see

Munk, Aboulw.

p.

In general the Karaites follow the Masoretic 3Q. and the author's remarks to Cod.

Warner, I6.) ; cf. also I6. nn. 20, 21. 25. '26 Perhaps "the Blind;" see the author's discussion, Sabbatbl. 1846, The title of p. 65., from which Munk, 1. c. p. 10,, may be completed.
a

compendium
;

is

"l^5"lJ5^?i<

"I^hBd
is

hence

rrj-'^

in the text seems to be

a false conjecture.

There
also Lit.

another
xii.

(not 'pi'pnJ)

cf.

bl.

quoted by Joseph Ibn Zaddik is Cod. Warn. 41.). 2'^ Thus distinct from the Rabbinite polemical writers, 15. n. 26 a.; see Cod. Warner. 8. 2^ Conf. also Moses Ibn Ezra, Zion, ii. 137-, who reproached the

or Isaac ben Bahlul Perhaps Abu Jaakub 742. n. 7. a Karaite? (^see Cafai. p. 1543. and

Abu Jaakub

Rabbinites with embodying God ; the reverse is the case in Shahristani, sup. n. 17.; cf. on the Makariha and Abraham ben David Gugenheimer. Lit. bl. xii. 526.
-y Cf. Catal. Solomox Durax copies the same (Milchem. p. 1851. Mizwah, 28 b.) without personal intercourse. According to Carmoly (Annal. i. 156.) David Kimchi opposed the Karaites in a ni?yDn "I2D ; and the inventions of that author have sometimes a real The Responsum of Baruch ben although misrepresented authority. Samuel of Mainz (II90), quoted by Luzz, (Bibl. p. 64.), is perhaps

not genuine.
-0

Zunz, G. V. 401

a.,

Ker. Chem.

ii.

7*

Karaites are often called D''pnV Sadducees, from derived (cf. ^NJeiri ad Abot, f. 3 a., ed. Wien).
31

Among later writers the whom they are often

;

Delitzsch,

1.

c.

p.

302. (Schlesinger,

p, xlii.

Jost,

p.

154.)

conf.
32

on his Liturgy,

19- " 50.

n. 12.

Talmud and Midrash, vide supra, ChaJJim was pubhshed in 1841, by Delitzsch and M. Steinschneider, whose name, however, the critic and historiographer Jost, Annalen, iii. 288. 296. 312., has omitted entirely, attributing to Delitzsch even those additions, &c., which Delitzsch, on the title and in the preface, distinctly gives under the name of Steinschneider. 33 Resp. Elia Misrachi, 58. ; Cod. Warner. 30.
his acquaintance with the

On

His

Ez

314
34

NOTES TO
Catal.
s.

15.

V.

2^

On

the Catal.

in

Geig.

Zeitschr.

iii.

the destruction of

many

Karaite

MSS.

at

442. sq. see n. 21. On Kahira, vide Wolf. iii. p.

205.
26 The name " Jemsel " (even in Carmoly, " Itineraires/' &c., 1847) appears to the author to have arisen from a misunderstanding of an abbreviation, h\^"^'^^ (conf. Zunz, zur Gesch. 456.). 37 mp-'j, Hedessi, l65. ; cf. 170. 3 pnp-i. Id. 167. 173., neglected by Munk, Abouhv. p. 5. 33 See Cod. Warner^ 52. Salman ben Jerucham forms words out

of two radical letters. Hedessi, in the grammatical part of his work, enumerates twenty-two genera of Jod (cf. also I6. nn. I9. 32.). Jephet complains of the neglect of Hebrew grammar in favour of the Arabic (Munk^ 1. c. p. SQ., gives to this idea an incorrect turn); cf.
20. n. 1.

15.
list

Page

122.

Authorities: Alphab.
sq.^

of authors;

Wolf.

ii.

p.

1048.

sq.,

iv.

p:

483.

numbers

Rossi, Bibl. Jud. Antichr. (to which the in the following notes refer) ; an introduction to it (Rossi,
viii.)
is,

amplified by

Dk

however, not extant. The views, on De Rossi (ib. Proleg. p. iii. sq.), who is no less zealously pious than learned and humane, are There is a later Hebrew translation (probably unknown to interesting. the recent German translator Frankel) by Saiiuel Shullam, see p. 252. Since 1850, Geiger has a Spanish one is mentioned supra, p. 212. published, in " Deutsch Volkskalender," &c., some specimens of Polemics in a German translation with valuable literary notes, not, however, affecting the former text of this essay, with the exception of Isaac Troki ( 27.):, about whom the author had, in the meantime, information from
Delia vana Aspett. p.
writings for the conversion of the Jews, of
the Opp. MS., see Catal.
2
s.

v.

(Vat. 105. 10.), (R. no. 112.); nini5< Conf. nn h-'E^d mis^n (19-)^ m^Dn nx^n (20.), n^s^DH (120.). and CafM. no. 3393. 3 The Hebrew language does not possess, any more than the Arabic,
rh'\^^r]

E.g.

fp

I-ID

definite

expressions for these

still

indefinite conceptions:
iii.

nD'l&?

^^

stands for both.

p.
^

See Scheyer, Moreh,

p. 193.

n. e

Ez. Chajim,

373. note on 3. 1. E. g. from the work of Abraham ben Aus against the attacks of the Jews on the N. T., vide Cod. Ar. Vat. 120. 135 b. ; conf. no. 54. Mai. apud Collectio, &c. The form of a disputation was a favourite one
for polemics.
5 E. simply

g.

no. 37.

(conf. p. 41.

on no. 60.) 38. 45. 154.

Christians, e.g. no. 112.

Some

are

fictitious inventions of the

On Ga-

latin's plagiarisms,

Aspett. p. v., and Catal. p. 2057firming Christianity (especially by

and other points for distrust, see Rossi, Delia vana Perhaps also Hebrew writings conmeans of Kabbala) were forged ; cf. Catal. s. V. Postellus, p. 2111. ^^ Vide infra, n. 45., on Samuel Marokki.

NOTES TO
6

15.

315
10. n. 33. see the author's
;

Names

for

Christians,

see for

quotations

supra^

and

conf. infra, nn. 8.

part, taken

and 11.;

Muhammedans,

work.

Since the names are, for the most Die Beschneidung der Arab. p. 6. from the genealogical tables of Esau and Ishraael, or otherwise conveniently from the Bible, it becomes necessary to consult Zunz has since given a the Midrash and Exegesis in this matter. marvellous collection of such names occurring especially in liturgical Moreover^ it must here be borne in literature (Synag. Poes. p. 437.). mind, that the schools and tendencies which are attacked are, at one

time philosophical, at another dogmatical, at another Halachaic, conf.

ii. 994!. sq., iv, 457- sq. ; conf. v. Raumer, Hohenstaufen, v. p. 9.35. 7 E. g. Mishna, Taanit. 27 b. (conf. Maim. Com.) ; Soferim, 5. ; see Duran, Keshet u-magen, 14 a. ; conf. also Lit. bl. vii. 6ip. ^ On pD, which has been so much talked of, see Lit. bl. iii. Graz, Gnosticismus, 825., V. 204., vii. 620. ; Schlesinger, p. 647. sq. nf'DV, in the Talmud, is certainly not Dnbi D^ODnb nnij;, p. 16. Conf, also '' Missions-Wesen und Unwesen, but ni'pTDI D^nD13 nniy. Einblick in das Urchristenthum," Lit. bl. iv. 673. sq. 9 Vide Wolf. ii. p. 977- sq., on Duran, 1. c. 1 1 a. ^0 Names and passages are collected in Dukes, z. K. p. 17.; conf. Bechorot, 5., vide Isaki on Chulin, 27 b. {\h^iy Tiyi). On R. Johanan BEN Zakkai, cf. Landau in Frankel, Monatschr. i. 172; on R. HoJoshua ben Hananja, the "^ Scholasticus " SHIA, Ber, Rab. cap. 11. (cf. the author's essay in Zeitschr. der d. m. Gesellsch. iv. p. 152. n. 52.), may have disputed with Hadrian, Tanchuma, Toldot, 30 a. Rabb. on Esth. Q. 2. conf. Micha, 5. 7- (Jalk. 923., gives Akiba and Chaldee language, although what preceded, from the Debarim Suta [conf. Zunz, G. V. 253.], is Hebrew as usual) ; conf. Ber. Rabb. cap. 64. fin. (according to which Dukes, 1. c, Blumenl, p. 189-? is to be Chullin, 59. On the disputes with the Sacorrected and amplified) On R. Eleazar's saying (Abot, ii. I9.), I'naritans, see Geig. v. 235. " Know how to answer the Epicureans" (Atheists, &c.), was afterwards founded the study and refutation of erroneous doctrines. Lately Frankel (Monatschr. iv. 16I. sq.) has begun an essay, '^ zur Gesch. Nowhere mention is made of his preder jiid. Religionsgesprache." decessors ; perhaps for the sake of consistency with his opinion given elsewhere (iii. 320.), that in polemics it was not considered necessary to
,

14. n. 17. ^* Collection in Wolfius,

name
11

authorities.

On pOU,
where

conf.
;

Luzzatto,

Proleg.
is

p.

18.;

Rapop. Erech
bl.

Millin, pp. 3.
vi. 1.,

and 259-

the latter passage

directed against Lit.

^:vn^, translated Ehionites, and ^^"IVJ, Nazarenes, was given as an emendation of ''D"lV3 (again proposed in yipriH, ii. 100.) ; As a skilful disputer, R. Abb ah u was famous. cf. also supra, n. 6. 12 E. g. Debar. Suta against the papal prohibition of the Bible,

Zunz, G. V. 253,
13

i.

43.

XV. ad Carol, M. in Zunz, Namen d. Juden, p. Agobard, Bishop of Lyons, in Lit. bl. iv. 5, n. 7., and Dukes' remark sidor Hispalensis in S. Cassel, Hist. Versuche, p. 4. (Lit. bl. viii. 83.), that *' as early as" the 12th century frequent disAlcuin, Epist.
conf. also
;

316

NOTES TO
is,

15.

putations were held in France,

in the literature, far
^^

even in respect of

tlie

traces preserved

from

correct.

The

dispute
;

See the author's collection on Maim. Treatise on the Unity, p. 33, is connected with Abraham and Manoah as unlearned procf.
iii.

phets

also Isaiah, xxix. 11.,

p. 905.).

quoted

e. g.

by Paulus Burgensis

(in

Wolf.
^^

On
vii.

the reckoning of the time of the

Messiah (principally from

Dan.
tion_,

Asarja de Rossi gives the first full compilaused by Gedalja Jahja and J. B. de Rossi (Delia van. Asp.
25., xii. 12.),

pp. 100. 103. sq., iii. sq. ; conf. Zunz, Ker. Chem. v. 143., and inf. Other references are 23. p. 207.)^ as also Schorr, Annal. ii. 23. given in the German note ; but the subject wants a special treatment,

which the author intends to give elsewhere. ^^ E.g. Nizzachon on Monasticism (13th century); Simon Duran (Milchem. Miz. 32 a.) on the Italian immodesty, where also Onanism is mentioned as '^ peccaio di Ferrara" might have deserved at least as much attention as Eisenmenger and the like. 16 a Rossi, Delia van Esp. p. I89. Bibl. Antichr. no. I6I. 117 121.; conf. n. 87- p- 62. ; Dizion. Germ, transh p. 3l6. ; Catal. MS. The Mar Mar Jesu (in no. 124.; cf. Delitzsch, Catal. p. 300. Castro, Bibl. Espagn. i. p. 223., where 1415, not 1405, is the correct date) is to be emended '^O^'O ; cf. Dukes, Lit. bL viii. 85. 16 b Read 1240. See the author's Epilogue, &c. ( 5. n. 77.),
;

p.

XXX.
16 c

n.

23.
;

Conf. Rossi, Delia vana Asp. p. 206. cf. Zipser, Lit. bl. xi. 347. ; cf. Saadja Emunot, viii. 2., and on Ephraim cf. Krochmal, p. 221., cf. xhnr], ii. 147., cf. p. 122., neglected by B. Beer (Zeitschr. der d. m. Gesellsch. ix. 792.), who claims for this idea an earlier
origin.

Geiger's error, in
is

attributing to Sal.
in Ker.

ginal sin,
1^

corrected
salvation
;

by Rosenthal
or

Alammi the Chem. ix. 45.

idea of ori-

ZuNz's Treatise (mentioned

sq.

respecting
p.

p. 100.) on the views of the Jews beatitude of others than Jews (zur Gesch.

is a pattern of 380. n. 6., conf. Maimonides in Spinoza, Tract. TheoL cap. 5. (Strauss, Glaubensl. i. 38.) ; on note f, see Abravanel, Rosh Amana, cap. 12. fol. 13 b., old ed. To p. 383., see 20. n. 40., p. 388. n. to Plolomaeus adde Bath-liusi ( 12.). 1^ Instead of 9L3, read 9^^' Amongst others against the three times ^'H'p (which the Zohar accepts, see Rossi, d. van. Asp. p. v.), which is opposed to by Abu Sahl in the Commentary Jezira (Lit. bl. viii. 83.), and the Karaite Jbphkt ben Ali(953), in his Biblical Commentary. On the Trinitarian ideas of some Kabbalistic authors, blamed by the orthodox, see 14., and Jehuda de Modena in Ari Noliem. David MukamxAiaz occasionally attacks Christianity with philosophical arguments in the fragments lately published by Luzzatto (Lit. bl. viii. 622. Q32. 643.). Geig. i. I92. assumes, without foundation, that

372.

conf. Geig.

Lit.

bl.

des Isr. p. 80. sq.)

investigations in reference to this.

On

p.

Saadja
19

lived principally

among

Christians.

p.

Alphab. 99, 100., not in print, but still extant in MS. (see Catal, He there asserts, amongst other things, that Jesus was, 1328.).

like every pious

man, persecuted by the Rabbinites (conf.

1086.
;

Warner
and

in Wolf.

iv. p.

De

Sacy, Chrest., Arab.

i.

p.

325.

n. 60.,

NOTES TO
Afendopolo in the Introd.
to

15.

317

Myses

according to which Jost, in Busch's Jahrb. v. p. 195., is to be corrected) ; he contends against the Christian worship of images, and touches upon the differences of the
in

Jost, Gesch. ix.,

Psalm Index

cxix.,
p. 97.

Cod. Warner. 30., quoted by

;

synoptic genealogies of Christ. 20 E. g. Cod. Vat. Arab. 159, 3. of the year 1305 ; Flor. Cod. 70. -' The Arabico-polemical literature of the Jews^, Christians, and

Muhammedans
printed.
22

deserves

separate

compilation.

works are already known

to the author, scarcely

Above eighty such one of which has been

(1
p.

A reference to the MSS. would lead us too far. Vide inf. 20. n. 30., and sup. 4. 23 Vide Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 80. His pupil, Solomon Parchon" l60) refers to the polemical object of Exegesis (end of Gram.
11 d.).
24

Carpzov in Schlesinger,
is

p. iv. n.

conf. Jost. vi. 294.,

ii.

where the
2. p. 237.,

year 1250
ii.

too late;

see

De

Castro,

601.; Grasse,

ii.

3. p.
25

630.

the typical title of the Avorks which hence arose, and thus ni^'i, |inVJ is the same thing; it of polemical literature in general, corresponds exactly to, and is frequently used by translators for the
niD'*'! is

Arabic

J A>-

(n'''?13

occurs also as an epithet of the Mutakallimin).

The

would lead us too far ; and" we must confine ourselves to Cusari, iii. 70., where we find pnvi"! n^^n, conf. v. 1. Thus )inv:3 is not ''^victory" (Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 85.), which would
collection of instances

answer
notice

to the

Arabic i^^y-^;^ this word

is

also

compared in a MS.

on the cover of the Cod. Arab. 53. 4to. of the Royal Berlin

Library.
26 The characteristics of the different kinds of polemical works are given by Joseph ben Shemtob, Preface to the Comment, on the Letter of Duran ; cf. Ersch, ii. vol. xxxi. p. 88., and Catal. p. 21l6. 26 a Vide inf. n. Joseph Kimchi is doubtful; see n. 33. 29.

27

Catal. p. 1796. (1280).

1-26,
all

[Page
27 a

line

6.

from
cf.

hot.,

Raim.und

is

not Martin, as stated

;

hitherto by

authors, but

Raimund

of Peilaforte

see Catal. p.

2133.]

])e Rossi, no. 89-;

1

Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. 480. 482.

[Page

GhazaU
p.
28

is

26. line 4. from bottom, Moses Narboni's translation of probably a mere fiction of the V^atican Catalogue. See Catal,
n. 45.

1969.] V. inf.
28 a

In

Biscioiii

(p.

112.) Alphons. asserts that

the time

he

translated the Biblical passages according to Marokki's translation.

On

the translator

Meir ben Jacob, and

and name of

the author, see the author's Register to Catal. Mich. p. 342. not yet had the opportunity of further inquisitions.
-9

He

has

His translation of Matthaeus seems to be that published in the The body of his work is only an abridgment of Jacob BEN Reuben (n. 26^); but he added afterwards an abridgment of another polemical work, the title of which is not even indicated, but the author recognised it to be the work of Prophiat Duran. (See Catal. p. 2116., and description of Cod. AVarner. 28., and Catal. p. 2l64. Cod, ,MS. Michael. 231. has not yet been sufficiently investigated.)
l6"th century.
;

318
30

NOTES TO
On

15.

various mistakes, partly arising from different recensions and

the omission of a line in Geiger's republication of the epistle, see Catal.

The plagiarism of Simon Duran has been discovered by 2116. Saenger in Frankel, Monatschrift, iii. 320. Frankel, however, in an additional note, doubts whether S. Duran ought not to have been quoted by P. Duran, since they were contemporary. Yet the date (1423) of Simon Duran's work is given in the work itself, and by the author in
p.

various of his essays since 1841

20 a Still -vve must not conclude from quotations from Jerome that every writer who quotes him knew the Lat. Vulgate and understood it. (Geig. Mel. Chofn. p. 80 !). An interesting remark on the translation of Jerome and his Jewish collaborators is to be found in S. Duran, cap. 12.

Moses Ibn Ezra

^1

infers that older authors sometimes, but not often_, used the " Christian" translation of the Bible (see Catal. p. 2183.). Rossi, p. 91. ^' Vide n. 25. Zunz, zur Gesch. 85, 86. (conf. Dukes, Lit. bl. viii.

The Niz. of Matatja in 84.), mentions two between 1230 and 1260. Rossi, no. 91-5 rests upon all kinds of misunderstandings, whose origin
Dukes (Kobez,
p. vi.)

might have found

149-

in the

passage of

Is.

ben

Sheshet quoted in Lit.

bl. vi.

22 The printed fT'l^n 'D is falsely ascribed to Joseph Kimchi. The arguments in the German note have been adopted (though not quoted) and enlarged by Geiger, Proben, i. 63. n. 6. He justly remarks that J. Kimchi, perhaps, never v/rote a work Milchamot ; to v.-hich we add that Joseph Ibn Sahara, the pupil of Joseph Kimchi, seems to be quoted by Jacob ben Reuben ; see Catal. p. 2032. The unsystematic character of tlie German- French school in collections of this kind needs an acute

historical criticism.
3^ Rossi, pp. 59. 107. 116.; conf. Sachs, Rel. Poes. 227- 244. (Lit. bl. iv. 382.), 266. 231. 301. 337. n. 2.; Schott, Lit. bL vii. 499-, and Zunz, 1. c. in note 6.

bl, vli. 50. previous labours on this subject were or are yet known to the author, who intends to enlarge upon it in his translation of Simon

-5

See Deutsch Lit.

26

No

Duran, prepared since 1844. 2^" There was an interdict against reading it see Hadschi Chalfa in Hammer_, Encykl. Uebers. pp. 137. 150., w'here " Pentateuch" (Taurat)
;

is

the usual expression for the sacred writings of the Jews.

23

E.

g.

Was

hat

with Abdallah ben es Selam and others (conf. Geig., Muhamm., &c., p. 11., and on p. 82. conf. the more correct

translation in S.
for the history of
is still to 29

Duran, 1. c. 24 b.). An examination of these passages Judaism in Arabia, and the origin of Muhammedanism,

be desired.

this point El Armui (ob. 1064), Balathi (ob. 1203), Ibn Teimijje el Harrani (ob. 1328), Ahmed ben Junus el Kindi (1431), Omar ben Hidr e Isfahani (Cod. Leyd. 6l3.) ^yrote, as also most of the controversialists occasionally, Ibn Junus (ob. 1242) is said to have explained to the Jews and Christians in Mossul the Thora and the Gospel (the authorities are given by the author in the Magaz, f. Lit.
d. Ausl.

On

1845,
2.
;

p. 286.).

The

principal passages are 5 Mos. xviii. 18.,

xxxiii.

Is.

xlix.

1, 2. (v.

Cod. Ar. Leyden^ 604.)

Hub.

iii.

2.

NOTES TO

15.

319

(Gerock, Christol. of the Koran, p. 102., and Delitzsch, Comra. in Hab. Jellinek, Beitr. i. ad loc, cf. Geig., Moses ben Maimon. p. 31. 58., without reference to the materials given here) with respect to various ]Midrashim. Connected with this is the fact that Saadja wrote his translation of the Bible in Arabic characters, and that certain Judaeo-Arabian authors of later times translated the Biblical passages which they quoted into Arabic, so that many Hebrew translators of such writings adduce altered passages of the Bible (see the author's preface to Maim. Treatise on the Unity, p. iv. conf. sup. n. 28.).
; ;

40
^^

See Sim. Duran,

1.

c. fol.

25

a.

45.; conf, Carmoly, Hist, dess Arab. Aerzte, 177.; conf. The interdict against nonMazeni in Jost, ix., Index, p. 175. Muhammedan books is still extant in theory. In Spain, however, Arabic writing was, as early as the 10th century, a means of advancement in the world ; see the author's preface to the Testament of Juda Ibn Tibbon, pp. iv. xi. 42 E. g. Ibn Refaah (1300), Ibn Teimijje; Harrani (ob. 1328), El Ahwah (NicoU. ii. p. 97.), vide also Cod. Ar. Bodl. 97. 3. (Uri), Leyd. 665. 6'74. Extracts of Arabic writers were given some years ago in the Journal Asiat. A history of the persecutions against the Jews and Christians was written by Sojuthi (ob. 1505). The vituperations of the poetical freethinker Abul Ola (973 1058) spared no religion. ^^ The Saracens are said (according to Matth. Paris, in v. Raumer, Hohenstaufen, v. p. 534;, sq.) to have accused Louis IX. of tolerating the murderers of Christ. But according to the Muhammedan ChrisDukes,
p.

Lit. bl. iv. 810., Beitr. p.

Med.

25.,

and Wiistenf., Gesch.

d.

tology,

Jesus

himself was

never nailed to the Cross.

*<',

religious

disputation was held

historian JMas'udi
is

by Abu Kathir
Palestine

Saadja's tutor, with the

i.

in

(Sacy, Christ. Ar.

p. 357-;,

the

name

Jewish physician in Egypt, Efranim ( Ephraim), called Abu Kathir is named by Ibn Abi Osebia in his MS. history (cf. 22.) ; but he is said to have been a pupil of Ali Ibn Rodhwan (who died a. d. IO6I.-8). [Page 130. MoKAMMEz, 9th or 10th century. Joseph ben Abraham was probably later ; conf. 14. p. 120., Saadja, 933. Mokammez, Saadja, and Samuel ben Chofni, are mentioned together as polemical writers probably by Bechai, certainly by ]Moses Ibn Ezra. See Catal. p. 2164.] 44 According to this, Geiger, Lit. bl. d. Isr. p. 134., is to be corcorrupted in Dukes, Beitr. p. 5.).

rected.
45

See the author's reference in Frankel, Zeitschr.

ii.

lOp.

sq.

(and

sup. n. 28.), partly repeated, but not mentioned, in Geig,, Moses ben Maimon. p. 68. On further frauds or confusions of De Castro, see

Whether the pretended disputation of Abu Kaleb with Samuel Marokki (Antonio, Bibl. Hisp. ii. p. 3.; Wolf. iii. p. IIO6.) is not the same work under another title is stiU uncertain. See also Catal. p. 1912. and s. v. Samuel Maroccanus. 46 Cod. Ar. Vind. 279-, i. 2., Cod. Berol.40. fol. probably a fragment by a Jewish renegade. Other controversial works against Christianity may occasionally touch upon Judaism. 47 Fol. 35 b. Single passages of several authors will be collected in
21. n. 42.

320
the

NOTES TO

16.

by

work mentioned in n. S6. Whether the Saraval MS. xxvi. is not Duran (}*"lJ;yi instead of 5<"lt^"l) we have had no opportunity of ascertaining. Joseph Caspi perhaps composed an apologetic work, where also the Islam is reviev>^ed. 48 Catal. [Lately H. Reckenp. 1221., conf. Catal. Mich. p. 335. DORF has begun the publication of his own translation of the Koran
S.

practical view

1855), with notes, with the reader a book which has never been published in that language, and promising a large introduction. Indeed a review of the Koran and Muhammedanism, from Conf. a Jewish point of view, is still a desideratum in literature. Zeitschr. der d. m. Gesellsch. vi. 538, The author of this essay began in 1839 a Hebrew translation of the Koran, principally with reference to the relation of the tw^o languages; it was intended to be an appendix Of Sam. Ibn Jahja to an Arabic primer in the Hebrew language.] (1520 1566) and Davio Ibx Shoshan (cir. 1580) at Constantinople, it was boasted that they were consulted on jMuhammedan law by the Turkish doctors and officials (Conforte, f. 34 a. 39 a.; Zunz, zur Gesch. 440.). 49 NicoU, Catal. p. 49O.
(conf.

Prohen einer Hehr. Uehers.,

8zc.,

of furnishing to the

Hebrew

16.

Page

131.

n. 4.)

Authorities: llm Ezra, at the beginning of Meoznajim (cf. 14. ; a chronological list of grammarians from Chiskija Roman Ibn
in

Bakuda (I6OO)

74., where there are many mistakes; and Add.). One in Latin of both Jews and Christians is contained in Cod. Vat. 494. (in j\lai). An alphaIn later times Luzzatto, Prolegg. betical list in Wolf. iv. p. 231. sq. ad unaGramm. rag. dellaLing. Ebr. (Pad. 1836); conf. also Demtzsch, Jesurun, seu Isag. in Concord. Lips. Rapoport, Introd. to the Lexicon des Parchon, published by Stern (prob. 1844); Ewald and Dukes, Beitr. zur Gesch. d. altest. Ausleg. (Stuttg. and Tiib., 1844), 3 vols. Concerning the hitherto little regarded German and French grammarians, see Zunz, zur Gesch. 60. sq. 10?. sq. Dukes promised some

De

Castro,

i.

conf. Jost, vi. 368. (^Catal. p. 844.

years ago a history of the study of the

Hebrew language
:

conf. also tlie

three Commentationes, by

Hupfei.d

I.

et

II.

Accent. Scriptt., with addit. to I. et III.; III. Jud. Init. (Halis, 1846); conf. with this the review of Ewald, Gott. gel. Anz., 1847, p. 722., and Dukes, Lit. bh viii. 635. sq. Hupfeld took no notice of Zunz's very complete treatise upon Nakdanim, and in general repeats much of what has been said by Dukes. Tlie partiality of his attacks prevented him from discovering the errors of De Rossi see Catal. p. 1304., and vide inf. n. 31. An essay on the history of Hebrew grammar, by Dernburg (in '' Orientaha," edited by Tuynboll, Amst., 1846, ii. 99-) treats of a special grammatical theory; cf. also Geiger, Ker. Chem. ix. 6I.; and, on the age of the punctuation, the older essay of Luzzatto in his Dialogues, &c. ( 13.), published in 1852, where the matter is treated in general with the same arguments
;

De Antiq. apud Jud. De Rei Gramm. apud

NOTES TO

16.

321
Hebrew

as in his Prolegg., perspicuously expressed in the fcrra of a

dialogue.

d, 1. Vers. d. u, a. Orient, p. 13., and sup. 3. nn. 6', 7. ^ The interpolated translation of the historian Honein ben Ishak (ob.

See at 17- n. 11. See n. 35. Ephodi, Lit. bl. Zunz, zur Gesch. 201. 20-i. * Frankel in Verhandlungeii^
2

iv.

l68.

conf.

Petah Debarai,

pref.

873.; see Krafft, Catalogue of Oriental MSS., p. 5Si.) is, according to Rodiger (xV. d. Zeit. 1844, p. 266,), apparently taken from the Syriac or Greek; on another translator, see p. 134. and note 27. ^ Cato/. p. 2182. Concerning the Arabic name for translation, see
note
8.

Later,
d.

"^^

to

translate"

is

called

pTIi^H

J^

see

Maim,

Abh. ub.

Einh. p. 32. n. 15., conf. Dukes, p. 77')^ ^^^ ^^^o l^i^j. " vertere " (Parchon, pref. p. xx. ; and Abraham ben David in his Hebrew translation, p. 65., says that Alfarabi "translated" [l^H] the
of the book Topica,
^'

title

liber

locorum

" conf. the Arab, (^i.;^)

so that this expression in Dukes, p. 197-, must not be translated exactly " rursus convertisse " (Hupf. ii. 9) ; see also n. 44.
7 Geig. Zeitschr. v. 287* 290.; likewise in the Arabic translation of the Karaites (see ]\lunk, xVnnal. iii. 86.), and in the Persian (n. 10.),

conf.

in Dukes,

Rapop. Ker. Chem.vi. 172. (conf. 3. n.7.); Midrash ccnf. Arabian legends in the author's essay in ; Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. 273., and Catal. p. 2182.
in
p. 49.

Targum

Therefore, varying
p.

Jj and j^^ijcategory,

Translation and

Comm,,

see

Catal.

2181.

Ewald's

"expounding

translators,"

suits

Saadja and the Persian translators better than Chititilla, who was rather a translating exegetist. 9 Zunz, G. V. 414., conf. Munk, 1. 1. p. 68. n. 1. ^* Continuous French glossaries (in Hebrew letters), which deserve notice, as forming a transition from the mere sporadically translating exegesis to the regular translation, go back at least as far as the year 1240; see the reference in Zunz, zur Gesch. 81. ; Dukes, Mischle, The last mentions also an interlinear translation " (,^). pp.41. 50. Perhaps from the continuous glossaries and translations arose the alphabetical, which were again enlarged by new^ languages ; vide inf. 5Q ^. 10 Maimom, in Zunz, G. V. 9.; Delitzsch, Geschichte, 139.; Theo'^'^

Munk, 1. L p. 60. n. 2. (conf. sup. 8. n. 13., neglected by Geiger, Moses ben Maimonides, p. 69. n. 50.) ; cf. also Lit. bl. 1850, modern Persian translation of the Pentateuch, &c., in Paris, p. 509.
doret in

made probably
the place of

in 1300, translates directly from passages of the Targum, which in the Liturgy it was apparently meant to supply, and from Kimchi's explanations ; it is generally instructive with regard
to the history of the

translation of the

Bible.

From

this

arose the

translation of
closely,

Jacob Tawus (Tcsi), which followed the text more Const. 1546. (vide Catal. s. v.) There are still MSS. in the

(Lit. bl. viii. 24.), and in Cod. Rossi, 1093., Cod. Pers. i. (Zunz, Got. Vortr. 124 a.) ; on the Persian book Tobias see Wolf. iii. p. 275., and Munk, 1. c. on other Apocryphal books.
^^

Krimea

Delitzsch., Gesch. p. S3.

322

NOTES TO

16.

11 a Catal p. 195. no. 1320. ; also De Castro, i. pp. 401. 411. 415., where he tries to prove that the Pentateuch was first translated by Jewish converts. 2 Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 83., G. V. 413, (conf. Lit. bl. vii. 6 12.) 414. (conf. Geig. Lehrb. d. Mishna, p. 15. j the author's Fremdspr. Elem. p. 23.) ; conf. Wolf. ii. p. 447., iv. p. 173.; Rossi, art. Moses Arragel, and see 27. n. 11. sq. ; and in general on the extant translations of Bible, sect. i. of the Catal. pp. 165198. Concerning the so-called GrcBca veneta (from a MS. of the 14th century), see Gesenius in the On Encycl. sect. i. vol. 9. p. 31. ; De Wette, Einl. ins A. T. \ 5Q. Turkish translations, see Delitzsch, Turcica, Lit. bl. i. 77. On older
5

translations, cf. 3. 13 Jellinek's hypotheses (Leipz. Repert.

1847,

p.

339.) are unfounded

(see n. 49.) ; and it is also incorrect or inconsistent in Dukes (p. 42.) to claim for the Talmud the merits of Comparative Philology (Sprach-

vergleichung)
p. xiii.

;
;

see

on the other hand

Id. p. 49.j, Lit. bl. iv. 167.? x. 57.

;

Rapop. on Parchon, somewhat indistinctly expressed views of S. Sachs (Die Relig. Poesie, p. I6I.) on the subject, which are in close connexion with theological controversy. 14 For example, libD, Geig. Zeitschr. v. 41 6.; Ker. Chem. ix. 6^., against Ewald, p. 124.; and Kirchheim, Lit. bl. v. 675., who supposes a traditional grammatical theory before the existence of technical words. A monography upon Hebrew grammatical terminology, by N. Hirsch, already prepared for the press, remains unpublished at Prague, on
( 4. n. 106.)
conf. also Geig. Zeitschr. v. 273.

We

will not enter

upon the

discussion of the

account of the death of the young author ; conf. also Dukes, Lit. bl. and sup. p. 240. 1^ Luzz. p. 24. ; Dialogues, p. IO6. ; comp. Zunz, G. V. 96 d. ; for Lists of imathe views of Saadja on the subject, see Catal. p. 2162. ginary and real variations of quotations in the Talmud and Midrash are given in several periodicals quoted by Landshuth, Maggid. p. ix. ; adde Annal. iii.. Lit. bl. v. 284. On the other hand, Ibn Ezra (Zachot, towards tbe end) condemns to the flames the work of a pbilologer who arbitrarily corrected above a hundred words in the Bible, because this
x. 55. sq.,
is

other than Abulwalid.

not permitted even in a profane work; and this philologer is no This was first shown by Luzz.,, Ker. Chem. iv. On the confusion of Carmoly, Zion, i. 47., and of others about 136.

the expression P'nn?On, which seems to be applied by Ibn Ezra to Nevertheless, '^ false stateseveral persons, see Catal. p. 2185. infra. ments, which lived in the mouth and in the memory of Punctuators and

(Frenstlorf, Masoreths, have long been maintained, with their errors." on Mos. Nakdan, p. xiv.). 16 Vide inf. n. 50. D. Cassel (ad Cusari, p. 181.) shows that in Judah Ibn Tibbon (II67) miDD signifies '' rule :" conf. ni'pnpn^ nilDDH ^^pyi in his contemporary Jos. Kimchi (Lit. bl. viii. 442.); conf. Hupfeld, i. p. 3., ii. p. 19., comp. iii. p. 2.; S. Baer, the author of a meritorious work on the poetical accents (1852), gives (Lit. bl. xii. 21.) a striking instance how the Masora became enlarged, having consisted originally of very short rules (cf. 4.) ; Jacob Tam (Lit. bl. xi. 378., and ed. Lond. p. 11.) speaks distinctly of later additions, and of errors of the punctuators (cf. n. 25.). But at a later period the whole Masora, and the

NOTES TO
signs,

IG.

323
On
;

were supposed to be of the same antiquity. Masora and Haggada,, see Zunz, G. V. 86. 326. expositions^ 14., and 27. p. 234.
^''

the connexion of

and on Kabbalistic

45. 47. ; conf. Luzz. p. 20., and inf. n. 20. Mishna, with accents, unknown to the authors quoted, see Catal. p. 257. no. 1718. Therefore the name of the accent dividing the verses appears first in a variation of the Tract. Sofer. (Zunz, G. V. 96 a. In the Talmud D''?oyDn pIDQ is not a sign, as Kirchheim on Chajug

Dukes,

Lit. bl. v. nr.

On

a printed

p. 19^.

Moses Nakdan also [see Frensdorf, p. xliii.] does places where p")DD and mroyn occur are collected in the author's Freradsprachl. Elem. p. 12. n. 25.; cf. also Luzz., Dialogues, pp. 83. 85. 88. 93. ; conf. the Syriac accents in Bar Hebreus, Gramm. Syr. ed. Bertheau, iv. 47. sq., and inf. 18. n. 51. ^^ Luzz. Rapop., Frankel, p. 21., and in Oostersche Wandel. p. 48. Zeitschr. i. 359. Issachar Ibn Susan (f. 74 b.) derives even the smaller lections from Ezra. ^^ Kirchheim on Chajug, p. 192. ; Dukes, Kuntris Hammassoret, Tiibingen, 184(5, p. 29. (not used by Hupfeld, i. and ii.) ; Jeh. Hedessi's (1149) interesting although obscure communications (Alsupposes. not reckon it).

The

phab. 163. sq.) have been unnoticed even by those who treated the subject after the publication of this essay; see n. 32. and 14. n. 39. ; conf. also Solomon ben Aaron Tkoki, 1. c. n. I6. on DyiJ and pj'J-

203., where also the employment of accents for gesticulation is apparent Hedessi (173.) speaks of a " Masora of Palestine and Babylon and of Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali." 2^ See Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 110., and Luzzatto's valuable special
iv.
;

-^

Ker. Chem.

J. Polak (AmPinner (Prospectus, &c.) in the Lit. bl. viii. 24., knew nothing. Ewald has subjected the new discoveries to his peculiar criticism (Jahrbucher der Bibl. Wissensch. On his hypothesis of the construction of Kamez in 1849), cf. p. 166. opposition to older testimony, see the author's communication from a

researches in Oostersche

Wandelungen, published by G.
critic of

sterd.

1846),

p. 23. sq.,

of which the

MS.

of

Abraham
is

nhere ]lp^

Abraham

Babl^i [sup. p. 139-, cf. Geiger, Parschandata, p. 36., only a general denomination ; but perhaps he is the Nakdan in Zunz, z. G. 117-?] in Davidson, a Treatise on
i.

Bibl. Criticism,

47.

(cf. p. x.).
is

Hedessi says the same.

in the Bodl. library
to
;

A leaf of the
and a tracing
p. 12.;

interesting old Bible codex

now

of

it

was communicated by the author

Geiger

(1.

c.

conf.

also Ker.

Chem.

ix. 70.).

^- In the Midrash niTlpJ still signifies ornamental points of the consonants (PIJID'' pjn, crowns ; see Zunz, G. V. 264b.), which perhaps were intended to prevent the confusion of similar letters (Lit. bl. vi. On the older work, pan, see p. 133., and Dukes, Nahal, p. 24. 577.) {cf. Carmoly, Aktan, p. 6.), the short, but very erudite note of Furst, Lit. bl. xi. 149., is but one of his usual plagiarisms, see Zunz, G. V. 405 b. ; (conf. also Jelhnek, Auswahl, p. 29. ; see our correction to Jehuda Levi (iii. 31. of the Hebr. transl.) p. 20. in 13. n. 1.).

discerns,

Tip''3

vocalisation, D''^>?LD accentuation,

and

miDb

Masora on

consonants, &c.
2^ Zunz, G. V. 264 b.; Luzz. This argument, p. 37., Dial. p. 82. which is not regarded by Ewald or Hupfeld, appears to the author Y 2

324
precisely the

NOTES TO
most decisive
in
this

16.

important and

difficult inquiry,

be-

cause

it

rests

reference to
ever, the

upon an accurate general view of Jewish literature. A the Dagesh in n^*">j^ ^0 (in the Decalogue), without, how-

rabbati, chap. 24.,

mention of the sign, is found in the beginning of the Pesikta where it is explained by n^nnn X?. ^Ve will not enlarge here on the interesting arguments and views of different parties, Kabbalists, Grammarians, Karaites, brought forward with respect to the antiquity of the punctuation ; but it is worth mentioning that Hedessi believes it as old as the tables of Moses ; and Solomon ben Aaron Troki is not satisfied with the Rabbinists who attribute it to Ezra. Hedessi declares a Pentateuch roll of mere consonants to be improper
for the service
;

yet the expression D"*DyDn jpHD

is

also not

unknown
by

to

Karaites.
24

The vowels

are considered the souls of the consonants

several

authors after Ibn Ezra, e. g. the book Bahir, Ezra (or Azriel), Abr. AbuSol. Duran [in Dukes, p. 37.] appeals to lafia ; the Zohar, Isaac Acco.
'^'u7^'\'y

which generally

indicates

an authority supposed

to originate in

Hupf. (i. p. 3.) Palestine (see Rapop. and Chajes, sup. 4. n. 54.). appeals, concerning the age of the writings (against Zunz, G. V. 407-)^
to a

work of Maimonides which never

existed,

and

to Jeh.

Moscato,

who wrote almost two centuries later than Hupfeld's voucher, the famous Moses Botarel ( 13., and see inf. n. 50.), who also speaks only of
Kabbalistic writings, and himself wrote a similar explanation of punctuation (MS. 0pp. 9QQ9')'

Ewald, p. 6. ; Dukes, p. 82.), Kon. 37. ; Dunasch, and Menahem ben Saruk (Dukes, p. 152. ; conf. Jeh. Hal. ii. 78. ; Parchon in Geig. v. 409-), Abulwahd, according to the Palestine readings (Kirchh. Lit. bl. v. 677. n. 12.). Moses Nakdan and ^"ipon ''^yt^ (in Frensdorf, p. xxii.). On Masoretic rules, which are not known till after the time of Abulwalid, Parchon, and Kimchi, see Frensdorf, p. xvi. Yet the Karaitic punctuation in general is the same ( 14. n. 25.). 26 Saadja (Luzz. conf. Frankel, Zeitschr. i. S59. ; Kirchh. p. 189Lit. bl. v. 694., by which Dukes, p. 85., and Ew. p. xi., are to be corrected), Chiquitilla (Dukes, p. 185.). Ibn Ezra indeed keeps, in theory, to the division of verses ; and similarly all Jews and sound philologists of our time acknowledge, in general, the authority of the
Saadja (in Rapop.
reisch

25

(Ew.

p. 123.),

follow the sense in preference to the accent

73.,

Masoretic text for various reasons, although, in individual cases, they examples of this are given by Luzz. (p. 188., Dial. p. 82., conf. p. 95., and Ker. Chem. vii.
:

and his preface to Isaiah). As was already witnessed by Hieronymus (in Luzz. p. 38., Hupf. Add. ii. p. 21.) ; see also the interesting dialectical remarks iii. p. 9-5 of Saadja {Catal p. 2220 against Geiger, v. 273., and Dukes, Lit. bl. xii. 398.) and his follower (in Dukes, Kuntris, pp. 70. 72.; conf. pp. 9. 34.) j cf. also Samuel ben Hofni in Abulwalid (Ew. p. 141.) ; Men. ben Saruk (in Dukes, p. 146.),' Ibn Balam (in Dukes, p. 197-), Moses Ibn Ezra (Poetic MS.), who attributes to the air and sea of Tiberias such an influence on the tongue that even the children of the colonist
27
,

participated in
inf.

its advantages ; S. Duran (Kuntris, p. SS.') ; conf. also In Tiberias lived Eli ben (Abn Ali?) Jehuda, the Nazir (Dukes, p. 133. ; conf. Wolf. iii. 7^4 d. on Nazir, conf. Dukes^

n. 46.

NOTES TO

16.

325

Blumenl. p. 196.; conf. Buscli's Jahrb. iv. ^33.; Zunz, zur Gesch. 203.)^ perhaps identical with the composer of the D''^''V Ili^D (in Hedessi, 173.), who belonged to Tiberias, and with Jabja (inf. n. 27.). Moreover, -Ben Asher is said to have been of Tiberias. The name (T'TyD so much talked of by bibliographers (Hupf. i. p. 4, ; Add. ii. p.
19.) appears to

me

to

be derived from the proper name

'^^.

What

been proposed since by various authors (Lit. bl. x. 8O9., xii. 83. 398. 368., where Dukes ought to have consulted the Arabic text of Saadja) does not appear to offer any advantage. Luzzatto (1. 1. pp. IS. 26. 37. sq.) believed punctuation to have been introduced by the Babylonian Saboraim (cii. 500.) under the influence of the Syrians (whose introduction of vowels even he denies), supporting his opinion, 1st, upon the agreement of the Karaites (sup. 14. n. 25.), as if the oral Masora was not sufficient to account for that; 2nd, upon the similarity of the Syriac names of vowels, although the Arabic are derived from these last, and the fact itself by no means points to Babylon (comp. Hupfeld, iii. p. 7. sq.) ; 3rd, because the different pronunciation of the "1 used in Palestine, which is found also in the book Jezira (conf. the author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 24.), is not observed ; which would indeed only suggest a deviation on the part of the Babylonians. Recently (in Dialogues, p. 108. note) he admits, at least, that the punctuation of the European Jews is derived from
Tiberias.

has

On

the other hand_,

Ewald
1.

(p. xi.

149.) concludes, from the

variation of the said grammarians, that at their time the theory

was

c, Ewald, in the Gott. gel. Anz., has brought forward no new argument). In favour of the age and originality of Hebrew grammatical terminology, Ewald (p. 124.) knows nothing but the peculiar H2^, or t51t^, in Chajjug (Dukes, pp. 136.
already obscured (against Hupfeld,

157.; conf. Cusari,

7.,
ii.

ii.

80.; Luzz.

1.1.

Hupf.
710.

iii.

p.
to

5.

n. 11.,

p.

p. 22.,

by which Kampf.

Lit. bl.

ii.

is

be corrected).

Upon
28
29

mi
Vide

in Saadja, see Dukes, p. 36.

inf. n.

52. Catalogues in Wolf (ii. p. 534., iv. p. 226., whence Furst, Concord, p. 1382.) ; Dukes, Kuntris, p. 14. sq., where also upon the leader of the school Pinhas, see Luzz. p. 25. Later, a particular verbum denominativum was formed, Ipp, i. e. to provide Bibles with

Masoretic glosses on the margins (Zunz, zur Gesch. 202., comp. 73 c). last, a Masora upon the Targum was also composed (Luzz. Virgo, Mas. of the Talmud" is an index of f. j. p. 13.). The so-called parallel passages, vide 25. ; on " Masoret Haggada " see sup. n. I6.

At

'^'^

30

P. 22. sq. (conf.

MS. Munich.

14.).

Hupf.

(i.

p. 4.)

places

him

beginning of the 10th century, but proves (in the note) '^^Etatem ejus antemasoreticum esse," &c. Here also appears the ambiguity of the word Masora. 31 Hupf. i. p. 17. sq., according to the better recension of a MS. of Luzzatto, published by Dukes, Kontres, &c. 3-' Id. p. 38.; Jeh. Hedessi (pp. l63- I68.) has, in his Vork pin pinn, enriched the eighty m^lT of Ben Asher. He counts twelve reges, nine sei'vi, and ten ancipites, &c. 33 Ew. p. 124.; Hupf. i. p. 2., iii. pp. 2. 10.; Geig. Zeitschr. r. 274. 416.; Zunz, zur Gesch. 194, 195.; Rapop. Busch's Jahrb. iii.
at the

Y 3

326

NOTES TO

16.

The oldest trace is probably the division of the letters in the 259. book Jeziia ( 13.), and the Comment, (conf. Dukes, p. 134.). It is not true, according to Gesen. Thes. Rad. |*iy (Geig. Zeitschr. v. 314,);, that Saadja never appeals to those who wrote before his time (Ew. p. 5.), only he mentions no name; cf. Catal. p. 2188. -4 Cf. Catal. p. 2199., and on MS. Mich. 59., ib. p. 2l62, Perhaps the manner of putting small verses between the letters of the alphabet is very old. Upon the unusual D''T''"inD, in Menahem (Dukes, Lit. bL
viii.

680., see 18. n. 31.

inf.

Upon

_j?-^ or

"il^li^^

vide sup. 9- n. 40.,

'p'^'^ID.

and

n.

SS.

Hedessi (p. 170.) has also jnH^n

On

the

lexica of the Karaites,

of Saadja
p. 219h).),
2^

David ben Abraham, said to be a contemporary (Ker. Chem. ix. 51.), and Ali ben Soleiman (see Catal.
we must wait
for

more

special notices.

Rapop. on Parchon, p. xiii., has proved that nothing but investigations required the Arabic language (conf. also Chiquitilla in Dukes, Saruk does not know how to explain etymologically the prinp. 181.). ciple of the alphabetical series (ntl^nD) ; for example, \TX^1T\ was-

found under H. 36 Vide 14.

37 Munk (Not. sur Aboulvv. p. 44.) ascribes to him all the works mentioned in the Commentary on Jezira (see 13. n. 12.), and even identifies him with Abu Ibrahim, mentioned in Mos. Ibn Ezra, but

who
38

is

(according to an old correction of the

(or

MS.

itself)

Abu Ibrahim
by the

Ibn Barun
'>\^rh^

Berrein?),

see Catal. p. 1335.

(Hebr.

?]D&^?on),

not

*.^W

(as first conjectured

author, see n. 34.), which is a common title of Arabic lexica, and also a name for Ecclesiasticus ; see on Maim. Treat, on Unity, p. 15. n. 22.

The

following are synonymous

expressions,

"jiy

(arrangement) and
(Lit. bl.

niinnD, with doubtful

iv. S5.,
vi.

vocalisation, corresponding with k_2jb'

171.).

The

particular alphabets of the lexica are called

probably nniriD (Lit.

Geig. Zeitschr.
v.

bl. iv.

187-,

^'iii.

650., sup. n. S5.; Simson, in

;

421., against Rapop. on Parchon, p. x.

Dukes, p.

40.; Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 203.; Hupf. iii. 17- n. 31.; Add. ii. p. 22., none of whom explain the difference of the sing and plur.), or lyji^,

c_^b

(cf.

Catal

p.

1428. and 2198.).

The

chapters or articles in the

alphabet are called pIS (in Nathan), and a i>S1p'"\ 'D (perhaps Chajjug .?).
39

"]"iy.

Ibn Balam
etymology
of

also quotes

Karaitic authorities confirm

Lebrecht's

Koreisch

{Catal. p. 1334); and by this we learn to know the influence of Ko" Ibn Koreisch Jehuda " is already quoted reisch's exegesis, 17- n. 4. in Tobia the Karaite (Cod. Opp. 255. in fol. f. 9^6.), who seems to

mention a work D**")!^?! mS^^y but, unfortunately, the passage is obscure he speaks in the same place of many Rabbinites having been converted to Karaism ; and perhaps this occasioned later Karaites to
;
:

consider
'^^

rates
41

him one of themselves. His criticism on Menahem (ed. Lond. s. V. some roots common to Hebrew and Arabic.
Catal.
Catal.
s.

p.

68.)

enume-

V.

Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 113. roots, particles, &c. (Abulw. Lit.

42

Chajjug did not

bl. viii.

treat of the fixed

679-)-

NOTES TO
^^

16.

827

has quite misunderstood the sentence of R. Jo(Ab. Sar. 58 b., Cholin, 137 b., where, for nJOVy?, in Raschi, stands Tin? ; conf. Natan, Aruch, sub voce ps^p) ; conf. Parchon (end of the grammar), l^h S^^mDH l-ni "12^ D^2n "["n
(p. 143.)

Ewald

chanan mentioned by Jona

Ibn Ezra(Zachot, verb, neutropass.),

conf. Tobias

Tin'? ^ID^Jl ])^h)

in Geig.

Zeitschr. v. 4l6.

The

sense

is,

l^vh ^^IpD ])i:^h ; that midrash

1?3Vyb). ( TlH^, 13?, Lebrecht (Lit. bl iv. 234.) asserts that Chiquitilla also translated writings of Abulwalid, without mentioning his authorities. In his preface (Dukes, p. 181.), which Parchon copies, he says that he is obliged to make use of circumlocution from the want of precise technical expressions. On other translators of Abulwalid's writings, see Catal. p. 1418.

and simple exegesis exist independently

^2*

44 ^^

Catal.

s. V.

His nDp") is to be distinguished from Abulwalid's work of the same name, and he himself from the older translator of Jonah ; another Isaac ben Jehuda composed the book ^iC^i^n about J 250; and another Isaac Levi, in the 12th century, wrote the book "llpD ; see Catal. 1. c. ^^ Rossi, Dictionary, 287. j Dukes, Lit. bL iv. 234. Carmoly (Annal. ii. 29-) and Kirchheim (Abulw. p. xii.) make him older than Abulwalid (? ?) ; perhaps he is identical with the poet, 20. n. 42. Jacob op Jerusalem {^IpJDT] TT'l, Arab.) is a different person from
''the
vii.

Pilgrim" (JJin

=j-l^) mentioned by Abulwalid (Lit.

bl.

663.).

46 a

Upon

the extensive circulation of his commentary, even as far as

the East, see n. 10.

47 48 *^

See Geig. Melo Chofn. p. 63. 101.

Catal.
s. V.

The

history of this technical expression

is

instructive for the deve-

It was drawn from the old treasures lopment of terminology generally. of the language, and was gradually shaped in the different systems and schools partly by the natural influence of the Arabic, which was in its turn influenced by the Hebrew. In the Talmud, particularly in the Halachaic and p^pl (rad. pH) and their derivatives signify " to discussions, be careful in minutiae, and scrupulous in doing, speaking, and thinking," according to the relative word which is to be supplied (cf. sup. 4. n. and in the 17.) ; hence precise astronomers are called merely D''p1p1D Hebrew translation of Albatani (M. Michael, 835.), a work upon astronomy is more particularly designated a pllpin ''nD^?7D3. In the style of translation of the Tibbonides rad. pi was used principally for ''subtle,"

pm

particularly in conjunction with

Vy (j^3

speculation, &c., especially

J,

the

meaning is connected without the correlative ])iyb) for Grammar (cf. the definition of Jonah, which Ephodaeus, MS. chap, The viii.j says is an explanation of the word, not a real definition). Hebrew origin is proved by the use of it in an Arabic work by Japhet the Karaite, ^but Geig. (Zeitschr. v. 274.) and JMunk go too far in concluding that the grammarians quoted by Japhet are Karaites ; see Rap.; Busch. iii. 259. ; P'^^P'^ D as the opposite of ni3n:ii^ (Lexic.) in Hedessi (Dukes, p. 40., Lit. bl. viii. 636.) ; although, on the other Y 4

pnpl and

nip''''1.

With

these various shades of

use of

pHpl

(not

yet used

328
hand,
it

NOTES TO
seems above (n. 34. and
entitles his
12.

16.

n. 37.) to include also lexica.

Abulwalid

work on language ^Jii^i

pHpl, where gram-

mar and
a point

of.

lexicon are taken together, and the study of language is made The expressions n^'H^ in old works, and l^n ^DDH or ^^Z^
^X)-> are also to be observed.

3D^ (c-^UU^
50

Upon

339.; Zunz, zur Gesch. 203. The Parisian p. 1782. Cod. Suppl. 1. was not written in 106l (Carmoly), but in 1301 (Geig. Zeitschr. v. 464.; conf. sup. 10. n. 31.); the Cod. Ken. 350. of Vienna is said to have been written in the 10th century, KraflPt and
in
i.

Samk
the

Dukes, 146.; Wolf.

so-called

Codex

Hilali,

see Catal.

Deutsch, Catal. p. 10. 5^ Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. 107. sq, 201. sq. ; Rapop. on Parchon (see, however, sup. n, 41.}. ^^ Vide sup. n. 49. ; Zunz, zur Gesch. 201. sq. (from which Hupf. ii. p. 107. must be corrected and completed), |p''*'1, see also Zion, ii. 105. 52 Hupf. (iii. p. 21., ii. p, 19-)^ without sufficient reason, considers the printed book to be a later compilation ; see Catal. s. v. the same title is given to the grammar of Saadja. 53 Lit. bl. viiic 442. Abrahabi ben Juda Ibn Chajjim probably wrote upon the technical part of copying the Bible, colours, and the like (Cod, Rossi, 9^5.; but the date, 1262, and the country, Spain, seem uncertain. About that time lived Abraham ben Chajjim, the father of Levi ( 11.) in Provence).
f^
:

53a
5^
t

Vide sup.

n. 38.

Geig. (v. 419.), identifies him )[xi= "ISID? see Catal. s. v. with ]\[osES BEN Isaac Hannesia ; but lately (Ker. Chem. ix. 61.) he supposes the latter to be a native (? ?) of Provence, in consequence of Dukes' valuable essay on the latter in Jewish Chronicle, 1 849 (vol. v. By the by, Dukes has given (p. 295.) a short 11. 37.)^ P- 295. sq. notice about the very few Jewish scholars of England in the Middle Ages, which might be completed by a few more names, e. g. R. Moril (Samuel) of Inghilterra, and some others of )^'''Tl3l7, if that is not rather Londres in France Jacob of Orleans (see sup. p. 144., comp. also Zunz ad Benjamin, p. 257., z. G. I6I. 52., Catal. p. 1257. 1319.)55 Zunz, conf. p. 118. p. 204. 56 Catal His work is now printed (Lond. 1855). The p. 1257. above-mentioned poem on accents, with the acrostic (Jacob ben Meir), is found also in a MS. (a. d. 1470) amongst several tracts (f. IO6 b.) containing also the poem of Joseph ben Kalonymos and the nip''"'*! of Samuel, who completes his grammatical observations by others (f. 27. sq.) arranged according to the order of the Pentateuch, and then (f. 35.
; ;

sq.) treats of the accents, &c.

so that
in

it is

grammarian and the Nakdan

author.
57

Zunz,

p. IO9., are

more than probable that the one and the same

Catal. p 1737. [Page 140. line L

On Joseph ben David,

Dukes has

whose work

is

extant in

MS.

of the Bodl.

libr.,

enlarged in the Lit.

bl. x.

707- 727.

755., xi. 173. 183. 215. (cf. also the German note 46 of this ) ; but with respect to the date, he is evidently wrong, as he places him first (p. 707.) in the beginning of the I3th century, and then in the

NOTES TO
time of Moses Hannesia (who wrote, not in the
;

17.

329

while Joseph quotes Isaac ben Eleazar Levi, beginning of the 12th century/' as is said in Lit. bl. vii. 706., since he quotes Charisi, who lived in 1218), and even Nachmanides (ob. not before 1268), as dead (7"l, see Lit. bl. xi. 184.). Hence Joseph cannot have lived before the end of the 13th, which agrees with his speaking of the Kabbalists. To Elia ben Chananel,
'^^

who Dukes
;

unknown, are dedicated, in 1351-2, some ben Joseph (partly also in Cod. Laud. 220.) this Isaiah (born 1327), '' called Rah," was the possessor of the Bodl. Cod. of Joseph's work, and was said by Uri (476.) to be the author. All this Dukes could have learnt by referring to Cod. Vienna;, xciv. (p. 107. of the Catalogue, a criticism of which was given by Dukes in Lit. bl. 1848). 58 Vat. 417. 2. (Zunz, G. V. 438 b. ; zur Gesch. 120.), as the author concludes from the beginning where the German stands first.
(p.

728.) says

is

Kabbalistic works of Isaiah

See also n. 30. and Q. n. 39. 58 a See Dukes, Lit. bl. viii. 481, sq. 59 Luzzatto, p. S4.j Dukes, Kobez, p.
59 a

iv.

The date a.). of the com.position n '73 refers to the French exile of the year 1395, not to 1290, see Mos. Rieti, f. 104. (different in Ibn Verga, chap. 24.) The
Vide Catal.
p.

622. (and upon the origin, sup. n. 9

title was stereotyped, cf. Portaleone in Zunz, G. V. 442. A Hebrew Arabic Lexicon was written by Saadja Ibn Dan an, ed. 1473, cf. 20.

n. 50.
^^

Not

see

Zunz,

61

be confounded with Raschi, who was not called Jarchi, Annal. i. nr, 42. Conf. Dukes, Lit. bl. viii. 441., cf. 5l6. n. 7. Catal. p. 1524.
to
Israel.

^2
^'^

Catal.

s.

V.

Zunz, zur Gesch. 410.; Dukes, Kuntris.

nr. 12, 13.

17.

Page

141.

literature

Authorities (besides those given I6. n. 1.) complete in Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. 60

IO7.

the

German-French

19^ 201,,-

commentaries on the Pentateuch given by Reggio, in the Introd. to his Italian version of the Pentateuch (Vienna, 1821, see Annal. iii. 6 ) ; characteristics in Del Medigo (Mel. Chofn. p. 29.) ; some particulars, rather antiquated however, in Le-Long-Masch, Biblioth. Sacra, and De Rossi's supplement to it ; recently, Geiger (Beitrage, 1847^ and Parschandata, 1855) has given characteristic dissertations of some eminent exegetists of the German-French school (ll-12th cent.), not, however, uninfluenced by his subjective tendencies. ought, perhaps, to mention here a recent work, the Practische Eincatalogue of 148

We

leitung in die
p.
1
.

lieil.

Sclirift iind

Geschichte der Schriftauslegung, &c,,

of the Oberrabbiner, L.

one of our authorities, but as of our German essay without mentioning it 2 The author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p.
1.

Low, at Kanischa (1855), not indeed as a work which has made considerable use
(^Catal. p.

2050.).

7.

conf.

Whewell-Littrow,

c.

p.

235.
v/as originally

This

meant

to

and Haggada passages.

The

first

part touches

be a mere exposition of Scriptural upon scarcely anything

330

NOTES TO

17.

but the explanation of Biblical anthropomorphisms. This is probably the reason of the remarkable fact that this comprehensive mind left behind no really exegetical work. ^ See Parchon^ Gramm. End. Isaac Troki often enters into polemics against Christian exegesis, particularly that of the Gospels. ^ E. g. Anan's Ableitung der Beschneidung mit der Schere nach Jos. V. 2. (Lit. bl. viii. 18.) is certainly not more rational than the Rabbinical derivation of the prohibition of shaving, &c. (conf. also Annal. Geiger (Zeitschr. v. 267- sq. 272. sq.) gives too much proi. 137.)'
the natural sense of the words in the principles of the and Kirchheim (1. c), who agrees with him as regards the first commencement, is contradicted not only by the instance of Anan, but also by the fact that, of the three points of difference characterising this sect mentioned by Aaron ben Elia (Lit. bl. i. 5S^. QO^.), the first and third refer to tradition. Saadja gives the four rules of exposition (ib. p. 534.; Frank. Zeitschr. ii. 112.).
to

minence

Karaites

Conf. 12. n. 3. See Abulw. l6. n. 35., and Parchon, Gramm. On the simple meaning, as opposed to Halacha, see 14. n. 5., Samuel ben Meir (in Zunz, zur Gesch. 19^.), Ibn Ezra (in Lippmann, Sefat Jeter, p. 19.; conf. Geig. Zeitschr. i. 311.; Rapop. Ker. Chem. vii. 92. sq. ; cf. Catal. s. v.). The explanation of anthropomorphisms, a mutual object of reproach, is due to Jehuda Ibn Koreish ( I6. n. S^.^. will only add, that they lay a great stress, even in practical deductions, on the connexion ( niD''?3D) of chapters, &c. (cf. Ibn Ezra, The seventy ways of explanaDeuter. xxiv. 16. ; cf. Exod. xxi. 8.). tion are a more recent and symbolical number ; see the author's essay quoted in 2. n. 6. 8 ZuNz, G. V. 409. ; conf. 397On Maimonides on the Unity, 18.; Duran, Keshet umagen, conf. Melo Chofn. p. 64. n. 8. ; Abbamari, Minch. Ken. p. 125. 1. 3.; Shemtob on the Moreh, ii. SQ. Cusari, iii. QQ. ; Immanuel of Rome, on Prov. xxv. I6. (in Dukes, On the older meaning Blumenl. p. 268.) ; Franck, Kabbala, p. 42.
6
'^

We

of TOn, see 5. nn. 7- 10. 102. 9 Conf. also the interesting classification in Ibn Ezra's Introduction to the Pentateuch, and (Lathif ?) Schaar hasch. (in Luzzato, Virgo, f.
J. p. vii.)
i.
;

Aaron ben Elia Kar., Introduction

to

Comment.

(Lit. bl.

who used the word in that Zunz, z. G. 197- 568. ; cf. I6. n. S5. 11 Saadja, on the Psalms (Ew. p. 8. [Geig. Zeitschr. v. 308.] ; Dukes, p. 184.), and on Proverbs (see Catal. s. v.); Isaac (Israeli?), on the Edomite genealogical tables (Lit. bl. i. 303.) ; explanation of ten punctuated passages in Abot d. R. Nathan and Bamidb. Rab. in Geig. Zeitschr. vi. 23.; conf. As. d. Rossi, Ker. Chem. v. 153. 1^ See an anonymous Pashtan of England, in Baruch ben Isaac; conf. Albo, Ikkar, i. 1.; Zunz, zur Gesch. I96. ; also in Menahem ben Solomon, who uses l^a and tOE^S for nns ; conf. IjnS^a, in Salmon ben Jerucham (Dukes, Beitr. p. 100.), "it^'2, in Sabbatai Donolo
sense
;

500.), and Del Medigo (see n. 1.). 10 Dunash Ibn Librat seems the first
see

(Ker. Chem. vii. p. 65. 1. 17.) together with jnna (id. p. 64. 1. 6ab inf.); conf. Parchon (1, c), Mos. Kimchi, Introd. to Comm. on the

331
Proverbs (Lit.
^^
^^

bl. viii.

26

n. 2.).

Biblical commentaries of the 13th

1-itb centuries are called

CLD'J'S in

and Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. 83. 92. 067.

i.

Bottcber, in Verbandlungen, d.

Vers. d. Orient, p. 06.

vii.

Mexahe:ji ben Solomon

Zunz,
;

(Lit. bl.

440.)

is^

however^ perhaps
bl.

an

Italian.
^5

p. 70'

477. j Menahem ben Solomon (on metaphorical explanation)^ in Dukes, Kobez al Jad, p. 06. 15 a Iji Dukes' Excerpta (Lit. bl. viii. 346^ 347.) he gives the same words in French_, as Gerson the elder does in his Commentary on
iii.

zur Gesch. p. IQG. sq. Beer, in Frankel's Zeitschr.

conf.

Geig. Lit.

des

Israel.

Talmud.
16 ^"

catal. p.

1478.;

cf.

such supercommentaries, Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. I96. and 87.

(libellarius),

172?

or 2r\)'2,

Geig. Parschand. p. 11. also expresses

additions

and

Zunz, 195., and Geig. 11. cc. Catal. s. v., and Geig. Parschand. 20 Par. Biblioth. Sorb. 85. ; Carra. Rev. Or. i. p. 123.; Dukes, Lit. bl. viii. 513. sq. ; hence omitted in Zunz^ p. 76. 21 Enumeration in Zunz, Biogr. of Rashi in the Zeitschr. f. d, AViss.
1^
19

d.

Jud.

cf.

Catal.

s.

v.

The Commentary
9-)'
i^

attributed to

Joel," in

the old Catal.

final

MS.

Anglias, repeated

by Gagnier (Wolf.
of

iv. n.

797

b.),

and in Coxe's Catal. (Cod. Vigorn.

passage; the work is the 21a Zunz, p. 199. sq.
22
-3

^ curious misconception of the

Comm.

Xachmanides.

Id. p. 76. sq.j and Catal. sub vccibus. He mentions Zunz, zur Gesch. 9^'"'

also

work on Phvsics
Versuche,

( 22. n. 70.). 24 Carra. Rev. Or.

i.

ii.

399.,

Touche

"

S. Cassel, Hist.

29., explains

it,

" Toucques."
Zunz, zur Gesch. pp. 103. 200.

25 Catal. s. V. 25a Conf. Geig. Zeitschr. iv. 397-; 26 2"

MS. Mich. 509. 644.

ed.

Zunz, zur Gesch. 465. Id. Addit. p. 324.; MS. Mich. 399. ^n?D^i?D^ Inl^D, Piperno (Livorno, 1840); cf. Carm. Hist. p. 9129 Catal p. 69s. 30 Catal. p. 717.; cf. Ker. Chem. viii. 84. 205.
2^

by

18.

Page 146.

1 The first impulse to inquiry on the history of this branch was given by the religious poetry ; hence the first treatise, Heidenheim on the Pijutim and Pajtanira (with additions by M. H. Michael) appeared

Rapoport's well-known investigaform the foundation of more recent critical A review of the writings connected with this subject, by researches. Zunz, Delitzsch, Dukes, Luzzatto, Steinschneider, Kampf, Mohr, M. Sachs (Wenrich's prize essay, which excludes the new Hebrew poetry), and the translations and imitations of Ka3ipf, Krafft, Stein, Stern, Tendlau, Zedner (to which was added, in 1847? the author's
as an introduction to the

Machsor.

tions about Eleazar Kalir

332

NOTES TO

18.

Manna and Letteris ; see Lit. bl. viii. 476.);, has been given by the author in the Mag. f. d. Lit. d. Ausl., 1845, p. 429. sq.; Munk's treatise, extracted from the magazine Le Temps (Delitzeh, zur Gesch. p. xii.)_, is to be found in French and German in Philippson's Schul-und Predigtmagaz. vol. ii. (1835), and contains only some proofs and remarks on the Arabian period. The author has defended Zunz and Rapoport's fundamental views against modern doubts and objections in his Treatise on the History of Hebrew poetry, in Fiankel's Zeitschr. iii. 401. sq,, where also he rejects the separate treatment of the " religious poetry/' and refers to the close connexion of poetic forms with the history of Hebrew philology. The main view of the matter is not altered by the fact that Eleazar Kalir has been proved older than Saadja. Some special authorities will be mentioned below in their respective places, especially on the work of Zunz, Die synagogale Poesie (1855), see On the collection of poetry published at London in 1850, 19- n. 7. under the title Treasures of Oxford, see Lit. bl. xi. 6l4. and Catal. On Dukes, D^DHp 'pm, see 20. p. 1006. sq.
Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 409* Rapop., Pref. to Parchon. 4 See the citations in Zunz, G, V. 377 b. c, and Syn. Poes. 6l. ; conf. Frankel, iii. 411. n. 14.; Delitzch, zur Gesch. d. hebr. Poesie, p. 131.; Dukes, zur Kenntniss der rel. Poes. p. 6. sq.. Lit. bl. iv. 338. (where read '^ ^nfang " for " f/wfang der Kunstform ") ; Sachs, der rel. Poes. d. Juden in Span. p. 175. sq. ; and vide inf. n. 15. ^ Frankel, iii. 408., which also has weight in the principal part of the subject against Cassel's doubts and opinions (id. p. 194. sq.). 6 Id. Zeitschr. iii. 406. ; Geiger (Zeitschr. iii. 381.) admitted no
^
2

peculiar
7

Hebrew

the name.

He

Delitzsch,

poetry, and considered the hymns as alone deserving has however since considerably altered his opinion. zur Gesch. pp. 139. 142. ; Cassel (p. 192.) becomes
c.

almost self-contradictory in reference to the Syrians.

^

Delitzsch,

1.

See 19. n. 21. 10 Del. pp. 126. 136. ; conf. also von Raumer, Gesch. d. Padag. i. 3., on the sesthetical value of the mediaeval Latin religious poetry. ^^ Lit. bl. viii. 72.; conf. Geig. Zeitschr. vi. 1712 Even S. Cassel (p. I92.) affirms (p. 195.) that the earlier Syrian poems are far removed from Judaism. On Syrian metrics see Zingerle
f. d. Kunde d. Morgenl. vii. 1. sq., and Zeitschr. der m.Gesellsch. x. II6. sq., on mixed metrum in strophes of several lines), who reckons verses in three lines among the rarer forms (1. c. p. 3.) ; and see n. I6., also nn. 18. 59. The author's purpose, in the following remarks is to show the weakness of the arguments on which different hypotheses have been built, not to estabhsh or confirm a new one ; and he accepts fully the sentence of the great master (Zunz, S. P. p. 85.) ' cannot know which poetry has been the model of the first

(in the Zeitschr,

d.

We

Pajtanim, of which the time and country are uncertain." 13 Zunz, G. V. 381. Luzz. Virgo, &c., p. 10. ; Lit. bl. vii. 677. ; ; conf. Sachs, p. I76. 14 Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. It is of some importance that the 408. 613 precepts in Saadja's Hturgy are much less artificial than the real

NOTES TO

18.

333

Azharot (see Catal, p. 220().) and that in Jose ben Jose's Seder Aboda scarcely any artifice but the old alphabet appears, not even the division of the line into four parts, or the strophic construction, which is visible in his new-year hymn ; see also n. 17. On the other hand, some non-liturgical poetry ascribed to the Gaonim seems not to belong to

them
^^

cf. inf. n. 40. ; See the authorities in n. 4. (and conf. Zunz, S. P. SQ, 157.), and the author's remark in Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 409.
1^

Luzz. Virgo,
Syrians
(cf.

p. 11.,

and

S. Cassel,

1.

c, appeal to the influence of

cf.

the

n.

12.),

especially

Jacob Edessenus (ob. 710.

Wenrich, De Auct. Grsec. p. 126.) We refer the reader to the essay on the rhyme of Syriac poems by Zingerle (Zeitschr. 1. c. x. 110 ll6.), who states that the Syrians are not commonly rhyming people, like Arabs and Persians, that in the classical time (4 5th cent.) the rhyme occurs more rarely, and that later rhymes are rather to be ascribed to the influence of those nations ; and yet he was acquainted with a whole rhymed poem, the 54 Paraeneses of Ephrem Syrus (ob. a. d. 379)' 17 E. g. the nnim (n. 66.) of Ibn Ezra, Lit. bl. iv. 338. ; conf. also Zunz, S. P. pp. 62. l63., and even Selichot without rhyme in the 13th

cent.
18

ib. p. 176. Sachs (p. 174-.) and Cassel (p. 224., conf. 226. n.), without foundation, have cited in their own favour the passages in Zunz, G. V. 380. (conf. Rap., Kalir 20. ; see Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 409-) ; it seems unnecessary to repeat the details of our argument ; cf. also Zunz, S. P. p. 60. ; and on the name |tD''1Q, p. 107- Even Parchon (5 a., a.d. Il6l) has still |t:5^^S, the denom. D''^D and ^|X'Dininni ^^^^ as opposed to the old D^JIJJ, and speaks of D^'pip':^ D^OVS of the Arabians; while Ibn Ezra and Maimonides (even D''tOVS?^ in Arabian sentences, vide
;

Lit. bl. iv. 685.,

to

and

also in Cusari,

ii.

78. in the text,

cf.

n. 51.)

seem

point to the narrower sense.

The German Simson

tD''''2,

(in Geig. v. 429-)

it

calls Gabirol's

upbraiding song

but he probably knew

only from

quotations.
19

20

at

iii. 409. ; cf. sup. n. 14., and inf. p. 149. sq. That this was the case in the neo-Persian, used Vide sup. n. 8. first by the Arabians, is a point which cannot be pursued further

Frankel,

Conf. also Sachs, p. 302., conf. 270. See references in Frankel, iii. 462. sq. ; conf. inf. 19- n. 4. and Hence linguistic phenomena analogous to those censured occur n. 19. in Saadja (Lit. bl. vi. 678.), Menahem, Dunash, Abitur, Gabirol, Gajjat (in Sachs, p. 206.), and even partially in the Arabising translators (Lit.
here.
21

815. 823.), and also in the Karaites, as Solomon ben Jerucham and others (Jost, Busch's Jahrb. v. 155.), according to which, Dukes (Lit. The African, S. Duran (in Dukes, Lit. bl. v. 7 18.) is to be corrected.
bl. iii.

bl. iv.

687.5 conf. Zunz zur Gesch. p. 204.), who justifies his poverty of language by the importance of his matter, forms a remarkable excepThis important observation has been recently carried out in detail tion. by Zunz, who gives a kind of glossary of these linguistic peculiarities

and his general remark (p. 119-) agi-ees remarkably with that of Moses Ibn Ezra (Poetic MS. f. 28 a., cf. sup. p. 153.). 22 Abulwalid learned the poetry of his teacher by heart in his youth (Lit. bl. xiii. 153 155.), although he regarded poetry as beyond his

peculiar sphere (in Dukes, Mischle, p. xiv.).

334
23

NOTES TO
Dunash
152.
:

18.

(Lit. bl. iv. 232.)

bl. viii.

the mere

and others (collected by Dukes, Lit. names are given in Zunz, S. P. 2l6. ; quota-

from different authors, but not in strict chronological by Dukes, Xahal, conf. also Samson, sup. n. 18.), and subsequently also philosophers and exegetists, as especially Ibn
tions of verses

order^ are collected

Araraa.
to

The word
ii.

"1CJ<:l^
''

in Weisse, pref. to Jedaja, p. xlix.,

cf.

is,

per-

haps, to be translated

as

we say "?

n*P2nn "IHOI
sup. 6. n. 6.

"1D5<J1 in

Crescas

Moreh,
24

4.

f.

60b.

ed. Jesnitz,

and

References in Frankel, Zeitschr. ii. p. 388. ; conf. Zunz, G. V. On the later censures, see I9. nn. 4. 33. 389. SQ^. 25 Dukes, Ueher d. aussern Formen der Piutim, Lit. bl. iv. 337. ; partly also treated in Zunz, S. P. p. 85. sq., more particularly with
reference to his special branch
;

and on some termini

Frankel,
ii.

technici,

see

Dukes,
Arabic

Lit. bl. xii. 148.

p, 174., analogies in

25^ Sachs,

p. 303.

It

is

called in

cJ\:^->- (Hammer, Encyklopad. Ubers., p. 63.); for details, see Zunz, S. P. 104., and the name XniDD^J, p. 105. On a work of Nahshox named Seder Alphabet, see sup. 13. n.

Rapop. Kalir, note 20.; Zunz, G. V. 370., S.P. p. 86.; Dukes, Lit. S. Cassel (p. 192.) shows the same in the Syrian, as 33^. 529. also Zingerle, 1. c. p. 113. A recent legend derives this artifice from heaven, where Kalir learned it (H. Treves). 2'^ References in Dukes, Lit. bl. vii. 780., and in the author's Catal. A few more authors could be added to our text, e. g., Aaron Chajjim VoLTERRA (1750), who cliose the letter ^.

26

bL

iv.

28

Catal.

s. V.
s.

29

Catal

V.
;

29a
30

Read 1697.

see Catal.
;

s.

v.

Zunz, 380. sq. Rapop. Ker. Chem. vi. I9. 53S,.; Geig. Zeitschr. V. 268. ; the author's memoir in Frankel, iii. 408. (where nn. 11. and 12. should be transposed, and '^lOth" be read for ^''9th" century); more particulars in Zunz, S. P. p. IO6. ; Cassel (p. 231., conf. 224.) If he misses this improperly calls every acrostic poem '' Kaliric." among the Arabians, he has also failed to find it among the Syrians Cassel seeks the origin of it in rivalry; Dukes, wiih an (p. 196.). appeal to Gavison (Lit. bl. iv. 436.), in the fear of plagiarisms, on which subject Charisi, Abr. Ibn Chisdai (Busch's Jahrb. v. 385.), and others make complaints (cf. on that subject the remarks of Dukes, Lit. bl. xii. 374., where some particulars are incorrect ; on Joseph ben Jehuda [who is Ibn Aknin] see Ersch. s. v. p. 49-). The zeal of SabBATAi DoNOLO for the preservation of his name, and the fate of Zidkija Anaw, Aaron Kohen, and others, are remarkable. Sabbatai has also the final formula pTn, which Sachs (p. 210.) derives from the call of the congregation to the leader of the prayers cf. Zunz, z. G. On the use of numerical values (Sachs, 1. c), 306., S. P. 109. 369. conf. sup. 13. n. 27. On the euphemisms used in acrostics, and their abbreviations, see Zunz, zur G. 31 6. sq., 36*9.:, and S. P. 1. c. We will here mention a passage of the Karaite Jeshua (Cod. Warner. 41 f. 159 b.), who says that a perfect and good poem (OVD) of al;

phabetical (n^3

5]^s

^y) or acrostic (iHt^nV DC> hv) form in the

Hebrew

NOTES TO

18.

335
is

language, or any good style (^^^7y?D |15^?n "111?), chance, but requires a knowledge of language, &c.
^^

not a matter of

in some authors. In Wajikr. Rab. cap. l6. ; conf. Buxtorf sub voce) T"in or ^"inn is used for the arrangement of similar biblical passages ; hence Seruk (in Dukes, p. 148.) properly calls the lexicographers D''T''"inD (sup. l6'. n. 34.). On the form of the Rows of Pearls by which Jewish authors on Cantic. i. 10., explain the word (see Jos. Ibn Aknin in Ersch, s. v. p. 55., and Mos. Ibn Ezra, Poetic MS. f. 14b. cf. f. 25 a. ; cf. Catal sub Saadja Gaon, p. 2188.); among the Arabians, see Wenrich, De Poes. Hebr. et Ar. p. 179. (cf. the author's notice, Oesterr. Blatt. 1845, p. 580.) Jellinek, Lit. bl. vi. 171.; Sachs, p. 174. n. 4., and 339. Abravanel (on Exod. xv. in Zedner, Auswahl, p. 70.) explains it DmiDD D^^^nt^ DHC^ ^sb ; on the other hand, Kalonymos (wrongly translated in Sachs, p. 174.) calls rhetoric without rhyme DITlDD n^'vJD, in opposition to Tlinn n^*''PD, rhyming prose. Conf., moreover, D''1p'' D'^IIDI Dllp'' ni"11C^, in Abrah. ben Chijja (zur Haar. 1.). 32 Vide inf. 19.-; Zunz, S. P. p. 86., ''perhaps already in the 8th

the

The feminine form nT1"in Talmud (Jer. Chag. ii. 8.,

appears
Jefe

also

Mareh

cent."

E. g. art. iJTT'X t^^J, and the short introduction to the Lexicon (conf. Dukes, Kuntris, p. 11.). The paranomastics, 6cc., and the rhyming final formula in Josippon, are not critically established (conf. Zunz, Zeitschr. p. 303., G. V. 453.) ; there are rhymes in Koreish's Arabic work. 24 DeHtzch, p. 137- l62. sq. ; Rapop. Ker. Chera. vi. I9. ; Dukes, Lit. bl. 342. 356. sq. The rhymes of Saadia, Donolo (Zunz, G. V. 379-)' ^^^ ^^^^ Kalir correspond essentially with the Arabic. Lebrecht, Lit. bl. i. 122. Fleischer, id. vii. 469. ; and the Arabic title of a chapter of Charisi (vide Catal. pp. 1314. 1807.) neglected by Dukes, Lit. bl. xii. 149., and Nahal, p. 22. ; conf. p:i1T |nnn ;nn German imitations from Mos. Ibn Ezra's DHD^^J, sup. 16. n. 32. Tarshish in the author's Manna, p. 110. The remark of Zunz (S. P. 238.), that Abraham Ibn Ezra probably at first but rarely used such rhymes, is, of course, only meant with respect to liturgical poetry. -5a See Dukes, Lit. bl. iv. 80. n., xi. 37. n. 14. (Tlin p:V) ; conf. Zunz, S. P. p. 87- ; Sachs, p. 220. n. 2. ; Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 279.
also
^5
;

2^

Catal. p. 1327.

Hammer

Should the Arabic ;_Jj^^ (^1^1?^) belong here see in Journ. Asiat. 1839, ii. I69. (neither in Freytag's work on
.?*

Arabic poetry, nor in his Arabic Lexicon,

is

Merduf

or

--^

"x^

to

be

found), and Dukes, Lit. bl. xii. 151. 26 Vide, e.g.. Lit. bl. iv. 451. As early as in the older insertions for the ten days of penitence (Zunz, p. 376. d., S. P. p. ^Q. ; and German imitations in Sachs, p. 209. The Syrians see inf. n. 62.) also sometimes repeat the same word (Zingerle, L c. p. II6;) On '^variation," with respect to the Bibhcal verses, see Zunz, S. P. p. 98. In general, the end of the verse came into close connexion with the beginning (cf. Zunz, 1. c. p. 113.); and Abraham ben Isaac on Canticles makes the ingenious observation that the end of it, " hke all good songs," returns to its beginning.
:

["Page 151. line 2. from bottom,

^^4^

{sk)

See

Hammer, Journ.

336

NOTES TO

is.

Asiat 1839 vviii.)^ 158, 159.; Dukes, Lit. bl. xii. 150.; Geiger, Divan, p. 133., from Fieytag ; Zunz, S. P. 102. Our observation on Ibn Sahl is taken from Casiri.] 37 Abudienti, Gramm. p. l6l. j Lit. bl. iv. p. 60. n. 91., pp. 359. 520. 729=; Luzzatto in Busch's Jabrb. vi. 104. ; designated as Arabic (D^^J^yD^^M hp^^^hv). Lit. bl. viii. 403.
37a Delitzsch, p. 16'4.
38

Dukes,
to

Lit.

bl.

iv.

434.

Jellinek,

ib.

142. 6l5.

Kampf,

Tacbkemoni ; ZuxNz, S. P. 215. The termini technici of our text (as also nVpQ, n^*p, nn^HD, and n^^HQ) were probably first used in a grammatical sense, which they always maintained. 2VpD, in
Introd.

the

Cusari,
f.

ii.

78.^ p. 187. n. 4., ed. Cassel, is in the Arabic

Zi cf. inf. n. 51.

MS.

Poc. 284.

546. P"iy:=^^A

Besides

this,

the expression and

image of the balance (Q ^?^?D ?p\^D) for grammar and logic are typical, and borrowed from the Arabs, a matter upon which we cannot here enter into details (cf. Catal. p. 1000.). On ni'D for poetic measure in Charisi, Immanuel, and Kalonymos, see the author's Manna, p. QQ. cf. Zunz, S. P. 217.). In Syriac, a poem in strophes is called J^S^")*1D, one which goes on continuously ^"ifO^D (Zingerle, 1. c= sup. n. 12.). 39 Ibn Ezra, Zacbot, Delitzsch, The p. 158.; Dukes, p. 433. sq. particular metres in Kampf, 1. c. ; Sachs (p. 40.) compares the Versus polit. of the later Byzantines. In the East, Hai Gaon would be the first known if he were really the author of the moral poem ( 20. n. 28.), or of the hymn ''7lp yD^ (cf. Landshuth, p. 62.), whose metre the author (Catal. p. 2l6l.) has discovered in pieces ascribed by Luzzato and Dukes to Saadja, which, therefore, must belong to a more recent author. 40 poj. c( imitated, as well as its name from the Arabic," read, " imi-

tated

from the Arabic, as well [Page 153. hne 18. read:

See Jellinek, Lit.
bl. v.

as its

name."
to

"According
167.
;

Zunz

(S. P.

p.

2l6.),

Solomon ben Gabirol

40 a

(sic) perhaps,"

&c. ; and Id. pp. 89- and 219-] cf. Zunz, S. P. p. 248., in general,

on the influence of the Spanish school upon the French-German. 41 See Kimchi and Bedarschi in Dukes, Beitr. p. I91., Del. p. 139., on the so-called ""sense rhymes;" see the author's Manna, p. 97. 42 As early as in Dunash, Lit. bl. iv. 232. ; conf. Del. 158. Dukes (p. 437.) improperly calls n''2, "strophe;" and he w^as not able (Lit.
bl. iv.

453.)

to

find the expression

n"*^^,

"couplets,"

(=

%:i^

We find titles in amongst the Spaniards. rhyming metre in Abraham Ibn Ezra (cf. Reifmann, Lit. bl. iv. 606.) ; while the title of the book, JT'Jr!, of Abraham ben Chijja, as it is given In general, the Hebrew in the MS., does not give any correct metre. titles are shorter, and consequently less fettered by the metre, than the
conf. Jell. Lit. bl. iv. 91-)

Arabic. 43 Collection of some materials in Dukes, Lit.

pp. 687, 688.), V. 709. sq. sq. ; Zunz, S. P. 113. 368.
44
45
;

conf. also Del. p.

bl. iv. p. 53Q. sq. (cf. 141.; Sachs, p. 343.

Zunz, G. V. 17. 22. 32.

Saadja refers Ps.
vi.

1.

(Ewald, Beitr.

p. 8.)

to the right

.,1J|

melodies, which, however, admits of another explanation (see Fleischer,

NOTES TO
Lit. bl. iv. 248.
p.
;

18.

337

conf. also Pseudo-Saadja on Cantic. in Dukes, Mit; he also treats of them at the end of his Philosophy 106.) of Religion, of which, unfortunately, only the somewhat unintelligible Hebrew translation was accessible to the author, so that he has not Here nj''3J seems to signify "' chord," and consulted the Arabic text.
theil.

HD^VJ (conf.
1. 1.
I

^-J.),

"note"

(interval).

On

Wl

nnj,

conf.

Hupf.

and ni2^"lS1 nn^Jn, in S. Duran (Lit. bl. iv. 540.); conf. \ \ and |jZui^>^, in Bar Hebraeus, Graram. iv. v. 47. sq., ed. Beri.

l6.,

n. 42.

On the remark on the Music of the Kings, conf. the author's on Maim. Treatise on the Unity, p. 20. Of these eight niJ'JJ Petachja (Lit. bl. iv. 541. n. 44.) also speaks; and perhaps Charisi (Lit. bl. iv. 391.) alludes to them inuring the expression r\''2'"0\^n bv for the 8th century as the commencement of the art of poetry. On
theau.

Saadja, conf. also Albo, Ikkar,

iii.

10. (Schles. p. 66l.,

and

Lit. bl. iv.

The Theory of Rhythm and Melody is perhaps connected with 156.). the passage in Plato's Repub. (lib. iii. p. SQS.). In the MS. translation of the compendium of Ibn Roshd, by Samuel ben Judah, of Marseilles

(1321), "

TTspL

(jjhjQ

-poTvoQ

Kol fieXiZv XoLTiOr " is rendered

:

merely

D:nbn?0 ilD.

The

|n^

consists of the three

\rhr[

Ti^fc<

"!DND1, niDDDIO ilD^V^), pJ^J ; in the original Xuyov re Kal apjiovlaQ Koi pvdfxov, "Worte, Tonsetzung und Zeitmass, according to Schleier-

macher's
^6
46 a

German
p.

translation
;

conf. inf. n. 51.

Dukes,
Lit.

541.

conf. n. 45.

iv. 539., v. 710.; conf. sup. 4. n. 30. Rossi (Ker. Chem. v. 138.) and Del Medigo (1629 l631) saw the Mishna with accents (see Dukes, Lit. bl. v. 710., and on Chajjug, p. 192.). On the printed text, which the author discovered in a vol. of Talmud, see Catal. no. 1718. '^^ See nn. 45. and 55. The translation of the book 1''^^, i. e. Poetics (of Aristotle), by Theodoros Thooorosi, has, by many biblio-

bh

^7

As.

De

graphers, been wrongly entitled a work on Music. Passages of Aristotle's " Poetics " and Plato's " Timaeus," on the relation of poetry to

music, are quoted in Arabic by INIoses Ibn Ezra (Poetic. MS. f. 72 a.). Alfarabi's work on music was known to the Jews, and is recommended by Joseph Ibn Aknin in his enumeration of works for instructicn (Ersch. s. V. p. 52.). Ibn Sahula, in his Comm. on Cantic. i. 1., appeals to the

" science of music

S.

"

(pyjn n)

cf. also

the author's com-

munication in Zunz,
in
his

P. 220.

passage of

Abu

el Ssalt (ob.

1134),

work np2Dn, or treatise on music, is quoted by P. Duran (Grammar, MS. chap, vi.) and hence, perhaps, the whole work was The Cod. Vat. supposed to exist in the Oratoire (Wolf. iii. 331 b.). 400, 5. contains questions (a treatise) on mathematics and music, which Zunz (Add. p. 323.) supposes to be translated from Arabic by Abraham bar Chijja (but see Cod. Rossi, 1170). A passage on music and the different number of chords in the "1)22, &c., is to be found in Shemtob Palquera's Mebakkesh (cf. 39 b.). Immanuel of Rome A Jewish boasts of his music (Lit. bl. iv. 24. conf. inf. n. 55.). musician was an officer of Alhakem (see Alraakarri, ii. 117.^ quoted science by S. Cassel, 1. c. p. 231.). On the name and place of the (not "sequence,'" as in the text, p. 154.) of sounds" amongst mathema;

^'^

338
tics, see

NOTES TO
21. n. 1.

18.

In

p.

154.

lin.

11. from bottom, read "poetic'*

conf. Adelard of Bath, in Jour-

{sic), not "poetry." 49 See Boethius, Lit. bl. iv.

340.

dain,

p.

249.
1.
;

Kimchi connects

Prov. ix. Sahal ben

50

vide Dukes, Mishle,

Tamim),
author's

seven sciences (free arts) with SO., conf. Zion, i. 47. (Abu and vide sup. 12. n. 3., and inf. p. 351.
the
p.

The

Manna,

p. 104.

<Sj

j^

Jt^l\

,j 5^\ (Hodschr.

[?],

in Thaalebi, Synt. Diet., ed. Valeton [1844], p. 36.), is a wrong translation of "Aristotle's " Apiarov rrJQ eTroTrouag to -^evloQt to which the
TSJ^n 1D''D approaches nearer. Opinions of Maim, and Palquera, see in Sachs, p. 341. sq. 5^ Cusari, ii. 80. (see the remarks of D. Cassel), and after 78 The whole passage of Cusari, highly inhim Parchon and others. teresting with respect to grammar and poetry (see Ker. Chem. ix. 64.), will be given elsewhere in the genuine Arabic, since the Hebrew translation presents much difficulty, e. g. 70. (where the division of poems On the terms, conf. Bar Hebrai, Gram. Syr., ed. Bertheau, is given).

Heb. 11t3

iv.

p. 134., conf. iii. 33. ; Archevolti, Gramm. cap. 31.

Maim.

Treatise

on the Unity,

p.

91

For later parallels see Dukes, Lit. bl. Albo (ib.) speaks of a^DVS, dn^ti^, niJ^pn, which coincide iv. 687. with the np'D1D ''i1)l''i ; conf. also Duran and Ephodaeus (Lit. bl. iv. The expression ^^isj^d 540.), nniym nipnn "pipn ^dh'' nia^nnn. (Jeh. Ibn Tibbon in Dukes, Mischle, p. xiv., and Lit. bl. viii. 362. cf. Bedarschi, in Dukes, Beitr. p. I9I.) answers to the Arabic 5<*ii;2J>,
*lyt.^

(Maimon.

Mel. Chofn.

p.

78.,

Hebr.

text),

and

cf.

^^UD

Dnnnn,
52

in Ibn Ezra, Zachot.

Cf. Zunz, S. P. p. 116.

In Dukes, and Jellinek, Lit. bl. iv. 540. 6l5. 734., v. 470.; Zunz, 1. c. 114. 5^ In Sachs this fact is the more missed, inasmuch as he (p. 180.)
calls
'*

53

this

far-fetched reason for the origin of the Pijjutim in

is

Dukes

an important reality. S. Cassel (p. 192.), on this one point, rejects the mere analogy of the Syriac adduced by Dukes (z. K. p. 70* 55 Dukes, Lit. bl. iv. 542. ; Sachs, Busch's Jahrb. v. 234., speaking So also of Nagara (cf. Catal. p. II70.), omits also this circumstance. Tartar melodies are to be found among the Karaites (Annalen, iii. QS.).
quite comical," while the fact in itself
56

Cusari,

Dukes,
!

Lit. bl. iv.

p. 94. n. 7 LoBiA see also n. 48. 56 a Del. p. 127.; Dukes, Lit. bl. iv.
57
57

45. (conf. sup. 6.), Maimon. and others in 687-; Sabbatbl. 1846, p. 92.; Ersch, s. ii. vol. 31. Del., p. 56., confuses Jacob Levi (?''""inD) with Isaac
iii.

5Sg.\ Zunz,

S. P. p.

89.

The particular species in Dukes, p. 449- sq., and Zunz, 1. c. a The author's Manna, p. 111.; we know not whether this
made
elsewhere.

ob-

servation has been

58

words).
bl. xi. 59

Del. and Dukes, pp. 485. 527* (where we find the same ending Cf. Hammer, in Journ. Asiat. 1839 (viii.), I67.5 to which a
is

mere reference
288.

given

ib.

1849

(xiv.), 248.,

quoted by Dukes, Lit.

Del. p. 163. infra;

cf.

Sachs, pp. 262. 268.; the author's Dis-

NOTES TO
sert. in

19.

339
j

Frankel,

iii.

409.; Zunz,

S. P.

86. 105.

cf.

90. 98. 113.

157. 169. 253. 60 See the author's article in Busch's Jahrb, iv. 228. Munk (1. c. in n. 1. p. 75.) observes that the Arabic poetry does not nearly so often allude to the Koran, which is only natural, since the Bible occupies another place in the history of the Hebrew from that of the Koran in the Arabic; besides that, the Hebrew poets sang in a language which
they did not speak, &c.
^^
;

cf.

sup. 5. n. 49.

Dukes, Lit. bl. iv. 337. 520., vii. 808,, where Absalom ben Moses and Ephodi call a poem with Biblical final words, QtlV'O ^''^ Zunz, 1. c. in n. 59. 62 Lit. bl. iv. 523. 715., v. 27; Zunz, 1. c. p. 80. 63 Dukes, z. K. p. 140., and Jellinek, Lit. bl. iv. 26. 9O. 486. 519= Pseudo-Japhet, 605., v. 719.; Zunz, I.e. pp. 88. (368.) 94. On "ID:i, see Dukes, Lit. bl. xii. 687. 4 Jellinek, Lit. bl. iv. 64. 9I. 141. 521.; Zunz, 1. c. 82. 98. 65 Dukes (iv. 522.) finds himself in a palpable contradiction. Jel-

linek has
66

tried to e^cplain some termini. Dukes, zur Kenntn. p. 38, Lit. bl. iv. 339. n. 3., p. 489. n. 32., p. 539.; V. 483. pD^nn (sic), 719.; vi. 17. 185.; Zunz, 1. c. p. 79. (368.), in Lit. bl. iv. 489., on a non-liturgical poem following the melody [Dyij'?] of a Selicha cf. I9. n. I9. 67 Lit. bl. iv. Zunz, 1. c. p. 65., 89. 521, 524. ; Sachs, p. 247. gives no explanation of the word. 68 Dukes, z. K. p. 38.; Lit. bl. iv. 91. 449. (a couplet without metrum), v. 719. 69 Lit. bl.iv. 91. 449.
; ;

19.
^

Page

157.

Vide sup. 6.; Zunz, zur Gesch. l64. Concerning the time, see Rapoport on Parchon, p. xi., by which Sachs, p. 175. n. 1. (Lit. bl. viii. 326.), must be corrected ; see also inf.
2

n. 35.
3

TiD'' is

work generally

in the

German-French

school, see
lin. 4.
;

Rapop.

Saadja, n. 23.; Chan. p. 32.; Zunz, zur Gesch. 105.

Catal. p.

In the Spanish, inn^ u_j b', composiiio, is used. Dukes, zur Kenntn. p. 33. sq. (cf, inf n. 32.). The recent work of ZuNz, Die Synagogale Poesie der Juden im Mittelalter, although

2171.
*

undertaken before the author of this essay could have even thought of

composing his
did

German
till

sketch

(see the

German

note

51. p.

430.),

1855 (cf. Athenaeum, 1855), when the greater part of this translation was already revised and prepared for the press. This book is, indeed, only one part of an extensive work on Selichot (see n, 7.) but the technical section (p. 59. sq.) includes most
not appear
April,
;

valuable hints on synagogue-poetry in general. have endeavoured to take account of these, as far as it was possible without essential
alteration

We

of our general

plan,

in

the very short time between the

publication of

added

the printing of 18 20, and we have special references to the old notes. have tried also to give, Z 2

Zunz and

We

340
in nn. 5. 7*

NOTES TO

19.

and 10., the most essential particulars on special classes and names, &c., wliicli are of great interest to a certain kind of readers ; with more toil, indeed, than might be supposed by those who do not

know
5

the difficulty of the task. See 6. n. 14., 18. n. 18. ; Zunz, S. P. 63. 65. signates, in a narrower sense, only the parts inserted in the

nnnp
first

de-

three

numbers of the

so-called Prayer of 18 (Shemone esra, 6.); also those in the prayer for the fast day of the 19th of Ab, and the halffeast of Purim, and sometimes those in the second Morning Service

The three pieces have diflPerent names, as we shall mention (Musaf). below ; while the cycle of hymns, comprising the " 7-prayer," substituted for the " 18-prayer," on the sabbath, is called nV3SJ^ (Shibata), from the real number of seven (Lit. bl. iv. 451. ; conf. 6. n. 11 a.) ; and also t^1)0"n (Zunz, p. 69', does not explain it perhaps " Dramma,"
however, is not adapted to the first Morning Prayer, but to the Musaf, and occasionally to the Evening, where, according to the present rite, the T-prayer is not recited again aloud by the Cantor (except on the Day of Atonement). Perhaps, therefore, subsequently to the 11th century some hymns belonging to the Shema ( 6.) derive their name from the Evening Prayer time ( l''")y?0, or with masculine or feminine plural D''2''iyD, nii**"!!?^ [the latter usually called nniyD], Maarib, -im, -ot) ; and an addition mostly on the subject of the Halacha, or History of the Feast, is called 10''1 (Bikku?'), i. e. firstlings, having been first composed for the Pentecost; see Zunz, p. 70. 6 Lebrecht, Lit. bl. i. 107- &c. ; conf. Catal. p. 1802. 7 Conf. n. 12. and 28. p. 242.; conf. Geig. Zeitschr. vi. 30. Since the above-mentioned monography of Zunz (n. 4.) contains, in
or Ipofiiov, runner,

= bTll??).

This

cycle,

the principal section (pp. 152 334>.), a considerable number of critical remarks, we must refer our readers generally to it for all particulars will only add two general remarks, which may be on the subject.

We

useful for understanding the importance of this class of hymns, the place

of which,.in our sketch, could not well be altered (see n. 4.). According Zunz, whose authority we acknowledge even on this point (which is perhaps still open to question, and has not yet been treated fully), the
to

Selichot are not a subordinate, but a

coordinate class of Synagogue

narrower sense. He compares the Pijjut to the revelation of God in the mouth of the Prophets, and their interpreters, the wise men, the authors of the Haggada and Midrash ( 5.) ; while the Selicha, like the sacred songs of the Psalmists, is an expression of Israel's feelings and reflections, suggested by the present or past fate of his race. With this is connected another
poetry, in contradistinction
to the Pijjut, in its

distinction.
is

Pijjut, being more closely linked with the public service, and confined by its relation to the older basis of prayers; while the Selicha, embracing the nation as well as the individual, in all

The

more

restricted

that concerns them, leads the poet to a deeper insight into his own frailty, and a closer clinging to his Lord and Master, his Redeemer

from persecution and cruelty (conf. Zunz, p. 83.). How constantly both Christian and Moslem have turned the Jew's devotion in that direction will be learnt, not without emotion and indignation, by every one who peruses the section " Sufferings," in the work of Zunz (pp.

NOTES TO
8

19.

341

pretext of religion^

58.), which, taking the mildest view of crimes committed under the we must designate as an index erratorum " of the
'^'

human mind during

a long period of history.

Thus

the Selicha

was

developed on a larger scale, either as a part of public or private devotion, or as a mere Kterary production and it has remained in vigour almost down to our own times, and will always continue to be a main source of history. No less than 250 authors of about 1200 numbers of Selichas of the Middle Ages are known to Zunz (p. 332.). With respect to single pieces (either separate or inserted in larger compositions), we may point out, without entering upon their technical relation, two distinct tendencies of the poet's mind. He either dwells
;

objectively rather

upon
''''

the relation of the past to the present, as in the

the Gesera (niiJ, persecution), (Zunz, Temptation of Abraham" (nT'py, Akeda, i.e. binding of Isaac), considered as propitiatory, and therefore connected with the intercessory prayer (njnn, Tehinna) (Zunz, p. 147-) i ^^ ^^^^ ^^ isikes a more subjective turn, as in the Confession of Sins ("'IT'I, Widdui), and
history of the
"^

Ten Martyrs,"

p. 135.),

and the

Exhortation (nniDID, Tocheha). ^ This Arabic word, occurring also in Moses Ibn Ezra (Poetic MS,, see Catal. p. J 112.), has been rightly explained by Jellinek, Lit. bl. iv. 63., V. 26. ; cf. also Freytag, Lex. Arab. s. v. Notwithstanding this, Dukes (Nahal, p. 28.) derives n^mo from the Spanish Mortajo. The Zions, D^j VV, so called from the first word Zion, are a separate class cf. Zunz, p. 72., and on mJyk^M^, p. 73. ^ Such, for private use, were composed as early as by Saadja (p. 166.), omitted by Dukes, p. 111. Some of them are called n2k^, i. e.
praise of
p.

God, and ninn^Tin, Arab.

^*^LJ

cf.

Cacal

p. 220-i.,

and

inf. n. 10 e. Some of them form a cycle of private deand are divided accordingly under various heads, taken partly from the attitude of the person praying, or from other circumstances, e.g. mnrn, Admonition; nj13, Intention, Reflection; nTDV, Standing; ninnC-'in, Praises; n^inn'^^'H, Prostration; nvn2, Kneeling; D''Q^< n?''2i. Falling upon the face; These are KTIP, Still prayer. marked in a MS. petition of Jehuda Levi, partly printed under the name of Moses Ibn Ezra (Catal. p. 1814.). We may remark that the Spanish school seems to attach more importance to the attitude of prayer ; and Abraham Maimonides dedicates to this subject much attention, and a large portion of his great work (MS. Bodl.) we suppose that this was in consequence of the influence of Muhammedanism. ^ For instance, large groups comprising the Shema ( 6.), &c., as Jozer, nvV ; Ofan, |21N* ; Zuint, fl'pn ; Meora, ."niJ^O ; Ahaba, nnnx Mi-Kamocha, 11D3 ^^ ; Geulla, n^USJ ; Nishmat, HOC': ; Kaddish, S^'np (cf. 6.) ; Barchu, 1212 ; SJiehah, r\:i^ ; and the first three of the 18-prayer mentioned above; Magen, prO; Mehajje, riTID ; Me~ shallesh, E^^Vj'D, or C')h\:*D ; and Elohechem D2m'?N*. See Dukes, p. Lit. bl. iv. 451., cf. n. 5. Zunz, 1. c. pp. 6l 69. 36. 10 a Sachs, p. 222.; Zunz, p. 70. 10 b Lit. bl. iv. 89. ; Sachs, 247. 254. 277. ; Zunz, p. 6I. IOC Lit. bl. iv. Zunz, pp. 66, 67. 489.. ^^- 19. od Lit. bl. V. 483. ; Nitronai in Dukes, Rabb. Blumenlcse, p. 277-

22.; and

votion,

Z 3

342

NOTES TO

19.

10 e Dukes, pp. Sg 111. The subject of the ni^'Tl "CK^, Song of Unity (Dukes, p. 153.), its authorship (it was erroneously said to be

by Bebahja Nakdan), and various hymns of the same name (e. g. one by Isaac Nakdan, in a Bodl. MS.), which is also given to a part of
Gabirol's great hymn, as well as the connexion of that name with philosophical and Kabbalistic works, called Books of Unityj cannot be fully treated here. Cf. Catal. p. 2073.
10 f

Zunz, G. V. 377

e. ;

Dukes, Ehrensaulen, pp. 5. 15.

sq.

( 5.

n. 22.).
11 Vide sup. 6.; Luzz. and Rapop. Ker. Chem. iv. 37.; Annal. 1.301.; Dukes, 47. 141. sq. ; Lit. bl. iv. 337- 452. 538. 715., v. 404.; Sachs, p. I76. ; Dernburg, Geig. Zeitschr. v. $99- 401. n, 2.; Zunz, S. P. p. 76. sq. 12 Dukes, pp. 3S. 139.; Sachs, p. 175., ^' for the fast days," is to be limited according to p. 265. For the opposite 22^VO, see Ker. Chem. iv. 28.; Nitronai (about 850), Zunz, G. V. 381. (whence Geig. Zeitschr. v. S99.) and Amrara (in Dukes, p. 32.) know of Selichot for the Day of Atonement; conf. n^^Dj; (not riT'JDJ^n !), Hamida de la Magnana in Sachs, p. 308. ; comp. p. 262. ; Dukes, p. 34. ; Zunz,

S. P.
12

p.

n., no. i. ; conf. Moses Chabib, in Sachs, 302. n. 2.; Dukes, Lit. bl. v. 404. n. 26. 1'^ Nitronai, in Dukes, Lit. bl. vii. 676. (ix. 1 79.> xi. 335.), appears to know such for Pentecost. Cf. Luzz. Virgo, p. 10. ; Zunz, pp. 69. The reference of the 6l3 precepts to the number of letters in the 71. Decalogue is quoted under the name of Nahshon, by Nathan ben Jehiel, s. v. n?Qn J., and mentioned by Saadja (cf. Dukes, Nahal, p. 3., and the corrections and new notices on Azharot, in Catal. p. 2206.).

78. 137. Geig. Zeitschr. v. 403.

Cf. also 4. n. 6. 1-5 Dukes, pp. 44. 140.

16

Sachs, 177-; conf. 302. Zunz, G.V. 420.; conf. 379. 417 e, f ; 18.
;
.

n.

31.,

6.

n. 12.

in the Spanish ritual, in Zunz, G. V. 419(and see note 32.). German imitations and descriptions of the characteristics of some of them in Sachs ; conf. Humboldt, Kosmos, ii. 11 9. That Is. Ibn Gaj. is the y^tJ^O in Dukes, Nahal, p. 12., has been shown by the author (Catal. p. 1110.), who, however, had thought to explain it by "Abu Nasar ;" but Geiger

1^

Alphabet,

lists

of

25

see S. P. 218. sq., cf.

33'2,.

observed that

Di^'']!

is

written with Teshdid

(d.;Cc

in a

MS., and

means the same

as y'E^ID.

18 Vide Jost (Busch's Jahrb. v. 155.) wishes to sup. 18. n. 18. change this technical expression, as a corruption of speech, to "poets," which, however, destroys the limitation of the special idea. 19 Notwithstanding the explanation of ntOim, quoted in 18. n. 66., we might still adhere to our remark in this note, that Kalir and others were less artificial in those pieces which were composed for the whole congregation; cf. Zunz, p. 119-^ and our remarks, 18.

n. 21.
20 Zunz, G.V. 391 a.; Del. 137-, Ker. Chem. iii. 201.; seldom German translation with Spaniards, vide Dukes, Lit. bl. vi. I9. n. 3.

NOTES TO

19.

343

according to Simon ben Isaac (1040 1050), by Zunz, Geig. Zeitschr. iii. 40. ; cf. 5. n. 93. 21 Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 463. 22 Zunz, 419 c. ; Delitzsch, p. 43. ; Dukes, z. K. p. l6. sq. Sachs, 1. c. ; conf. Ker. Chem. iv. 28. ; Zunz, S. P. p. 85. 23 Landauer (Lit. bl. vi. 180.). It does not occur "several times," Kalir must, as Schor., Lit. bl. iv. 679'j. supposes (cf. Catal. s. v.). therefore, be removed a whole century ; but there is no urgent reason for more than that ; and the general view of the literary development The decision established by Rapoport and Zunz still holds good. which S. Cassel, in Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. p. 191 ? claims in favour of the " tradition" is probably that of Steinhardt (Annal. ii. 201.; Lit. bl. ii. 386., viii. 246.), a German of the last century, who places Kalir in The Midrashim of Palestine know only of the the time of Saadja, Talmudic authorities of Babylon, and nothing later. The old Pesikta was, however, already known to the R. Achai Gaon (Zunz, G. V. I96.) ; thus the proof of the use of the Pesikta and of the treatise Soferim (Zion, ii. l65.) holds good ; and Cassel, p. 226., must be corrected. 23 a f he expression in the text should be qualified ; we have said above that the existence of an Italian school is rather doubtful ; Luzz. Lit. bl. vi. 683. nn''^p Hk^^Hp (id. 685.) means probably in Kalir's
;

manner.
2^ With the acrostic jbpn, i. e. parvus or junior, an appellation which almost at the same period is found for the first time in the Spaniard Chiquitilla, and appears in Hebrew in Gabirol in Spain (cf. Zunz, S. P. Later it continues to be in use in signatures as an expression 108.). of modesty, as it already occurs in the elder Samuel (Jer. Sota, iv. 9-, comp. Rap. Ker. Chem. v. 227-, vii. 262. 264. ; Resp. Gaon. 6., with which comp. Megill. 32 a., Lit. bl. vi. 131. 245 n., xi. SS5.). ^5 Zunz, S. P. 109. 167. That he was not, however, himself a Babylonian (Luzz. Lit. bl. vi. 680.) appears from the patronymic or surname, and his connexion with the southern French. According to Rapop. (Resp. Gaon, 12b.), Babel is Rome ; and if Joseph Cohen speaks of Sal. Babli, who died in Spain, he confuses Sol. b. Juda Gabirol, whom Ibn Danan makes a pupil of Nissim {Catal. s. v.). The pretended "Dor Rug^ma" (in Fiirst, Lit. bl. i. 133.) is nothing but an abbreviation, which he has misunderstood ; nD"i"l "1113, i. e. a contemporary of the R. G(erson) M(eor) H(aggola). 26 Catalogue in Zunz, G. V. 392., Syn. P. p. I66.; cf. 332., and above, n. '^., on the number, &c. 2^^ Alphabetical Catalogue of the Provencal Poets of all kinds in Zunz, zur Gesch. 463. sq. 27a Erroneously in Dukes, Mos. b. E., p. 108., anno I486, the author has established the truth of Zunz's conjecture of his identity The poem has been published by with the translator; see 21. n. QQ' B. Goldberg, Lond. 1850. 28 Zunz, G. V. 422 g. ; Geig. Zeitschr. iii. 48. sq. ; comp. Lit. bl. vi. 588. ; Lit. bl. iv. 22. n. 50. v. 403. n. 25. ; Catal. p. 788. &c. 28 a Conf. Luzzatto in Oesterische Wandelingen, p. 50. A Conspectus succinct us Precum is prefixed in the Catal. (pp. 295 302.) to the editions up to 1732, which occupy more than 200 pages of the Catal.

Z 4

344

NOTES TO

19.

29 The editor, Elia Halevi, is pupil, not teacher, of Elia Misrachi. The 2nd ed. was Const. 1574 (according to the conjecture in Catal. p. 398.) j the author has seen it at Mr. M. Lehren's, at Amsterdam.

30

Complete description by Zunz, Allg.

Zeit. d.

Jud. 1838^ p. 580.

sq.

conf. Annal. i. 341. 30a See Zunz, zur Gesch. 253.

;

and

28. n. 17.

31

Luzz. Ker. Chem.

a.

iv.

27.

On

the ritual of Troyes,

see

inf.

n.

40
32

to Dukes (Lit. bl. v. 452.), an African ; according to (zur Gesch. 475.), probably a Proven9ale. Dukes gives a special review of several collections, and of the particular authors, Lit. bl. v. 217.

According

Zunz

with which his alphabetical list of more than 200 PajAfter the completion of 569-) is to be completed. this article, Luzzatto's alphabetical list of 6OO Hebrew poets was published ; but the order seems to have been disturbed by the editor of the Lit. bl. ix. 548 617. ; some names have been incorrectly taken from acrostics. L. Landshuth has begun a work on the subject. In the author's Catal. the special hymns could not in general be enumerated cf. also p. 242. The Bodleian library acquired some years ago some very interesting collections of hymns ; one of more than 700 was made by Saadja [Ibn Danan], who designates some of the authors as
sq.,
vi.

17.

sq.,

tanim (Lit.

bl.

ii.

"idiots."
33
3'*

17. n.

SS.; comp. Zunz, zur Gesch. l64.

is

41
V.

a,

The feminine
vi.

Several writings with this

17.

characteristic; conf. 18. n. 31., and I9. n. title and Siddurim in Dukes, Lit. bl.

218.,
35

Rapop. Chanan. n. S5. A compendium written in 1425-6 has been lately purchased by the Bodleian Hbrary. A copy in the possession of Almanzi is described by Luzz. Lit. bl. viii. 289 326. 36 Geig. Zeitschr. v. There are, however, 398., Lit. bl. x. 178. two of this name ; see Rapop. Nathan, n. 27v one K^""l. 37 See p. 161. and the note, and inf. n. 44. S8 Probably a mistake of Conforte, 18 a (see n. 25.); the Solomon in Lit. bl. v. 219- is Rashi, whose Siddur is extracted (?) in his Pardes.

39
29 a

Zion,

ii.

103.
Isaac, killed in 1184(?);
cf.
ii.

Elhanan ben

Luzz. in Polak, pp. 45, 46.; Benjacob toAzulai, ever, Zunz, S. P, 249.
40
40 a

f.

Zunz, 84.;

z.

G. 34.,

see,

how-

See Tosaf. Abod. Zora. 74 b. See Schor, Zion, i. QS. sq.. Lit.

bl. v.

21 9., sup.

9.

Upon

the ritual of Troyes, by by his pupil Jehuda

Menahem ben Joseph ben Jehuda,

ben Elieseb,
see Luzzatto in Oost.

arranged

Wandel.

conf. Geig. Zeitschr. ii. 311.; on Benj, ; and the following n. 41 a. ben Jehiel is a mistake. Dukes, Lit. bl. v. 219v quotes Zunz on Benj. p. 1 1., who speaks of Asher ben Meshullam The D^:in3?3 of Asher ben Jehiel in Mai Cod. 484. is proof Lunel. bably the ethical work niJrijn see Catal. p. 748. 42 Catal. p. 2204., Epilogue to Landshuth, on Haggada, p. xxx., From the same work some one has forged n. 8. ; Ker. Chem. ix. od-.

(Amsterd. 1846.), p. 50. 41 Zunz, zur Gesch. 476.

p. 11. ; cf. 13. n. 21., 41a Probably Asher

NOTES TO

20.

345

a work of Sajiuel Abu Azaria (cf. 15. n. 28.) in Cod. Uri. 257.; see Ersch, s. ii. vol. 31. p. 52. n. 56., and Catal. p. I912.
42 a Munk^ Annal. iii. mous writer? cf. n. 49.

87.

Can
ii.

h' )i^thi<

be an epithet of an anony-

43
'^^

Zunz, Geig. Zeitschr.

305.
(no. 37.).

Read Isaac ben Jehuda, &c.

Sachs^ p. 26S.

conf.

219.; Wolf. 1. 1180.; Dukes, Lit. bl. viii. 405. 45 Zunz, G. V. 387 c. and 394 c. names several. 46 Dukes, Lit. bL v. 232. 4'' Id., and vi. 17. ; Zunz, zur Gesch. 74. 76. 4^ Geig. Zeitschr. iii. 444., nr. I9. ; and Simcha, f. 246. 49 Zunz, G. V. 425., Lit. bl. iv. 718. ; conf. Zedner, p. 56. n. 14.; Annal. iii. 93.; conf. the author's note on Ez. Chaj. 379'j and vide sup. Upon the names of prayers, see also Trigland, chap. 10. (Lit. n. 42 a. bl. V. 797.)Jeshua in the Maschor Tripolis (Lit. bl. v. 396.), and Kaleb in the Greek (ib. 398.), are not Karaites, although these names
are

common among

the latter.

See 14. n. 31. (cf. Ez. Chajjim. p. 302.). According to Luzz., Lit. bl. ix. 483., they borrowed only from the Greek ritual. Arabic translations are ascribed to Salmon (Geig. Zeitschr. iii. 443. 7.) ? 51 Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 463.

50

20.

Page

168.

Ddkes, Uebersicht, &c., Annal. i. 67. sq. ; the author's Dukes, Nahal Kedumim, 1853, gives some in; teresting notices from MSS., but with less accuracy than is desirable. The Jildische DicMungen, &c., of Geiger, published by the '^ Institut zur Forderung der Isr. Lit.," 1856, is indeed only a reprint of the ^' Bliithen," in Volks Kalender, 1853, p. 15.; and Wiener Viertel[Authorities
p. 94^:

Manna,

sq.

jahrschr.
cf.

Some alterations, however (e. g. pp. l^S, 14. 20. 1 S5S, i. p. 35. Bliithen, pp. 21, 22. 24.), and even the birthplace of Jehuda Levi, Toledo, hitherto unknown (and only a recent conjecture of the

author), are taken without acknowledgment from the article Moses Ibn Ezra of the author's Catal. (pp. 1801. 1807.);, where the statements in

Treasures of Oxford ( I9. n. 1.), and the conjectures of Geiger built on that basis in tbe " Bliithen," are shown to be false (cf. inf. n. 24.).] 1 Dukes (Z. K. 135, 136.) unjustly refers Archivolti's blame
especially to Immanuel ; see n. 40. la This figure is traditional with philosophers, poets,
;

and Pajtanira

Lit. bl. iv. 382.), Charisi (Infor instance, Gabirol (in Sachs, 221. troduction and chap. 28. of Tachkem. and commentary on the Mishna ;

conf.

Lebrecht,

Lit. bl.

ii.

Zeitschr. v. 109- I60.).

The

245.), Ibn Aderet and Abbamari (Geig. Christians employed it against the Jews

Another stereovi. 62. ; cf. also Japhet, sup. 13. n. S^.^ typed phrase of the translators is, to divest the matter of its polluted Dukes says (Lit, bl. iv. 804.) that the dress, and give it a pure one. mosaic style was only applied to religious poetry and epigrams but this observation must be restricted to the actual interweaving of w^hole passages of the Bible; cf. 18.
(Jost,
;

346
2

NOTES TO
Lebrecht^
1.

20.

c.

Perhaps Saadja Ibn Danan ben Maimun at Grenada (1455 1485)? See moreover Cod. Vat. Hebr. 375.; 7- 9- 411. (Solomon
3

BEN Aaron).
4
flJ^J

nSD

(Introduction to the Articles of Faith, in Del. p. 141.),

Moreh, 1, 2. ; Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 280. The author has corrected Dukes' translation (Ehrens, p. 47.) in the preface to Schene Hammeorot (Berlin, 1847) ; cf. also S. Sachs, ha-Techijjah, p. 9. ^ Dernberg's suggestion (Geig. i. IO6 n.). Perhaps Abu'lmaali should also be mentioned here. 6 Munk, Tanchoum, pp. 10. 101.; conf. Gavison (ob. l605) in Zunz, zur Gesch. 384. 7 Lebrecht, Lit. bl. ii. 254. ; Zunz, z. G. 428.; Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 235., where " Modawwes;" conf. also, Anon. Vat. 397:, 5. (Joseph),
conf.

half Arabic.
^

Upon an

^'1.5^.^, see 22.

Read, "^ in Spain and the Maghreb." Charisi (in German by Zedner, p. 66. ; Del. 43. sq. ; cf. Cod. Vat. 225. ; Frank. Zeitschr. iii. 411.), wbo seems to have taken his classical passage from Moses

Ibn Ezra. 9 See Manna, p. Q5. ; conf. the Contest between Age and Youth by Joseph Palquera, Vat. 298. (Lit. bl. vi. 148.); of Bread and Wine, of the Birds and wild Beasts, Vat. 303,3.; and cf. sup. p. I76-7.,
and
inf.
is

28.

said that Thodros Halevi, when in prison awaiting judgment, composed in a dream his two verses foretelling his acquittal. (Zunz, zur Gesch. 432. ; conf. Lit. bl. vii. 565 0. ; comp. Ker.
V. I6I.) 9^ Conf. Manna, no. Ixxxiv. p. IO7. (cf. Dieterici, Motenebbi, The proverb is given in Mos. Ibn Ezra, Poetic, f. 47 a., as p. 16.). the saying of an Arabic poet. The authority for the judicial poems is rather [|Page 170. inf.

9* It

Chem.

doubtful, see 18. n. 100.] 10 Frankel, Zeitschr, iii. 279*

11

conf.

Dukes, Rab. Blumenl.

p. 43.

The Arabic

nt1)n5<,
'^'

i.

e.

composed in metre

j^j

(see

Casiri,

Archuza," as Reiske, or Schultens on Herbelot, Cod. 826, 2.), not i. 213. corrects it, became nV^l^ ^'irritatio" (Wolf. ii. 1263., ii. " (Cat. 0pp. 1134 F.), '' area" (Rossi, at Cod. p. 7. et 1177-)^ "theca Wustenf. makes two separate (Wolf. iv. p. 838.). D'''':nS 1169.), Delitzsch (p. 49.) does not know works of Ardschuza, and Mansuma. Deutsch's errors (Cod. 56. in Oesterr. Blatt.) are not the translator. entirely removed in the Catal. no. clxvi-vii., even after the author's corrections in private communications. 11^ Catal. s. V. The connexion between chess and cards has been pointed out lately by Mahn (Etym. Forsch.). 12 Catal. p. 939. and s. v., where the author will supply the reference to Dukes, Lit. bl. xi. 297.
12 a

Catal. s.v.
inf.

[P. 171.
s. V.

Joseph Ibn Chisdai,

see the author's article in Ersch,

p. 74., printed in

1853, before the volume of

Hammer was

pub-

lished.]

NOTES TO

20.

347

13 Wolf. iv. p. 1167. sq, (whence Del. p. 70. ; Lit. bl. ii. 769. sq.). ZuNz, zur Gesch. 390. sq., gives an excellent and elaborate account of them, cf. 8. n. 15. Concerning a collection by Marini, see Mai, Script, vet. nova Coll, T. V. (Rome, 1831), p. xviii. Within the last two years epitaphs have come into fashion, and collections have been published by different authors but little qualified for such a task. That of Worms contains too much ; but we expect something better from that of the important and ancient burying-place Prague, v^ith a preface by Rapoport. 1^ The statement in the text (following a MS. notice of Michael in Zunz, z. G. 71.) is wrong. Saadja is the Gaon (ob. 941-2.) who seems to have mentioned the celebrated Rabbins by name, in a rhyming polemic. See Catal. p. 2l62.

1^* See the author's treatise in Busch's Jahrb. iv. 227. sq.
15

Weil, Die poet. Lit.

lakat are intended by

Is.

Arabic name nN2n '"ID terprets wrongly. Thaalebi, in Dieterici, p. 73., blames the excessive number in Motenebbi ; conf. the author's notice, Mag. fiir die Lit. d. Ausl. 1847, p. 128. 1^ Hammer names several; Wien. Jahrb. xxvii. 293. sq. The Syrian Ebed Jesu (lOth century) wrote among other things riddles and proverbs in the Syriac language. 17 See Dieterici, p. 7conf. p. 12., and 18. n. 31. The Arabian ; historian Noweiri devotes a chapter to the passages from the older poets which had become proverbs. See Schultens, Monum. p. 33. Upon particular collections, see Gesenius in the Encyclopedia, i. sect. v.
p. 63.

The MoalArab, vor Muh. &c. p. 42. ben Eleazab, who uses the well-known (gilded) (Lit. bl. vii. 711.)^ which Dukes ind.

being

Vide sup. 5. n. 42. Maimonides quotes (Talmudic) proverbs as known amongst the Arabs ; see the author's Manna, p. 99- ; conf. Lonzano in Dukes, Sprache der Mischna, 43. Upon Biblical
1^

proverbs in later writers, vide sup. 5. n. 48. 1^ Hence, for instance, in Shemtob Palquera (see n. 22.), the same proverb twice word for word ; conf. Raimond of Beziers in D. Sacy, Not. et Extr. x. 2. p. 56.
20
21

Read

BEN

Sira., see 5. n. 57.

Testam., ed. Steinschneider, p. 11. 22 P. 183. (concerning the author, see Rev. Or. i. 345. ; Geig. Zeitschr. v. 98.; Munk, Lit. bl. vii. 780. n. 3.). Tobia Kohen (Maase Tob. 115 b.), quotes and translates the Turkish proverb, "The apple falls not far from the tree." 23 Schlesinger (p. 688.) asks whence they are quoted.
24 Dukes still repeatedly asserts that the quotation refers to a poem of Moses Ibn Ezra ; but the poem belongs to Jehuda Levi (see Catal. p. I8O7., confirmed by a MS. of Luzz.) ; the Arabic source is given by the author in 1845, and in this note, and again 1851 (note 14. to

Jeh. Ibn Tibbon, p. xiii.). 24 a igg. B. ch. iv. 5. (conf. Sure, 29. 44. in G. Duran, I9 a.) ; soon afterwards comes p^yDt^^l25 Busch's Jahrb. iv. p. 230. (where there are other examples belong-

ing to this subject ; conf. Dukes, Mischle (p. xi.), Goldenthal on Ibn Roschd's Rhetor, p. xxiv. ; Dukes, Nahal, p. 76. ; and cf. a passage of

348

NOTES TO

20.

Mos. Ibn Ezra on the subject {Catal p. 2183., cf. l6.), who defends himself against the over-scrupulosity of his contemporaries amongst the Rabbles. The Persian translator of the Hitopadesa also generally substitutes Persian customs, names, and sayings ; see Sacy, Not. et Extr. X. 239. 2^ On the most celebrated writings, see Dukes, Bluraenl. p. 54. sq. Lit. bl. vii. 728. sq. 297^ sq. ; xi. xii., and on the popular ethical literature, see his Zur Rabb. Spruchk. 1851 (partly from the Lit. bl.). 2^^ ^' Samuel " in Dukes, p. 59., should be corrected. Upon the German translation, see the author's Manna, p. 110. It was the first publication of the celebrated Soncino press, a. d. 1484. 28 Catal s. V. 18. n. 40., about the metre. ; cf. 28 a Should Abraham ben Jehuda (Cod. Rossi hebr. 945., hisp. 6.) be the father ? 29 Zunz, zur Gesch. 129. ; Catal. s. v.
his

On *' Alexander-sagas," see the notices given by the author in Manna, p. 114., and in Zeitschr. der D. M. Gesellsch. ix. 838., where he observes that Spiegel (Die Alexandersage bei den Orientalen) has neglected various Jewish authorities, e. g. the work mentioned in the text, and also the Hebrew translation of an Arabic work on the subject by Samuel Ibn Tibbon ; cf. also Dukes, Lit. bl. xi. 828., xii. 111., B. Beer, Zeitschr. &c. ix. 785. The subject deserves and requires a comprehensive monography.
29 a

30
31

Catal. no.

3546.

See Dukes, Annal.

Upon

i. 41 6., and the author's Manna, p. 94. sq. additions to fables, moral applications, and the like, conf. Zeitschr.

d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch. ii. 121, 122.; Derenbourg (Dernburg), in the introduction to his edition of Lokman, with a French translation (1847), has demonstrated the Christian origin of the fables of this Arabian "^ Bileam ;" and the parallels which he brings forward from ^sop, &LC., offer some interesting contributions to the history of

the fable.
^2 The author has repeatedly drawn the attention of the learned to a passage in a Hebrew MS. of De Rossi, highly interesting for the history of Arabic translations of Indian poetry and mathematics, which has been neglected or misunderstood (see the notice in Zeitschr. der D.

M.

Gesellsch.

viii.

549.

cf.

Catal. p. 1399.).

Hai Gaon

(ob.

Notices et Extr. x. 2. p. 15. and 27. ; cf. 1037) compares Kalila with R. Meir's

fable of the fox (sup. 5. n. 54 a.) ; see Dukes, Blumenl. pp. 7- 264. ; That he conf. also Dukes, Annal. i. 4l6. ; the author's Manna, p. 96.

knew
1.

shown by the author (Zeitschr. Perhaps the polemical tendency of Ibn Sahula (n. S5 a.) is directed against John of Capua. 33 Catal. p. 1399. From the preface of Kalonymos (1316), it appears that the Hebrew version had already, in his time, obtained a certain favour in Provence, like Hariri in Alcharisi*s translation. Rodiger's Raisonnement on this subject, in Allg. Lit. Zeit. 1843, p. 151., is contrary to logic and history, since Charisi's age admits of no doubt. Concerning a later version of the M. Send., see 28. n. 9O. Tlie remarks of Landsberger (Lit. bl. ix. 126.) contain nothing new, and p. 70. must be corrected.
the Persian translation, has been

c).

NOTES TO
33 a

20.

349

E.

g.

Joseph Ibn Zaddik, Moses Ibn Ezra, and probably

(see 12.)
;

Maimonides
34

also Catal. p.

1580.

Delitzsch, p. 49. 34 a Thus, for instance, the

smaller treatise upon

Physiognomy

in

Jourdain,

I.e., p.

185.,

conf. 303., seems, as well as the Disetetics (id.

p. 126.), to

have arisen from the Secretum Secretorum (see the author's Mich. p. 323. n.). In a Bodl. MS. the Physiogn. is ascribed to Alexander M., because the pseudo-Arist. is said to have been dedicated to him. 35 Dukes, Annal. i. 294. 35a Cf. De Castro, i. Catal. p. 1150., p. 171. (perhaps Berahja?). and Serapeum, 1854, p. 348. 36 See the author's remarks. Lit. bl. iv. 59-, and in Frankel's Zeitschr. iii. 279 The particular writings belong mostly to the following period cf. the notice of Sommkrhausrn, Lit. bl. xi. 181., which the author Similar subjects were treated also in the will complete elsewhere. Christian literature of that time the Lamentations of a monk upon fleas (Grasse, ii. 2. p. 5.) does not bear comparison, in an aesthetical and moral point of view, with Charisi's witty treatment of the same subject (translated into German by Krafft, Geig. Zeit. iv. 135.; cf. 418.). 3" miiriD, properly dictionaries and the like; see 16". n. 38.
Register to the Catal.
; :

38
^^

Catal.

s. V.

Charisi, pp. 8 a , 36' a. ; conf. Dukes, Annal. i. 4l6. 40 The author's Manna, He also (p. 251.), p. 111. ( 15. n. 17.)like Dante, sees Greek and Arabian philosophers in hell. No one, to

the author's knowledge, has called

Art. Emanuel,
sect. 1. vol.

him

'^'^

Jewish Voltaire " (Encyc.

conf. n.
1.

xxxiv.

p. 15.)

Kalonymos

pronounces Hariri, as well as Kalila Wedimna, and Mischle Sendebar,

to be worthless reading
41
;

see n.

33

a.

We have forgotten to 1984. mention in the text Eli a Cohen ben Moses ben Nissiar, who translated a work from the Arabic, under the title "I2iy ri?5D, probably in 1276. An imperfect copy of this hitherto unknown work has been discovered by the author in the Bodleian Hbrary. SnEairoB ben Isaac Ibn Ardulil (1345) was the author of a humorous little work, recently printed, which Dukes formerly {lAt. bl. vi. 149. ; cf- 255.) confused
Read,
'^

born

1388";

see Catal. p.

with the anonymous "ISIV HC'yD. 4- Dukes (Annal. i. 41 6.) thinks his identity with the grammarian and lexicographer ( I6.) improbable, but he has neither given his reasons nor published anywhere the specimens which he obtained from the Munich MS. (Mos. b. Ezra, p. 5.). 43 [Page 177. line On a passage misunderstood 3.] Catal. p. 1370. by Dukes (Lit. bl. xii. 374.), see Ersch. ii. vol. xsxi. p. 49., and sup. 18. n. 30. 43a \yolf. i. 1691* Adonia Kalomiti, the copyist at Salonichi (Delitzsch, Catal. p.

361.;
p.

cf.

Zunz, Add.

p. 332.), lived

scarcely as early

as

1329
i.

(see Catal.

Wolf.
f.

1454.).

Menahem Kalomiti, fl. 1445 (see 2162.). Isaac Kal. (not Kalommi), 1466 (MS. Uri, 411.
Med.
p. 135.).

30.)
43b Biscioni, p. l62. (Carm. Hist. d.
44

Lit. bl. vii.

565.

Cod. Vienna,

cviii.

350
^'^

NOTES TO

21.

Zunz, zur Gesch. 204. Cod. Bislichis, 78. (now in the Bodl.), where the author is called Jehuda ha-Shaari, and Vatic; see Serapeum, 1851, p. 63. The author of Cod. de Ros. 791. taught the rules of poetry to Abba Mari ben Kalonymos. 47 Catal. p. 1308. sub no. 2. 48 See Melo Chofn., p. 104.; Ker. Chem. vii. 78.; conf. Dukes,
^^

Beitr. p. 159.,
49

and Introd.
v.

to Mischle, p. 48. n. 51.

CataL

s.

^0

Catal. p. 865.

shows that the author

is different

Jahja,

who has also a section on poetry. We Saadja Ibn Danan's treatise in the introduction

Lexicon (MS. Bodl.); see Dukes, Nachal, p. 1.; 51 Lit. bl. iv. 435., viii. 118. 52 See Dukes, Lit. bl. iv. 435., vii. 808. (" Schalom," vii. 403., is wrong)^ by which Del. p. 4. must be corrected. 5^ Vat. 225. (perhaps fragments of the Tachkemoni) ; see Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 411. In Dukes, Ehrens. p. 58., and Lit. bl. iv. 435., Vat. 236. read -1"'&J^ for DC^.
^

from David Ibn mention to his Hebr.-Arab. Catal. p. 2155.

forgot to

Delitzsch (sic), p. 65. [P. 178. Santo ; see Ticknor, i. 80. Dukes (Lit. bl. xii. 29.) proposes several conjectures (adopted by M. A. Levy, Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1855, p. 138.), all of which we cannot admit; he also places our Santo wrongly in the 13th cent. The Shemtob mentioned by Zarzah as dead is probably IbnArdutil (n.71.) ; cf.sup. p. l67. The matter will be treated will here only add a reference to Perez in the Catal. under Schemtob.

54

We

de Hita, Guerras Civiles de Granada, who names a Hebrew translator, owe this notice to our Santo, of his doubtful Arabic authority. learned friend M. Zedner.] 55 V. d. Hagen, Minnesanger, ii. no. 119; see Lit. bl. i. 145. sq. 56 Zunz, zur Gesch. l66., and Catal. On p. 1540. sub no. 6. Jewish literature of that kind in general, cf. Wolf. n. 351. ; Gervinus, Nationallit. i. 6"4. sq. (This reference is wrong, and we are not able

We

to correct it).
57

Zunz,^ zur Gesch. 173., according to Wolfius, iv. p. 201.

21.

Page

179.

1 According to the Aristotelian system current among the Arabs, the older and general division of mathematics arranges the subject under four (read "^four or sometimes seven," p. 179-) heads or disciplinae, the

names of which vary according to the Arabic and Hebr. works introducing them viz. 1. Mathematics in the stricter sense ('pTlXDriD in Joseph
:

ben Zaddik,
2.

p. 2.,

Arab. c_jL^]1, Hebr. ])2^n, or

in

-|)D?D,

or pjto)

Jehuda ben Barzillai; in Oosterche Wand, p. 71. ; Lit. bl. viii. 6'20. ; D''?015^5, in Obadja b. David, Comm. cap. 18. 13.) ; Arab, or Pers. HOnin (Lit. bl. iii. 182.), or n^D^IJn, which is either adopted in Hebrew, or translated by mut^n (properly Algebra, see p. 179.), or hp^DT)) n^''D (Jehuda ben Barzillai), or DHD, or

Geometry

(i5''1t2?01J,

KOTES TO
D^biym
(Jehuda
to
]i^^j2 IlDn Tibbon,
;

21.

351
6.), or

(Joseph ben Eleazar on Exod. xxxiv.

DHiyj^^
or

Rikmah,

p. 3.;

Lit. bl. viii. 718.,

and preface
'n,

Bechai)
'n,

3.

Astronomy (Arab. *^sO^\ jXz> Hebr. D''nD13n

iii.

ti'hyhyn
4.

or both [Cusari,

sg.], or

h:h}r\, or ni^T?on, or

n^ibn)

Music (in Arab, and Hebr. p^D1?0, or ''p^D'lD [Np-TlJO in pref. Bechai, and 'pVID in the uncertain Commentary on Jezira, which the author formerly explained wrongly in 12. n. 1. see the correction by S. Sachs, Ker. Chem. viii. 64'., who^ however, neglected the present note], or translated into Hebrew, "innn 'n [i. e. art of composition, or "inn m^^y^n composition of melodies, or pj**:, or p^^jn in^n, or D^J15''Jn] cf. 18. p. 154.). These four are given by several authors, e. g. the Comra. on Jezira (10th century); Bechai (where "IDIDH 'n is a different
;

reading of <^<?b
cf.

.,

or

the mistake of an interpolater for

nnDH

'n

485. S. Sachs, 1. c, gives the same explanation) ; Joseph Ibn Zaddik, p. 2. ; Maimonides, Logic, chap. 14. ; Shemtob ben Isaac, Preface to Alzahrawi, MS. ; Nachraanides, Sermon, p. 20., ed. Leipzig ; a dubious Comm. on the Kanon, ^IS. Bodl. 595. ; Warner, 39., and others. In Jehuda ben Salomo Cohen, the seven disciphnae are called D^231Dn 'n, Dl^^nn, m^nnn, J^p^DIO, J^nt^D^J, PJPJn 'n and~l2DD: the latter is divided into theoretical (nj?''T') and practical (nt^'y)(Introd. to Midr. Hacochma, MS. Mich. 414.). "liy-t^^n 'n mnDni, Munich. 255., is the geometry of Euclid. Misrachi (Resp. 56. in Conforte 31 a.) distinguishes njl^n (Astronomy), m^L^'n In general, the mathematical sciences (Algebra), ISDb (Arithmetic). are called JlVniTO^'? (:\raim. Comm. Erubin, i. 5.), DniD^^ (Jehuda To mathemaben Solomon Cohen), DIT'SD is peculiar to Ibn Ezra. tics especially is applied the word n^l (Prov. i. 2=, with respect to 1 Chron. xii. 32.) in Jehuda ben Solomon (not Samuel, as in ha-Jona, p. 26., cf. p. 36. ; Scrap. 1851, p. 6I.) and Emanuel of Rome, who recognises an allusion to the seven disciplinae in Prov. ix. 1. (Dukes,
^L^'JS,

nnnn

in Jos. Caspi, Lit. bl. viii.

Introd. p. xiii.).
that the

With

respect to the

number of

seven,

we must remark

( 18. n. 49.) must not be confounded with the " seven sciences" mentioned in some Jewish authors (e. g. Abr. of Granada, quoted in the note to Nachmanides, 1. c, and Moses Rieti, These latter are the four mathematical disciplinee, and the three f. 11.).
liberal arts

" seven

"

following, Ethics (or Politics), Physics, Metaphysics

while the above-

mentioned Commentary on the Kanon divides Philosophy also into four, Physics, ISlathematics, Politics, and Metaphysics, where we might
expect Ethics instead of Mathematics.

With
singular
logic

respect to the general name, S. Sachs

(1. c.)

has explained the

word

n"lD,
3.,

which answers

to <iUjU

j.

Both mathematics and

against Sachs, p. 64., who wishes to place logic amongst the philosophical sciences) are properly excluded from philo(

12. n.

is for

Logic is the general "^ organ" (vis) for thinking, as grammar sophy. speaking mathematics have their own purposes and objects, but On "inj/, see inf. as regards philosophy, they are only preparatory.
;

n. 22.

On

^^''^DDO in its peculiar sense in

see

Talmud

(sup. pp. I6. 30.,

p. 52. n. 105".)
vol. Ivi. p.

Gematria of D. Cassel in Ersch, s. i. ^Q. (on the Mathematician Elieser Chisma, see inf. n. 88.);
the article

352
cf. also

NOTES TO

21.

Zunz, Die relig. Poesie, p, 368. and 18. n. 30. ; Maimonides, Novilun. chap. 18. 13. ; andObadja ben David, ib.^ and chap. 12._, combine D^:i with ])2^r\. 2 Zurat haar. Introd., which work itself is called j^triri "ISD in Emmanuel (p. 1970' ntin, for an astronomer, see Zunz, Benj. p. 104., conf. 131. 359., and 20. n. 18. 2 Palqu. Mebak. 38 b. (according to which Zunz, Benj. p. 231., is to be corrected) ; conf. also Hammer^ Encykl. Uebers. p. 341. 2* One seeks in vain in Delambre's Histoire de I'Astronomie for information on the Jews and for critical remarks upon the Arabian period generally ; he did not consult even Herbelot, Casiri, or De Rossi (Dizion. Stor. degli Autori Arabi). His principal authority, Am. Sedillot (vide J. J. Sedillot's Nekrology, in the translation of Abul Hassan^ 1834), has not prevented his falling into great mistakes (vide inf.). The astronomy and mathematics of the Jews are with him represented by some works which have been badly edited and translated into Latin, from bad abridgments by Schreckenfuchs (1546), viz. first, the Astronomy of Abraham bar Chijja ; secondly, the Arithmetic of Elia Misrachi (vide inf. n. 70 a.). The Jewish section in Tdeler's celebrated Compendium of Chronology is equally open to objection ; see

De

the author's essay in S. Sachs, njvn (printed 1848 1850). 2^ The principal authority for the history of jhe Kalendar is

Asarja

DE

Rossi,

printed Lond.

and in 1852, p. 1. sq., and the author's treatise, ib. p. I?, sq., the results of which he has here introduced in brief; conf. older authorities in Wolf, ii. p. 1302. sq. On Ideler, see n. 3 a. L. M. Lewisohn has recently published a popular essay under the title Geschichte und System
des judischen Kalenderwesens, without independent researches, (v. n.

work 1854; see also Slonimski, Kerem Chemed, v. 104. sq., nJVn (edit, by Sachs) ; also a special compendium, "ll^yn DD^
cap. 40. sq.,
special apologetic

and Appendix, and a

16.) but rich in authorities.

investigation,
4

The

author regrets that he must leave

several important questions on the history of the Kalendar without fresh

on account of the extensive astronomical researches which would have been necessary for the purpose ; vide inf. n. I7.

Hamza

el
ii.

Isfahani,

ed.

Gottwaldt (Petersb.
;

1844),

p. 4.;

cf.

Shaharastani,
cap. 40. sq.

352., ed. Haarbriicker

conf. Alfergani in As. de Rossi,

201 b. (ed. Vienna) ; Bailly, Hist, de TAstr. i. 217. (according to Golius ad Alfrag. and Herbelot) ; Ideler, ii. 495. 4 a Conf. According to Herbel. (Nassa, iii. 646.), 15. n. 28. Muhammed forbade it expressly in the Koran (ii. 185.? conf. Sunne, " The moon is sometimes twenty 552. [in Hammer, Fundgr. d. Or.] nine, sometimes thirty days ") on account of the superstition connected According to Isaac Israeli (iv. with it ; cf. Shaharastani, 1. c. in n. 4. Weil (Mu17.), the reckoning was first determined by inspection. hamm. p. 281.) supposes only the existence of a year with intercalation, but considers the abolition of it before the time of Muhammed as
:

Simon Duran (Keshet u-magen, 25 a.), Muhamnew moon. Similarly, an old author quoted by Isaac ben Baruch (in Abraham bar Chijja, Haibbur. p. 94.) and Ibn Ezra (Ker. Chem. iv. l63. conf. As. de Rossi, 213 b.; Slonimski, Ker. Chem. v. 128.) asserts of the Tekufa of R. Ada (vide
certain.

According

to

med

forbade the calculation of the

NOTES TO
ti.

21.

353

l?'):"

t^^^
d.

^*

^^s ^^P^ secret on account of superstition; while the

opposed intercalation on religious grounds
(Ideler_,

Egyptian

priests

Chronol. i. 95.). Abr. Krochmal (fl^nn, i. 133.) finds a political reason why the determination of the new moon was made a " secret" (cf. 5. n. 102.). ^ Makrisi in Sacy, Christ. Ar. i. 134.; Zion, i. 35.; conf. 14.

Handb.

Annal. i. 137. sq. See 14. n. 20.; Ibn Ezra on Gen. viii. 3. ; Hedessi, 184. sq. 7 Zion, i. 38. ; conf. Jost, Busch, v. 159. ^ Jehuda Halevi (Cus. iv. 20.) speaks of attacks on the Jewish Easter according to Samuel's solar year ; and his renegade opponent, Samuel Ibn Abbas, probably treated of the same subject (n. 33.) ; but Cod. Uri, 257.5 is a forgery ; it contains a fragment of the Liturgy of Solomon ben Nathan (see n, 23.): conf. also the reply of Israeli (1330) to an apostate on this subject (Jesod Olam, ed. Goldb. ii. 36.). Abraham bar C'hijja expressly excuses the strange opinions of Saadja by the polemical tendency against the Karaites. Maimonides is more candid
n. 10.,
6

Erech MiUin, p. 91., and Catal. p. 2170.). Rap., Chan. p. 46., Erech Milhn, p. 91- (conf. sup. 5. n. 29. Geig. Zeitschr. vi. 18.). On Carmoly's fictions and plagiarisms (Annal. i. 222.), see Rapop,, Ker. Chem., vi. Il6. sq. ; conf. Resp. Gaon. f. 12 b. Luzzatto, 11 Giudaismo, i. 31. ^0 Vide Abrah. ben Chijja, p. 38. (As. de Rossi 1. c, and conf. sup. 5. n. 25.); cf. Aderet Eliahu, f. 19 a. col. 2., ed. 1835, and inf. n. 77Herbelot (Resm. iii. 774.) speaks of the Geography of Ptolemy, which was translated from Greek into Hebrew, and afterwards, under Mamun, into Arabic. The mistake might be occasioned by the
(see Rap.^
9

double meaning of the word

binical)

^jb;^ which signifies

Hebrew (Rab-

and Syriac ; so also Weil (Muhamm. p. 140. n. 209-) thinks Jews in Muhammed's time used Syriac ; see the author's compilation in Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 324. n. 20. ; conf. Ewald, Beitrage, Perhaps p. 138. ; IVTunk, Tanhoun, p. QQ., and inf. n. 39. 22. n. 22. the passage in Honein's preface to Musare ha-Philos. is to be explained in the same way.
that the
11

xi.

The objection of Luzz. (Lit. bl. Slonimski, Ker. Chem. v. 10. 690.) has been removed by his extract from an old MS. (in Ker.
Samuel

Chem.
12

viii. 37. and in Slonimski, Jesod, p. 31.). Steinschneider, 7]:i)'''n, p. 19- (conf. sup. 5. n. 32.) ; DDPin (Ker. Chem. vii. 67') is certainly not the younger Gaon

Samuel

Furst (Lit. bl. viii. 43.) )t^^, ii. 10.). erroneously transfers the quotations in Zunz (G. V. p. 93. n. e.) from Ada to Samuel. Our observations are not mentioned in the recent essay of Abr. Krochmal (p'pnn, i. 77.) nor in Jellinek, pref. to Donolo, See also inf. n. I7. Cf. Catal. p. 2240. p. v. 13 See the author's partial restoration of the text, 1. c. p. 20. Elieser BEN Faruch, who appears in Makrisi (Ideler, i. 275.) as the founder of the Jewish mode of calculating the Kalendar, is considered by the author (I. c. p. 18.) to be one of the Talmudists, the commencement of

BEN Choeni (Reifmann, "im

whose year (in Tishri)

conf. inf. n. 21 a.

is

the foundation of the Kalendar

now

in use;

Fiirst has appropriated to himself part of our dis-

AA

354
of
as useless.

NOTES TO

21.

sertation (Lit. bl. xi. 326.),

it

and afterwards

(Lit. bl. xii. 458.) spoken

iv. 2. fol.

1*

Vide sup.

n. 4.

Ptolemaeus (in Israeli^

c.) speaks of

a cycle of eight years with three leap years. 15 Vide sup. .5. n. IO9. also respecting the date of the work. The cycle of 84 years is probably that of Epiphanius and Cyrillus, and the

Quartodecimans^ of whom Ideler (i. 571 -^ in the passage where he speaks of the Perakim, conf. ii. 202.) asserts that he has found no Lewisohn (1. c. p. 25.) sees in the whole trace in any Rabbinical writer. passage nothing but "^ an allegory/' which can only be admitted with respect to the day of 1000 years, to which the author never meant to The cycle of 84 years of the fixed stars in Albatani attach any value. (Delambre^ p. 54.) is quite independent. On the hours of the planets
(Ideler,
1^

87. 197- sq.) see Steinschn. I.e. p. 21. various directions for intercalations of Meton and the Jews (Israeli ascribes the received method to R. Chananel; conf, also Ideler, i. 579-; see Achai Gaon in Geiger, Zeitschr. vi. 18.) are, in
i.

The

fact,

only chronological varieties (see Steinschn. 1. c. pp. 29- SS.\ and connected with the difference between the Babylonian and Palestine Jews Neither this short, but in respect of the commencement of the year. important observation, nor the special dissertation of Rapoport (Erech Millin, p. 91. ; cf. sup. n. 8.), has been noticed by Lewisohn, pp. 32. 40., although he dwells upon the different cycles, and gives the former part of the present note; cf. 10. n. 25. 17 Viz. fc^^i^ '11 ^^h^ naipn, i. e. " according to that " of R. Ada BEN Abin (not Ben Ahaba, as has been hitherto supposed) ; see SloThe 9th vol. of Ker. Chem., p. 27. sq., contains a nimski, 1. c. p. 12. correspondence between Slon. and Pineles, who attacks the whole must system of Slon. by astronomical calculations (sup. n. 3 b.). remark that in such a complicated matter great care ought to be taken not to confuse different questions by using ambiguous expressions.

We

Some recent authors try to claim antiquity for more recent reformations; thus Graetz (Gesch. iii. 552.) and Wiesner (Frankel, Monatschr. iii. 113.)beheve that they find the usual '^ Order of Kalendar" in the But Graetz brings forward only an uncertain general exTalmud. pression, and Wiesner only one practical rule for the day of New Year
see Slonimski, Jesod, p. 34.
IS cf. n.
19

See the various authorities and hypotheses in Catal. 20.

D^liin l^n
;

s.

v. p.

2131,

conf. sup. n. 15.

Hedessi, 63. D, mentions the figures. (This observation is repeated by Jelli nek in the pref. to the Introd., published 1854, under the new title, " Der Mensch als Ebenbild," &c., p. vii. He, however, omits entirely our dissert, in ha-Jona, and this essay, amongst the authorities,
p.
iii.,

20

as also

some

others.")

Abu Sahal

(p. 182,)

also illustrated the

work sent
20a
ijjxi

to Chisdai (cf. n. 93.)

Ezra

calls

by figures. Mashallah an Indian sage;

;

cf.

Catal. p. I677.

Israeli (iv. 7. fol. 11 a.) speaks of Persian sages (D?**!^ Tl),

who worked

about 790 by royal

command

conf. inf. n. 59.

21 Vide inf. n. 60., and on Abu Sahl, inf. n. 93. 21a See Steinschn. p. 18.; conf. the author's Index

to

Michael's

NOTES TO
Catal. p. 317.)

21.

355
(Lit,
bl.

on

Fiirst's incorrect plagiarisms

xi.

320.)

vide sup. n. 13.

Saadja and the later writers (mentioned p. Meir Aldabi distinguishes between HD^n 2170. (see n. 1.) and "lUyn 'n. Levi ben Abraham (Astr. MS. i. 1, 2.) says that the "lUymiD is founded on "iSDJOnV nnoh 'n and nD^nn 'n, i. e. Mathem. and Astron. or ^^ Observation." 23 See n. 8. and So also the I9. n. 42. ; Ker. Chem. ix. 37. Persian Kalendar of the year 1290, in ^lunk, Not. s. Saadja, p. 67. -'^ See, however, the author's remarks on the Leyden MSS. Warner, 25^. and 60., out of the pieces of which the one printed is composed. Cf. also Zunz, z. Gesch. p. l64. 25 On Nahshon (sic) (ob. 898 ?), see Catal. p. 2020. 26 Luzz. Lit. bl. vii. 420. 2'' Vide e. g. Abraham ben Chijja's forced distinction between the visible and numerable stars (vide n. 48.) and the countless numbers of Scripture (Zurat haar. fin.) ; by which one is reminded of the passage '' Hipparchus in Pliny (ii. 26.) ausus sit rem Deo etiam improbam,
^^

On

the

title

IIIlVj in

437. )j see Catal.

p.

mnnn

annuntiare posteris Stellas." 28 E. g. the three questions in Ghasali (Munich, 35. n.), which the author has proved to be the niillDn nJIID mentioned by Moses Narbonl {Catal. p. 1973. ; Cod. Warner, 15.) ; the work of Bathliusi (Catal. p. 2001.) j Ibn Roshd's Subst. Orbis {Catal. p. 764. &c.). -^ The astronomer (Casiri, i. 430.) and historiographer in Spain,

Ibn

Ssa'id (^j<r.U;],

whose section on celebrated Jews, however, seems

to be lost {Catal. p. 1114.),

was in close connexion with the Jews (n. he and his companions (according to Isaac Israeli, iv. 7-) confess to have used Jewish authorities, and to have borrowed amongst other things the cycle of 19 years. Ibn Ssa'id is said to have died 1070, so that the year 1080 (p. 188. line 1., where read cb'ca) could not be referred to himself. "V^^hether Sahal ben Bishr (p. 191') was in Spain has become rather doubtful to the author (see Catal. s. v.). 30 He had apparently the usual additional name, Abu Ali, which gave rise to the story of his son Ali (in Obadja, conf. D. Cassel, on Cusari, We have given his date, 972, according to Zunz, Got. Vortr. p. 120.). 363. (cf. Annal. ii. 225.) ; but the new ed. of Israeli, iv. 14. f. 28., According to Ibn Ezra gives 952 (hence Slonimski, Jesod, p. 43.). (Ibbur MS.) he wrote three works on Ibbur (see Catal p. 2171.). [Page 183. hne 8. Isaac ben Rakufiel, probably more correctly Jehuda see Catal 1. c= in n. 30. The year 1040 (Annal. ii. 225.) is probably without any other authority than Carmoly.] On Isaac ben [Page 183. line 14. The word Samuel is erroneous. Baruch, information is to be found also in Moses Ibn Ezra.] 31 Abraham ben Chijja wrote in 1105-33. but we have perhaps a final redaction after his death, a. 1136; see the author's remarks in Cod. Warner. 37-, and Catal p. 2113. 32 See Catal pp. 687. 1038., and Cod. Scahg. 14. 33 See Nicoll, p. 603. ; see, however, n. 8. 34 Isaac ben Juda (see AV'olf. iii. n. 1195 b.; 1170, according to Carmoly's Annal. ii. 225.) is rather doubtful. 34a SediUot (Comptes Rendus, xvii. l67-) divides the Arabian

59

a.)

AA

356
astronomers into
(3.) observers.
is

NOTES TO

21.

and compilers; (2.) calculators; holds good of the Jews. 35 R. Maimon., the editor of the Alfergani (As. de Rossi, chap. 40.), probably neither Maimonides nor his father. 3^ The Latin and Spanish were partly themselves translated by Jews_,
(1.)
translators

The same

e. g.

by Johannes Hispalensis, whose works

inf. n.

are mentioned in Jourdain

;

in an incomplete manner, and not without mistakes

see Catal. p. 1402.,

and

93.

37 Wenrich (De Auct. Grsec.) introduces him first in the Supplement, p. 306., without reference to a MS. (see Br. Mus. 7473., without the name of the translator in Ewald, Zeitschr. f. d. Kunde des Morgenl. ii. 211.); but he is already mentioned by Joseph Ibn Aknin (see The Hebrew translation (after another Ersch, s. V. p. 51. n. 40.). 35. 5. in Lilienth.) is mentioned as Arabian version, Munich, S6. 4! Carmoly early as by Del Medigo (in Geig. Mel. Chofn. p. 104.). (Itineraires, p. 346.) calls the translator Kalonymos, but mutilates the

sect. 2. vol. xxiv. Rossi (Cod. 806. 3.) confounds with a real Jew of Cf. Cod. Bislichis, 69., and Cod. De Rossi, 11 70. the 15th century. 39 This princely Arabian alchymist is obviously the Kalid ben
is

name, and 38 This

refers to

nobody

else.

the fictitious

Jew Isaac Cohen (Encykl.

p. 219'),

whom De

&c., who under various false names figured as a Jew, and whose Hebrew writings are erroneously said to have been translated into Arabic, and thence into Latin (probably by Robert Retinensis ; see Jourdain, p. 109.)' Conf. on Hebrew," sup. n. 10.; see Catal. p. 813., and cf. Morienus Romanus, de Alchemia, printed 1593, &c. 39a Catal. p. 1567., where the date of this author is first demonstrated from a passage of his work ; cf. inf. n. 6S. 40 His Astrology was translated for Alphonso X. into Spanish by JuDA BEN Moses (not ben Joseph), and thence into Latin by ^gidius de Tebaldis (conf. 22. n. 70.) and Petro del Real (Reggie), and, perhaps, afterwards improved by Alvaro (Castro, i. 114.). The Spanish translation, and the Hebrew of Isaac ben Samuel Abulcheiu, made from the Latin, are at Oxford. Another Hebrew edition by Solomon Doyen (?) has produced great mistakes; see Catal. p. 1361. To the Arabian authors belongs also Ali ben Ahmed el-Omrani (ob. 954-55), who is beyond doubt the '^ Enbrani " in Cod. Lat. Canon. Misc. 396. (in Coxe's Catal. p. 734.); the year, 1134, and the place,

Jaztchi,

^'^

Barcelona, agree better with Abraham bar Chijja than with Abbaham JuDiEus of Tortosa, who is perhaps the same as Abraham of Toledo, sup. p. 184. 40a Conf. Abu Bauzel (!) and Abu Malmel (!), Munch. 225.

1181. In the Escurial there are many Spanish translations made by a Rabbi Zag, or Cag (= Isaac), of Toledo, for Alphonso X. These have occasioned various mistakes and contradictions characteristic of this class of investigations, and discoverable only by a careful collation of the extracts with the MSS. themselves. De Castro has made some unfair deductions from these works. His principal purpose is to prove that the Jews who worked for Alphonso were baptised; see Catal. pp. 1156. The author does not hesitate to identify R. Isaac with 1359. 2144. Ibn Sid (see n. 67.)- Sachs (Rel. Poes. I96.) regrets that Jourdain
Catal. p.
42

41

NOTES TO

21.

357

** makes references only from secondhand, without criticism," and yet himself combines even thirdhand authorities ( Jourdain and Zunz) from the same origin ; see Catal. p. 1359. ^^ See pref. to Catal. Michael, p. xiii. (Catal. p. I6l0. ; Ker. Chem. ix. 37.), and Catal. of Ley den MSS. Cod. Warner. 20. '^^ Not Abualbari " (Encykl. sect. 2. vol. xxiv. 217.? according to Wolf. T. iii., confused with Aboab). See Cod. Warner. 68., in the author's Catal. of the Leyden MSS., and cf. n. 40. ^^ Another Hebrew compendium of the same work (757!in 'D), printed together with the translation of Solomon ben Abraham^ has not been hitherto recognised as such, and has been falsely ascribed to the same
^"^

translator.
^^

Catal. p. 2255. [This reference belongs

to

read

123-42
f.

cf.
a.,

Catal. pp. 1838.

(Conforte,

17

&c.).

On

line 12.^ where 2222. ; cf. Zunz, zur Gesch. p. 51. Isaac Alhadib, see Catal. p. 1086.,

Jacob ben Samson,

and n. 6l
46a
ii.

a.]

[The passage was inserted at line 22.] See Humboldt, Kosmos, 453. n. 12. ^7 Zunz, zur Gesch. l66. ^"^^ See Hadji Chalfa ap. Hammer, Encykl. Uebers. p. 343., and the comparison with the Druzes in De Sacy, Chrest. ii. 384. To the Jewish authors quoted by Sachs, Rel. Poes. p. 230. (cf. 13. n. 48.), add Jos. Kimchi, Lit. bl. vii. 730., the description in Ibn Sahula, Mashal hakadmoni. 48 Lit. bl. iv. p. 24. n. BQ. ; conf. Ibn Ezra, Reshit Chochma, init. ; on Ex. xxiii. 20. (p. 72. Prag.), Palquera, Mebak. 36 a., conf. Sachs, p. 232., round numbers." In Joseph Caspi^ p. 103., the correct number is placed between brackets. Hadji Chalfa (in Hammer, Encykl. Uebers. p. 479.) reckons 29,000. Conf. sup. n. 27. 4^ See Shene Hammeoroth, pref. and, perhaps, hence D. p. 6. ; Cassel ad Cusari, iii. 79. p. 279. cf. Jos. Gikatilla in Ersch, vol. xxxi. p. 78. n. I7. 5000 is found in Levi ben Gerson ad Gen. i., fol. lie; cf. Milchamot, v. 1. Cf. Saadja Emunot, vii., and in Simon Duran, Magen Abot in fol., f. 9 a. ; the quotation of Ptolomaeus In de(7i7Jn D in fine) is an addition to Sacrobosco (cf. n. 45.). termining the distance of the moon, Jehuda ben Solomon Cohen (Treatise on the Letters, MSS.) differs about 1 ppH from. Ptolemy. ^0 Maim, in As. de Rossi, cap. 28. p. l64. ; conf. Chasles, Comptes Rendus, xxiii. 850. The 6OOO parasangs of the Talmud are a symbolical number (conf. 8000 in Delambre, p. I98.) ; cf. Saadja, Emunot, vii. ^^ Ibn Ezra on Ps. cxlviii. 9^2 E. g. in Gabirol (Sachs, p. 231.) the Astronomy of Abraham ben On the still important question about the Chijja is full of variations. motion of the fixed stars (octava sphsera), which much occupied the astronomers, Joseph ben Eleazar finds contradictions in Ibn Ezra (see ad Levit. xxv. 9- &c.) ; cf. also n. 66. ^^ Read some antipodes, viz. those on the extremities of the Eastern hemisphere; see Maimonides, Moreh, i. 73. ; conf. Palquera, Mebak. The rotation of the earth, however, is adduced as an example of 39. A a false conception (Jos. ben Shemtob, Kobez Wikk. fol. 20 a.). passage of the book Zohar, speaking of rotation, antipodes, &c., has A A 3
'^^
',

358
repeatedly attracted

NOTES TO

21.

see Hurwitz^ the attention of Jewish authors Deutsche Zugabe zum Sammler, 1809^ p. 32.; Zunz, Etwas iiber die Rabb. Lit. 1818, p. l6. ; Jost, Isr. Annal. 1839, p. 70. ; Franck, Kabbala, p. 98. (conf. p. 73. , where 5^7J7)inD is not exactly translated) and Jost still (Jellinek und die Kabbala, 1852) goes so far as to find
:

here

''

special geographical notices."

^3a Gabirol, Keter Malhut, 210.; Jos.

93.) peUier).
^'^

bl. xi.

Maimon., Letter

to the

Kimchi on Job, x. 22. (Lit. Wise Men of Marseilles (or Mont-

conf. Shene Hammeor. p. 10. n. 8. ; cf. D. ; Joseph Gikatilla, p. 78. n. l6. 55 See Annal. ii. 80. 288. Ker. Chem. vii. 254. The Ephemerides of Solomon Jorchus, in Zach. Corr. Astr. viii. 22. (Niiinberger, Astron. Worterb. i. 328.), are unknown to the author (conf. Abraham ben Solomon Jarchi Zarphati, Wolf. i. l60. ; Vat. 297. 13. on Euclid, he was perhaps a mere copyist). On the other hand, we possess similar ones by Sabbatai Donolo. The existence !'' of this among the Arabs is, in Delambre (p. 6.), only an " on croit 55 a Basnage, p. 259*^ in Wolf, and Rossi. 56 Biscioni, 88. perhaps transcriber. Conf. also on the Cod. 28. 3. ; Celidario of Bartholomaeus de Jamfredi (.'*) ibid.. Cod. 47. 1.^ and the instrument j^n^l 111223 (?.^) Vat. 429. 30. conf. 379- 7. 57 T2 ^b, Vat. 387. 10. (Wolf. i. 958.). 58 Irving, in Zunz, Benj. ii. Depping, in Carmoly, Hist. p. 268. des Medecins, p. 124.; conf. Allg. Zeit. d. Jud. 1847, p. 887. The astrolabe is also called nc^^in^ri ''7D in Ibn Ezra and the Mishna Commentary on Erub. iv. 2. Jehuda ben Babzillai is against the use of it on the Sabbath (Zunz, zur Gesch. 483.). Also Abraham Zar-

Jourdain, p. 280.
s.

Cassel, in Ersch,

v.

kali's description of his

also Geig. Zeitschr.

iii.

Tables (niT'S^*) is translated into Hebrew (cf. Munic. 35, 36. &c.) ; the printed Latin 445.
;

ed. is perhaps extracted

i.

from the translation of Abraham (De Castro,

143. ; cf. Jourdain, in Stahr's translation, p. 147.). See the author's notice in Zeitschr. der d. m. Gesellsch. viii. 379 58a Read 1328-40 ; the identity is proved by Munk and the author
;

cf. p. 2118.). That the printed verses belong to the (Catal p. I6O9. instrument is distinctly said in a prefatory remark of the Pocock MS. 58 b Tables of geographical lengths and breadths (conf. Zunz, Benj. p. 307.) are contained in the astrological work of Ibn Radshal (viii. cap. 37.), according to " Harix' " (?) accounts. 59 Del Medigo, MeL Chofn. p. 14., and vide n. 71', viz. either that

Mahom. p. 275.), or the Chowaresmi ; see and conf. sup. n. 20 a. 59a Vide sup. n. 29., about the year 1080. 6^ To the Tables themselves, and to their Indian origin, Chasles (Comptes rendus, xiii. 846. ; conf. Von Humboldt, Kosmos, ii. 452.
of Djelali (Mill's Hist, du
n. 60.,

n. 10.) alluded lately, so far as they are of importance for the question of the originality of the Indian, Chaldee, and Arabian astronomy. The most interesting older accounts of Ibn Ezra, whose "^ Super Opere Tabularum " was mentioned as early as by Pico (Wolf. i. p. 85.), have been

much
n.

mutilated by

De

Rossi (Cod. 212.).

See the quotations in 20.

and especially on Canca and Jacob Ibn Shear a (n. 21.) our notices in Zeitschr. der d. Morg. Gesellsch. viii. 550. We must again
32.,

NOTES TO
regret the

21.

359

dain^ p. 104.,

want of the Hebrew text of Cod. Rossi. Conf. also Jourwhere Zydj is to be read as an emendation for Zydi, and
''

Jacob Romano (see Abraham Talmid (1483), copyist of Cod. Tur. 113. (wrongly in Wolf. iv. p. 9W-)i conf. Cod, Rossi, 1185., where "Talmid " is probably not the name of the author, and Solomon Ezobi Solomon Mirnachi (.?), Vat. 498. (in Mai). (1633), inf. 30. p. 262.
to

Taarich Japhari for Erichiapharira. ^^ As an assistant in the composition of the Talmid appears only in Buxtorf, according
conf.

Six Wings," Solomon

n. 63.);

On the comSee also the author's index to Catal. Michael, p. 34?. mentaries of the celebrated " Six Wings," some researches should still be made; see Index, p. 359. As early as 1380 it was commentated by Samuel Chajjim ben Jomtob Matron Sefardi (Cod. Reggio, 42., now in the Bodleiana). On the G7^eek Commentator, see inf. n. 63. 6^^ See n. 46 a. From the very mutilated extract in Deutsch and Krafft, cxci., we can only gather that he used, beside the tables of Albatani, also those of Dp5<1?S, or D5<p"l'?i^
(1.

Almorakeshi?), which were

preferred by

many

astronomers in Tunis, and also those of

^DD^X

(1.

Alkomad
62
62 a

? cf.

^\a^\

^\

in Casiri,

1.

393

?).

Catal p. 1457. Against the inventions of Carmoly (Frankel, Monatschr. 1854, p. 67-) and the false combinations of De Rossi (Cod. 1181.), repeated by Geiger (Proben, ii. 49-), see Catal p. 2117.;, where also a Hebrew retranslation out of Latin is mentioned, now in the Bodl. libr. 63 AVolf, i. n. 1956., according to Bartol. (Vat. 393. 1. in Assem See infra, n. 77.) conf. Wolf. i. pp. 340. 59714th century Solomon Rhodius (?) MS. Munic. 343. 5. ; Solomon Mirnachi (?) II. The poet Solomon Sharbit hasahab (Ca^a/. p. 2214.) has 61. nothing upon astronomy in his Keter Malchut (Luzz,, Kerem Chemed, iv. 39.). The family name ^riTH D''2"1^ (conf. Abraham and Schemarja in Conforte, 48 b.) appears to be translated (Zunz, zur Gesch. 157.), and may correspond to the Greek Chrysokokka (and not Chrysostephanos, as Zunz, Syn. Poesie, p. 107. )> because xpuo-o^roK-K-a is the name not only of the commentator of the '' Six Wings" of Immanuel, but also of the translator of the Persian tables in Delambre. 64 Op. 1666. 9. 65 The author has tried to investigate the subject as far as he could without the rare Latin work of Ricius, in an essay (" Alfons' x. astronomischer Kongress zu Toledo, and Isaac Ibn Sid der Chasan, Eine Randglosse zur [Humboldt's] Kosmos, ii. 26l,") which appeared in the "^ Magazin fiir die Literatur des Auslands," unfortunately, in May, 1848 (n. 57. p. 226., and n. 58. p. 230.), when public attention was He has shown directed to anything but investigations of that kind. 1. That no congress of Arabic from clear authorities, in two articles authors ever existed ; 2. That Isaac Ibn Sid was the principal He intended to treat in a author of the tables (v. Catal p. 2144.). third article the question whether our recension is really a rechauffe of 1256, and was happy enough to find, in 1850, in the Bodleian library, the work of Ricius (described at large in Catal pp. 2143-5.); when he found that it requires a more thorough knowledge of astronomy than he A A 4
! ; :

360
possesses.
(ff.

NOTES TO

21.

He will therefore add only one short observation. Ricius 27. 29.) gives as a reason for the retractation, that in the tables of 1252 the movement of the fixed stars w&s supposed to be 1 in 70 years
attributes to
s.
i.
;

Jewish superstition, f. 24. hence p. 90.), but that by the translation of Abu'lhasin he was convinced of the truth of the system of Albatani (f. 39; in the name of Zacut, but see sup. p, I9O.). Asarja de Rossi, however (chap. 40. f. 213 b., where the year 1251 agrees with the Latin ed. of the tables, and hence D. Gaiis, Zemach David ad A.), asserts that Alfonso did not know '' the works " of Albatani, speaking
Bailly,
i.

(which number he

225., Encykl.

vol.

iii.

especially of the length of the year.

^6 On the strange mistakes about Jehuda ben Moses whom de Castro, Jourdain, Jost, and Carmoly, make

(Moischa), of

two

different

authors, &c., see the extensive note in CataL pp. 1360-2. ^"^ See n. 68. On Pedro's behaviour to the Jews, similar to that of his father Alfonso, see the authorities quoted in D. Cassel's note to

Here the confusion pervading the Catalogues can only be unravelled by actual inspection. Jacob ben Isaac Alkarsani is named as translator of a work on the astrolabe,
(see 30. n. 11.).

Jehuda ben Asher, ^8 Preface, 9 b.

f.

6I

b.

the Arabic author of which

548., and
"^

is

either

Ahmed

Ibn

al-Ssoflfar ( .U:;in

or ben Djaafer (see the author's notice in Zeitschr. der d.

viii,

m. Gesellsch.

Abnasafar" in De Castro, i. p. 129.), and probably the same as *' Ameth filius Afar," from the Latin of Philipp, Spanish, in Cod. Canon, misc. 340. (p. 693. of Coxe's Catal.), following after Propha^as de Marsilia supra Quadr., &c., by Armengaud in 1299' This Propha^as is Jacob ben Machir, who certainly translated a work on the astrolabe from the Arabic, the Spanish (or Limosin) translation of which is attributed by Deutsch (Catal. p. 186.) to a fictitious Goisu ("guysios des estrellas," see 39 a. Catal. p. 1569.) so that the authorship of Jacob ben Isaac is rather doubtful. Jacob Kabsani is named as author of tables, or of a commentary on them, in which Peter III. of Arragon (at Barcelona, 1276), among the learned men commissioned by him, is said to mention Magister Peter (Vat. 379- 10. Rossi, l65., vide sup. 8. n. 90^ ^o"^- Petro Regio (del Real) sup. n. 40., and CataL Jacob ben David ben Jomtob Poel also reckons according p. 1358. to the era of Peter III. (Vat. 356. 3, 4.), although he wrote in lS6l (see
cf.
; ;

n.

62 a.). Finally, the tables (Almanack) of Jacob ben Machir (1300) have been confused with the translation of Ibn Heitham, &c.
see
^^

CataL pp. 1234. 2113. The identity with the poet (Zunz, zur Gesch. 473., see sup. p. 343. n. 27 a.) is established by comparing the date of his pupil menDel Metioned in the text (Cod. Reggio, 14., now in the Bodleian).
digo (p. 53.) calls the translator Kalonymos ? 70 See Catal. p. l658. ; his anonymously printed tables of day and night (different from those of Bianchino) are also in MS. Mich. 525. In the passage given from MS. Mich. 570., the words " which expression," &c., to '^ above" should be put in brackets, and instead of
to those," read *' and those of Jac. Poel." 70^ According to Delambre, he is later than Ibn Junis (ob. 1008)> but is the first (f) who speaks of the extraction of the cube root.

" or

NOTES TO
^1

21.

361
to

He

treated of chronology in his

supplement

Aderet Eliahu of

Beschitzi.

See n. 45. Vat. 387. n. 379, 7. In general compare the note 7^ a. of 22.] [Page 190. sq. -^^ If Gesenius Hadji Chalfa in Hammer_, Encykl. Uebers. p. 475. (Encykl. sect. 1. vol. v. p. 69.) derives the Arabian astrology from '^ the Jews " like Alkendi, then the hypothesis falls with its foundation ; conf. sup. 13. n. 7In Grasse (ii. 2. 991.) it is said: ''Of strictly mathematical studies, astronomy and astrology were, however_, principally cultivated, which served their purpose and suited their taste for cheating.'' Sufficient excuse for this admirable logic is given in the other statements See the observations in contained in this work on Jewish Literature. Jewish authors often derive astrology from heathenLit. bl. ii. 230. ^^^ Zarzah (f. 20 c.) dom, or ascribe it 10 other nations (see n. 77)73

72

gives the Arabian

name

")i^''t2

and ''astrology"
it,

(n&^'':il7'nDD5<) as

used

by Christian
see Palquera,

sages.

On
f.

the antiquity of
;

see

Narboni

in

Comm. on

Averroes de Subst. Orbis, in fine

on the little value ascribed to it, Joseph Nasi, Lit. bl. xi. 768., where Dy?2 is probably Apollonius. Even the pseudo-Abraham ben David argues (f. 38.) against the D''Tin (n. 1.). But it would lead us too far to collect the sentences against astrology, and especially its

Mebak.

39

b.

cf. also

practice
75

cf.

22. n.

72

a. sq.

See on the other hand, e. g. Ibn Ezra, Introd. to the Astrol. Vat. 390. ; and on the Doctrine of Freedom of the Jewish philosophers, see Ritter, Gott. gel. Anz., 1847, p. 6*11.; cf. also S. Sachs, ha-Jona,
p. 19. sq. 59. sq.
76

In his most interesting

;

letter

to the learned of Montpellier (or

Marseilles)
''''

see 22. n. 74.

The

wise

men

of Greece, says Maimonides, never composed such

works produced by Kasdaeans, Chaldaeans (a distinction common among the Arabians), Egyptians, and Canaanites ; one must not adhere to indiMoses ben Samuel Cohen, of vidual statements in the Talmud. Saloniki, who grounds astrology on the oracle of the Urim we-Tumim (cf. Catal. n. 3392), is probably not so old as stated by Assemani, ad Cod. Vat. S9S. 3. (conf. Wolf. i. p. 2093., ii. p. 1259-, iv. p. 1039.)
as these, even the Persians recognised the worthlessness of the
see sup. n. QS.

Zunz, zur Gesch. 483. ; see, on the other hand, n. 79* See Von Humboldt, Kosmos, ii. 252. Astrological necromancy, *&c., attracted the inquisitive especially to Salamanca (Schmidt, Discipl. Clerical, p. 113., and Sol. Duran, sup. p. 201.), Toledo (Jourdain, pp. 100. 271.)^ ^^^ other seats of Arabian science. '^^ E. g. the care taken of liquids at Quarter Day (DIDIpn), which even Abrah. ben Chijja (in Asarja de Rossi, add. 2. to cap. 40.) designates as provincial superstitions ; conf. also Briick, p. 43. ; Ker. Chem. An elucidation of this custom by the baptized Jew iv. 165., vii. 77Paul William Hirsch (1717) was welcomed as a new antijudaistic argument in the " Unschuldige Nachrichten " (Wolf. iii. p. 908.). A refutation of this superstition was written by the neophyte Philip Nicodemus LEs-aECHT (Wolf. iv. p. 954.). An interesting article on this
78 78 a

362

NOTES TO

21.

and similar superstitions (which also gave rise to persecutions of the Jews), explaining them in a physical way, is to be found in Liehermann's Kalendar, 1855, p. II9. "Die Wunder des Bluts, von S. Cohn." Another superstition, of looking at the shadow on Hosianna Night, is acknowledged by Elia Levita (Lit. hi. viii. 342.) ; and Isachar Ibn Shoshan gives the hours (Tikkun, f. 124 a., ed. Ven.). ^'^ See Zunz, Annal. ii. 156.; Jehuda ben Solomon Cohen, Introd. to Astrology ; Solomon, transl. of Ali Ibn Radshal ; Cod. Vienna,
:

CLXXXVII.
^^ V. sup. A revolution throughout the world was ex 15. n. 15. pected in the year 1179 hy the Persian, Arabian, Jewish, and Christian astrologers ; see Scaliger ad Manilium, p. Q, ; conf. Hadji Chalfa in Hammer, Encykl. Uebers. p. 180. On the constellation of the years 1464, 1469, see Zunz, 1. c, and Catal. p. 1575. Astrological proofs for Muhammed's being a prophet form a chapter in the Annals of Hamza el Isfahani (ed. Gottwaldt, Petersb. 1844).

^2

Zunz, 1. [Page 191.

c.

lin. 22., for

''^

astronomical

''

read "astrological."]

S3

Read Centiloquium
astrological

(Kapirog, tJjUi).

V. sup. n. 39.

sq.

Many

works in foreign languages, but in Hebrew characters (e. g. Vat. 245, 246.), have been probably only transcribed by Jews. It must, however, be borne in mind that "^ Astrologia" in earlier On the other hand the times was used also generally for astronomy. pretended astrological work of Farabi, in Cod. Paris. 382 (according to the Catalogus), is really the preface of Shemtob ben Isaac (1251) to his translation of the medical work of Zahrawi, where he reckons astrology amongst the subsidiary sciences of medicine. Indeed most astrological notices in Jewish MSS. belong to that category. 84 See n. 21 a. [Page 191. lin. 4. from bottom, instead of, '"''and whose influence," See Renan, read ^' the influence of whom " (viz. of Petrus) was, &c. pp. 238. 246.] 85 Vat. in Wolf, i. I692. 86 Vat. 477. (Mai). 87 Wolf. iii. 1502 d. 88 Vide sup. Thus e. g. Rabba (S3"1, 3rd century) men 5. n. 1. tions that the Persians called 10 " one " (in), and thus knew the decimal system of arithmetic (Bechorot 6O a. ; v. inf. n. gS.). Abraham Zacut mintJ^ni nSDD hv2, that Eliezer (p. 52.) means by the words Chisma was an able mathematician (Geiger, Zeitschr. vii. 26. ; cf. D. Cassel, Encykl. s. v. Gematria ; v. sup. n. 1. p. 351. infra); but Wolf., i. n. 31.5., misunderstands them, and makes Eliezer the author

anonymous

of a work niinc^n.
89

The

title ''

Mishna," in Emmanuel ben Jacob (MS. Tur. 68.), for

is

the Propositions of Euclid

90

characteristic.

Samson of Sens, the opponent of philosophy ( 11.), doubts also the validity of geometrical theorems (he quotes DnDn 'brDn ; cf. n. 1.), but is reproved by the recent authors Joseph Karo and Lipman Heller ; see Zuckermann on the passage of Erubin, v. 5., in Frankel, Monatschr. iv. (1855, f. 156.).
Zunz, zur Gesch.
p.

177-

NOTES TO
91

21.

363

Zunz^ zur Gesch. p 535., names the authors (adde Cod. Taur. 70. iii. n. 187 e., Mich. 527. ^ MS. Warn. 20. f. 99- ; and cf. Catal. pp. 1086. 2004. ; a table of measures and coins in the Bible is printed in the Bible, ed. Ven. l6'78; Catal. n. 594^.), and draws from Jewish sources some valuable notices, forming a worthy supplement to Bockh's celebrated metrological work. But his complaints about the neglect of Jewish authorities have not prevented his being himself unnoticed by Bertheau in Ersch (see foot note, sup. p. 3.) ; and even Frankel's Notice (Monatschr. iv. 156.) on Saulcy, Recherches sur la Numismatique Jud., does not refer to Zunz. '2 Terquem, Lit. bl. vi. 474. 494. (where the method of calculation of the doctors of Israel [not the " wise Israelites "] is quoted) ; Luzz. His division is not that by Zion, i. l6. ; conf. Zachot. 8 b., Berlin ed. the difference of 10, in Chasles (Comptes Rend. xvi. p. 172.). Allemano (Shaar haheshek, 12 a.) cites a passage of Ibn Ezra on ni''Tin JIIIIV, which, however, does not seem to signify Indian ciphers {'' figurae Indorum" in Chasles [1. c. xvii. 143.] ; conf. Sprengel, Gesch. d. Med. astrological figures. On the ii. 338., and see the following note), but formula called " stratagem," which recurs in other literatures, see besides various other." Catal. p. 681.; dele 93 On the dubious author, v. sup. 13. n. 12. Against Saadja, he remarks in his Commentary to Jezira (in Dukes, Kontros, p. 75.), that
cf.

W.

''^

the calculation of knuckles, intended for common intercourse, does not proceed farther than 10,000, the manner of noting this number being described by him (according to this Rodiger's article in the Jahresber. d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellsch. 1845, 1846, p. 113., is to be supplied. Jellinek, Bet hamidr. iii. p. xxiii.., finds an allusion in the Hechalot, On the other hand, he remarks that without referring to our essay). it is easy to calculate on the table ( DpJD) with Indian numbers (PJD nin *>^2) larger sums by the combination of ten as unity. The Indians also have only nine signs (nvni&5, p. 77., does not mean '' letters"). On this subject he refers to his work on HIH 01 pit^n (or ''^in ; conf.
j__^A:^^
(,

>l*--.7=-,

Arithmetic, Cod. Ar., Leyden, 1055

vii.

hence Landauer's
1408), his work

reasoning,

Lit.

bl.

121., loses ground).

1.

Since he thus does not

c.

know
must

the existence of the zero (conf. Chasles,

title

xvi.

quoted under the

liM^J^? ^^2i^ ])2^n2 "llli'pi^ ni^DH (Zion, i. 47.) treat of the Arabic '^ powder writing, Gobar," discovered by Sacy
ii.

(vide Humboldt, Kosmos,

456.).

Our independent

conjecture has

been confirmed afterwards by

the

who gives Hebrew translation isyn "IDDD. In another translation (now in the Bodl.) we read plJ^H ISDD, "' number of powder." Munk refers to his
sur Aboulw. p. 51.),

Munk (Not.

communication in Reinaud, Me'moire Geogr. &c. p. SQQ. ; but the With respect to the author has not been able to consult this work. question which has of late been so much discussed, about the origin of the decimal notation and the so-called Arabian (Indian) numbers, it must still be remarked, that in the Algorism of Joh. Hispalensis, who was a born Jew and a translator from the Arabic (v. sup. n. 36. ; which

Chasles,
boldt,
(1. c.

1.

c.

xvi. 1400., xvii. 147., leaves unnoticed

ii.
;

conf.
'^'^

Von Hum-

Kosmos,

xvii. p. 148.

temenia" (8) 262.), the names *'^arba"(4) and according to which, Themeis, ib. p. 146., is to be

364
evdiKOL of the

NOTES TO

22.

corrected) are to be derived from Arabic or Chaldee; and in the apSfxoi monk Neophytos (Proselyte?) the form for 4 is dif-

ferent (vide
94

Humboldt, p. 456.). Rossi, Worterb. p. 82., Zunz, Geig. Zeitschr. iv. 189-, are to be corrected according to the author's Index, p. 331.
95

MS. Mich. 429.

[Page 192.
Prague
;

Uri, 448. 1.

Joseph ben Moses Zarphati,

Vat. 397. 2.
96

last line.]
;

Ibn Ezra on Exod. (shorter recension),

i.

p. 71., ed.

Maim, on Erub.
ii.

5.
1.

(where rf^DJ HD

^JJ^l;^-,

Ignorant)

conf. on

5.

Klajim.

iii.

22.

Page 193.

Geschichte der Medicin (1st ed.). Essai Hist. Lit. sur la Medecine des Arabes (Montpellier, 1805). Vide e. g. inf. n. 6I. cannot think that he understood the

We

Hebrew.
4
5

Sprengel, ii. 482., on the avarice of the David Pomis (De Med. Hebr.) does not know of this objection ;
particular pp. 10. 71
6

P. 259. Conf. P. 88.

clergy.

see in

d. Arab. Aerzte und Naturforscher (Gott. 1840). His notices are repeated by Carmoly in his Histoire des Medeciris Jwfs (inserted in the Revue Orientale, and also as a separate work,

Gesch.

Bruxelles,
timore,

1844 [which ed. we quote] ; in English by Dunbar, Bal1844 [which we have never seen] ; German extracts begun in the Kalendar and Jahrbuch fiir Israel, Vienna, 1854, p. 220., by M.

work exceedingly for its erudition, real critical but the promised continuation seems to have been wisely suppressed by the editors in the subsequent year), although Carm. quotes only Ibn Abi Oseibia, for instance, p. SQ., about the death of JoNA Ibn Gannah in 1121, where the Arabic author gives no date at all; and his own statement ("on sait" !), about 1045, has no authority That Carmoly, in this, as in all his whatever (see Catal. p. 1413.). writings, heaps together carelessness, plagiarisms, and inventions, especially as amplifications and exaggerations, has been sufficiently shown by Geiger (nn. I6. 34.) and others. Moreover, he brings too much nonAll those who are themselves not well medical literature into his book. acquainted with Jewish investigations still need this warning (as we have shown in the example of Engel). His falsifications, for the purpose of plagiarism, extend even to the titles and years of his own essays or '^ notices," which the reader, if he is at all able to get them, will find
Engel,
praises this
;
'^'

who

spirit,"

&c.

1.

c, with Revue, i..l78.. Lit. Journ. Asiat. 1831, p. 139.)-

from the quotations of Carmoly in his later writings (cf. e. g. bl. ii. 584., and Annal. ii. 225., with From Wiistenfeld and Carmoly, J. Bbug (De Med. lUustr. Jud. qui inter Arab, vixerunt, Halle, 1843) has compiled most uncritically, under the guidance of Fiirst (vide
diflferent

Catal. p. 1415.).
^

V.

inf.

examples of mistakes, the extent of which necessitated the

NOTES TO

22.

365

omission of many notices^ although the author has been able since to gain some more correct information from MSS. of the Bodleiana. Unfortunately
9

pnyn

^Jij

signifies

both to translate and

to transcribe.

See n. 25. 10 The influence of the laws relating to slaughter and forbidden foods can scarcely (or at any rate only for zoology and zootomy) be taken into
account.

Thus

e. g.

Israeli

(in

Sprengel_,

ii.

359.) designates pork as

good food; Maimonides (Ker. Chera. iii. 13., and the author's remark in the Oesterr. Blatt. 1845, p. 443.) might recommend it to the sultan_, if it was not forbidden to a Muhammedan. The contrary is rare, e. g. from the sixteenth century, Ker. Chem. vii. 124., cf. also yotin, ii. 31. sq. We must mention here the learned anon. Arabic essay on Cattlekilling in

the Bodl.

Library, already quoted

(supra, passim).
a

Jewish way of

cattle-killing has been recently, in

The German medical

journal (Medic. Jahrbiicher, 1855), criticised on modern physiological principles, and a reform proposed. But those who start only with the purpose of getting healthy food forget entirely the other point, viz, the moral influence of the manner of killing upon the man who kills. This point of view ought to have also been brought into account by the recent English censors, who speak of the tormenting of animals.
'1 Saadja (iv. 4. f. 32 [second of that number] b., Jehuda Halevi (v. Brecher's and D. Cassel's Introd. anatomy ("linn, mnj).

ed.
to

Amst.) and

Kusari) quote

Maimonides, himself a physician, does not like the philosophy of and indeed apostasy gained the ; greatest number of recruits from the class of physicians, but their station
the physicians from Galen to Israeli
in life
13

12

must

also be taken into account.

The

general dogmatism did not oppose the use of physicians (see

in Dukes, Blumenl. p. 32., and Spruchk. p. 13,, cf. Ibn Ezra on Exod. xx. p. 59- short recension). There is no trace of excessive modesty, e. g. against the operation of the stone, as among the Arabians (Amoreux, p. 111.). Sprengel (ii. 285.) asserts that the doctrine of torments in the grave, so pernicious to anatomy, came from the Jews ; but the oldest Jewish authority which mentions it is Saadja (9^3). See also Hammer, Gemaldesaal, i. 40.; Wien. Jahrb. C, p. 113.; conf. also Lit. bl. v. 777. and Another impediment, the doctrine of resurCatal. p. 576. no. 3527rection, is alluded to by Phocylides, according to Bernays, p. vii. On the aversion of the Arabians to anatomy, see also V. Humboldt, Kosraos_, ii. 254. 1^ Sprengel (ii. 270.), referring to Benjamin of Tudela, who, however, does not speak of Jewish medical schools. 1^ Sprengel (ii. 400.) here also refers to Benjamin (see ii. p. 29- ed. Asher), who, however, speaks only of the medical schools of the Chris-

different sentiments on physic, &c.,

tians and of learned Jews in general. On the other hand Clifton (in Amoreux, p. 255., Carm. p. 29.) names one Elisa, teacher of the Hebrew ; cf. Raumer, Gesch. der Hohenstaufen, iii. 482., quoted by S. Cassel, Ersch, s. ii. vol. xxvii. p. l64. n. 27. On the subject of rhymes
n. 17.
1^

Astruc in Amoreux,

p.

259*; Cuvier, Hist, d. Sciences Nat.

i.

366
387-:,
iv.

NOTES TO
in

22.

Humboldt, Kosmos, ii. 450. n. 3.; Steinschneider, Lit. bl. Die Juden in Oesterreich (Leipzig, 1844), vol. ii. p. 92.; Tbusen, Darstellung der bibl. Krankh. (Posen, 1843), p. 69., and see
6.;

inf. n.

39.

On

Carmoly's inventions (p. 35.) see Geiger, Zeitschr.

v.

46"3.

467.

^^^ It is probably Abu'l Fadhl's Pharmacopoeia which is made use of in the Raudhat el Atthar of Ibn Hadji (Cod. Arab. Flor. 242.). Maimonides was one of the three men, to meet whom AbdoUatif jour-

neyed
^^

to Egypt. See 20. n. 11.; similar to those of Salerno,

v.

Cod. Paris. Hebr.

424.
^^ Some by an anonymous Spaniard on fever. Cod. Leyd. 755., who copied in 1292, and composed according to Avicenna (we owe these specialities to Rev. Prof. Kuenen of Leyden). 19 Cod. Leyd. 763.; cf. inf. n. 31.?

20
21

Wolf.

i.

384.
ii.
;

258. (according to Freind ?) ; Grasse, ii. 1. 548.; from a mistake of Abulfar. p. 126., where we read '' Refert Ebn Jaljal Andolosenus Maserjewai^wm Medicwm Basorensem lingua Syrum, religione Judaeum fuisse, <Src., in ling. Arab. &c., transtulisse \" Tbn Djoldjol is the renowned Muhammedan author. 22 Not from the Hebrew, see the author's corrections of Wiistenfeld and Carmoly in Frankel, Zeitschr. iii. 404. n. 7. Sprengel (ii. 266.) speaks also of an Arabic translation made from the Hebrew, which the Jews had previously translated from the Greek. See, however, supra,

Sprengel,
p. I7.

Carm.

21. n. 10. -3 Catal. pp.

2^

11131124.
vol. xxiv. p.
ol

Constantinus is not a Jew (Encykl. ii. Viaticum is not a work of Israeli but of Ibn but he quotes Jewish authorities (see CataL 25 Munk, Annal. iii. 84,

218.

and

his

Gezzar, pupil of Israeli),

p.

1123.

inf. n. 34.).

26 Carmoly (pp. 59- 67.) makes two persons, different in name age, out of the same. On his inventions about Ibn al Nakid

and
see

Catal. p. 1933.
27 A correct and probably complete list of genuine and spurious medical works ascribed to Maimonides is first given in Cafal. p. 1917. sq., where adde inf. n. 39. and a MS., recently purchased, in Bodl. 28 Conf. Ibn Djoldjol, Encykl. ii. Bd. 15. p. 30. 29 Sacy ad Abdallat. On the mistakes of Carmoly see Th. p. 497. Cohn, Lit. bl. ii. 649., and on this treatise conf. Wiistenf. 242. ; it is also mentioned by Abraham ben David, Emuna Rama, p. 4920 He would appear to be the unknown author of the MS. Escur, 888. 1. (Casiri), where mention is made of a cure of fever by cold

water.
31

Escur,

826.

2.,

''

teacher " (Grasse,

ii.

1.

553.)

is

incorrect.
'*

Upon anno 975

and other inventions in Carm. p. 32., cf. n. 1931a Catal. p. 1120. (Wolf. i. n. IQSg.?). Isaac ben Missim HaSAKEN (ante 1342); Vat. 36l. 32 Paris, 400. The work, copied for the physician Abu Ishak Jehuda BEN Astilag(.J^), 1387 (Cod. Escur. 868.), is perhaps the
(!),

Aphorisms of Maimonides ?

NOTES TO

22.

367

33 Carmoly (p. 29-) says that nothing is known of his medical works and makes Sab. a pupil of the school of Salerno, like " Abulhakim," who taught Arabic (Bart. i. 29., Wolf. i. 32.), and Farraguth JeUinek makes him (p. 82.; see inf. after n. 37.), and others. practise 40 years in Modena, not observing that '' Modin " in Biscioni must be a typographical error for " Modim/' and this a mistake for DHIX given by F. Lasinio. On these and other mistakes see Catal. s. V. p. 2233. 34 Catal. On Carmoly's plagiarisms and distortions see p. 1123. Geig. Zeitschr. v. 463. 467. To these probably belongs also the misplacement of '^ JocHANAN Jarchuni" into the thirteenth century and to His recent Montpellier (p. 91-; see Ersch. s. ii. vol. 31. p. 83. n. 17.). Our view of the statements (Lit. bl. xii. 372.) are partly more correct. origin of the book (entirely neglected by Jellinek, Donolo, p. vi., cf. Bet hamidrasch, iii. p. xxxii., and sup. 13. n. 3.) is confirmed by the name AsAP BEN Barachia (jApLxp [sic] vloQ 'Ipai^Lov in the Greek Viaticum, not explained by Daremberg), whom the Muhammedan legends know as the author of some w^orks ; see Catal. s. v. Salomo b. David. The physician and grammarian Koreish (in Ewald, Beitr. p. 121.) understands by ni&51S"l 'D (as it must be called) medical Jiterature generally like Maimonides, in a passage (Deot. iv. 21.) which has been repeatedly mistaken for a special quotation (Catal. p. 1870.).

See 5. n. 25.; conf. 13. According to Wiistenfeld; sect. ii. vol. xxii. p. 225.) admits 35b In the Encykl. he is twice
35 a

35

n. 3.

on the other hand, Fliigel (Encykl. only one, viz. the younger.
treated of

by

Fliigel,

once as Djezia
ii.

(sect.
36

ii.

vol.

xiv.

p.

186.),

and again

as Djozla (sect.

vol. xxiv.

p. 201.).

In Carmoly the family Ibn Zuhr,

is

as

also

Ishak ben
p.

Amran

(who
37

divided into three persons!

see
ii.

Syrian Joshua Ibn

Nun
:

(conf. Annal.

1115.) and the 96.) appear as Jews.

Catal.

Catal. p. 1308. (Frankel, Zeitschr.

iii.

279-).

[Page 197.

Farad J

see author's notice in Zeitschr. der

Deutsch

Morgenl. Gesellsch. viii. 548., to which we must further add that the Arabic author of the " Tacuinus " is named in some MSS. Ibn Botlan (Wustenfeld 133. ed. Argent. 1531), not Ibn Djezia. Faradj also translated from the Arabic (probably of Honein) Galen's ^' De Medicinis Experimentatis " (unknown in Greek) ; the authorities (consisting partly in Latin MS. in Oxford) will be given in the Additions
to Catal. p.
38

979-]
Wolfius,
is
'^^

MS.

Uri, 440.

iv. p.

86I., translates

'"'

ad

mandatum

Friderici;" but ni''11J^2

in the stables."

39 He translated (or ordered translations of) some Hebrew works out of Hebrew, for instance (1299) the Astronomy of his colleague

Propiiatius (sup. p. 187., Catal. p. 2113.) and Maimonides on Antidotes to Poison (sup. p. 193.) ; he is named in the Latin MS. of The year 1 306 in our text was taken from Christ-Church, no. cxxv. the Hebrew translator ; if our view of the work is correct, it would be Averroes' Commentary on Ibn Sina's poem 1287 (Renan, p. 172.), perhaps itself translated out of the Hebrew? (cf. Renan, p. I96.). 40 Erroneously '' Barnabas " (Vat. 366, 1. [conf. MS. Munic. 288. 1.]

368
Rossi, Cod. Lat. 59.
p.
J

NOTES TO
1.;

22.

conf. 59, S.\)

and

*^

Ranellus

*'

(Biscioni,

53,).

'^^ So are to be corrected the names of authors on the subject of the plague (Catal. Vien. clviii. ; cf. also Zunz, Catal. 1850, p. 12.). In Janus, 1852, vol. ii. p. 401., the Hebrew translation is not mentioned, and generally no notice is taken of the Hebrew authorities. 42 Carm. p. 108, 43 Par. 422. 2. (on Epidemics), Sprengel, ii. 538., names two distinct persons; conf. also Grasse, ii. 2. 594^. 646. Thus the date could be determined from the Hebrew translations ; cf. also Janus, ib. p. 419. (a.d. 1377-1410). 44 Par. 420.; Rossi, Cod. 1281. Opp. 1646 Q.; the Latin work is in Cod. Lat. clxxi. of New-College in Oxford (Catal. p. 67.j. where Coxe supposes "' Salernitanus " [Jo. Nic. Rogerius]). It is certainly not the Chirurgy of Roger of Parma, whom Sprengel, in the Index, confuses with Roger son of Robert Guiscard. Hence the notice of Carmoly, Itiner. pp. 330. 347*, seems one of his inventions. On the Hebrew translator see inf. n. 52. 45 Hebr. VT^JH 'D (MS. of the late Dr. Schonberg at Berlin) concludes with the remark that it is called nK"'^"jn^X i^pT'V among Christians. The author has found it identical with the Latin ed. 1497. Biscioni (p. l63., conf. Wolf. i. 1381.) confuses it with the Halacha work of Meir of Trinquetaille (vide 9.). Some doubts and errors in Amoreux (p. 98.) and Sprengel (ii. 463.) must be removed conf. Grasse, ii. 2. 536. 569. 46 The title nnnj 'D in Pasini, p. 80. (Zunz, Geig. Zeitschr. iv. 191.)? is a mistake; and probably Jehuda Ibn Castiel (or Caspiel) was not a translator, but a copyist. 47 have omitted Joseph Kolon, because he is not the author of MSS. Opp. 1138, 1139. fol., whose main part is the anon. -)2^^1^^ (see Ersch. s. ii. vol. xxxi. p. 83. n. I6.) 48 Par. 420. Conf. Menahem Zebi ben Nathanel pTID at Sinigaglia (1474), translator of a compendium of logic. 49 There were several authors of that name, and not all Jews older ; quotations (e. g. in Razi's Antidotarium) refer probably to one of the Syrians of that name (Wiistenf. 28. sq.). 50 De Rossi, Cod. 1053. {" ad mag. Gabteir," perhaps Gauthier, according to Zunz), confounds the renowned Liturgist with him ; see

We

Catal. p. 1228.
51

of Opp. attributes to him the translation of Roger Brocarde (n. 44.) without sufficient reason ; his name occurs only f. 157., before a new tract. 53 See Oesterreichische Blatter, ] 845, p. 288.
54

52

MS. Michael. ; The MS. Catal.

see

Index Auctorum.

54a Gagnier
spell LatiA:.
55

Opp. 1139 F. and

Pasini,

Uri, 422., could

not read the

name which

they

Cod. 80.
;

3.,

mistake for
56
.57

Natan

in Cod.

where " Cohen " is more than probably a Opp. 1139 F. the name is corrupted.

Carm. p. 108. Wolf. 1727.

similar abundance of authorities in

MS. Geig.

NOTES TO
Zeitschr,
iii.

22.

369
;

4-48.

n. 49is

and some other anonymous MSS.

the au-

thorship of Natan ^^ See Caial. s.

^^

rather doubtful.

v,

Rossi, ll68.

Carmoly knows nothing of his medical works. Carmoly (p. 106.) again knows nothing of the meclx.;

dical
60

works themselves. MS. Mich. 772. 5.; Vienna, 1440, Opp. 938 F.).
6^

Wolf.

i.

730. (a copyist a. b.

Amoreux,

p.

200.,

(p. 52.),

would identify him with Abu Daud

although stating that the work is Hebrew el Antaki, who wrote in

s. ii.

Arabic.
62

See the author's article Joseph ben Isaac in Ersch,

vol.

xxxi.

pp. 82, 83.

MS. Leyd. Leg. ^Varn. 40. Carmoly Wolf. iii. iv. n. 455. (I'pll), whence Castro, i. p. 2>^5. cf. Wolf. iii. n. 1883 b. (n'pp), i. (p. 121.) adds, '^in the year 1450"
64
;

63

439.

(fl^5^^^:l);

^h\> in Opp. IJ39 F.

f.

72.

is

Khalaf (,_dU-)

Ibn

Abbas, renowned under the name of Zahrawi (sup. p. 197-)6^ Carm. See Assem. Cod. 360. 2>^Q, (p. 131.) confuses the place. 367. and Wolfius, who gives the year ] 478. 66 See the Art. Joseph ben Isaac (1. c. in n. 62.). 67 Vat. The name ^t^nSDS* 372, ].; conf. 2,^%, 1., Wolf. i. 2047. (Esperial }') appears in later times. 68 Sup. As "Physics" (the nature of bodies) it 12. n. 3. belongs to Philosophy (Sprengel, ii. 408.). Humboldt (Kosmos, ii. 248. 282.) considers the Arabians as founders of Physics proper; still this appears especially in the form of alchemy. 69 Penini, Defence against Aderet. ''o Jourdain, p. 201. See Humboldt's reference to the study of nature properly so called (Kosmos, ii. p. 31. n. 51.), so much the more strange as he founds his argument on Jourdain's conclusions
respecting the interdict of the works of Aristotle (sup. 11.). 71 Vide Pills of Elieser ^^ in 11t^ " are mentioned in 17. n. 23.

MS.
72

Scaliger.

5.

f.

32.
(in

Thus
;

e. g.

line 12. Jacob ben Rkuben's work, as the author has found out since, is a translation of the renowned poem of JMarbod, Bishop of Rennes (ob. a. d. 1123) ; hence the king is not Alexander.] 72 a ^\^ith respect to medicine v. Amoreux, p. 26. 73 See Amoreux (p. 26.) ascribes the use of astrology 13. n. 7in medicine to the Arabians, while Sprengel (ii. 415.) asserts that he Some older traces of Arabian magic has found nothing of the kind. might be found in Sprengel, pp. 129- 142. Of the sorceries of the Arabians, see Ibn Zarzah (not t5D5<1D) quoted by Allemanno (Schaar Joseph ben Elieser (on Exod. xx. ) also appeals to hacheshek, 1 b.). Indian and Arabian images and talismans; and Samuel Ibn Tibbon

England cf. [Page 201.

Sam. Ibn Tibbon Catal, p. 1014.

1200)

tells

of the rise of a hiJl in

The history of these suintroduced the Arabic term, techn. jllT'D. perstitious " sciences " must of course begin in the former period, regarding which valuable contributions are given by Eliasberg (whose work, however, is only known to the author through the notice in
B B

370
Lit. bl. V. 691., xi.

NOTES TO
579

22.

in

Kochbe Jizchak, touches upon that

collected,

), and Brecher (p. 276. n. 26.), as well as the notes of J. L. Mises to

whose epistle Del Medigo,

subject.

Treatises for our period are not

known

to the author, neither has he as yet been able to

work out

the materials

the subject being alike difficult and interesting in its close VFe must confine our observations connexion with general literature. to a short notice on the writers and works belonging to this branch a. The parts and branches of magic and witchcraft are given in the

work of Jehuda Ibn Bolat (p. 260.). general dissertation on witchcraft was composed by Geoalja Ibn Jahja (p. 251.) ; here belongs also the Responsum on practical Kabbala ascribed to Hai, remarkable for the sober and sound principles contained in it ; also Ibn Ezra and others, even the pseudo-prophet Abraham Abulafia, condemn those who pretend to do wonders with
encyclopaedical
h.

the

name of God (Tetragrammaton).

Comp. MS.

Vatic.

245

^.

Individual branches, or superstitions, are illustrated by several authors. Johanan Allemanno quotes a '^ chapter" of Nachmanides on Necromancy (in its narrower sense) ; cf. n. 77* An essay of Abraham ben Isaac Levi of Gerona, on the " night women " (D*"^^ nivvn), composed a. r>. 1380 (^Catal. p. 693.), has been discovered by the author in the Bodl. According to Carmoly (p. 104.), Jacob of Toledo (conf. Zunz, Syn. Poesie, p. 40 A. 1348; cf. a correspondent of Arnold de Villanova in De Castro, ii. 7^3., and an older monk of that name in Jourdain, p. 113.) wrote on the evil eye of the magicians. Meir ben Eleazar wrote on the evil eye in general (two years before the French exile), from the medical point of view, and knows of no predecessor on the subject (omitted by Uri, 464.). The astrological medicine of Arnold de Villanova and others was disseminated by translators. d. Several older titles of tracts treating of the practical Kabbala have been mentioned in 13. n. 7. a special branch is formed by* the use (p'\'0'^t^) of sacred books for different purposes, as therapeutic, auguc.
;

ristic,

4066., and

&c., for instance, the use of Psalms (Q''7nn C^1?D''Si^, see Catal. no. inf. n. 81.). Moses de Leon (DE^H, pref.) mentions also

Analogous use niinn ^^ID^S^ and t^t^lTI "K^ID''^ (cf. is. n. 7.) of Koran and Psalms, &c., is to be met with amongst Muharamedans and Christians (see n. 81.) ^1D''^ of stars, &c., see Zarzah, f, 101 d. "^^ They are also quoted by Abraham Ibn Ezra (on Exodus, ii. 10.) ; and comp. Zarzah, f. 102.; the authorities in the author's Fremdsprachl. Elem. p. 10. n. 20.; conf. Lit. bl. vii. 233. (the explanation of niDDltD as spectacles!); Encykl. ii. vol. xv. p. 32. ; Wiistenfeld, 96. ; Sprenger, De Orig. Med. Arab. p. 8. Botticher (Zeitschr. d. d. m. Gesellsch. vii. 408.) has found in the Arab. MS. parts of Apollonius (see note 77.). Here, probably, also belongs the work De Agricultura, said to be translated from the Chaldee (Syriac?) into A.abic by '' Abulhacen," and into Spanish by Jehuda [ben Moses Kohen], l)hysician to Alfonso XII. (.?), if the whole notice is not a mistake (see Catal. p. 136l.). '^^ Catal. s. V. Salomo b. D. ; cf. note 74- abovie, and note 77. below. ^^ Uri; 442.^', certainly the same in Casiri, i. 403. 77 Uri^ 434.; cf. Wolf. iv. pp. 841, 842., and Catal. pp. 1402, 1403.

nm

NOTES TO
To
the

22.

371
magic,

same

class

belong the

many works on
those

alchemy, &c.,

under

diflferent

titles^

especially

of Raziel (see

13.

n. 3.),

up to the 18th century, under the name of King Solomon A list of more than thirty titles of such tracts (partly still extant) is given in Catal. s. v., where the author thinks he has shown that even the very few of them extant in Hebrew
Clnvicula, &c., forged at different periods
!

(Raziel is not to be confounded with the printed book of that name), or quoted by Jews (since the 13th century), do not originate in old Hebrew works, but spring especially from Arabic and Christian sources^ a very important circumstance for the history of that pseudo-literature. To these sources belong two works, both known to Johanan Allebianno, the industrious and zealous collector of everything connected with Solomon's supposed supernatural or metaphysical wisdom. One is the Hebiew translation of a magic work of Abu Aflah al-Saracosti (this is certainly the correct spelling), partly still extant in MS. Munich. 214. ; the other is the translation of Apollonius (sup. n. 75.), whom the Arabs call " Belinus," and whom hence some catalogues, &c., confound with Phnius. To Galen was ascribed an astrological and pneumatical work (conf. 11. n. 22", and Catal. p. 1703.). The Book of the Moon (niQ"?!! 'D), on necromancy, quoted by Nachmanides (Rapop., Chananel, n. 15.), is perhaps the magic work of Abu'l Kasim Maslamah al-Medjriti (of Madrid, ob. a. d. 1007 cf. Wustenfeld, 122.), of which certainly a Hebrew translation exists in the Cod. Munich. 214., although several other works of that kind treat especially of the twenty-

eight

" mansiones" (niJriD) of the moon; for instance, that extant under the name of Hermes (who is considered the same as Enoch), in the Latin MS. of Christchurch, 145. (p. 45. of Coxe's Catal.), which is certainly of Arabic origin ; (probably also Galen's Comm. on Hermes' Lib. Secretorum, in the same codex, and comp. the German MS. of Llpsic, n. 734. p. 193., of Naumann's Catal., Hermetis Hebrcei Geheiranisse von deren Stunden des Tags, &:c. ; also the Latin printed book of

Hermes

''^de Juiliciis et Signif.

Stellarum beibeniarura"

[i.e.

trepidan-

which is extant in Hebr. translation, see Catal. All this leads us to suppose the same sources ; if we find p. 2144.). anonymous quotations of such works in authors of this period, for instance, the Book of Talismans (we read Dl^ODT'tO instead of 'iDtD^D, in Ibn Zarzah, f. 21.), quoted by David Ibn Bilia, &c. Dukes (Lit. bl. viii. 472) doubts whether the book '12 of Ptolomaeus is still extium, viz. fixed
stars]

tant

but it is the Arabic Laj. The title of the Centiloquium, and Coram, ascribed to Ibn Rodhwan in the printed Latin translation^ is the same which the Hebrew translator Kalonymos (1314) ascribes The error of Wento Abu Djaafer Ahmed ben Jusuf ben Ibrahim. rich (p. 236.) will be corrected in the Catal. of the Leyden MS. on Cod. Scalig. 14. 78 Cf. Cicero, De Divin. i. 3. The 9th chapter of the Talmudical tract Berahotis almost an oneirocriticism ; on the book Razim, see 13. n. 3. Samuel ben Chopnj, in expounding the dream of Jacob, entered The moat large upon oneirocriticism ; which is blamed by Ibn Ezra. nography Dl'pnn T]1i^ of Shemtob Palquera, only known by his own
;

the

B B

372
quotation,

NOTES TO

22.

the Arabs and

was probably pbilosophical, according to the principles which Jews drew from Aristotle's De Somno et Vigilid (part of

the Parva Naturalia, called

De Sensu

et Sensato).

The impostor

Botarel

gives a formula for dreams, which he asserts to have been proved by Saadja

and many other authorities. In the following period monographies were composed on dreams by Moses Almosnino (Spanish) and (a.d. 1557) Gedalja Ibn Jahja (not extant) ; and, before both, there was an interesting one by Solomon Almoli (cir. 1515), who names as his authorities
1. Talmud; 2. Hai Gaon (see n. 79-) ^- ^^^ tract ^' ascribed to Solomon Isaki (Rashi) ; 4. Joseph p''^Vn, which means the Patriarch Joseph (see Catal. p. 1542.), Daniel the prophet, and different others, some not Jews. With respect to the works ascribed to patriarchs and prophets, we may suppose the same source as that stated in n. 77. Indeed, A. Bland, in bis essay On Muhammedan hiterpretation of Dreams
5

"

Journ. of the Roy. Asiat. Soc. 1854, vol. xvi. p. i.), points out as amongst others, Daniel (p. 123.), Joseph (p. l6l.), and the Jews Hay ben Akhtab (perhaps hence Hai Gaon?), Kaab ben Ashraf, and Musa ben Jacub. The author has had no opportunity to inquire about the Latin Salomonis et Danielis Somnia, Ven. 15l6, which, however, is not of Hebrew origin. ^^ Catnl. p 1029-; and see the preceding note. 80 See, however, Catal. p. 2218. Cf. ?]DDn \>p'h, in Wolf. ii. p. Ibn Ezra also scorns Alchemy. 1299-:> with Cod. Urb. 26. }
(in

authorities,

Wolf. (i. 211.) translated Midrash Threni 1308. (Jalk. on Ez. xxi. 26.) speaks of the Arabian method of augury from the liver. Cf. Bainidbar Rabba, cap. I9., "1''''^, and the parallel in Pesikta; cf. Kimhi, ad i. Reg. 4. 32. ap. Losius, Biga Dissert, p. 21., and Landau, s. v., who finds here a trace of Ordeals. We have mentioned above, p. 191-5 some astrologers by profession who were of rank some others were renowned as soothsayers, &c. On Moses Cohen see the Resp. attributed to Hai, p. 5Q. On Abraham ""Dnp (Wolf. i. 143.), vide Ker. Chem. ii. 40., vi. I9I. ; Annal. ii. 248. (a Joshua ben ""D^p,
p.

Vide Emmanuel, Mechabb.

197.

Sabbatai's article incorrectly;

cf.

Catal. p.

Jer. Pesach. cap. 6.).

The

use of Holy Scripture for soothsaying (like

iii.), is founded on the old custom of asking children for verses of the Bible, vide Lit. bl. viii. 809* ; and cf. n. 73 d. The augury by arrows belongs to the Arabians ; conf. 0pp.

the Koran, vide Sale,

Introd. cap.

1175

g.

82 Arab. MS. in Hebrew characters, Flor. 537. (in Evod. Assem. and Bisc. in Oct.); cf. preface of Biscion. in foL p. xxxvi., and Abraham Zacut, f. 26 b., ed. Amst. 83 Jeh. Tibbon (transl. of Emunot, v. introd.) has introduced the Arabic word (cf. Zarzah, f. 92. ; AUemanno, f. 2 a.). Ibn Chisdai (translation of the Ethics of Chasali, p. 124.) has the Hebrew. According to Rapop. (Nathan, n. 32. p. 40.), Sherira is the first Gaon who attaches any value to Chiromancy ; the passage quoted belongs to the Responsum of Hai (perhaps also to that of Sherira), which the author has discovered and published in Ha-techija of S. Sachs, p. 42., and is in close connexion with the " divine physiognomy," if we may

so speak

see Catal.

p.

5S3.

On

a cheiromantic tract ascribed to

Me-

NOTES TO
NAHEM

22.

373

said to be an Indian author.

RiECANATi (omitted by Uri), see Catal. p. 1734. ; the source is Also in Uri, 496. f. 446., there is an
PjDn

anonymous
Aristotle
is

nnit^

'y*!.

As

late as

Jacob ben Mardochai (1706),

the pretended authority for Chiromancy

principles of

physiognomy go back

as far.

On

and nideed the ; the physiognomist

On MaiSabbatai Hajewani (ante 1263), v. Catal. p. 2238. monides' censure of the physiognomical sayings of Ben Sira, vide Spruchb. f. Jiid, Schulen by Horwitz and Steinschneider, p. 102. n.
84

Vide

20. n.

34

a.

CORRECTIOKS AND ADDITIONS.

left to

be corrected by the intelligent reader;

'Unimportant and easily recognizable errors are tlie hehrew printo

ting errors are corrected in the Index.

VVe have also given here some references

notes, to Mhich

such correcting
text.]

no direct reference

is

given

in

the

Page 48

lin.

penult.

History,
r. p.

read Uhiories,

49 72 74

1.5, belovr^,

5 3.

footnote after bloss'' adder

I.

or Hebr,
is

riNT

N^D

10: referred

to by,

r.>Yhich

considered to be a

com-

pend. of

Ahron Kohen's OrhotHayim (composed

to a recent
is

about! 340);

Ahron -svas of Majorca, according The older Ahron Kohen o{ Lunel

essay of Luzzatto.

a fiction, see Catal. p.

1689.

86 89 92
..
.

1.16
1.4 1.4

Iike

the last''
r.

r.

like

Anatoli himself.
p.

,,1332"

1232.

from bottom (see notes

360)

r.

Prophiat Tibbon

1306.
:

96 1.5 after collection adde at that time at Hannover, 98 1.2 Taish leg. Jaisch. 100 1.13 fr. bot. after ancient, adder estimation of. 104 1.1 1 fr. bot.: by the author(?). Should it be HiLLEL

BEN Samuel,

and the Paris M^. only an See the Hebr. passage in Litbl. 1. c.

extract of

]D"n?
(?).

107 1.3 fr. bot.: old book Raziel attributed See however the inquisitions quoted p,371.
1.3
1.

to

Salomon

- 110
Ill

Elhanan,
Shemtob
1305

cf.

a^i^aZ.

p.2096.
a
little

ult.

and p.lll 1.1-3: the passage has become

confused;

wrote

in

1325
when

at

Safet the most interesting

(and perhaps latest) of his works:

probably about

in Spain,

of

Acco was
three

there (see
see

ISAAC BEN ToDROS lived also Isaac ben Samuel New researches about p. 113,115).
in

these

authors

Catal.

who was
des,
as

also to be mentioned as

s. v. Schemtob Ibn Gaon, supercommentator on Nachmani-

well as

Joshua Ibn Shoeib

the

(p.

115). In two MSS.,

the one anonymous,

other erroneously inscribed

in Bodl.),

Joel Ibn

Shoeib (both recently purchased

in

we

found Ibn (and

(p.

one also

Ahraham\)

Ezra instead of

Ezra

109); hence
Naftali

the

conjecture in note

29

p. 307

gains a solid basis.

Treves mentiones

ben" Ezra between the

manides and Shemtob!

cc

376
Page 114
1.5
fr.

CORRETIONS
bof.

The same circumstance

his

occasioned

Moses

DE Leon
1161.12.
if

to write

work ha-Shem.
has, happily, not

Our misgiving

been quite confirmed,

we

have not been mistaken

French g-overnment has got

Sebastopol.

by a private report, that the some old Karaitic MSS. from

like

We

have not heard anything the

of a
private
letter

from England,

although
purpose.

we know

having been directed

from, and to, a Reverend gentleman

of that country, to that

119 1. ult SUTA r. SlTA. 124 1.14 fr. bot. 1405 r. 1415. 126 1.6 & 4 fr. bot. see p.317. 127 1.10 other authors, adder of Pdemics. The relation of Chajjim Galipapo however was inserted into his Comm. on
tract.

Semachol,
1.12
1.9
1.

but has been omitted by

the

writer

of

the

recently purchased

133

128 130

fr.

bot.

MS, before Maimon. adde

Bodl.

Abraham ben

David.
rhyming
D'LDTli^).

V.

p.319.

ult.:

Matatja ben Moses

Muhammedism and
lettres,
r.

[Jizhari?] wrote in
(]1d'?L1

prose against
1.19:

Christianism

ornamental

ornaments of the

letters;

cf. p.

323

n.22.

135 1.11 fr. bot. 1169 r. 19169. 140 1.16 adde: Benjamin ben Jehuda of Rom (about 1300?), whose tract is printed (see Catal. p. 1840, according to which the querv of Fiirst, Litbl. 1849 p.431, is to
be answered).
1.2

151 153

but

144 145

Elam
fr.

r.

1.16
1.5

bot.

Elem. Irani

r.

Trani.

fr.

bot. instaed of
bot.

1.13
1.

fr.

1260
r.

r.

ult.

after

recur
]D.

r. part of this essay. 1612. mostly every seventh distichon,

arrangement

1.16
1.17

pNleg.

prayers with music"

r.

melodical prayers.

1.18 he, see

lin.

p336! Gabirol.

instead of: which obtain etc., r. who have favoured the synagogue with their compositions (the author alluded to Halevi, Meyerbeer and others, and would by no means say, that the synagogue had any objection

155

penult.,

little

to their

compositions!).

167
see

1.2

Samuel
s. v.

b.

Solomon

belongs to the Commentators,

of the Leyden

Catal,
1.7:
1.3

168
171

1449
Karlin

r.
r.

1466, see

Catal.

MSS.
wrote a

pDin

]D

(corr. Catal.

p.l897)

rhylmical paraphrase of the Moreh.

CORRECTIONS
Page 173 1.5 fr. bot Ibn Sira r. ben S. 183, different emendations v.p.Zb^.

377

184 passage p. 185 185 1123-42

1.16 Meriti
r.

Medjriti.
x.,

1.13

fr.

bot.

Alph.

tJiither

belongs

the

additional

lin.2.

1.13
1,9

r.

(v.

186

fr.

bot.

movement

p.357 n.45) and ^i^'p^X. of, adde: the equinox or fiaied

(cf. p. 357 n.52). 189 1.16-19, see p.360 n.70. 190 1.7 1465 r, 1461. 196 1.18 Izaigh r. Szaigh or SsaigJi, 197 1.4 fr. bot. 1457 r. 1451, cf. p.849 n.41. 199 1.12 Is. Lat. ben Jehuda etc., r. ben Jaacob in Provence, probably the same as mentioned p. 77 n. 12 (A. 1372) - 201 1.12 see p.369. 203 end of the Feischer I. Fleischer.

stars, or octava sphaera''

208
to

1,13

fr,

bot. delei

his teachers;
p.

his

teacher refered only

is

Baruch
1.18
fr.

(also in

Catat
a

864

David Ibn Jahja

a

erro-

neously said teacher of W.).

212

bot.

in

notice of
the

parody"
the

is

mistake:

the parody

forms

only

mottos of

chapters;

and
?).

is

216 219 222 232 240 251 262

probably composed by
1.19
**key",
fr.

Elia Magistratos (=Parnas

meaning- indeed a mere Index.

1.14
1.8

bot.

1622 r. 1556. 1639-1664 r. 1663-1675.

before
is

1.20:
1.

1675

the year of print,

the

author oh. 1671.

antepenult,
ult.

1.

commentary, adde: on the Psalms, 1762 r. 1746 (when Solomon died).

bot.

1.12
is

fr.

down
r.

to

1587,

r,

1553,

the year of

com-

position

1583
Pereira

(6atoZ. p.2403).
Peiresc.

I. ult.

NOTES.

274n.71: end Ta, r. 7a. 275 n. 25 r. Jew. authors claim even more against the neglect. 279 n. 54 1.7 margin, r. space or time. 281 n.82. Lately B. Beer has published a monography on
the

Book of
1.5

Jubilees.

286 295

adde:

Luzzatto, // Giudaismo
Cod.
1

1,42.

n. 29

(neglected).

704Q. f.l30

abjuration

of those parts of the Moreh,

contains a solemn which might contra-

dict the

tradition,

dated 29. Tebet 5227.

Ssaid,
is

297 n.8 1. penult.: ben Said, r. 300 The work of LuzzATTO

Gorice (Gdrz).

see

p.355 n.29.
in

not

printed

Paris

but

cc2

378
Page 305
1.5

CORRECTIONS
before:
it

Is,

adde:

where
read:

(viz.

in

the

rhyme)

at

the beginning" of the tract

we

I David ben Jehuda;'^

Tabjomi

seems

indeed Jomt. Muhlhausen,

who

might

be the

309 313 n. 32 end, adde: and to whom they have been afterwards achnowledged by Jost, Culturgeschichle p.ll2n.ll. -^ 315n.ll, adde Litbl.X.blO. - 320 1.5 fr. bol,: Tuynboii, t, JuynbolL - 322n.l4, adde: LitbLX,3S9, 330 n.5 the german words ought to have been translated: Anan's deduction of the circumcision to be made with scis-

real

author or the retractator (Ca^a/. p.2415). to P.114; see also Cia/. p.2092.

sors

from Josua V,2.

n 8
after

341

Dulles etc.,

adde:

still

following the strange

betiveen the old

mistake of M. Sachs. 346 n. 9 betwen Age and Youth";

r.

and
LitbL

young man, the author is 349 n.41 end has become

perhaps
itself

SHEMxaB
lillle

Paiquera?
In

confused.

VI,148 two authors are confused, in Litbl. IX, 797 perhaps the two works, since MS. Saraval XXXVIII contains also the
printed-^
cf.

also

Litbl.

(sic)

255.
r.

350n.54 15r Zarzah

tion
it

as dead,

Saba,
lo the author),

3581.1, adde: the first (known

attracted, is

whose atten^

Azaria

tie

Rossi

(chap. XI).

358 n.55 ABRAHAM etc. seems not a mere copist, since l&e same work is in Ibe library of the Bet ha-midrash if> London n.3061; the author had only one moment to glance at it (in 1853), and lo note, that he quotes the Arithmetik (Np'riDnnx) of Nicomachus (cf. p.356 n.37). 362n.83, cf. p.371. 363 1.8 fr. bol. adde : nor does he know from what jour^
it is a ,ytirage a part^'. 365 n.l3 Shemlob b. Isaac (p.362

not

n.83, where read 1254-64),

in his

preface to Alzaharavi, says that he could not help trans-

which are against the Jewish laws* 370,d, see Jellinek, Beitr. 11 p. XI and Shemtob Gaon lo NachCod. Rossi 563,*^; Wolf. anon, n.696. manides preface.
lating things

368n.46:

probably,

r.

certainly

Jaacob ben

etc.

The following Inde^^ is printed hebrew books from the right to

in

the
left.

form of

the

XXIV

XXlll

328

{sic)

\^J^
r^'
lODiPN*

313 ,-^V^ 269 s-^

142.321

117

359
155.337 a':np, ]rh

^yi
^|,-^

^.^J
301

153 -Ai;

338 296 o-^*^-^"^ 335 312

^U^l
360

(V^)
J'

^y^

117.310 VO^DHQ (jjj-^<>^

278
156.336

291 nSS 358 nns

Jsi^

284 o^-L^
166
(*ic)

C5^^
pD^NI
361
nj^^ia

347 nvsin'ia
158.341 n^n-Q

^^^

335

^^"'"IQ

^3^^-^

290 n^NDQ
298
157
(5ic)

155

,.-:S^-c

d^^

336
101

O^jf*"

o-^'^5 c-^

136

(sic)

J..*.;ui^'t

179

j^^

153 pjUa^
133
(sic)

ojliJi

297
302

AoUw
*Jt-iii^

202 L^r't 200 K^uu^iiait 202 i^Uiii^

351 p^f^^

295
171

(.c)

314 *^ nis:o^

298

>rj'i-^^

o-^^

342 vi^Ui

(sic) iC^.?^
(sic)

345

(sic)

b'^HUbi^

151.335

.-w^^

J^Uit 310 ,Tp3

317

(sic)

i;-=w^ 327 y^i

J-J

107

4^^
Aj!^

362

(5ic)

321.365

152

151

184
151

_^_^^-^.
b'A;^

152 o33
118.312 o^^^J^'

(sic)

104

O'

l\

^JO"

CC 3

B) ARABIC.
317 n'hJi
164 y^:fUt
154,

Ul^J
.,y.^M^S>\

338

^SOlXJ^

^*/iC>,Jl

359 OU..:^! (^.j1) 326 {sic) ^^j>.

90

(^.^-^t {sic)

^S^\
H3^^^

334 (j^U:>. 364 n^^nj

327 326

171.346

{8ic)

195^1^^
156 -^y^j 291 *-iSS 117
^.j-jjJt

C5^^
nj^n^i^

134

(sic)

'^j>
^.^;_55.

iyoS

158
137
^^^^aJI

117 o-^^-^^^ 149 ^wS

350 V^-^^^^^
363
nDlJ^N* DJ^on

184 nan^N*
lS^.279 u^W^^ 305 iwsU^

363 (^'-^^^ ujLw.=>

321
^ai:>

282 pND^
130
{sic) KxiLXil (sec)

i?n

J^^

369 wai^
53
;3L:^s3

328

vLJ:^l_^y
326

VW
/Lxwo

166 ^L^^ 156 n'Dn c^vjj^o 359 Dpsn^N

156 c^u;
157 HDnn

275

I:iA.s^o

120 jt^^
153

282

J-J^'^*

346 i^^ 290 n^NOn 359 DNp-li?^

302 VwiuLQ^i! jAj
351

326.339 ^wiuJLj
137.151

341
156.279
(sec)

"^-^
^-v^^*^'

'^^^j

142.321

156

J^^
Hn::!

152

J^:^^:tO
g-'jaJJj

297

328

D15:i:'N

284 o^^j
187
g>^j

371
288.326

152

j53 ^ff^

364 '^^ 317 J^>-

^^

XX
134.152
57.242.284.342 -2}
ni;ijn

XIX

^^'^^

354

57 nr^^} niiQEf nb^n i<lJ< '11 t<D'^N HDipn

12.270 cnsiD 'jip'n 15.242.257 D'jip'n 214 a'aiTn 66.179.351 HJIDH

303 '^n
15.271.273 na!?n''7 D'QDn n'Q^n 150 ^Esx N^^on

361 msipn

182

niii?iQi

*
pn

15

15.73.257 ni^pn

284 nann
10 mi ^2 Ji"'^,n 325.335 jnnD V'H 350-1.362 D^^2\I!n 73.274 mDliirn

158 inan 32 b^v^'\n' ^31 N^n** 41 in'ipN* oi ~*

14.291
'^<Jn

20 D\xjn
14 i<n:n

CC4

XVllI

xvn
57 poijf riNnp 147 13D nnp

107.302 naip nirc^ 12 DnsiD '-nrc; 351 Dm];'cr 154.337 n'u; 242.342 lin'M ~* 157 VDbV'Cn 151 IDS J 153 b)p^ ,bpw: 151,339 (sic) onriD

304 NK/'Erp 203 D'TH n"ft<'l 57 niDH ttfN-l

72.214 D^JIE^t?-! 7.272 D-l 41 nDl

272

D"1

338 D'TC; 107 bur

138
(sic)

7 ]Dn

274 Nncrn P3T

DIU

bi:;''

VDMn

,(2V)

tj^n-i

,nain-i

295

m'!?Der n'^'J

157.333.339.342

55,58 nDa

120 HNnn 104

(sic) ]n

156 n**i:;'i5^ 163 nr^iQ^i:; 282 UW 282 n";; ]2 304 nj;roKf

301

* 301 (5ic) 107.301.306 !?N^n*

pm

i<3-i

nn* Nn*

51

n-^in n^'

57

;?DE?

295

nr^'a;:^

10 Nn;;rj*i:; 284.334 -la.s:^ 156.336 (5zc) n^^'i^f

326 -\V'^ 177 n-npn ^pt:'^' 359 Dnin LD'DTiir 310 >c;~i'ii;

310 n^iGN '-i^nz; 310 (5zc) n"\D'\U

117
D'E/Tii^
,a"-i:;-i2/*

301 annn* 234 >n 28 NHD^na c;n 57 NiiD crn 29.142.275.330 loi 12 D'lQ-l 193 n.S1DT277.365 niNIS-l* 203 n-iss-i'' 158.244 nw]

298 m^N^''
14.218 nuicrm mi^vx-i:;'' 26.27 mni?N2:;* 325 NDar 341 HDi:;
284.340.xni;Dtt;

106.323 ]'Jip 133 ]'jn.Y=^ 282 -j^n 347 nnjin

203

D1.S nnipin''-

214
9

niEDin''*

325 iiW 242 npu^ Dnar^y*

14.271 msi?.! n:iar 73 mi:*'''

15.21 NnDDin'"'
3nDD*i2;

min

9.271

ns i?:yDE; 341 mnDt^in 351 ni^Dnn

242.341 nunn ,njnn

242

l^^^i^'^)''^

W^*

370 c;io'e;'"* * 370 D'^'nn 273.302 ND-i NEflQ'tt;* 370 ^'um ,NDn ^t^io'tt;* * 370 n-iin.i

13 -yi^'^

XVI

XV
341-2 HTCy 268 pwvn Dj; 184 d:j;
151
p:j;*

330 ]T\W^ 138 nDi nns* 330 (sic) -iHE) 202 mm'?n inns* 313 uyM)^ 372 pnijn 102 HiSlS*
281
Dp;;^

335 )nn pjj; 157 NLDinriD]; 341 HTpj;

12 NrrmNi npj; 117 cnp;;

^i>n3J

nt<ns*

363 mnin nms 138 D^nss; ns""328 nana

341 D'jra

289 -jn;;* 326 py

351 D'Di;r 46 niD^o ^jnn n-ic^i;* 158 nn2in nncr;;* 326 Dnmn rr.i:;;; ('d) 149 ]>D^2Q 333 pns 73.214 D'pDlS 142 DnniS 157 pais 158 nE?Q riTLJS*
148.333-4.
("/^^'^
i

368 N'a:n2?N xpTs* 284 (52c) ft*m^S

176 bps 164 n3"lS 164 'JN^DNp 9.108.296,304-5 r]b2p

228.304

novj;

372 'DDp 343 n'T^p Hiynp

56.341 wnp 72 D*:irD"p

294 moip
55 bnp 73 pip

306 n^<';?^* 107 D^D^S 282 'Q':S

78.363 DpjS

133 mhpn* 73 onDjip 342 I'jpn 158.286 r\yp

323

(sic

D'OIJDn) piDS

53.283 Nnp'D3*
71 msDin 'pDS* 73 D'pDS'^

242 mrp
73 D'TiS^

156

"il^pip

,"ll^p'p

369 D^p 369 r|l^p 291 'rbp 306 r]:p* 336 Diip 286 bi^'n nsp*
151

142 D"'113 73.143.305 a'-(i:;ns) tc^n'S 12 DnSID 't:?lT3

80

i)nj

a-13

371

ns

203 DlDns 316 pn3

40
30.142-5.221.1 275.330-1 i

mm

HTSp

y:p 16 n?Eri3

-^'

278 vNip 133 D^^np

58 j^snp 340.157 (pinp) niDnp

UWB
,D^D2;3
,

L:::r3

143

D'3L:t2;3

330

nUTD

XIV

Xlll

314
78

(sic)

' 159 hid;; 32 ' 77 yp * a\N-naNi d'^jh

4,32
in^'^N
'

165 -iHD* 45 niD

20 ]Q4-nna 278 j<^na 350 p'n^<Qna

(sic)

D^lj;

"

^^)^

324 D^D];:jn ipna 21.271.273 ^n':nQ* 21.271 vn-jno*

T]b)ii:i7]

16

DniD

288 pn^ 337 nrj: 134.337 nirjj 282 nVjJ 368 nnn:*
273
(sic)

269

^^W

153-)J1D 30.109.142,282.305 1)0 277.282,355 -\}2Vn 1)D 23 nmn ?iid

ppn-Ji:

328 nSID 3.11 DnSID 12 J'D 12.16.23 D'JQ'D 158 pi^D 158 nn'^D
158.242 nin'jPD 158 ]ni?D ,n^D 19 HD'CD 330 niD'QD 10 -00

270 mxnDi^ 155.323 339 d;;i: 123 DHS^J 214 D'b

^il:'1:)

155.323.337.351 pr: 333 D'JUJ

338 np'DiD

':u':

73.143 D^pou'^*134.139.314.323 l^f 189 nD:iDn t':i 282.305 (5zc) inDJ 337 no'j?: 337 nODDlQ

250 "nSD 302 -TSD 107.351 nn'ED 270 IBD

13

358 pnND

-nLJSi

22 46
(sic)

^^-i2D*

DliSl

22

^nSD^'

16 mjn nsD 305 D'Q^JSn DnSD

341 D'S^ n^'DJ 317 129.317 ]insr' 315 ^s-iaj 134.323 nmpj 323 pp3 139 U':ip2 23 c;->3 18 ^'w:

nm

370

nvb'!?n

d^i:;:

323 (sic) i?lJ-lD 61.164 IISD

51 n-nn

nno

182.351.355 niD^; 182.262 nijnD;;''' 368 (sic) -i];;n* 307.327 (5zc) ]VV

314 155

dV'di; D'J^i;

341 nCi^J 271 >v*^:i 365 mn: 280.304 t<20 23 D\S"ilDD 117 nwiyn ip^o 311 n!?Dpn 271 1DD 23.227 fc<-iDP

Xll

XI

48 ^)b p j?2^in^ 'm 281 nis ]2 ^pvi

50
n2D^i:2

-u'^'q''

349 124 42 124

49
27
r,Mjr,i

irii

pin
niin

n^n

"
*

*
^

32 pDcn n^N^a 179 v,'D:n -- * 154 ^-j114 -J 12^:3'' 153.282 rr^i-bn 335 rniiDQ 335 innn r^'i^a

27 9 ciEiD^N^.c;'

-T,^::''

pN ^:2^
r^,w;;

C'l:'^::- ^iED*^

322 i:aa 164.165.249 jHjD

13 n:'-Q

48 nnDin

^u

cu?;*::'^
p'r>'>2

144

10 n>'i^'jn 'EQ

165.344

142 C'u-e:2 215 r-rr::

350
363 ni":2

v:::

304 yrv' 304 ^D-J119.288

''^^-^

79 r.iTJu

-iiO

20 Nn"jnQ

mcQ

r.Vi^^n 'D"

33.322-3)^'^^^^

304 b^pa 152.336 2*pa

15
N"";pQ

283

n-jrr r,Tca

140 'pnii npo* 215 DipQ "NIC* 114 (sic) 'r--i2 157 nirna -338 -i-iicra 155 DHTU-J 36.282 ^-JQ
37
-L^inn

48 n:n'j 48 p;; p
4
1

15 nrc:: *

ps
(sec)

-p-

33 CTiD 33 DnSlD 25
r.'rjp

* *

p.'nrco*

341 n^u'Q

350.351 nSDO 363 p2Nn 363 nSJ.Ti

39 C^D21D (s2^) '!?:^'Q* * 30 D-bvr\i! 47 na^D' ^u a-^tj'a'-'' 341 c'i^u-a 242 niTiCu'Q 16.271 -rjo*

325 ICQ
164 2-^;;nDa 325 n^ii-'a 198.313 mt'^'cn* 159 -::;':2 ,"::i>'a 242 r,na>:2'' 340 n2-i>*2 340 (ni-) (D'-)3n>'a
42.250.269.351

21

rrjT^^n

271

n-.in

""

21 nrrco* 16 -on-^n nr^a 21 i:r:ro*

47

ir2vN

un-i2vx(-)

n2?>'Q *

264

L^Su'Q

190 corirn (sic) '::su*2 152.333.336.350 bp'Z"0 358 N^J^jnu

47 n'cz'^ 50 r;u\sn2

48

rii2i5a

33 c^rusjn 'jnni

'

"^

*
*

IX

27.274 D32rn 27-^0*

47 i3;Dn 107 i:iD

1

5 D'DinDH

18 nnDin m^v 47 ncrc ni'i2D 53 D'H nTc;(i';;) 41 n-ncn^

*
^nno

* *

*
* * *

351 nnio'V 73 D^Uip^* 299 mnoi> 138 DIU np^* 14 D'ODn ]wb

322 338

y^T]iQn

335 ''?;;o 327 N-ipa 327 napn 74 nnottfi? 325 D'ry 1WQ*

351 iipnm

220 H'Dia 302 mnn^io* 304 (sic) njia

351

341 HTiNO 336 D*:iN*a

316 w^ nawsa* 288 ^Di:;n "la^a*

142

yOMd

,Np'DlQ

DHNDa

57

i:^Dia

175 (sic) IDia 173 ^DC^n (sic) noiQ* 351 >psit3 214 HNlin "TiQ

299 man^ 220 i:a

257
(szc)

ni?ja

39.77 DnriD ni^ja

46

DOVL3^t<

n!?ja*

343 }:'>m)2 (p) 242 n'y\i2]T2

139.176.326.349 nnDna 153 -iDina 273 naina 157.165 -jima 181 !?nj| 181 pp 341 (sic) n^na 371 m^na

39 Dn^on 46 yonv 249 -I3D

* 245 anno * 347 -isi;; * 280 ]^W * 45 n':;;n 341 pa 12 Nnn^sia 11.14 nnsiD nDia

* '
^

336 Dsna 336 nDana 326.335 Dnnna 157 (sic) "j-ino 341 -jIDD "'D 350 HTQ 342 2WVTQ

117.310 DHDia 16.152.170.336

ma

13.16.109.152.271.350 nna 32 nna (3*;>)* 35 m-ia (12 "af 326 (5zc) piJNH '>pipi)2 138.317 (aOpipia
11 ]J3n-ia 7.8.269 Ef-iia*''

338

IDID TE;n DLJ'Q 16.271 Nni?'3Q* 16.271 vn^oa*

48 nn^TN
46
>n*i:;i'Bn

n!?N

269 nnna n^a

327 pnpin riDwN^a 193 * 202 n^DKfia 351 mma'i)

27 nSD
n'i?j

(b-^)

29 ni:i7]n 14 HD^n 283 niDsn

"'

* *

*
*

Vlll

Vll

277 mSlE"! h^ N^3^ 370 TiiE-ji:: 200.369 -pu 157 (sic) n^-j 372 T'lJ 371 niNCD^LJ 324 t<-^pi2n 'C>'*ij'^'' 134.323 {sic) c'c;':: 351 rnu 212.311 i?-:-)
351 r;--'

31.95 -1131- ncrn

310 z'-c^-^r^ 355 -'JDnn 351 "iiDnn 202 binn 179 pnnn 179 pri^'nn 200 ;,'2Ljn 203 (sic) TH
179.351 C'DDirn 179 n-TC'b 179.351 {sic) nncn 35 5 nrDc-i ri-cn 179 riT-;::n

290
158.341

::':rn

(r,-)~iil'

368 TlLTu* 305 -in-n* 339 TiC 314 bw''l2V'' 248 ?]i: ns'*
107 HTSi'*

154

Np'Cir:.!

100.351 nci::351 nibicn

179 c'Tr^^m xi-c101

Y^r^-cn
i:'ci:n

98 -bin
41
vX-jn

riTij'*

190

--

TvST*

154.337

|U':n

324 'cb'Jil' 221 -D'D*'

78.102.302 Tc;'n* 152 -rr 228.341 (n::iD) n:!0 331 nniD

317 ]-nii:n 179 niTEcn

180.35 5 td;;-

202 C'Si^^E179
Z'^-CZ'Tl

351

n-ncm

n'>"L;n

369 pn-D 329 .Yb

358 ri:nn:n * 358 13 ~* 337 m:3 341 ->'nD 331 -b^ 371 n:3i?n* 79 Db'>' nNHDb 182 mb* 182 nimb* 187 nji^nn 328 pm:ib 164 D'il-nb 372 ?]DDn ppib'^
351

'b

355 rijirrn 179 nniz-LiTH 102 cn^Dn*

242 msn

302

ni^'Dl vVj-in* "151 inn

335

mnn
riiinn

333

{sic)

335 nn 214 nrnn

350.352
]i2E/*n

363 (n:n)
80

mn

^jd

79 D':vn
D'bN;;c2?*n

79 pnnb 341 2?nb

235 nabc? pc?n* 365 -^rn 13 p:n '3irn 158 noT.n

VI

285

(sic)

U"QWn

|Q t<n'

-p32?1

325 mjiT 41.268 NLJll 341 nblT 215 ]nDin 'd"' 78 mjllDl* 158.242 niTQl 154 nOT 227 ipin
17 nnaa
7
ipi

Dn^n

362 in 327 JJin 352 min 361 D^nn

42 n^^ nsiH* 352 i?tnn* 55.148.155.284 D'JIH ,lin

148.155.166 164 (sic)
nijin
t^'Jin

334 pin 48 ^2pr] DiD^n"^*' 339 (sic) niD'n * 186 ^nj 351 (D"'iir:n) prjn 351 niQ'i;3n 221 D'jiwNjn 'WiTn* * 222 nnjn - * 73 mD^n 73.214.221 (sic) C^iiriTH 214 n^i^'n 282 ]B^n

146 ^"3,-) 158 n'pi^n 351 niDDH 337 HHDJin 28 nun 215 D-Qbnn r.nJin^'" 45 nDS rn^n* 95.282.296 ]Vjn 336 ivjn* 152 (52c) in 22 nvin 158.341 m:iri2/in* 341 ninin 78 nM2^} n-iDin 335 innn 107 nibD^n* 202 D':3 n"iDn 11.14. 18.296 no^n 10.14 ^^DQ {sic) ni^Q^ 26.274 ni'pnji no'^n'' 303 n^SJ'

13 n^na

(szc)

270 cnsiD
76.274 mpiDS 13 mi;iDp

274

IN-i

18 i^n'w^b 5<nD^n

20.28 CDn 172.353 DDnn 20 D'QDn 276 nON^n 'DDH 296 Wl}pn 'DHD 328 nbn 362 nnan 296.310 npnan

- 274 t^np'DS 153 na^n 350 n'Dijn ,nDi:in 334 mjnjn 304 nmn 257 ^son 337 npson 323 n-iQj;n
321.365 p'n^'n 117.133 npn;;n 321 -^sn 158 nDDE^n 271 riiDbmn 341 nnnn-i^n 15 irpnn 341 '>)T)

354 d!?'!; -24 -naipnn 50 nrjDn 282 n^:r 351 (DOi'J^jn naDn

3i7j;nm*
127 n>ni2n*

IV

291

nii?'na

b^:ibji

357 ^j^jn^ 107 D^^ji?: 15.157.214.271 J<-Qj* 339 (poet.) 80.150.351 (n'TJO'J) Nn-JGJ

108.351 nrD 153.336 n'D

269 ]n
7

riDJDn
7
i;;i

327

irripon

288 j;oj 214 n"sj 164 ii'Unj

47
n-i:7Q

361 D:b 199 Dlzr^D

161 ;;'-iina p 39 t<TD

^sr

D^Q-n nD")-

221 D'QDn 12 DnEOD 12 n-nn 325

-^'Jl

57 32 7

pn
pn
^^n

284
271

nnu 'rn
nnvj

15 n-iin yi

373

^i^n

^n

73 c'jn 327 (sic) p'H

327-8 mp'H 328 ]p'n 139 D^^p^n

8
'i:;-in

279 n^jn 279 n:i;i? 88 ]pin bv2 362 n-nDE;m nsoD 265 U\D 338 c^ninn 'bv2 316 -iiDin r.cDn 296 yn-QT] 322 ni^rpm nniDrsn 304 -bipn 158.242.338 r\Wp2 21.271 Nn'HD* * 40 mDNl * 35 NlN 311
"^

35

iid;;!

"iDi

'^

35

i?Nioi:?-i

153

n'pi

318 nn^n*
341 0-13 57 niD-iD

202 nri'n;;n n;;-i 138.314.328 pnpi 327 (iid"?-) pnp-1 326-7 pnpT^ 12 DnsiD 'pnpi * 139 -tin
1

314 in

n^i^'Q

nni:?2*
nbiNj;

341

rmn

25

|i^;

327 p-ipi 358 n)pi 104.375 ]3nT*

7.8.30.142.298 i:;m

369 Ti^b^n 193 niniNj* 337 ^S'i:;i HDJ

12
(sic)

114

104.220
41

D'-i:;!-!!
--i-l"^

p-iN

350 }<'TJQU 202 m!?iu''12.341 rnu 13 niTU 190 a^3Di3n ni'u 342 nx'J 334 Nn'LiQ'J 351-2 369 D^4

340

::;iQn

8.275 c;ii 104.220 nvi:;-!! 8.220 ]]i;-\i 143 D':K?ni

INDEX.
1.

substitute of the
2.

The asteriscus denotes the titles of books, and hebrew word "ISD book".
7\

is

often

lite article

{^\) is not

regarded in the alphabetical order

(of both languages)^ and often entirely omitted. 3. llie derivata are in their proper place, not under the root,
4.
5.

The forms (like ipi^'S etc.) 2 he Arabic number refers

Sic" refers
corrected,
to
it

to

are in most cases spelt plene. the pages.

is

6.

places lohere there

is

pr inting error
word
is

but

only added,

when

the erroneous

not correctly printed in another place.

A) HEBREW.
108 ND^y '"il 3"*<* 39 NTD pi D"n* 186 'L3D^;o^N* 185 (^sic^ ^^^pb^^ 188 '2;-ipi?N
2 D\s-naN
11 1

19

v"t

n^3 D{<

154 Np'UDN

40

]n:

'n

tdn'^"'

315 'JVDN

n^njn nDjD 328 DD*?

^iyj

357 mion 296 ipnon 142 ^nnsn 361 nN'Jiy.TJDX 369 ^Nn2D5< 221 D'QDn ns^DN* 137 '"ISX 346.194 nilJl-iN'' 272 J^DHX 337 T\^y\^ 158 i<raD-^t 277 nmQi:ri<

202 D^DIDi^'Sn px''28 mj^ 350 (szc) Nn'jaijN 288 ^UN371 Di^nn n-ijwS'-'= 102 -iDian nijN*-' 135 ]nJN* 327 m:njN*

249

D'aii^'i:;

nnjN'-

341 n^.ivs* 314 naiN 341 p^^?

232

':sit^

181.367 DIIN 19 Ni:nx

242 -ipDH 200

n-nDCTwX

p'TEi:;N

314 natron 363 107 i:^DN* Drn2Nl

mniN'-'

nrniN'

''

159 nnjJiD nnN 187 W"^X2 109 THDH""315 ]T3N O

282 non ^W2 214 Dm&3 314 n^c'QH nwX'3* 340 no^3

-137 D'r:i;n 159.160 nnniN-72.217 D^Jn^^< 133 n^JDNi n!?D''164 T'iJ^N 341 DDM^N 185 Din^N 149 VIODD^X

HEBREW AND AEABIC

INDEX.

LIST
Messrs.

of

WORKS

in

GENERAL HTERATURE,
FUBLISHED BY

LONGMAj^, BEOWN, GEEEN, LOXaMANS,

39, PATEEIfOSTEE

and

EOBEETS,

EOW, LONDON.

CLASSIFIED
Agriculture and Rural
Pages. 4 Bayldon on Valuing Rents, &c. 6 Caird's Letters on Agriculture " ' " Cecil's Stud Farm t, 13 Loudon's Agriculture 13 Low's Elements of Agriculture

INDEX.
15 15 17 17

Affairs.

Arts, Manufactures, and Architecture.

Arnott on Ventilation Bourne on the Screw Propeller Brande's Dictionary of Science,&c. " Organic ChemistryCherreul on Colour Cresy's Civil Engineering Fairbairn's Informa. for Engineers

Maunder's Treasury of History " Natural History Piesse's Art of Perfumery Piscator's Cookery of Fish Pocket and the Stud . Pycroffs English Reading Recce's Medical Guide Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary Richardson's Art of Horsemanship

Riddle's Latin Dictionaries

4 4
4
6

6 8

Roget's English Thesauius Rowton'3 Debater Short Whist Thomson's Interest Tables Webster's Domestic Economy West on Children's Diseases Willich's Popular Tables Wilmofs Blackstone -

9 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 20 21 22

Roget's English Thesaurus Russell's Life of Lord W\ Russell Schmitz's History of Greece Smith's Sacred Annals Southey's Doctor Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography " Lectures on French History Sydney Smith's Works -

18 19 19 20 20
21 21

" " "

Sekct Works
Lectures
-

Memoirs

Taylor's Loyola ^Vss\er . Thirlwall's History of Greece Thornburv's Shakspeare's England

20 23 20 20 21 21
21 21

22 24 24

Gwilt's Encyclo. of Architecture Harford's EngrAvir.gs after Michael

Angelo Herring on Paper-Making Humphreys's Parables Illuminated Legendary Art Sacred & Jameson's

8
8 9

Botany and Gardening.

Hooker's British Flora
-

Townsend's State Trials Turkey and Christendom Turner's Anglo-Saxons " Middle Ages -

"

Guide to

Kew Gardens

10
11 11 8 13 14 14 16
17

"

Commonplace-Book

Konis'sPictoial Life of Luther Loudon's Rural Architecture MacDouffall's Theory of War Malan's Aphorisms on Drawing Engineering Moseley's Piesse's Art of Perfumery Richardson's Art of Horsemanship Scrivenor on the Iron Trade Stark's Printing
-

< " " Kew Museum Lindley's Introduction to Botany " Theory of Horticulture Loudon's Hortus Britannicus

"

9 9 13 12 13
13 13 13 13

" Sacred Hist, of the World Vehse's .Austrian CourtWade's England's Greatness W'hitelocke's Swedish Embassy Woods's Crimean CampaignYoung's Christ of History -

22 23 22 22 22 23 22 24 24 24

Amateur Gardener Trees and Shrubs Gardening

-

Geography and Atlases.

Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible Brewer's Historical Atlas Butler's Geography and Atlases Cabinet Gazetteer . Cornwall Its Mines, &c. :

18 19

Plants Self Instruction for G ardeners, &c. . Pereira's Materia Medica

" " "

4
5

13
17

23
4 22

Steam-Engine,by the Artisan Club

Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c. Young on Prs-Raff;ielUti?in
-

Rivers's Rose-Amateur's Wilson's British Mosses

Guide
-

18

24

Durrieu's Morocco Hughes's Australian Colonies Johnston's General Gazetteer

23 23 23
11

24

Chronology.
Blair's Chronological Tables Brewer's Historical Atlas
-

Biography.
Arazo's Autobiography " Lives of Scientific Men Bodenstedt and Wagner's Schamyl

23
3 23

Bunsen's Ancient Egypt Haydn's Beatson's Index Jaquemet's Chronology

4 4 5
9 11 11

Maunder's Treasury of Geography 15 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 14 " Russia and Turkey - 23 Milner's Baltic Sea . 15

"

Crimea

15

" Russia Murray's Encyclo. of Geography

Buckingham's (J. S.) Memoirs 5 . Bunsen's Hippolytus 5 6 Clinton's (Fynes) Autobiography Marshal Tureune 23 Cockayne's Dennistouu's Strange & Lumisden 7 23 Forster's De Foe and Churchill Fulcher's Life of Gainsborouah 8 Harford's Life of Michael Angelo 8 Haydon's Autobiography ,by Taylor 9 Hayward's hesterfield and Selwyn 23
i

Johns& Nicolas'sCalendar ofUctory Nicolas's Chronology of History - 12

Sharp's British Gazetteer Wheeler's Geography of Herodotus

15 16 19 24

Juvenile Books.
Amy
Herbert CleveHall
Gertrude
-

Commerce and Mercantile

Affairs.
Gilbart's Treatise on

Banking

Earl's Daughter (The) Experience of Life Gilbart's Logic for the

Holcroft's

Memoirs

23
12

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopsedia Maunder's Biographical TreasuryMemoir of the Duke of Wellington

Memoirsof James Montgomery Merivale's Memoirs of Cicero

14 23 15
15 23 16 19 19 20 20 20 21

Lorimer's Young Master Mariner Macleod's Banking M'Culloch'sCommerce & Navigation Scrivenor on Iron Trade Thomson's Interest Tablet Tooke's History of Pi ices Tuson's British Cjnsul's Manual -

13 14 14
19 21 23 22

-----

...
_
-

Young

Howitt's Boy's Country Book " (Mary) Children's Year

Ivors

19 19 19 19 19 8 10 10 19
19 19

'

Katharine Ashton Laneton Parsonage Margaret Percival -

19

Criticism,
Blair's

History,

Rogers's Life and Genius of Fuller RusseU's Memoirs of Moore " Life of Lord Wm. Russell St. John's Audubon Southey's Life of Wesley " ' Life and Correspondence " Select CorrespondenceStephen's Ecclesiastical Biography Sydney Smith's Memoirs Taylor's Loyola

Memoirs.
Chron. and ^istor. Tables Brewer's Historical Atlas -

and
-

Medicine and Surgery.

Brodie's Psychological Inquiries Bull's Hints to Mothers" Management of Children Copland's Dictionary of Medicine Cust's Invalid's Own Book -

4
5

4 4
5 5

Bunsen's Ancient Egypt ' Hippolytus Burton'sHistory of Scotland Chapman's Gustavus Adolphus Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul
Erskine's History of India Gleig's Leipsic Campaign Gurney's Historical Sketches

5 6
7 9

5
6 6

20
21 21

7 23
8

"

Wesley

Waterton's Autobiography & Essays 22 Wheeler's Life of Herodotus 24

Haydon's Autobiography, by Taylor

Books
"

of General Utility.
Cookery

Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions Johns Nicolas'sCalendar of Victory 11 Kemble's Anglo-Saxons 11

&

Holland's Mental Physiology " Medical Notes andReflect. How to Nurse Sick Children Kesteven's Domestic Medicine Pereira's Materia Medica Recce's Medical Guide West on Diseases of Infancy Wilson's Dissector's Manual

10
11 17

18 22 24

Acton's Bread-Book
-

...
-

Miscellaneous and General

Literature.
Carlisle's Lectures and Addresses Defence of Eclipse 0/ Faith Digby's Lover's Seat Echpse of Faith _ . Greg's Pohtical and Social Essays Gurney's Evening Recreations Hassall on Adulteration of Fool -

3 3

Black's Treatise on Brewing Cabinet Gazetteer -

4
5
5

"

Lawyer

. -

Cust's Invalid's

Own Book

Gilbarfs Logic for the MUlion . Hints on Etiquette How to Nurse Sick Children Hudson'sExecutor's Guide " on Making Wills Kesteven's Domestic Medicine Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia Loudon's Lady's Country Companion Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge " Biographical Treasury " Geographical Treasury " Scientific Treasury -

7 8
9

------

10 10 10 11 12
13 15 14 15 15

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 12 Macdulay's Crit. and Hist. Essays 13 " History of England 13 " Speeches 13 Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 14 " History of England - 14 it'Culloch'sGeographicalDictionary 14 Maunder's Treasury of History 15 Memoir of the Duke of Wellington 23 Merivale's History of Rome 15 " Roman Republic 15 Milner's Church History 15 Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, &c. - 16 Mure's Greek Literature 16 Normanby's Year of Revolution - 17 Raikes's Journal 18 Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian 23 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries 18 Roberts's Southern Counties 18 Rogers's Essays from Edinb. ReriewlS

...
-

23
7

7
7

8 8
9 9

Haydn's Book of Dignities Holland's Mental Physiology

Hooker's Kew Guides 9 Howitt's Rural Life of England - 10 Visitsto RemarkablePlaces 10 Jameson's Commonplace Book
Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions

Last of the Old Squires Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Essays " . _ Speeches Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works Memoirs of a Maitre-d'Armes

CLASSIFIED INDEX.
Maitland'sChurchin the Catacombs 14
Martineau's Miscellanies 14 Pascal's Worl<s, by Pearce 17 Pillans's Contributions toEducationlT Pinney on Duration of Human Life 17 Printing: Its Origin, &c. 23 Pycroft's English Reading 18 Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries 18 Rowton's Debater 18 Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwrecklg Sir Roger de Coverley 20 Smith's (Rev. Sydney) "Works 20 Southey's Common -place Books - 20 " The Doctor &c. 20 Sourestre's Attic Philosopher 23 " Confessions of a Working Man 23 Spencer's Psychology . 21 Stephen's Essays 21 Stow's Training System 21 Strachey's Hebrew Politics 21 Thomson's Laws of Thought 21 Townsend's State Trials 22 Willich's Popular Tables 24 Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon - 24 " Latin Gradus 24 Zumpt's Latin Grammar 24

Martineau's Christian Life

"

Hymns

.
-

Moseley'sEngineering&Architecturel?

Milner's Churcn of Christ Montgomery's Original Hymns Moore on the Use of the Body " " Soul and Body " '8 Man and his Motives

Our CoaUFields and our Coal-Pits.J7 23 Owen's Lectures on Comp. Anatomy 17

.
.

Nomos

-.

Mormonism

"""'

Neale's Closing Scene . Newman's (J. H.) Discourses " on Universities

-----

Pereira on Polarised Light Peschel's Elements of Physics Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall, &c.

17 17
17

Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian Readings for Lent . " Confirmation Robinson's Lexicon to the Greek . . . Testament Saints our

Mineralogy " Guide to (Geology Portlock's G eology of Londonderry Powell's Unity of' Worlds Smee's Electro-Metallurgy -

"

17 18 18

Steam-Engine(The)

Wilson's Electric Telegraph

Sermon

in

Example the Mount

Rural Sports.
Baker's Rifle and Hound in Ceylon Blaine's Dictionary of Sports Cecil's Stable Practice -

Natural History in^exteral.

Catlow's Popular Conchology
-

Journey of Life Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy " (G.) Sacred Annals " Harmony of Divine Dis. pensations " (J.) Voyage and Shipwreck . of St. Paul Southey's Life of VVesley Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography Tayler's (J. J.) Discourses _ Taylor's Loyola
Sinclair's

" Stud Farm The Cricket-Field

Davy's Piscatorial Colloquies Ephemera on Angling " Book of the Salmon Hawker's Young Sportsman The Hunting-Field Idle's Hints on Shooting Pocket and the Stud Practical Horsemanship
-

7
9

9 10

Ephemeraand Young on the Salmon

6 7

"

Wesley

9
16

Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica 8 Kemp's Natural History of Creation 23 Kirby and Spence's Entomology - 11 Lee's Elements of Natural History 12

on Reproduction Maunder's Natural History

Mann

Theologia Germanica Tliomson on the Atonement Thumb Bible (The) Tomline's Introduction to the JBtW Turner's Sacred History Twining's Bible Types Wheeler's Popular Bible Harmony

Richardson's Horsemanship Ronalds's Fly- Fisher's Entomology

Stable Talk and Table Tklk Stainton's June Stonehenge on the Greyhound Thacker's Courser's Guide The Stud, for Practical Purposes
-

18
9
21

21
21

Turton's Shells oftheBritishlslands Van der Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology Von Tschudi's Sketches in the Alps Waterton's Essays on Natural Hist. Youatt's The Dog

22
22 23

Young's Christ of History " Mystery -

Poetry and
Arnold's
Baillie's

tlie
.

Drama.
-

Veterinary Medicine, &c.

Cecil's Stabl Practice
. -

"

23 24
24

Aikin's(Dr.') British Poets

The Horse

Poems

" Stud Farm Hunting Field (The)

. -

_
-

6 6

1-Volume iEncyclopsedias and Dictionaries.

Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible Blaine's Rural Sports . _ Brande's Science, Literature, and Art Copland's Dictionary of Medicine Cresy's Civil Engineering Gwilt's Architecture .
3 4 4
6 g

(Joanna) Poetical Works Bode's Ballads from Herodotus

Calvert's Wife's

Manual
-

"

Pneuma

Miles's Horse-Shoeing " on the Horse's Foot Pocket and the Stud Practical Horsemanship

9 15 15
9 9 18 9 9 24 24

Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated L. E. L.'s Poetical Works Linwood's Anthologia OxoniensisLynch's Rivulet

Richardson's Horsemanship
Stable Talk and Table Talk

Stud (The) Youatt's The

. -

"

Dog The Horse

...
-

Lyra Germanica

Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 11 Loudon's Agriculture 13 " Rural Architecture 13

Macaulav's Lays of Ancient Rome Mac Donald's Within and Without

Voyages and Travels.

Auldjo's Ascent of Mont Blanc Baines's Vaudois of Piedmont Baker's Wanderinfjs in Ceylon
23 23
3
-

Plants Trees and Shrubs M'CuUoch'sGeojjraphicalDictionary " Dictionary of Commerce Murray's Encyclo. of Geography Sharp's British Gazetteer Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c.Webster's Domestic Economy -

" " "

Gardening

13 13 13 14 14 16 19 22 22

Montgomery's Poetical Works " Original Hymns

Moore's Poetical AVorks " Epicurean -

Barrow's Contineritai Tour

-

23
3 5 6

"

Religious
Amy

& Moral V/orks.

Manual

" Irish Melodies " Songs and Ballads Reade's Man in Paradi&e Shakspeare, by Bowdler Southey's Poetical Works " British Poets Thomson's Seasons, illustrated

Lalla

Rookh

Earth's African Travels Burton's East Africa -

"
Carlisle's

Medina and Mecca Turkey and Greece

-

De

Custine's Russia

Eothen
Ferguson's Swiss Travels Flemish Interiors -

23 23 23
8 23 8 23 23 8
9

Forester's

Rambles

in

Herbert Arrowsmith's Geogr. Diet, of Bible Bloomfield's Greek Testament Cals-ert's Wife's

Norway

Cleve Hall Conybeare's Essays

....
.
.

19 3 4
6

Political Economy Statistics.

and
6 7

19
6

Conybeare and Howson's

St.

Paul

Cotton's Instructions in Christianity 7 Dale's Domestic Liturgy . 7 Defence or Eclipse of Faith 7 Discipline 7
Earl's Daughter (The) Eclipse of Faith

Caird's Letters on Agriculture _ Dodd's Food of London Greg's Political and Social Essays Jennings's Social Delusions Laing's Notes of a Traveller -

H
23
23 21

Sardinia and Corsica ^Gironiere's Philippines Gregoro-sius's Corsica Halloran's Japan , Hill's Travels in Siberia Hope's Brittany and the Bible " Chase in Brittanv Howitt's Art-Student in Munich. -

"

Englishman's Greek Concordance 7 Heb.&Chald.Concord. 7 ", T.XT, Etheridire's Jerusalem . 7 Experience (The) of Life 19 Gertrude 19 Harrison's Light of the Forge 8 Hook's Lectures on Passion Week 9

....
-

...

M'Culloch'sGeog.Statist.&c.Dict. 14 " Dictionary of Commerce 14

" (W.) Victoria Hue's Chinese Empire

"

London

19
7

Tegoborski's Russian Statistics Willich's Popular Tables

Hue and Gabet's Tartary & Thibet Hudson and Kennedy's Mont
Blanc Hughes's Australian Colonies Humboldt's Aspects of Nature Hurlbut's Pictures from Cuba Hutchinson's African Exploration Jameson's Canada Jerrmann's St. Petersburg Kennard's Eastern Tour Laing's Norway " Notes of a Traveller M'Clure's I\ orth-West Passage Mason's Zulus of Natal -

23 23 10 10 10 23
10

24

The Sciences in general

and Mathematics.
Arago's Meteorological Essays
-

23
10 23 23 23 23
11

....
-

10 Abridgment 10 Humphreys's Parables Illuminated 10 IvorL . . '. Jameson's Sacred Legends -

Home's Introduction

to Scriptures of ditto -

" Popular Astronomy Bourne on the Screw Propeller " 's Catechism of the SteamEngine

-----

3 3 4

"

Monastic Legends

Legendsof the Madonna ^^ Lectures on Female Employment Jeremy Taylor's Works^ahsch's Commentary on Exodns K.atharme Ashton Konig's Pictorial Life of Luther Laneton Parsonage
'-

Brande'sDlctionary of Science, &c. " Lectures on Oreanic Chemistry Brougham and Routh's Principia . Butler's Rolls Sermons Cresy's Civil Engineering " DelaBeche'sGeologyofCornwall,&c. fCoi

4 4

23 23
14 23 23 23 23
17

4
4 5
7 7 8 8 9 9

De

la Rivie's Electricity

Letters to

my Unknown

Faraday's Non-Metallic Elements Grove's Correla. of Physical Forces Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy Holland's Mental Physiology Humboldt's Aspects of Nature

Friends
-

"
,

Cosmos
-

10 10
10 11

Mayne's Arctic Discoveries Miles's Rambles in Iceland Pfeiflfcr's Voyage round the World " Second ditto Scott's Danes and Swedes Seaward 's Narrative Weld's United States and CanadaWeme's African Wanderings Wheeler's Travels of Herodotus Wilberforce's Brazil* Slave-Trade

19 19 22 23 24 33

on H.ippiness Lynch's Rivulet -

Hunt on Light
.
,

Works

of Fiction.
-

Lyra Germanica . Macnaught on Inspiration Maitland's Church in Catacombs

Kemp's Phasis of Matter Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia Mann on Reproduction Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations Morell's Elements of Psychology

12
14

15 16

Arnold's OakfieM Macdontild's Villa Verocchio Sir Roger de Coverley . Southey's The Doctor &c. Trollope's Warden .

3 14

20 20 22

ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE
of

NEW WORKS
Messrs.

and

NEW EDITIONS
and

PUBLISHED BY

LONGMAN, BEOWN, aEEEN, LONaMANS,

PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.

EOBEETS,

Miss Acton's Modern Cookery, for Private

Families, reduced to a System of Easy Practice in a Series of carefully-tested Eeceipts, in which the Principles of Baron Liebig and

Arnold. Poems.
8vo. price 5a. 6d.

By Matthew

Arnold.
Fcp.

Second Edition of the Mrst

Series.

other eminent Writers have been as

much

as

Arnold.Poems.
Second
Series,^

By Matthew

Arnold.

Newly repossible appUed and explained. vised and enlarged Edition ; with 8 Plates, comprising 27 Figures, and 150 Woodcuts. Fep. 8vo. 7s. 6d.

about one-third new ; the rest finally selected from the Yolumes of 1849 and 1852j now withdrawn. Fcp. 8vo. price 5s.

Arnott. On the Smokeless Fire-place,

Acton The
:

English Bread-Book, for

Domestic Use, adapted to Families of every Coataining plain Instructions and grade Practical Eeceipts for making numerous with Notices of the varieties of Bread present System of Adulteration and its Consequences, and of the Improved Baking Processes and Institutions estabhshed Abroad.
;

Chimney-valves, and other means, old and new, of obtaining Healthful Warmth and Ventilation. By NeilAenott, M.D.,F.E.S., F.a.S. 8vo. 6s.

Arrowsmith.

Geographical
:

Dic-

By Eliza

Acxoisr.

[_In

the yress.

Including tionary of the Holy Scriptures also Notices of the chief Places and People mentioned in the By the Eev. A. Aeeowsmith, M.A. 8vo. 15s.

APOCEYPHA.

Arago (F.) Meteorological Essays. By Feancis Aeago. With an Introduction by Baeof Humboldt. Translated under the
superintendence of Lieut.-Oolonel E. Sabine, E.A,, Treasurer and V.P.E.S. 8vo. 18s.

Joanna Baillie's Dramatic and Poetical Works Comprising the Plays of the Pas:

Arago' s Popular Astronomy. Translated and Edited by Admiral W. H. Smyth, For. Sec. B.S. ; and Egbert Geant, M.A., F.E.A.S. In Two Volumes. Yol. I. 8vo. with Plates

Dramas, Metrical Legends, Fugitive Pieces, and Ahalya Baee, Second Edition, with a Life of Joanna Square Bailhe, Portrait, and Vignette. crown 8vo. 21s. cloth ; or 42s. bound in
sions, Miscellaneous

morocco by Hayday.

Baker.

Eight
Rifle

Years'

"Wanderings in

and Woodcuts,

21s.

Ceylon. By S. W. Bakee, Esq. 6 coloured Plates. 8vo. price 15s.

With

Arago' s Lives of Distinguished Scientific Men. Translated by the Eev. Baden Powell, and M.A. Eear- Admiral W. H. Smyth U^early ready. E. G-eant, ma. 8vo.
;

Baker.The

and the Hound in Ceylon.

Esq.

By

S.

W. Bakee,

Plates and Woodcuts.

With coloui-ed 8vo. price 14s.

Aikin.

Select

Works

of the

British

Poets, from Ben Jonson to Beattie. With Biographical and Critical Prefaces by De. Aikin. New Edition, with Supplement by Lucy Aikin ; consisting of additional Selections from more recent Poets. 8vo. price ISs.

Arnold. Oakfield
East.

or,

Fellowship in the

Lieutenant 58th Eegiment, Bengal Native Infantry. Second Edition. 2 vols, post 8vo. price 21s,

By W. D. Aenold,

Dr. Earth's Travels and Discoveries in Africa, With Maps and Illustrations. Comprising Journeys from Tripoli to Kouka ; from Kouka to Yola, the Capital of Adamawa, and back to Kanera, accompanying and a Slave-Hunting Expedition to Musgo his Journey to and Eesidence in Bagirmo. j^lso, a Journey from Kouka to Timbuctoo j Eesidence in Timbuctoo and Journey back Vols. I., II., and III. 8vo. to Kouka.
;

[Nearly ready.

B 2

NEW WORKS
Bayldon's
Tillages,

AND

NEW
gine,

EDITIONS

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