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Prof. John (Jizhong) Xiao
Department of Electrical Engineering
City College of New York
[email protected]
Mobot: Mobile Robot
Introduction to ROBOTICS
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Contents
Introduction
Classification of wheels
Fixed wheel
Centered orientable wheel
Off-centered orientable wheel
Swedish wheel
Mobile Robot Locomotion
Differential Drive
Tricycle
Synchronous Drive
Omni-directional
Ackerman Steering
Kinematics models of WMR
Summary
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Locomotion
Locomotion is the process of causing an autonomous robot to move
In order to produce motion, forces must be applied to the vehicle
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Wheeled Mobile Robots (WMR)
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Wheeled Mobile Robots
Combination of various physical (hardware)
and computational (software) components

A collection of subsystems:
Locomotion: how the robot moves through its
environment
Sensing: how the robot measures properties of itself
and its environment
Control: how the robot generate physical actions
Reasoning: how the robot maps measurements into
actions
Communication: how the robots communicate with
each other or with an outside operator
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Wheeled Mobile Robots
Locomotion the process of causing an robot to
move.
In order to produce motion, forces must be applied to the robot
Motor output, payload

Kinematics study of the mathematics of motion
without considering the forces that affect the motion.
Deals with the geometric relationships that govern the system
Deals with the relationship between control parameters and the
behavior of a system.

Dynamics study of motion in which these forces are
modeled
Deals with the relationship between force and motions.
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Notation
Posture: position(x, y) and
orientation u
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Wheels
Lateral slip
Rolling motion
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Steered Wheel
Steered wheel
The orientation of the rotation axis can be controlled
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1. The robot is built from rigid
mechanisms.
2. No slip occurs in the orthogonal
direction of rolling (non-slipping).
3. No translational slip occurs between
the wheel and the floor (pure rolling).
4. The robot contains at most one
steering link per wheel.
5. All steering axes are perpendicular to
the floor.

Non-slipping and pure rolling
Assumptions
Idealized Rolling Wheel
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Robot wheel parameters
For low velocities, rolling is a reasonable
wheel model.
This is the model that will be considered in the
kinematics models of WMR
Wheel parameters:
r = wheel radius
v = wheel linear velocity
w = wheel angular velocity
t = steering velocity

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Wheel Types
Fixed wheel
Centered orientable wheel
Off-centered orientable wheel
(Castor wheel)
Swedish wheel:omnidirectional
property
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Fixed wheel
Velocity of point P



Restriction to the robot mobility
Point P cannot move to the direction perpendicular to plane of the wheel.
x
y
where, ax : A unit vector to X axis
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Centered orientable wheels
Velocity of point P




Restriction to the robot mobility
ax : A unit vector of x axis
ay : A unit vector of y axis

x
y
where,
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Velocity of point P




Restriction to the robot mobility

x
y
ax : A unit vector of x axis
ay : A unit vector of y axis

where,
Off-Centered Orientable Wheels
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Swedish wheel
Velocity of point P




Omnidirectional property
x
y
ax : A unit vector of x axis
as : A unit vector to the motion of roller

where,
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Smooth motion
Risk of slipping
Some times use roller-ball to
make balance
Bi-wheel type robot
Omnidirectional robot
Caterpillar type robot
Exact straight motion
Robust to slipping
Inexact modeling of turning
Free motion
Complex structure
Weakness of the frame
Example
Examples of WMR
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Mobile Robot Locomotion
Instantaneous center of rotation (ICR) or
Instantaneous center of curvature (ICC)
A cross point of all axes of the wheels

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Degree of Mobility
Degree of mobility
The degree of freedom of the robot motion
Degree of mobility : 0
Degree of mobility : 2 Degree of mobility : 3
Degree of mobility : 1
Cannot move
anywhere (No ICR)
Fixed arc motion
(Only one ICR)
Variable arc motion
(line of ICRs)
Fully free motion
( ICR can be located
at any position)
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Degree of Steerability
Degree of steerability
The number of centered orientable wheels that can be
steered independently in order to steer the robot
Degree of steerability : 0
Degree of steerability : 2 Degree of steerability : 1
No centered orientable wheels
One centered orientable
wheel
Two mutually
dependent centered
orientable wheels
Two mutually
independent
centered orientable
wheels
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Degree of Maneuverability
Degree of Mobility 3 2 2 1 1
Degree of Steerability 0 0 1 1 2

The overall degrees of freedom that a robot can manipulate:

Examples of robot types (degree of mobility, degree of steerability)
s m M
o o o + =
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Degree of Maneuverability
s m M
o o o + =
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Non-holonomic constraint
So what does that mean?
Your robot can move in some directions (forward
and backward), but not others (sideward).
The robot can instantly
move forward and backward,
but can not move sideward

Parallel parking,
Series of maneuvers
A non-holonomic constraint is a constraint on the
feasible velocities of a body
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Mobile Robot Locomotion
Differential Drive
two driving wheels (plus roller-ball for balance)
simplest drive mechanism
sensitive to the relative velocity of the two wheels (small error
result in different trajectories, not just speed)
Steered wheels (tricycle, bicycles, wagon)
Steering wheel + rear wheels
cannot turn 90
limited radius of curvature
Synchronous Drive
Omni-directional
Car Drive (Ackerman Steering)
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Posture of the robot





v : Linear velocity of the robot
w : Angular velocity of the robot
(notice: not for each wheel)
(x,y) : Position of the robot
: Orientation of the robot
Control input




Differential Drive
e
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Differential Drive
linear velocity of right wheel
linear velocity of left wheel
r nominal radius of each wheel
R instantaneous curvature radius of the robot trajectory
(distance from ICC to the midpoint between the two wheels).
Property: At each time instant, the
left and right wheels must follow a
trajectory that moves around the
ICC at the same angular rate e, i.e.,

R
V
L
R = + )
2
( e
L
V
L
R = )
2
( e
) (t V
R
) (t V
L
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Differential Drive
| | 0 cos sin cos sin = =
(

u u u u y x
y
x

Nonholonomic Constraint
Kinematic equation
Physical Meaning?
Relation between the control input and speed of wheels
Posture Kinematics Model: Kinematics model in world frame
u

90
u
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Differential Drive
Kinematics model in robot frame
---configuration kinematics model
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Basic Motion Control
Instantaneous center of rotation
Straight motion
R = Infinity VR = VL

Rotational motion
R = 0 VR = -VL
R : Radius of rotation
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Velocity Profile
: Radius of rotation
: Length of path
: Angle of rotation
3 1 0 2
3 1 0 2
Basic Motion Control
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Tricycle
Three wheels and odometers on the two rear wheels
Steering and power are provided through the front wheel
control variables:
steering direction (t)
angular velocity of steering wheel w
s
(t)

The ICC must lie on
the line that passes
through, and is
perpendicular to, the
fixed rear wheels
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Tricycle
If the steering wheel is
set to an angle (t)
from the straight-line
direction, the tricycle
will rotate with angular
velocity (t) about
ICC lying a distance R
along the line
perpendicular to and
passing through the
rear wheels.
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Tricycle
d: distance from the front wheel to the rear axle
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Tricycle
Kinematics model in the robot frame
---configuration kinematics model
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Tricycle
Kinematics model in the world frame
---Posture kinematics model
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Synchronous Drive
In a synchronous drive robot (synchronous
drive) each wheel is capable of being
driven and steered.
Typical configurations
Three steered wheels arranged as vertices of
an equilateral
triangle often surmounted by a cylindrical
platform
All the wheels turn and drive in unison
This leads to a holonomic behavior
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Synchronous Drive
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Synchronous Drive
All the wheels turn in unison
All of the three wheels point in the same direction
and turn at the same rate
This is typically achieved through the use of a complex collection
of belts that physically link the wheels together
Two independent motors, one rolls all wheels forward, one rotate
them for turning
The vehicle controls the direction in which the
wheels point and the rate at which they roll
Because all the wheels remain parallel the synchro
drive always rotate about the center of the robot
The synchro drive robot has the ability to control the
orientation of their pose directly.
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Synchronous Drive
Control variables (independent)
v(t), (t)
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Synchronous Drive
Particular cases:
v(t)=0, w(t)=w during a
time interval t, The
robot rotates in place
by an amount w t .
v(t)=v, w(t)=0 during a
time interval t , the
robot moves in the
direction its pointing a
distance v t.
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Omidirectional
Swedish Wheel
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Car Drive (Ackerman Steering)
Used in motor vehicles,
the inside front wheel is
rotated slightly sharper
than the outside wheel
(reduces tire slippage).
Ackerman steering
provides a fairly accurate
dead-reckoning solution
while supporting traction
and ground clearance.
Generally the method of
choice for outdoor
autonomous vehicles.
R
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Ackerman Steering
where
d = lateral wheel separation
l = longitudinal wheel separation
ui = relative steering angle of inside wheel
uo = relative steering angle of outside wheel
R=distance between ICC to centerline of the vehicle
R
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Ackerman Steering
The Ackerman Steering equation:

:


u
u
u
sin
cos
cot =
l
d
l
d R
l
d R
o i
=
+

2 / 2 /
cot cot u u
l
d
o i
= u u cot cot
R
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Ackerman Steering
Equivalent:
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Kinematic model for car-like robot
Control Input
Driving type: Forward wheel drive


1
u
X
Y
u

} , {
} , {
} , , , {
2 1
2 1
t t
u
u u
y x
y x,
: forward vel
: steering vel
2
u
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Kinematic model for car-like robot
2
1
1
1
tan
sin
cos
u
l
u
u y
u x
=
=
=
=

u
u
u

X
Y
u

y x,
0 cos sin = u u y x

non-holonomic constraint:
: forward velocity
: steering velocity
1
u
2
u
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Dynamic Model
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=
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2
1
1
0
0
0
sin
cos
0
cos
sin
0
0
0
0
0
0
f
f
y
x
I
m
m
u
u
u
u
u



X
Y
u

y x,
Dynamic model
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Summary
Mobot: Mobile Robot
Classification of wheels
Fixed wheel
Centered orientable wheel
Off-centered orientable wheel (Caster Wheel)
Swedish wheel
Mobile Robot Locomotion
Degrees of mobility
5 types of driving (steering) methods
Kinematics of WMR
Basic Control
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Thank you!
Homework 6 posted
Next class: Robot Sensing
Time: Nov. 11, Tue