4 Magnetic NDE

4.1 Magnetic Properties

4.2 Magnetic Measurements
4.3 Magnetic Materials Characterization
4.4 Magnetic Flaw Detection
4.1 Magnetic Properties
Magnetization
M magnetization
V volume
magnetic susceptibility
H magnetic field
B magnetic flux density

0
permeability of free space

r
relative permeability
p
m
magnetic dipole moment
N number of turns
I current
A encircled vector area
m
N I = p A
+I -I
m
V

=
p
M
= _ M H
0 0 r
( ) = + = B H M H
r
1 = + _
m
1
2
Q = p R v
Q charge
v velocity
R radius vector
Classification of Magnetic Materials
Diamagnetism:

r
< 1
no remanence
orbit distortion
e.g., copper, mercury, gold, zinc

Paramagnetism:

r
> 1
no remanence
orbit and spin alignment
e.g., aluminum, titanium, platinum

Ferromagnetism:

r
>> 1
remanence, coercivity, hysteresis
self-amplifying paramagnetism
Curie temperature
e.g., iron, nickel, cobalt
Diamagnetism
p
m
magnetic dipole moment
p
spin
electron spin
p
orb
electron orbital motion
N number of turns
I current
A encircled area
e charge of proton
orbital period
r orbital radius
v orbital velocity
E
i
induced electric field
F
e
decelerating electric force
m mass of electron
n dipoles within unit volume
magnetic susceptibility
v
Q
F
m
B
v
Q
F
e
B
i e
F e E =
m
F ev B =
m orb spin
= + p p p
2
orb
2
Q A e r v
p N I A
r
t
= = =
t t
orb
2
er v
p =
2 2 2 2
0
orb
4 4
e r e r
p B H
m m

A = =
e
i
2 2
F d
r E r
dt e
u
= t = t
2
d m dv
r
dt e dt
u
= t
2
2
m
B r r v
e
t = t A
2
er
v B
m
A =
- 1-10 ppm
2 2
0
orb
4
e r
n
m

_ =
Weak Paramagnetism, Curie Law
m orb spin
= + p p p
p
m
magnetic dipole moment
B magnetic flux density
F
m
magnetic force
T
m
twisting moment or torque
U
m
potential energy of the dipole
k
B
Boltzmann constant
T absolute temperature
n dipoles within unit volume
magnetic susceptibility
m m
= T p B
m m
U = p B
m m
90 90
( ) sin U T p B d
u u
= u u = u u
} }
m m
cos U p B = u
m m
sin T p B = u
m m0
B
m
( )
U U
k T
p U e

=
2
0
B
3
n m M C
H k T T

_ = = =
Curie Law:
5-50 ppm
+I

-I

p
m
F
m
B
F
m
T
m

Strong Paramagnetism, Curie-Weiss Law:
t i
H H H H M = + = + o
t
C
M H
T
=
t i
M M M
MT
H H H
M
C
_ = = =

o
Curie-Weiss law:
C
C
T T
_ =

M
H
_ =
M magnetization
H exciting magnetic field
magnetic susceptibility
C material constant
T absolute temperature
H
t
total magnetic field
H
i
interaction field
material factor
T
C
Curie temperature
Curie law:
C
M H
T
~
C
T C
_ =
o
C
T
_ ~
Ferromagnetism
(i) magnetic polarization is produced by collective action of
similarly oriented spins within magnetic domains
(ii) very high permeability
(iii) magnetic hysteresis
(v) remnant magnetic polarization (remanence)
(vi) coercive magnetic field (coercivity)
(iv) depolarization above the (magnetic) Curie temperature
H
B
B
r
H
c
first magnetization
Spontaneous Magnetization
N N N N
S S S S
N S N S
S N S N
N N S S
S S N N
[100]
[010] easy magnetic axis
[001]
[110]
[111]
total internal wall external
U U U U = + +
Magnetic Domains in Single Crystals
easy magnetic axes
H = 0
H
H
H
1 demagnetization
(spontaneous magnetization)
4 technical saturation
3 knee of the
magnetization curve
2 partial magnetization
domain wall
movement
irreversible
rotation
reversible
rotation
H
B
1
2
3
5
4
5 full saturation
(no precession)
thermal precession not shown
4.2 Magnetic Measurements
Magnetic Sensors
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Frequency [Hz]
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
p
T
/
H
z
1
/
2
]

Hall
GMR
SDP
fluxgate
SQUID
noise threshold
axial
d
V N i N AB
dt
u
= = e
coil:
Hall Detector
I I
a
b
x
y
z
x x
B
z
V
H
F
m
F
e
( ) Q = + F E v B
( ) 0
y y x z
F e E v B = + =
H
y
V
E
a
=
x x
I enab v =
H
x
y x z z
I
V aE av B B
enb
= = =
H
H
x
z
R I
V B
b
=
H
1
R
en
=
Fluxgate
I
exc
V
sens
B
1
B
2
B
hard magnetic cores
high-frequency
excitation
low-frequency or dc
external magnetic field
B
1
+ B
2
B
2
B
1
B
1
+ B
2
B
2
B
1
B = 0 B 0
t
t
t
t
t
t
H
B

sensing voltage
(to be low-pass filtered)
Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer
V
sens
B
0
vibration ()
0
sin( ) d d t = e
1 0 0
( ) [ sin( )] t A B M t u = + k e
2 0 0
( ) [ sin( )] t A B M t u = k e
1 2
sens
( ) V t N N
t t
cu cu
= +
c c
0
0
B
M = _

sens 0
( ) 2 cos( ) V t N A B t = e_ k e
B
0
bias magnetic flux density
M magnetization
magnetic susceptibility

0
permeability of free space
d specimen displacement
d
0
specimen amplitude
angular frequency
t time
geometrical coupling factor
A coil cross section

1,2
flux in coil 1 and 2
N number of turns
V
sens
sensing voltage
Faraday Balance
U
m
magnetic potential energy
p
m
magnetic dipole moment
B magnetic flux density
M magnetization
V volume
U
g
gravitational potential energy
U total potential energy
h height
W actual weight
W apparent weight
magnetic susceptibility
H magnetic field

0
permeability of free space
for a single dipole:
for a given magnetized volume:
precision scale
specimen
W = W - F
m
electromagnet
spacer
h
m m
U = p B
g m
U U U = +
'
dU dB
W W MV
dh dh
= =
m
U MV B =
U W h MV B =
M H = _
2
0
0
'
2
V dH dH
W W V H
dh dh

= _ = _
4.3 Magnetic Materials
Characterization
Magnetic Properties
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Magnetic Field [kA/m]
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
T
e
s
l
a
]

hardened steel
soft iron
0 0
( , ) ( , )
p p
B B H M H M H M = = +
ferromagnetic materials:
para- and diamagnetic materials:
0
( ) B H M = +
M H = _
0 r
B H =
r
1 = + _
Initial Magnetization
anhysteretic initial magnetization curve
Flux Density
Differential Permeability
Magnetic Field
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

B magnetic flux density
H magnetic field
M magnetization

0
permeability of free space

d
differential permeability
M
0
saturation magnetization
n dipoles per unit volume
p
m
magnetic dipole moment
d
dB
dH
=
0
lim
H
M M

=
0
( ) B H M = +
0 m
M n p s
Retentivity, Coercivity, Hysteresis
B
r
remanence [Vs/m
2
]
M
r
remnant magnetization

0
permeability of free space
H
c
coercive field [A/m]
H
ci
intrinsic coercivity
U
0
magnetic energy density
A hysteresis area [J/m
3
]
0
( ) B H M = +
p
( , ) M M H M =
technical saturation:
H
H
B
B
r
H
c
r 0 r
B M =
c c
( ) 0 H M H + =
ci
( ) 0 M H =
c ci
H H s
0
dU BdH =
0
U A A =
Texture, Residual Stress
-2
-1
0
1
2
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Magnetic Field [A/m]
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
T
]

= 0 MPa
B
||
B

-2
-1
0
1
2
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Magnetic Field [A/m]
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
T
]

= 36 MPa
B
||
B

-2
-1
0
1
2
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Magnetic Field [A/m]
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
T
]

= 183 MPa
B
||
B

-2
-1
0
1
2
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Magnetic Field [A/m]
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
T
]

= 110 MPa
B
||
B

mild steel (Langman 1985)
Magnetostriction
Induced magnetostriction:
M
s
spontaneous magnetization
M
0
saturation magnetization
e spontaneous strain within a single domain

1,2,3
principal strains
H
1
2
3
e
c =
1
2,3
2 3
e c
c = =
1 2
e c c =
Spontaneous magnetostriction:
easy magnetic axes
H = 0
domain
s 0
M M M = s
domain domain
1 2,3
, 0 e c = c =
volume
1,2,3
3
e
c =
volume
0 M ~
Barkhausen Noise
H = 0
H
domain wall
movement
H
B
magnetic field Barkhausen noise

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Time
magnetic Barkhausen noise
acoustic Barkhausen noise
Curie Temperature
ferromagnetic materials (T < T
C
):
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
T / T
C
M
s

/

M
0

typical pure metal
typical alloy
magnetic susceptibility
C material constant
T temperature
T
C
Curie temperature
Curie-Weiss law:
C
C
T T
_ =

4.4 Magnetic Flaw Detection

Magnetic Flux Leakage
Advantages:
fast
inexpensive
large, awkward shaped specimens (particle)
Disadvantages:
material sensitive
poor sensitivity
poor penetration depth
ferromagnetic test piece
sensor
Hall cell, etc.)
(small coil,
exciter coil
Magnetic Boundary Conditions

x
t
medium I
medium II
B
I
u
I
boundary
B
II
B
II,t
B
II,n
u
II
B
I,n
B
I,t
x
n

x
t
medium I
medium II
H
I
u
I
H
II
H
II,t
H
II,n
u
II
H
I,n
H
I,t
x
n
Ampre's law:
V = H J
Gauss' law:
0 V = B
I,n II,n
B B =
I,t II,t
H H =
I I,n II II,n
H H =
I I,n II II,n
tan tan H H u = u
I II
I II
tan tan u u
=

Magnetic Refraction
I II
I II
tan tan u u
=

I
/
II
=
10
30
100
0 15 45 60 75 90
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
30
Ferromagnetic Angle,
I
[deg]
N
o
n
m
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

A
n
g
l
e
,

I
I

[
d
e
g
]

medium I
(ferromagnetic)
B
I
B
II
u
II
u
I
medium II
(air)
medium I
(ferromagnetic)
B
I
B
II
u
II
u
I
medium II
(air)
Exciter Magnets
electromagnet
air gap
ferromagnetic core
H d N I MMF = =
}
0 r
H A u =
0 r
MMF d
A
u
=
}

m
MMF
R =
u
m
0 r 0 r
1 1
i
i i i
d
R
A A
= ~
}

H magnetic field
N number of turns
I excitation current
MMF magnetomotive force
magnetic flux
length of flux line

0

r
magnetic permeability
A cross section area
R
m
magnetic reluctance
Yoke Excitation
Detection Methods:
- magnetic particle
(gravitation, friction, adhesion,
cohesion, magnetization)
- magnetic particle with ultraviolet paint
- coil
- Hall detector, GMR sensor
- fluxgate, etc.
Lateral Position
T
a
n
g
e
n
t
i
a
l

M
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

F
i
e
l
d



Lateral Position
N
o
r
m
a
l

M
a
g
n
e
t
i
c

F
i
e
l
d



electromagnet
crack
N I
magnetometer
Subsurface Flaw Detection
H
B
1
2
saturation greatly reduces the differential permeability
crack
low magnetic field
crack
high magnetic field