1

ACHRYA N G RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD

PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR Course No. Ento 131 (2+1) INSECT MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS (For class use only)

Editor G. Raghavaiah, Professor & Head

Department of entomology

Agricultural College, Bapatla Co Editors

T. Madhumathi, Associate Professor K. Manjula , Associate Professor P. Seetharamu, Asistant Professor M. Venkata Chalam Chalam, Assistant Profess sor T. Umamaheswari, Professor

ACHARYA N. G. G RANGA AGRIC./#.RA/ .NI0"R%I#Y

Certificate
Certified that this is a bonafide record of practical work done by Mr./Miss.I. .No.

.. in co!rse No. "N#$ +1+ 2Insect Insect Morpholo(y and %yste&atics' d!rin( the first / second se&ester of )*+ 3 )*+

Co!rse in 3 char(e ept. of "nto&olo(y ,laceate-

INDEX
S. No
1

DATE

TITLE
Methods of collection and preservation of insects including immature stages Study of different types of insect antennae and legs Study of types of mouthparts: biting and chewing, piercing and sucking and rasping and sucking Study of types of mouthparts: chewing and lapping, sponging and sucking and siphoning Study of wing venation, types of wings and wing coupling organs Study of different types of insect larvae and pupae Dissection of digestive system in insects Dissection of female and male reproductive systems in insects Study of characters of Orders Orthoptera and Dictyoptera and its families Study of characters of Orders Isoptera and Thysanoptera and its families Study of characters of Order Hemiptera and its sub order Heteroptera and its families Study of characters of sub order Homoptera and its families Study of characters of Order Lepidoptera and its families Study of characters of Order Coleoptera and its families Study of characters of Order Hymenoptera and its families Study of characters of Order Diptera and its families

Page No Remarks
4

Signature

2 3

12 17

20

22

6 7 8 9

25 30 31 32

10

35

11

38

12 13 14 15 16

42 46 51 56 59

EX.No: 1

Date:

METHODS OF COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECTS INCLUDING IMMATURE STAGES Collection of insects is helpful for their scientific studies. One of the best ways to learn about insects is to go out and collect them. The real value of insect collection is not to admire, but to use for studying them. Handling, preparation and preservation of insects will reveal many things which, one cannot get from text books. Before collecting insects one should know the general characters of insects for identifying them. Adults can be distinguished by the following characters. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Three distinct body regions viz., head, thorax and abdomen Six legs (3 pairs); hence called hexapods Two pairs of wings; insects are the only invertebrates that possess wings Three pairs of jaws i.e. mandibles, maxillae and labium One pair of antennae and one pair of compound eyes Genital aperture situated at the posterior end of the body Metamorphosis with four developmental stages i.e., egg. larva, pupa and adult

Where to collect insects: Insects can be found practically everywhere and usually in considerable numbers. The more kinds of places in which one looks for them, greater the variety he will be able to collect. Insects are available all through the year, but they are abundant during monsoon when more number of standing crops are available. The adults of many species have a short seasonal range. Hence, one should collect them throughout the year to get wide variety of insects. Many kinds of insects feed on plants; hence plants provide one of the best places for collection. Different species feed on different kinds of plants. Variety of insects can be collected from different places. Roots Stem & branches Leaves Root grubs, termites, root aphids. Stem borers, bark feeders, sucking insects, shoot borers Caterpillars, grasshoppers, leaf weevils, beetles, plant bugs, leafhoppers, aphids, whiteflies, mealy bugs, thrips Thrips, flower beetles, caterpillars, blister beetles Caterpillars, beetle grubs, fly maggots etc. Some types of beetles and caterpillars.

Flowers and buds Fruits Stored grains & other food products Clothing

Cloths moths

Debris, Leaf mould and litter, under stones, rotting materials, decaying plants or the bodies of dead animals In and around buildings and furniture At lights during warm evenings Aquatic situations

Saprophytic insects, parasitic insects and scavengers

Termites, ants, cockroaches, wood boring beetles

A variety of small beetles, moths, leafhoppers, plant hoppers, bugs, mayflies etc. Aquatic beetles, bugs, naiads of dragonflies and damselflies, Nymphs of mayflies, caddish flies, stoneflies etc.

Material required for insect collection and preservation: 1. Insect collecting net 3. Aspirator 5. Setting boards 7. Forceps 9. Hand lens 11. Polythene covers 2. Killing bottle 4. Insect store boxes 6. Entomological pins 8. Vials containing 70% alcohol 10. Camel hair brush 12. Insect labels

1. INSECT COLLECTION NET: Insect collection net is the main instrument for collecting the flying and jumping insects. The frame of the net should be 12-18 inches or 30 - 40cm across and either circular or pear shaped. The handle should be 100-125cm in length for convenient handling. The bag should be at least twice as long as the diameter of the frame, so that with a twist of the wrist it can be closed over the frame. The material with which the bag is made should be light and soft, so that the bag opens fully during sweepind of net. Mosquito netting cloth or fine muslin cloth is best suited for bag. 2. KILLING BOTTLE: Simple wide mouthed bottle can be used for preparing the killing bottle. The killing bottles are of two types namely a) Temporary killing bottle: It can be readily prepared by placing cotton wool soaked in any liquid killing agents like chloroform, benzene, ethyl acetate, ammonia, carbon tetra chloride etc. at the bottom of an air tight bottle. The insect placed in that bottle may be anaesthetised and finally killed by the vapours of liquid killing agents. These temporary killing bottles are effective only for shorter periods until the vapour of killing agents prevail in that bottle. b) Permanent killing bottle: It can be prepared by using potassium cyanide and plaster of paris in 1:4 ratio by volume. First at the bottom of the bottle a thin layer of plaster of paris is spread and over that powdered potassium cyanide is spread for about one cm thickness. Dry plaster of paris powder may be poured over that to fill the spaces between the lumps of cyanide to make a level. Then the remaining portion of plaster of paris may be mixed with enough quantity of water to make a thick cream and this may be poured over the previous mixture in the bottle like a layer of iceing. For setting and drying the plaster of paris, the bottle must be kept in well ventilated place with open mouth for a day or two. After drying, a piece of circular blotting paper may be placed on the top of the plaster of paris before using it as poison bottle, Potassium cyanide is extremely dangerous so poison bottles must be kept in a safe place, which will be far away from food stuffs and out of reach to children and domestic animals. 3. INSECT STORE BOXES: Permanent collections of insects are kept either in insect store boxes or in cabinets of drawers. Insect store boxes may be either of wood or cardboard boxes lined with cork sheet inside for easy pinning of insects. The standard size of insect store box is 45 cmx3 cmx10 cm. The box must be light, air tight, strong and carefully made and last a long time. 4. ASPIRATOR: Aspirator is useful to collect small insects from a net or directly from foliage; Aspirator bottle may be prepared with any small bottle or tube fitted with a cork containing two holes. Two bent glass tubes at right angles may be fitted in the holes of the cork. One glass tube may be open at both ends while the other tube may be closed at its inner end with a piece of muslin cloth held by a rubber band. The outer end of the second tube may be fitted with long rubber tube, which may act as suction tube.

5. SETTING BOARDS: The spreading boards or setting boards are useful for spreading the wings of an insect. It is a simple board made up of plywood lined by cork sheet on the top. It is provided with central longitudinal groove to fit the abdomen of the insect. Different sizes of setting boards are available for different sizes of insects. 6. ENTOMOLOGICAL PINS: These are special type of rust proof nickel pins available in different sizes to suit different types of insects. These pins should be used for pinning insects for taxonomic studies. The museums will accept to deposit the insects which, are pinned with these pins only. The other items like forceps, camel hair brush, hand lens, covers, and labels etc.. are needed while collecting, transferring to containers and in transporting of insects. Methods of insect collection; Type of insects 1. Medium to large active 2. Small sedentary insects 3. Small active insects 4. Aquatic insects 5. Small soil insects Methods of preservation Insects may be preserved in three ways. 1. Fluid preservation. 2. Making permanent slides. 3. Dry preservation. 1. Fluid preservation: All the soft bodied insects (adults or immature stages) are preserved in fluids like alcohol 70% or formaldehyde 4%. Insects preserved in alcohol remain soft , while those preserved in formaldehyde become brittle. 2. Making permanent slides: Minute insects or any part of the insect body may be mounted on slides and can be preserved permanently Methods of collection With insect net (Flying & Jumping insects) With camel hair brush With aspirator or sticky material With aquatic dip net By using Berlese funnel technique.

3. Dry preservation: Insect collected is to be killed in killing bottle, pinned, set and dried. Well dried specimens can be preserved in insect store boxes or insect show cases. Wings should be spread for butterflies and moths before drying. While spreading, push the fore wing towards front so that the anal (basal) margin of the wing is perpendicular to the long axis of the body of the insect. The wing spread is to be done on the same day of killing, of the specimen is dried without spreading the wings, a procedure known as relaxing may be followed to make the specimen soft and spread the wings. Relaxing: All adult insects should be mounted as soon as possible after killing. If they are allowed to dry, they become brittle and may be broken in the process of mounting. Specimens stored for long time without mounting must be relaxed before mounting. Moist cotton with a little carbolic acid is to be kept in a wide mouthed bottle. The insect, to be relaxed, may be kept above the moist cotton and the bottle is made airtight. The insects become soft in a day or two and become fit for pinning and setting. Pinning: Pinning is the best way to preserve hard bodied insects. Pinned specimens keep well, retain their normal appearance, and can be easily handled and studied. Insets should be pinned with special type of pins known as insect pins (Entomological pins). Insects are usually pinned vertically through the body. About 1/3 of the pin length should be seen above the body. The place of pinning on the insect body varies according to the group of insect as follows. 1. Butterflies, moths dragonflies &damselflies 2. Beetles and weevils 3. Bugs Through the central portion of the thorax

On right elytra at 1/3 length of wing from its base Through the central point of the scutellum just right side of the middle. Through the pronotum at about 2/3 the length from the head towards the right side. Through the center of the thorax just right side of the middle point.

4. Grasshoppers

5. Flies, bees, wasps

Methods of mounting: Direct Pinning: Large insects can be directly pinned with entomological pins and preserved in store boxes.

Pointing: specimens too small to pin can be mounted either by pointing or stage mounting. Labeling: The scientific value of an insect specimen depends to a large extent on the information regarding the date and locality of its capture. Fairly stiff white paper may be used for preparing labels. The label should be pinned to the specimen. Each label should contain the information indicating 1.Host 2. Locality 3. Date of collection and 4. Name of the collector. Protection of stored Insects: The insects stored in store boxes or insect cabinets are damaged by various other stored pests. Naphthalene balls or Para dichlor benzene. packets may be arranged in store boxes to prevent the attack and damage by psocids and other insect pests. Collection and Preservation of immature stages of insects Various types of immature stages may be found in different habitats as given below. S.NO Name of the immature stage 1. Eggs On floral parts, fruits and pods (on the surface and inside also), on leaves and inside the leaf tissue, petiole, midrib, on the surface and the tissue of the stem, shoots and roots, soil and water. Inside the stem, shoot, on the bark, on the leaves as defoliators or skeletonizers. In leaf webs, folds, rolls, mines on the floral parts. Inside the fruits and pods. Inside the stem, shoot, root. On the leaves. In dung heaps and manure pits. Inside the fruits and nuts. In fruits, nuts, leaf tissue, stems, shoots, floral parts, roots. In dung heap and manure pits. Inside the soil, on the floral parts, in stems, leaves, leaf mines, leaf webs, leaf foldes etc. On floral parts, stem, shoots, leaves, pods and roots. Where to locate

2.

Caterpillars

3.

Grubs

4.

Maggots

5.

Pupae

6.

Nymphs

Killing and preservation of immature stages, Killing: Larvae may be killed in chemicals or by heat. Improper killing will result in discolouration, shrinking, inflation, distortion.

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The following two solutions are satisfactory for killing larvae. 1. Xylene.... 95% ethyl alcohol 2. Kerosene 1 part. 1 part.

..1 part. (K.A.A.D mixture) 7 to 10 parts. 2 parts .. 1 part.

95% ethyl alcohol ... Glacial acetic acid Dioxane

Most of the killing and preserving fluids are likely to destroy some colours. Larvae may be killed by dropping into hot water ( 80 C to Boiling ) METHODS OF PRESERVATION: 1. Preserving in fluids: Apterygote insects, Nymphs of mayflies, dragonflies, damselflies, Orthoptera. Termites, Stone flies, Psocids, Biting and sucking lice, thrips, aphids and soft bodied grubs. Types of Preserving fluids: a. Ethyl alcohol b. b) Formaldehyde c. 95% ethyl alcohol Distilled Water Formaldehyde Glacial acetic acid d. 95% ethyl alcohol Distilled Water Formaldehyde Glacial acetic acid e. 95% ethyl alcohol Distilled Water Formaldehyde Glacial acetic acid f. 95% ethyl alcohol Distilled Water Acetic acid Glycerine .75 to 80% ..4 % 100 parts 100 parts 13 parts 5 parts 55 parts 35 parts 5 parts 5 parts 15 parts 30 parts 2 parts 2 parts 2 parts 1 part few drops 1parts

2.

2. Mounting on microscopic slides: Thrips, scale insects, small soft bodied larvae 3. By pointing: Nymphs of Heteroptera less than 10mm size

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4. By pinning: Larger size nymphs of plant bugs, orthoptera. 5. Blowing Larve (Inflating larvae): Any insect that has large, soft abdomen will shrink badly on drying and become discoloured due to the decay of the internal tissues. The most satisfactory method of preserving the natural colours of larvae particularly in caterpillars is by blowing. Larvae may be starved for 24 hours before blowing to make better specimens. Larva to be inflated is killed in killing bottle and is removed as soon as it appears dead. It is then placed on a piece of absorbent paper and gentle pressure is applied by means of glass tube near the head until the intestine starts to protrude from the anus. The protruded portion then be punctured and the body contents squeezed out by pressing the glass tube back along the body. When the specimen has been completely deflated, the tip of a glass inflating tube (coated with oil or Vaseline so that it will not stick to the dried specimen) is inserted in to the posterior end of the larva and fastened there with a clamp. Air is then blown gently through this tube until the larva is inflated and then the larva is placed in a small oven for drying. The air pressure in the larva is maintained until the larva has become completely dry, which may take from 10 minutes to an hour. Excessive heat should be avoided because it may injure the specimen. When the specimen is dry, the inflating tube is removed. Thus the specimen may be mounted in various ways. The inflated specimens are fragile and must be handled with care. Work to be done: 1. List out different steps involved in insect collection. 2. Observe various materials used in collection and draw the diagrams. Fill in the blanks 1__________________is the poisonous chemical used in killing bottles. 2. Soft bodied insects are preserved in_________________________ 3.________________method is followed for pinning and setting a dried specimen. 4.___________length of the pin should be seen above the body of a pinned insect. 5. Insects are generally pinned on___________side of the middle line of the body. 6. Insects possess three pairs of legs; hence called________________________ 7. Insects possess three pairs of jaws namely____________and______________ 8. The preserved injects are protected from getting damaged by keeping________ inside the boxes. 9. When the insects are too small to pin they may be mounted by_________method 10.______________is added in relaxing method to prevent fungal growth on insects

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EX.NO: 2

Date: STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF INSECT ANTENNAE AND LEGS

1. Types of insect antennae

Insects possess a pair of antennae, the appendages of second head segment, articulating with the head in front of or in between the compound eyes. Antennae are well developed in almost all adults and nymphs-completely absent in the order Protura but reduced in endopterygote larvae. These are sensory organs useful for perceiving smell, hearing and also act as tactile organs. In some, they may be useful for holding the food or mate and for communication. Study the following characters in antennae: 1. Typically divisible into three regions i.e. scape, pedicel, flagellum. 2. Scape-first elongated segment. 3. Pedicel - second segment and usually small in size and in many insects possess special auditory organ called Johnston's organ. (absent in Diplura and Collembola). 4. Flagellum-terminal part of the antennae from third segment to apex having number of segments (flagellomeres). 5. Size and shape of antennae varies in different insects; the character is useful in scientific classification of insects and also as secondary sexual character to identify the sex of the insect in some species.

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Observe the following modifications of antennae in different insects

S.No 1 2 3 Type of Antennae Filiform (thread like) Setaceous ( Whip Like) Moniliform (Bead like) Example Grasshopper Cockroach Termites Nature of Modification Segments are more or less uniform throughout from base to apex and never ends with bristle. Segments gradually decreases from base to apex presenting a whip or bristle like structure Segments are round or oval with well developed constrictions between segments, appearing like a string of beads Segments possess lateral processes on one side giving comb like appearance.

Pectinate (comb like)

Female arctiid moth Male lymantriid moth and mulberry silk worm moth Pulse beetle Butterflies

Bipectinate (double comb) Serrate (saw like)

Segments bear lateral processes on either side Segments are triangular with projecting points on one side giving saw like appearance. Segments gradually increase in diameter near the tip ending in a club like apical part. Segments gradually increase in diameter from near the tip and the last one ends with a small hook like structure. Segments gradually increase in diameter near the apex and the terminal 3 to 5 segments suddenly enlarge to form a knob like structure. The first segment (scape) is greatly elongated and flagellum always makes an angle with it. The terminal segments expand to one side into lateral oval lobes. The terminal segments expand on one side into lateral lobes. The sides of the lobes are parallel. Whorls of hairs arise from each joint of the segment. Each whorl contains a number of hairs. Looks like plumose but each whorl contains less number of hairs. Antennae are small, microscopic, three segmented. Third segment enlarged and bears a bristle called arista on its dorsal side. Antennae small 3 to 4 segmented. Terminal segment elongate into bristle like structure called style.

Clavate (clubbed) Clavate with hook (clubbed antennae with hook) Capitate (clubbed with knob) Geniculate (elbowed)

Skipper Butterflies Red flour beetle

9 10

Ants, Honey bees. Rhinoceros beetle, dung rollers, chaffer beetles Stylopids

11

Lamellate (plate like)

12

Flabellate (plate like) Plumose (brush like with dense hairs) Pilose (brush like with sparse hairs) Aristate (antennae with arista) Stylate (antennae with style)

13 14 15

Male mosquito Female mosquito Housefly

16

Robberfly

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2. Types of insect legs Legs are the locomotary appendages of the thorax in insects. Generally three pairs of legs are present in all adults and nymphs. This character is so constant that the name hexapoda is directly derived from this. The number is variable in larvae of endopterygote insects from zero to eleven pairs. In larvae, legs may be seen attached to both thorax and abdomen. (Thoracic legs are true legs while abdominal legs are prolegs). Insects being arthopods possess jointed legs. A typical thoracic leg consists of five parts; coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus. Coxa articulates with the thorax by single or double articulations. Trochanter is small and articulates with coxa but rigidly fixed to the femur. Femur is usually strong and articulates with tibia. Tibia is also equally longer as femur or even more and articulates with tarsus_ Tarsus is generally subdivided from 2 to 5 segments and each subdivision is called as tarsomere. All tarsomers unite with each other without any articulation. However the tarsus as a whole articulates with the tibia. Last tarsomere possess certain additional structures which are collectively called as pretarsus. Structure of the pretarsus varies but generally consists of a pair of claws and an arolium in the center and in some with an empodium. Normally legs are useful for walking. However, they are modified in different insects to suit different functions depending upon the habit and habitat of insects. Observe the following modification of legs in different insects S. N o 1 Type Leg Modified All legs Example Purpose Nature of Modification

Cursorial

Cockroach

Walking and running Leaping and Jumping Digging

2 3

Saltatorial Fossorial

Hind legs Front legs

Rapotorial

Front legs

Grasshoppers and gryllids Mole crickets and dung rollers Mantids

All the legs uniformly well developed without any special modification. Femur & tibia elongated Tibia & tarsus short and broad with teeth like projections. Femur spinose & possess a central longitudinal groove. Tibia narrow, blade like spinose & fits into the groove of femur.

Preying

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Natatorial

Hind legs

Water beetles

Swimming

Hind legs paddle like. Tibia and tarsus short & broad having dense long marginal hairs. Tibia possess tibial thumb. Tarsus single segmented and pretarsus with a single long curved claw.

Scansorial

All legs

Head lice

Clinging

Prehensile

All legs together

Dragonflies

Antennal cleaning legs

Frontlegs

Honey bee

Catching prey Thoracic segments obliquely arranged. Sternal plates pulled forward and tergal plates pushed backward, resulting that all the legs pushed forward and seen below the head, together form a basket like structure useful for catching the prey even in flight For cleaning Tibia possess a process and the antennae first tarsal segment with a semicircular notch. For picking wax plates Tibia possess a spine called wax pick for removing the wax plates from the ventral side of the abdomen. Inner surface of the tibia has a grove and is used as pollen basket for temporary storage of pollen grains. First tarsal segment enlarged and possess short stiff hairs all over the surface called pollen brush

Waxpick type

Honey bee Middlelegs

10

Pollen basket

Hindlegs

Honey bee

For collecting pollen & cleaning the body

Legs of Caterpillars: Two types of legs are present in larvae i.e. thoracic legs and abdominal legs. Thoracic legs (True legs) 1. Three pairs in number 2.Typically jointed called as true legs 3. Short and sclerolized 1. 2. 3. Abdominal legs (Prolegs) Number variable upto 8 pairs. Unjointed known as prolegs. Short and fleshy with flat surface planta. Number of hook like structures called crochets are arranged in circles or semicircles on planta that are having taxonomic importance.

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Work to be done: 1. Observe different types of antennae and legs and draw the diagrams. Fill in the blanks: 1. Antennae are appendages of______________head segment. 2. Antennae are highly reduced in________________________ 3. Antennae are absent in insects belonging to the order________________ 4. The three regions of antennae are___________ , _________ and _________ 5. Johnston's organ is present in____________________ part of antennae. 6. Sub-division of tarsus is known as___________________ 7. _____________________is the shortest segment of a leg. 8. A set of additional structures attached to the last tarsal segment are collectively known as_____________________ 9. Abdominal legs of a caterpillar are known as_________________________ 10. Insects are otherwise called as_____________based on the number of legs. 11. Hook like structures present on planta are known as___________________ 12. Tarsus is subdivided into______________________________subdivisions. Match the following: 1. Plumose 2. Pilose 3. Aristate 4. Stylate 5. Pectinate 6. Bipectinate 7. Clavate 8. Capitate Mulbery silkworm moth Housefly Butterfly Male mosquito Red flour beetle Robber flies Female mosquito Female arctiid moth ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )

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EX.NO: 3

Date:

STUDY OF TYPES OF MOUTHPARTS BITING AND CHEWING, PIERCING AND SUCKING AND RASPING AND SUCKING The mouth parts in insects are modified into various types according to the type of food (solid or liquid) they eat and the nature of feeding. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Biting and chewing. Eg. Grasshopper Piercing and sucking. Eg. Plant bug, mosquito Rasping or lacerating and sucking. Eg: Thrips Sponging or lapping and sucking. Eg. Housefly Chewing and lapping. Eg: Honeybee, bumblebee Siphoning. Eg: Butterfly, moth Degenerate type. Eg: Maggots of Diptera Mask type. Eg: Naiad of dragonfly

1. BITING AND CHEWING MOUTH PARTS: ORDER: ORTHOPTERA, e.g. grasshopper Mouth parts are typical mandibulate type useful for biting and chewing consists of 1. Labrum (upper lip) 2. Mandibles (Ist pair of jaws) 3. Maxillae (first maxilla-2nd pair of jaws) 4. Labium (second maxilla or lower lip-3rd pair of jaws) 5. Hypopharynx (tongue). DISSECTION: Dissect and arrange the mouthparts on a slide . Observe the labrum anterior to clypeus. Give a light cut between clypeus and labrum. Remove labrum with the help of foreceps and place it on a slide. Move the mandibles away from the center (towards the sides) and pull out along with muscles; arrange them just below the labrum on either side. Remove both the maxillae by holding them with forceps at their base; care is to be taken to get them along with its basal part cardo. Place them just below mandibles on either side. Remove hypopharynx present in between maxillae over the labium and place it in between the maxillae.

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Remove labium with foreceps taking care not to lose the basal parts submentum and mentum; Place just below the hypopharynx Observe the following parts in the mouthparts by keeping the slide over a bit of white paper under a tripod lens. Labrum: A simple plate like structure situated below the clypeus on the anterior side of the head and moves up and down. Mandibles: (1st pair of jaws) Paired unsegmented, heavily sclerotized jaws lying immediately below the labrum. Articulate with the headcapsule side wise by means of two joints; ginglymus and condyl. Possess two types of teeth; incisors and molars. Adopted for cutting and masticating the food material. Maxillae: (2nd pair of jaws) Paired segmented structures lying below the mandibles. Each maxilla bears a feeler-like organ, the palpus (which discharges a gustatory or tasting function). Have two segments, the basal cardo and apical stipes. Palpus arise on a lobe of the stipes called the palpifer. Stipes bears two lobe like structures at its apex (outer simple galea and inner jaw like structure lacinia) Functionally maxillae are of accessory jaws, their lacinia aiding mandibles in holding the food. Hypopharynx: A short tongue like structure located above the labium and between the maxillae. The ducts from salivary glands open on or near the base of hypopharynx. Labium: (3rd pair of jaws) Lies behind the maxillae Derived by the fusion of the second pair of maxillae; hence also referred as the second maxillae. Divided by transverse suture (labial suture) into two portions, basal postmentum and distal prementum. Postmentum is usually divided into basal submentum and distal mentum. Prementum bears a pair of palpi called labial palpi and a group of apical lobes which constitute the ligula. Labial palpi airse on lateral lobes of the prementum called palpigers.

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Ligula consists of a pair of small lobes in the middle, inner glossae and outer paraglossae. Labial palpi act as sense organs comparable to the gustatory function of maxillary palpi. 2. Piercing and sucking type: Order: Hemiptera. eg. Plant bug. Mandibles and maxillae modified into long needle like stylets. Maxillary stylet grooved inside with a longitudinal ridge dividing the feeding tube into dorsal food channel and ventral salivary channel. Labium modified into a long tubular rostrum in which the mandibular and maxillary stylets rest. Labrum: a triangular sclerite covering the dorsal base of rostrum. Hypopharynx reduced. 3. Lacerating and sucking or rasping and sucking type: Order: Thysanoptera. eg. Thrips. Labrum, labium and bases of maxillae combine and unite to form a mouth cone. Both maxillae and the left mandible are modified as stylets. Right mandible rudimentary. Hypopharynx reduced. Work to be done: 1. Dissect the mouth parts of given specimen. 3. Draw the diagram of different types of mouth parts. Fill in the blanks 1. Mouth parts studied in the grasshopper are of______________________type. 2. Glossa and paraglossa jointly called as_______________________________ 3. Maxillary palpus is attached to__________where as labial palpus is attached to________ 4. Mandibles articulate with headcapsule by means of___________and_________________ 5. ___________________is the lower lip. 6. In chewing and biting type of mouth parts______________________act as sensory organs. 7. The ducts from salivary glands open on or near______________________________ 8. ___________________are the accessory jaws aiding the mandibles in holding the food. 9. Right mandible is rudimentary in__________________type of mouth parts. 10. Mouth cone is present in________________________type of mouth parts.

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EX. NO: 4

Date:

STUDY OF TYPES OF MOUTHPARTS CHEWING AND LAPPING, SPONGING AND SUCKING AND SIPHONING 1. Sponging type or lapping and sucking type:

Order: Diptera. eg: housefly. Mouth parts highly specialized. Head prolonged into a proboscis. Proboscis divided into basal rostrum, middle haustellum and distal labellar lobes. A pair of triangular plates (upper labrum epipharynx and lower hypopharynx) present on the dorsal side of haustellum in between which the sucking channel runs. Labella, a pair of lobes containing number of narrow transverse channels the pseudotracheae. Mouth opens between the labellar lobes. 2. Chewing and lapping type: Order: Hymenoptera. eg: honey bee. Labrum narrow, minute. Mandibles dumble shaped, non trophic and industrial in function. Labial palp and galea of maxillae elongated. Lacinia and maxillary palp reduced. Glossa of the labium elongated ending with a spoon shaped flabellum. Prementum elongated and submentum modified into lora.

3. Siphoning type or simple sucking type: Order: Lepidoptera. e.g.: butterflies and moths Mandibles totally absent. Each galea of maxillae elongated, semi-circular towards innerside. Galea of both the sides meet together forming into a tubular structure, proboscis. Observe the coiled proboscis beneath the head. All other mouth parts highly reduced.

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Work to be done: 1. Dissect the mouthparts of given specimen. 3. Draw the diagram of different types of mouth parts. Fill in the blanks 1. Haustellum ends with a pair of__________________________________ 2. The spoon shaped structure at the end of the elongated glossa in chewing and lapping mouthparts is termed as_______________________ 3. ________________is elongated to form proboscis in butterflies. 4. Mandbles are absent in______________and____________type of mouth parts. 5. Pseudotracheae are present in____________________type of mouth parts.

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EX.No. 5

Date:

STUDY OF WING VENATION, TYPES OF WINGS AND WING COUPLING ORGANS

Insects are the only invertebrates possessing wings and capable of true flight. They are special processes of the body, usually two pairs. First pair (fore wings) articulates with mesothorax, second pair (hind wings) with metathorax. Some insects have only one pair of wings attached to mesothorax In some, wings are completely absent (apterous) In few insects like brown plant hopper, the degree of development of wings is variable, thus termed as Macropterous - wings fully developed.

Macropterous - wings fully developed. Brachypterous Or Micropterous Apterous - wings completely absent Study of the following characters of wings: Structure of a typical wing: A typical insect wing is triangular with three margins and three angles. 1. Costal margin or anterior margin. 2. Apical margin or outer margin. 3. Anal margin or inner margin. Angles: 1. Humeral angle. 2. Apical angle or outer angle. 3. Anal angle or tormus. Wings are thin, broad and leaf like structures strengthened by a number of hollow narrow, tubular structures called veins.The anterior portion of the wing towards costal margin where more number of longtitudinal veins concentrate is known as remegium and the posterior with less number of main veins is called vannal area. - wings short

Margins:

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Observe the following veins in a typical insect wing. 1. Costal vein (C) 2. Sub costal vein with 2 branches (SC) 3. Radial vein with 5 branches. ( R ) 4. Medial vein with 6 branches. (M) 5. Cubital vein with 3 branches. (Cu) 6. Anal veins usually 3, unbranched. (A) Cross Veins: 1. Humerai cross vein (h) 2. Redial cross vein (r) 3. Redio-medial cross vein (r-m) 4. Medio-cubital cross vein (m-cu)
S.N o

Wing type Tegmin a

Specificat ion Fore wings

Example Grasshoppers, gryllids, cockroaches and mantids Beetles and Weevils Plant bug

Function Protect the hind wings

Nature of modification Wings long, narrow, uniformly thick leathery not useful for flight. Venation is visible. Very hard and shell like. Venation is not visible. Not useful for flight Partly thick, leathery and partly membranous, Base of the wing called corium is thick. Apical membrane portion thin. Corium subdivided into clavus, embolium and cuneus Very small, microscopic and are divided into scabellum, pedicel and capitellum Forewings are short and modified into dumble like structure. Longitudinally fissured, fore wing with single and hind wings with double forked with dense marginal hairs Highly reduced, narrow, membranous with highly reduced venation, fringed with long marginal hairs giving a feather like appearance Thin, membranous with well developed venation Typical membranous wings, covered with overlapping unicellular scales (macrotrichia) on the wing surface

Elytra

Fore wings Fore wings

Hemelyt ra

Protect the hind wings and body Both for protection and flight

Halters

4a

Halters

Hind wings , front wings Pseudo fore legs Both fore and hind wings Both fore and hind wings Both fore and hind wings Both fore and hind wings

Diptera,

Balancing during the flight Balancing during the flight Flight

strepsiptera

Fissured or clefted Fringed

Plume moth

Thrips

Flight

Membra nous Scaly

Dragon flies, bees, wasps Butterflies and moths

Flight

Flight

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Wing Coupling Apparatus: During flight of the insect it is essential to keep both front and hind wings together by interlocking each other. The organs useful for this purpose are known as wing coupling apparatus. Observe the following types of wing coupling in different insects. Jugum type: Eg: Microlepidoptera. The anal margin of fore wing possess a small lobe at its base called fibula which rest on the costal area of the hind wings near humeral angle. Frenulum and retinaculum type (Frenate type): Eg: Moths Hind wing possess a bristle like structure called frenulum at its humeral angle. Fore wing possess a hook like structure called retinaculum on the ventral side. Frenulum passes in between the retinaculum and ventral wing surface thus both the wings are kept together. Amplexiform type: Eg: Butterflies The anal area of the fore wing and costal area of the hind wing enlarge to overlap each other and thus both wings are kept together. Hamuli type: Eg: Wasps and bees. The costal margin of hind wings possess a row of hooks called hamuli. The anal margin of the front wing is folded upwards. The hamuli catch the fold of front wings and thus keep them together. Work to be done: 1. Draw a typical wing and table the angles and margins. 2. Draw the hypothetical wing venation in insects. 3. Observe different types of wings, wing coupling organs and draw the diagrams. Fill in the blanks: 1. Wings are attached to___________and____________________thoracic region. 2. The three margins of a typical wing are_____________and ____________ 3. Arrangement of veins on the wing surface is known as_____________________ 4. The surface of the wing is divided into two areas namely______and ____________ Match the following: 1.Elytra 2.Hemelytra 3.Tegmina 4.Halter 5.Fissured 6.Fringed Flies Plumemoth Thrips Bugs Grasshoppers Beetles ( ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ) )

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EX.NO. 6

Date: STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF INSECT LARVAE AND PUPAE

Many insects pass through four developmental stages during their life i.e. larva, pupa (immature stages) and adult. Study of Eggs: Insects lay eggs singly (sorghum shoot fly) or in masses (Bihar hairy caterpillar)(sometimes covered by hairs, Tobacco caterpillar) Some lay in a sort of protective material or in an egg case or capsule or ootheca. E.g. mantids and cockroaches Some insert them in plant tissue or ground singly or in masses. E.g. Leaf hoppers, Thrips Size of the eggs vary in different insects. May be in different shapes i.e. spherical, oval, elongate, barrel, disc and sausage shaped. Covered with a shell that varies in thickness, sculpturing and colour. Many provided with characteristic ridges, spines and horns. Some have a projection called pedicel or stalk at one end (eggs of whiteflies and chrysopa). Types of Larva: The young one of exopterygote insect commonly known as nymph and that of the endopterygote insect as larvae. Observe a nymph and larva and note the following differences between them: Nymph 1. Young one of exopterygote insect 2. Resemble adult insect in appearance & feeding habits 3. Possess 3 pairs of thoracic legs as in adults 4. A pair of compound eyes present. 5. Genital organs & wings underdeveloped 6. Antennae generally well developed & visible 7. Nymph directly becomes adult without undergoing pupa) stage. Larva 1. Young one of endopterygote insect. 2. Differs from adult both in appearance & feeding habits. 3. Number of legs variable from zero to eleven pairs & are situated both in thorax and abdomen. 4. Compound eyes absent & stemmata present in that place. 5. Genital organs and wings totally absent. 6. Antennae highly reduced 1 to 3 segmented, always microscopic. Not visible. 7. Larva undergoes into a pupal stage before reaching the adult stage.

26

Nymphs of Odonata and Ephemeroptera are NAIADS Larvae of lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are CATERPILLARS. Larvae of coleoptera and Hymenoptera (beetles, weevils, wasps, bees) are GRUBS Larvae of Diptera (flies) are MAGGOTS

The larvae are mainly grouped into four types. 1. Protopod 2. Polypod 3. Oligopod 4. Apodous Observe different types of larvae and note the following characters. Protopod larva: Found in some parasitic Hymenopteran insects. Egg contains small quantity of yolk and hence larva hatches from the egg before completing its embryonic development. (Degenerate larva) Segmentation in abdomen absent. Appendages of head and thorax small or rudimentary. Nervous and respiratory systems undeveloped. Cannot lead free life; always internally parasitic on other insects.

Polypod larva: (Eruciform larva) Found in Lepidoptera and some Hymenoptera (sawflies) Segmentation well developed both in thorax and abdomen. Both thoracic and abdominal legs present. Peripneustic respiration is common. Antennae present but very small in size, or rudimentary. Comparatively inactive, living close to their food or host plant. Generally phytophagous.

27

Observe the following examples of polypod larvae. Sphingid larva: A small horn like projection present dorsally on the 8th abdominal segment in addition to the polypod characters. Hence known as hornworms. Ex. Sphinx moth, Acherontia styx. Semilooper: First two pairs of prolegs (on third and fourth abdominal segments) reduced. A portion of the body form a loop during locomotion, hence called semilooper. Ex. Caster Semilooper, Achoea janata. Loopers: Two pairs of prolegs on 6th and last abdominal segment present. During walking, complete body forms a loop like structure, hence looper. Ex. Thallasodes quadraria. Hairy caterpillar: Having hairs all over the body hence called hairy caterpillars. Eg. Garden hairy caterpillar, Pericallia ricini, Red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta albistriga. Oligopod larva: Thoracic legs more or less well developed. Abdominal legs absent. Head capsule and its appendages well developed. Divided into two sub-types. 1. Campodaeiform 1. Body straight, fusiform 2. Body flat, dorsoventrally compressed 3. Body wall sclerotized 4. Head usually prognathous. 5. Thoracic legs relatively well developed. 6. A pair of anal cerci or styles may be present. 7. Usually active. 8. Mostly predators Eg: Neuroptera, Coccinellid beetles Stylops, Caddisflies. 2. Scarabaeiform 1. Body bent in 'C' shape. 2. Body cylindrical or sub-cylindrical 3. Body wall soft and fleshy. 4. Head usually hypognathous. 5. Thoracic legs relatively reduced 6. Absent 7. Inactive 8. Mostly phytophagous. Eg. Scarabaeidae (Dung rollers, root grubs, rhinoceros beetles)

28

Apodous Larva: Trunk appendages are completely suppressed and usually derived from oligopod type. Eg: Many coleopterous insects, Apocrita of Hymenoptera, Diptera. Based on the degree of development of head and its appendages, apodous larvae are grouped into three sub-types. 1. Eucephalous: Head capsule more or less well developed with relatively little reduction of the cephalic appendages Eg: Sub order-Nematocera (Diptera) 2. Hemicephalous: Appreciable reduction of the head capsule and its appendages accompanied by marked retraction of the head into thorax. Eg: Brachycera (Diptera). 3. Acephalous No distinct head capsule. Mouth parts represented by mouth hook and are called maggots. Eg: Cyclorrhapha (Diptera) Types of Pupae: Pupa denotes the relatively inactive instar a quiescent stage between the larval and adult instars in endopterygote insects. A transitional stage in which the larval body and its internal organs remodeled. Pupae are mainly two types.

Types of pupa based on mandibles:I. Decticous pupa: Possess relatively powerful sclerotized articulated mandibles used to escape the adult from cocoon or cell. Primitive type and always exarate. Eg: Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera. II. Adecticous pupa: Possess non articulated mandibles often reduced and not useful in escaping the adult from the cocoon or cell. Types of pupa based on appendages and shape of pupa 1. Exarate: Appendages free and not adhere to the rest of the body.

29

Eg: Siphonaptera, Strepsiptera, Most of the Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. 2. Obtect: Appendages firmly pressed against its body and soldered down to it. Eg: Moths, Butterflies, Some Coleoptera, Neuroptera and Diptera. 3.Chrysalis: An obtect pupa, without cocoon, freely hanging from leaves or twigs by means of a spine or stalk. E.g. Butterflies 4.Coarctate pupa: An adecticous exarate pupa enclosed in a puparium formed from a preceeding larval cuticle and functionally comparable to the cocoon or pupa) cell of other forms. Eg. Housefly andsome other Dipteran flies. Fill in the blanks: Mention the type of larva / pupa based on the following characters. 1. Cephalic appendages are rudimentary without abdominal segmentation__________ 2. The appendages of the pupa are firmly pressed against its body____________ 3. Trunk appendages are completely absent with well developed head:__________ 4. Both thoracic and abdominal legs present:__________________ 5. A degenerate larva:_________________ 6. Body is bent in "C" shape:___________________ 7. Active larvae with thoracic legs only:__________________ 8. Pupa is covered by puparium:_______________________ 9. First two pairs of prolegs reduced:____________________ 10. A small horn like projection on dorsal side of 8th abdominal segment:___________ Work to be done: Observe the different types of larvae and pupae and draw the diagrams.

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EX.NO. 7 DISSECTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN INSECTS

Date:

Digestive system of grasshopper consists of a long tubular alimentary canal (as long as the body).

Cut and remove wings and legs of the body. Give a longitudinal mid dorsal cut to the body on mid dorsal line. Keep it in dissection tray fully immersed in water, fix it in the tray by pinning it through head and the tip of the abdomen.

Open the dorsal tergites to expose the internal system by pinning the body on both sides. Remove yellowish dorsal diaphragm, whitish trachea and air sacs. Insert black paper below the digestive system and study the following characters. Observe a long tubular alimentary canal extending from mouth to anus. The narrow tubular structure from the mouth is the oesophagus which enlarges at its posterior end into a sac like structure, the crop or ingluvius. (foregut)

Observe 6 anterior gastric caecae (larger) and 6 posterior gastric caecae (smaller) at the end of the crop.

The small tubular structure present between crop and malpighain tubules is midgut. Observe the hindgut beyond the malpighain tubules, which further divided into narrow ileum, bulged colon and swollen recturm.

Rectum possess 6 internal rectal papillae. Locate paired pinkish salivary glands on either side of the alimentary canal in the thoracic region appearing like bunch of grapes.

Work to be done: 1. Observe the digestive system and draw the diagram. 2. List out the internal parts which, you have observed after opening the body. 3. List out different parts of digestive system you have observed from mouth to anus in sequence.

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EX. No. 8

Date: DISSECTION OF MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Dissect and observe the reproductive system in the following way. Give a longitudinal cut on mid dorsal side of the body and fix it in the dissection tray fully immersed in water. Pin the cut ends of the body to sides. Observe a mass of yellow structures in the middle of the body i.e. gonads. Locate the ligaments that extend from tip of gonads to thorax.

Separate the gonads with the help of two needles. Pin the gonads at the sides keeping gonoducts intact with the body. Remove tracheal tubes, air sacs diaphragm and alimentary canal. Locate the hard endosternites in female at the base of the rectum; bend and pin them towards sides. Trace the gonoducts and other accessory parts and arrange a black paper beneath them.

Observe the following structures of male and female reproductive systems.

Male Reproductive System: A pair of testes (gonads) A pair of vasa deferentia. (gonoducts) A pair of accessory glands. A pair of seminal vesicles. Common ejaculatory duct.

Female Reproductive System: A pair of ovaries (gonads) along with ligments. A pair of lateral oviducts. (gonoducts) Common oviduct. Spermatheca A pair of endosternites.

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EX. No: 9

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDERS ORTHOPTERA AND DICTYOPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES ORTHOPTERA Othos = Straight Ptera = Wings (Crickets, grasshoppers and locusts) Mostly terrestrial insects and seen in tropics. They are highly phytophagous. Some are predacious and some are omnivorous. Usually medium to large sized insects with elongate body. 1. Head is hypognathous or prognathous with short or long usually filiform antennae. 2. Biting and chewing mouth parts with well developed mandibles. 3. Prothorax large and its notum extends laterally to conceal a great deal of propleura. Meso and metathorax closely associated to form pterothorax and its notum is divided into prescutum, scutum and scutellum 4. Winged or wingless. If winged, wings are straight, forewings are long and narrow with many veined, somewhat thickened and are known as tegmina. Hind wings are membranous, broad, many veined and when at rest folded fanlike beneath the forewings. Well developed anal lobe is present on hind wings 5. Specialized stridulatory organs are present and usually males alone can produce sound. It is two types (1) Alary type: Eg. Gryllidae and Tettigonidae. (2.) Femoro-alary type: Eg. Acrididae. 6. Auditory or tympanal organs are also well developed and are located on either side of the first abdominal segment (Acrididae) or at the base of fore tibiae (Gryllidae) 7. Legs normal or forelegs modified for digging (fossorial) as in mole crickets or hindlegs modified for jumping (saltatorial) as in grasshoppers. Tarsi 3 or 4 segmented. 8. Male genetalia concealed by the boat shaped 9th abdominal sternum. 9. Females with well developed ovipositor with three pairs of valves. Not concealed and useful for inserting the eggs in soil. 10. Anal cerci well developed usually short and unsegmented Family :Acrididae 1. Short horned grasshoppers and locusts. They are phytoghagous and are often destructive. 2. Antennae filiform shorter than the body with less than 30 segments.

33

3. Auditory or tympanal organs situated one on either side of first abdominal segment. 4. Stridulation femoro-alary- type. The ridge on the inner side of hind femur with peg like projections (acting as a file) is rubbed against the hardened radial vein of tegmina. 5. Hind legs modified for jumping (saltatorial). Tarsi 3 segmented. 6. Ovipositor short and well developed. Its valves are short and curved. Examples :Hieroglyphus banian Oxya nitidula Cyrtacanthacris ranacia

Rice grasshopper Rice small grasshopper Cotton grasshopper

Family: Tettigonidae (Long horned grasshopper& Katydids) 1. Cryptic colouration 2. Antenna as long as or longer than the body 3. Tarsus 4 segmented 4. Stridulation - alary type 5. Mainly herbivorous but some carnivorous Eg :Surface grasshopper Conocephalus indicus DICTYOPTERA Dictyo = Net Ptera = Wings (Cockroaches and mantids) 1. Terrestrial, tropical and subtropical. Blattids are the oldest living insects. Cockroaches are omnivorous while mantids are predacious on other insects, small animals and even on scorpions. 2. Head usually hypognathous. 3. Mouth parts mandibulate. The hypopharynx is large with a median depression called sitophore 4. Antennae , filiform or setaceous. 5. Forewings modified into leathery tegmina with marginal costal vein. Hind wings have a large anal lobe folded fanlike beneath forewings. 6. Legs cursorial for running in cockroaches, fore legs, raptorial for catching prey in mantids. Tarsi 5 segmented 7. A pair of many segmented anal cerci are present. Eggs are laid in a structure called ootheca. Family : Mantidae - Mantids 1. They exhibit cryptic colorations, simulating with the background.

34

2. Head is triangular and deflected with filiform antennae, three ocelli. 3. Prothorax greatly elongated, meso and metathoracic segments short 4. Front legs: raptorial for catching prey with tibiae and femora bearing prominent spines 5. Anal cerci short and segmented 6. Eggs are laid in a water tight egg case/ootheca which is fixed to plants. The case is 7. formed from a frothy gum secreted by colleterial glands of females. 8. Nymphs resemble ants after emergence. 9. Nymphs and adults are predators on other insects, small animals and even scorpions. Examples :Mantis religiosa Gongylus gongyloides Fill in the blanks Greenhouse mantid Common Indian Preying mantid

1. Class insecta is divided in to and sub classess 2. The name class Insecta was coined by in 1758 3. In class Insecta, the sub family name ends with. 4. Paleopteran orders are characterized by the absence of mechanism 5. Males with upturned abdomen is observed .group of insect orders 6. In class Insecta, the names of the orders are mostly based on character. 7. type of stridulatory organs are present in the family Acrididae 8. In short horned grasshoppers, tympanal organs are situated on.. 9. In Acrididae, the forelegs are modified for 10. Ootheca is present in order 11. In cockroaches Ocelli are called as 12. In preying mantids .type of fore leg is present

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Ex. No: 10

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDERS ISOPTERA AND THYSANOPTERA AND THEIR FAMILIES ISOPTERA Iso = Similar Ptera = Wings . Termites/white ants Termites abound throughout the tropics and also occur in most warm temperate countries They cause serious damage to wood on trees / buildings. 1. These are small to medium sized social living and polymorphic insects with well developed caste system. 2. Antennae moniliform 3. Compound eyes present in winged forms, median ocellus wanting. 4. Mouth parts typical biting type with powerful mandibles. 5. Apterous, brachypterous or winged. In winged forms fore and hind wings are similar in size, shape and venation. At rest wings are held flat over the body and extend beyond the tip of abdomen. Wings are membranous with somewhat reduced venation and are capable of being shed by means of basal fractures along basal suture leaving wing scale/stub 6. Legs short and stout. Tarsi usually 4 segmented 7. Frontal gland/Fontanella is a characteristic termite organ which attains its greatest development in soldiers. It appears to have defensive function 8. Anal cerci short or very short. 9. Metamorphosis simple or incomplete 10. Caste system well developed. Mainly there are 3 castes. 1) Reproductives/Primary reproductives: Includes king and queen. These are highly developed individuals sexually. They have fully developed wings and compound eyes and are usually heavily pigmented. The males are often small. Queens sometimes live for several years. The kings and queens are usually produced in large numbers at certain seasons. They leave the colony in a swarm, mate and individual pairs establish new colonies. Wings are shed after mating leaving remnants called wing stub/scales. The queen attains enormous size after mating and the obesity is known as physogastry. The increase in size is affected only in abdomen.

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2) Supplementary reproductives: They are brachypterous and less pigmented, usually have smaller eyes. They sometimes carry on extensive reproduction in the colony and may supplement the queen in building the colony. 3) Sterile castes: They form bulk of the colony. They include workers and soldiers A) Workers: These are sterile wingless adults. They are pale in colour, lack compound eyes. Mandibles relatively small. They collect food and feed queens, soldiers and newly hatched young ones. They build up nests, passageways, tunnels and galleries. They may be dimorphic including major and minor forms. B) Soldiers: These are also sterile wingless adults with greatly enlarged head and mandibles. Slightly larger than workers, may or may not have compound eyes. They protect the colony. They are two types (i) Mandibulate type: have well developed mandibles, defensive in function (ii) Nasute type: have the head prolonged anteriorly into a narrow snout through which a sticky secretion is exuded or squirted on the intruder. They have well developed frontal gland. Mandibles are reduced. Termites feed on cast skins, faeces of other individuals, dead individuals, wood and wood products. Family: Termitidae - Termites 1. These are ground dwelling with wide range of food habits. 2. Fontanella is present. 3. Pronotum of workers is narrow with a raised anterior lobe which is saddle shaped. 4. The wing scale or stub of the fore wing is shorter than pronotum. Wing margin is more or less hairy. Radial sector (Rs) is reduced or absent. 5. Anal cerci 1 or 2 segmented. Examples Odentotermes obesus Microtermes obesi THYSANOPTERA Thysono = Ptera = Thrips These are small to minute, 0.5 to 1.0 mm sized, slender bodied terrestrial insects. These are important pests of food plants and horticultural crops and vectors of some diseases. They have the habit of hiding in flowers and buds of plants.

Fringed Wings

37 1. Antennae short, 6-10 segmented, usually with sense cones or sensoria on 3rd and 4th segments which are large 2. Compound eyes conspicuous with 3-4 ommatidium in apterous forms but up to 150 in winged forms. Ocelli 3 in winged forms 3. Mouth parts asymmetrical. Right mandible is rudimentary. Lacerating and sucking or rasping and sucking type with three stylets. Mouth cone is formed by the labrum, clypeus above and labium below and it extends ventrally between the fore coxae. 4. Winged/wingless. Wings when fully developed are long and narrow with highly reduced venation (with few or no veins). The wings are fringed with long hairs on the margins. 5. Legs short, tarsi 1or 2 segmented with 1 or 2 claws, with a bladder like terminal protrusible vesicle (hence, Physopoda previously) 6. Abdomen is elongate with 10-11segments, usually tapering posteriorly. 7. Anal cerci absent 8. Metamorphosis accompanied by one or two inactive pupa like instars i.e.intermedirary between simple and complete. 9. Parthenogenetic type of reproduction is very common and in main species males are rarely seen. Family : Thripidae - Thrips 1. Largest and most important injurious family in thrips. 2. Antennae 6-9 segmented. 3rd and 4th segments not conical with sense cones or sensoria. Antennae with 1 or 2 segmented apical style, 4th segment usually enlarged. 3. Winged or wingless. If winged, wings are narrow and pointed at the tip and fringed with long hairs on the margins. 4. Ovipositor normally well developed and down curved Examples Thrips tabaci Scirtothrips dorsalis Onion thrips Chilli thrips

Fill in the Balnks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The charecteristic termite organ is .. The obesity in fertilized termite queen is known as Frontal gland is well developed in.type of soldiers. Order Thysanoptera is otherwise known as ..based on leg character. Thrips posesstype of mouth parts Fringed wings are present in ..order.

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Ex No. 11:

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER HEMIPTERA AND ITS SUB ORDER HETEROPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES HEMIPTERA Hemi = Half (Half thickened or basally thickened) Ptera = Wings True bugs/ plant bugs/bugs The Hemiptera or true bugs are most easily recognised by the form of their mouth parts. These are adopted for piercing and sucking and this habit is prevalent throughout life except in male Coccoidea, where the adult mouth parts are atrophied. Head is very variable both in form and in the inclination of its longitudinal axis. Porrect in most Heteroptera, and usually deflexed in the Homoptera. Ocelli are usually present and frequently two in number (Heteroptera and most Auchenorhyncha) three are present in Cicadidae and mainly Sternorhyncha. Antennae fairly long, 4 or 5 segmented. Mouth parts: They are exclusively adapted for piercing and sucking, the mandibles and maxillae modified to form slender bristle like stylets which rest in grooved labium (beak, rostrum). Maxillary palps are absent. In the majority of Hemiptera, the labium is either 4 segmented or 3 segmented. Labial palpi wanting. The hypopharynx is highly specialised. Wings: Two pairs of wings usually present. In Heteroptera there is a marked difference in the consistence of the two pairs of wings. The forewings are termed hemielytra (hemi-elytra) and their proximal area is well sclerotized resembling an elytron, with only the smaller distal portion remaining membranous. The hind wings are always membranous and are folded beneath the hemielytra at rest. In Homoptera the forewings are of uniform texture and are frequently of harder consistency than the hind pair. Legs: Coxa articulates with the thorax by a rotary or a hinged joint in Heteroptera. Tarsal segments 2 to 3. In Homoptera, the hind coxae are fused with metathorax. In Heteroptera paired claws are supported by an empodium but without an arolium. Pulvilli are present one under each claw

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The abdomen and external genitalia 1. Order Hemiptera is divided into 2 sub orders namely Heteroptera and Homoptera. 2. In the sub order Homoptera 11 segments are present; the first two segments are modified in connection with sound production. 3. In the sub order Heteroptera 10th and 11th segments are fused together and the first one or two may be reduced or absent 4. Cerci absent in Hemiptera. 5. In Homoptera, ovipositor with 3 pairs of valves 6. In Heteroptera, ovipositor with 2 or 3 pairs of valves. 7. Ovipositor absent in Aphidoidea and Coccoidea. 8. Sound producing organs are present. They are well developed in the members of Cicadidae. 9. Ten pairs of spiracles are normally present in the Heteroptera. Differences between suborders Heteroptera 1. Head is prognathous 2. Antennae are 4-5 segmented 3. Gular region present and sclerotized (maxillary plates meet and fuse ventrally to form Gular region) 4. Rostrum arises from front part of the head and the base does not touch anterior coaxae 5. Pronotum is large 6. Forewings are hemelytra 7. Wings are held flat over the body at rest 8. Tarsi 3 segmented 9. Odoriferous glands are present Homoptera Head is deflexed Antennae 3-10 segmented Gular region absent or very small and membranous

Rostrum arises from posterior part of the head and base extends between anterior coxa Pronotum small and collar like Forewings are uniform in consistence Wings are held roof like over the body at rest Tarsi 1-3 segmented Wax glands are present

FAMILIES OF SUB ORDER HETEROPTERA Family: Pentatomidae - Stink bugs or shield bugs 1. Medium to large sized. Broad shield like insects. They produce highly disagreeable odour. 2. Head with lateral margins concealing bases of antennae. 3. Antennae 5 segmented, ocelli present.

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4. Pronotum broad and shield shaped. Scutellum of mesonotum is large, triangular. 5. sometimes extends posteriorly to the extent of covering wings entirely. 6. In hemelytra corium is large extending to anal margin, membrane with many longitudinal veins arising from a vein which is nearly parallel to the apical margin of corium. 7. Four pairs of odoriferous glands are present which open on the dorsal side of abdomen Examples Nezara viridula, Aspongopus janus Bagrada curciferarum Green plant bug/green stink bug Red pumpkin bug Cabbage painted bug

Family: Lygaeidae - Seed bugs or Chinch bugs Small bugs, hard bodied 1. Antennae 4 segmented inserted down on the sides of the head, apical segment is larger. 2. Compound eyes and ocelli are well developed. 3. Four to five unbranched simple veins in the membrane of hemelytra. Cuneus is lacking, clavus is elongate 4. Metathoracic gland openings are present. 5. In some, the front femora moderately swollen with 2 rows of teeth beneath 6. Coxa rotator, tarsi 3 segmented, pulvulli present Eg. Oxycarenus hyalinipennis - Dusky cotton bug Aphanus sorididus - Groundnut pod bug

Family: Miridae (Capscidae) Mirid bugs 1. Medium or small, usually delicate insects 2. Ocelli absent 3. Rostrum 4 segmented 4. Cuneus present 5. Empodium indistinct. Tarsi almost invariably 3 segmented 6. Majority live on plant juices, some prey on small arthropods Eg. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis antonii Predator on rice BPH - Cyrtorhinous liwidipennis

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Family: Pyrrhocoreidae (Pyrrhocoreids), red cotton bugs or cotton strainers 1. They exhibit red and black colourations 2. Ocelli absent 3. More branched veins and cells present in hemelytra 4. Coxa is rotatory and tarsi 3 segmented with pulvilli Eg. Dysdercus cingulatus red cotton bug

Family : Coreidae (Leaf footed bugs) 1. Medium to large sized, long and narrow bugs. 2. Antennae 4 segmented situated well upon the sides of the head above a line drawn from the eyes to the base of the beak. Ocelli present. 3. Head narrower, shorter than pronotum. scutellum smaller. 4. In hemelytra, richly branched veins are present. 5. In most of the species either or both of the hind femora and tibiae may have conspicuous enlargements or leaf like dilations and hence the name leaf footed bugs - Tarsi 3 segmented, pulvlli present Examples : Leptocorisa vericornis Rice Gandhi bug Clavigralla gibbosa Clavigralla barrens Pulse pod bugs

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EX.NO: 12

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF SUB ORDER HOMOPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES

This suborder contains a large and diversified group of insects and is closely related to the hemiptera.
1. These are minute to small insects and are distributed widely 2. Head is deflexed and not generally constricted behind to form a neck. 3. Compound eyes well developed, ocelli absent in apterous form but 2 to 3 in 4. winged forms 5. Antennae well developed and usually 3 to 10 segmented 6. Mouthparts piercing and sucking type, stylets often exceedingly long, retractile, rostrum arising from the back of the head, in some cases appearing to arisebetween anterior coxae. In some adults like male coccids the mouth parts are vestigial or absent 7. Thoracic segments generally fused together and not distinguishable from 8. abdomen in wingless forms. Pronotum small and collar like. 9. Winged or wingless when winged the four wings are uniform in consistency and the wings are held roof like over the body at rest. Alary polymorphism is 10. prevalent. In male coccids only one pair i.e forewings are present. 11. Wax glands or honey tubes usually well developd in most of the members of this order. 12. In most of the species, the life history is very complex involving sexual and 13. parthenogenetic generations winged and wingless individuals. 14. Usually undergo simple metamorphosis. In some species, the last nymphal instar Is quiescent and pupalike.

Family : Cicadellidae (Leafhoppers/jassids) Economically very important family. These are also vectors of important diseases. Besides acting as vectors of viruses they also inject toxins into plant tissues causing hopper burn. They are small, 1 to 13 mm in size, slender usually tapering posteriorly. Wedge shaped insects usually rest in a position ready for jumping when disturbed they leap often several feet. 1. Both nymphs and adults have the characteristic habit of running sidewise or diagonally 2. Fore wings are somewhat thickened often brightly coloured and anal veins I A and 2A do not unite to form 'Y' shaped vein. 3. Antennae minute, bristle like 3 segmented. 4. One or two rows of small spines are present on hind tibiae 5. Ovipositor well developed and adapted for lacerating plant tissues for egg laying.

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6. Many excrete honey dew through anus over which sooty mould develops and hampers photosynthetic ability of plant. Examples: Amrasca biguttula biguttula Nephotettix virescens Amritodus atkinsoni Ideoscopus clypealis

Cotton leafhopper Paddy leafhopper Mango leafhopper Mango leafhopper

Family : Delphacidae : Planthoppers 1. Most of the species are small with reduced wings (brachypterous wings) 2. Presence of large mobile apical spur on hind tibiae is the characteristic feature of this family 3. Alary polymorphism is very common i.e., winged, wingless and brachypterous forms occur in the same species. 4. Tegula is present (small sclerite at the base of the costal vein for articulation) 5. I A and 2A of the fore wings unite to form Y" shaped vein Examples : Nilaparvata lugens Sogatella furcifera Perigrinus maidis Brown planthopper on paddy White backed planthopper on paddy Shoot bug on maize (Corn lantern fly)

Family : Aphididae (Aphids or plant lice) These are small soft bodied, pear shaped fragile phytophagous insects that are frequently found in large numbers/colonies, sucking sap from various parts of plants. Some act as vectors of plant diseases and some are even root feeders. 1. Antennae fairly long. 2. Rostrum usually long and well developed 3. Presence of a pair of cornicles on the dorsal surface of 5th or 6th abdominal segments is the characteristic feature of aphids. 4. Winged or wingless, normally wingless individuals are predominant. Alary polymorphism is prevalent. When winged, hind wings are much smaller with fewer veins. At rest. the wings are generally held vertically above the body 5. Tarsi 3 segmented with a pair of claws 6. Excrete honeydew through anus.

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7. Aphids generally exhibit polymorphism in their development in different generations of the same species. The associated phenomenon in reproduction are parthenogenesis. Oviparity and viviparity and occurrence of generations in which the sexes are unequally developed, males often being rare (also known as alternation of generations). Examples : Myzus persicae Aphis gossypii Aphis craccivora Tobacco aphid Cotton aphid Groundnut aphid

Family: Pseudococcidae Mealy bugs 1. Females are wingless, elongate, oval with distinct segmentation. Body covered with powdery wax or filamentous waxy secreations. 2. Legs well developed. No instar is sessile. All the insect stages are able to move because of legs 3. Eggs are placed in a loose cottony waxy material

Eg: Brinjal mealy bug Planococcus insolitus Citrus mealy bug - Planococcus citri Sugarcane mealy bug - Saccharicoccus sacchari Family : Coccidae (Scales) The females in this family are flattened, elongate, oval insects with obscure segmentation and hard smooth exoskeleton or covered with wax or tough scales. They are wingless. Legs present or absent and the antennae absent or much reduced with functional mouth parts. Males are active. First pair of wings well developed. Second pair reduced to halters. Mouth parts vestigial. 1. Tarsi if present, one segmented with a single claw. 2. The metamorphosis is usually complex. The first instar nymphs have legs and antennae and are fairly active and they are called as crawlers. 3. Oviparous, ovoviviparous and viviparous forms. 4. They excrete honey dew through anus like aphids. Examples : Pulvinaria psidi Icerya purchasi Guava mealybug/scale Citrus scale Cottony cushion scale.

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Family : Aleurodidae (Whiteflies) 1. These are minute insects. 1 to 3 mm in length and resemble tiny moths with opaque body. 2. The adults have two pairs of wings with reduced venation and covered by a fine whitish dust or powdery wax giving white colour. 3. Antennae full developed, 7 segmented, reniform compound eyes, 2 ocelli, Rostrum 3 segmented. 4. Tarsi nearly with two equal segments with paired claws and with empodium. 5. Presence of vasiform orifice, which opens on the dorsal surface of the last abdominal segment in both nymphs and adults, is the characteristic feature of this family. 6. Honeydew is excreted in large quantities particularly by nymphs through anus. 7. Metamorphosis is complex. The first instar young ones are active (crawlers) but subsequent immature stages are sessile and look like scales. 8. The eggs are characteristic being provided with pedicel which sometimes exceeds the length of the egg. 9. Sexual reproduction is common, parthenogenesis is also seen. Examples: Aleurolobes barodensis Bemista tabaci Trialeurodes ricini Aleurocanthus wooglumi Fill in the Blanks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. - Sugarcane whitefly - Cotton whitefly - Castor whitefly - Citrus blackfly

Order Hemiptera is divided in to .and .sub orders. Odoriferous glands are present in . sub order of Hemiptera Wax glands are present in ..sub order of Hemiptera In Heteroptera, five segmented antennae are present in .family Leaf footed bugs belong to the family. Presence of one or two rows of small spine on hind tibia is characteristic feature of ...family of sub order Homoptera. 7. In Homoptera, presence of large mobile apical spur on hind tibia is the characteristic feature of family. 8. Aphids possess a pair of on the dorsum of 5th and 6th abdominal segments. 9. Presence of Vasiform orifice is the characteristic feature of ..

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Ex. No. 13

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER LEPIDOPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES Lepidoptera Lepis = Scales Ptera = Wings Butterflies and moths This order is of great economical importance. Most of its members are crop pests. Some are productive arid useful insects like silk worm / pollinators / predators. This is one of the largest orders consisting more than one lakh species. 1. These are small to large insects with flat overlapping scales and hairs on the body, wings and other appendages giving various beautiful colours to the insects. 2. Head relatively small, free with small neck, compound eyes are relatively large, ocelli two. one on either side close to the margins of compound eyes. 3. Mouth parts siphoning type represented by a long coiled proboscis formed by the galea of maxillae. Maxillary palpi small or lacking Mandibles nearly always lacking except in the family Micropterigidae (chewing type). A few species have vestigeal mouth parts and do not feed in adult stage- Labial palpi usually well developed. 4. Wings usually two pairs, proportionately large, covered with scales giving beautiful colour patterns. Forewings usually large. 5. Larvae are called caterpillars usually eruciform (polypod) Most of the larval stages are phytophagous and are very serious pests of crops. 6. Pupae are usually obtect and generally enclosed in a cocoon. Butterflies do not make a cocoon and their pupae are called chrysalis (naked butterfly pupa). 7. Adults are harmless except fruit sucking moths on citrus and castor semilooper moth. Natural silk is the product of this order. Metamorphosis is complete. Family : Noctuiidae (Noctuid moths, army worms and cut worms) 1. This is the largest family in this order comprising medium sized nocturnal moths attracted to light and sugar mixture 2. Antennae usually filiform, maxillary palpi normally vestigial, labial palpi well developed, ocelli present. 3. Fore wings cryptic and dull coloured simulating with the surroundings, 4. M2, (median) arises close to M3; than M1, cubitus appears four branched. 5. In hind wings Sc and R fused for very short distance at the base of the discal cell. Frenulum Present. 6. Larvae only with primary setae- usually 5 pairs of prolegs are present, but in some due to absence of prolegs on 3rd or 3rd and 4th abdominal segments a part of the larval body forms a loop when moving, hence they are called semiloopers. Most of them are highly polyphagous and nocturnal. Majority feed on foliage and some are stem borers. They are called army worms or cut worms by their habit.

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7. Pupates usually in an earthen cell in the soil and the pupae are characterised by the presence of labial palps and maxillae extend to the caudal margin of the wings. 8. Adults have a pair of well developed tympanal organs at the base of abdomen. Often adults are harmful and act as fruit sucking moths.

Examples Mythimna separata Helicoverpa armigera Spodoptera litura Eudocima materna E. ancilla E. fullonica Family: Lymantriidae (Tussock moths and gypsy moths ) 1. Medium sized, dull coloured, nocturnal moths with females of most species having only rudimentary wings (Notolophus sp), proboscis is atrophied 2. Ocelli absent. Antennae bipectinate in males and pectinate or plumose in females sexual dimorphism 3. Wing venation similar to Noctuidae. Sc and R fused to some extend and basal areole is larger in some species in hind wings 4. The caudal extremity of females is often provided with the large tuft of anal hairs which are deposited as a covering on egg masses 5. Caterpillars are densly hairy, often with thick compact dorsal tufts on certain segments 6. Osmeteria are frequently present on 6th and 7th abdominal segments. Some are provided with urticating hairs which cause irritation 7. Pupation takes place in a cocoon above ground and are charecterized by specific evident setae Eg. Yellow hairy caterpillar on Paddy Psalis securis Hairy caterpillars on fruit trees, pulses and castor Euproctis fraternal and E. Scintillans Casuarina hairy caterpillar Lymantria incerta Fruit sucking moths on citrus Climbing cutworm of paddy American boll worm of cotton / gram pod borer Tobacco caterpillar

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Family: Sphingidae Sphinx or hawk moths or horn worms. 1. Medium to large, heavy bodied, powerfully flying moths with spindle shaped body, tapering and pointed both anteriorly and posteriorly. 2. Antennae are thickened towards middle and beyond middle, and pointed and hooked at the tip. 3. The proboscis is very long in most of the species and attains its greatest length in this family and usually the adults produce sound by forcing air through proboscis. 4. Forewings are elongate (long and narrow) with oblique outer margin. Hind wings small and usually brightly coloured. Sc and Rs in hind wings connected by a cross vein near middle of discal cell. 5. Larvae of most species have a conspicuous horn on the dorsal surface of 8th abdominal segment which is relatively longer in 1st instar and hence the name horn worms. 6. Pupation occurs freely in a cell in the ground or in a very loose cocoon on the surface among leaves. In some genera the proboscis projects from the body resembling the handle of a pitcher. Examples: Acherontia styx Gingelly deaths head moth. Herse convolvuli Sweet potato sphinx.
Family :- Pyralidae (Snout moths) 1. These are small and delicate moths with well developed antennae and ocelli present 2. Labial palpi well developed and projected forward appearing as a snout in front of the head and hence they are called snout moths 3. Fore wings elongate or triangular with cubitus appearing four branched. Hind wings are usually broad with Sc and R usually fused or closely parallel for a short distance beyond discal cell. 4. Larvae are naked, prolegs variable, but always present on 6th segment, generally they are internal feeders 5. Female moths are provided with a tuft of anal hairs at the caudal extremity which are deposited as a covering on the egg masses E.xamples Scripophaga incertulas Chilo partellus Leucinodes orbonalis Paddy stem borer Jowar stem borer Brinjal shoot and fruit borer

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Family : Gelechiidae (Grain moths. tubermoths, gelichids) 1. Small to minute moths usually cryptic coloured. 2. The labial palpi are long and up curved, the terminal segment is long and pointed 3. The veins R4 and R5 in the fore wings are stalked at the base. Forewings are trapezoidal and narrower than the hind wings. 4. Hind wings usually have the outer margin curved and R5 and M are stalked. Examples Sitotroga cerealella Pectinophora gossypiella Aproaerema modicella Phthorimaea operculella Angoumois grain moth Cotton pink bollworm Groundnut leaf miner / webber Potato tuber moth

Family: Lycaenidae (blues, coppers and hair streaks) 1. Medium sized butterflies with upper surface of wings being metallic blue or coppery, dark brown or orange and under surface more sombre with delicate streakings or dark centered eye spots. Hind wings are provided with delicate tail like prolongations. 2. The sexes frequently exhibit great differences in colouration, the male is pale shining blue and the female is irridiscent brown. 3. Each compound eye is surrounded by a rim of white scales and the antennae ringed with white rim. 4. Legs are normal except fore legs of males which may possess more or less shortened tarsi and may be wanting in one or both claws. 5. Larvae are characteristically onisciform with both ends tapering end with broad projecting sides concealing the legs. 6. Pupa is attached to the surface by its anal end and is held by a central grith of silk, rarely it is subterranean. 7. Larvae are voracious feeders, some species are carnivorous Eg.Virachola isocrates Pomegranate fruit borer or Anar butterfly Lampides beoticus and catechrysops cnejus Red gram blue butterfly

Family: Arctiidae- Wooly bears, Tiger moths, Footman moths 1. These are stout bodied, medium sized, conspicuously and brightly spotted or banded nocturnal moths. 2. Subcosta (Sc) and Radial sector (Rs) in hind wings are usually fused near or beyond the middle of the discal cell. 3. Caterpillars are usually densely hairy and some are called as wooly bears since, they curl into a compact mass when disturbed. 4. Many species are capable of producing sound. 5. Pupates in a cocoon and cocoons are made of silk and larval body hairs.

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Examples: Amsacta albistriga- Red hairy caterpillar. Pericallia ricini- Garden hairy caterpillar. Utethesia lotrix - Sunhemp hairy caterpillar. Estigmene lactinea- Black hairy caterpillar.
Family Papilionidae (Swallow tails) 1. Medium to large sized butterflies most of them have a tail like prolongation in the hind wings Cubitus in the forewings appears four branched. 2. Larva is smooth with a series of fleshy dorsal tubercles or occasionally with a raised prominence on the 4th segment. 3. Pupa is characteristic in having two lateral cephalic projections and is called chrysalis Examples Papilio demoleus Papilio polytes Fill in the blanks: 1. In siphoning type of mouth parts long coiled proboscis is formed by .of maxillae 2. The butterfly pupa is called as 3. Fruit sucking moths cause damage in their ..stage to the ripened citrus fruits 4. Labial palpi are upcurved in family 5. Labial palpi project forward as snout in family 6. The larvae are cutworms and nocturnal in ..family Citrus butterflies

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EX. No: 14

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER COLEOPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES Coleoptera Coleo -Sheath Ptera Wings Beetles and Weevils This is the largest order in class Insecta comprising about 1/3 or 40 per cent of the known insect species. They occur in soil, humus. rotten wood and other decomposing organic matter, in timber, furniture and museum specimens. Some are aquatic, some littorial and others infest stored products, some are predators, a less are cavernicolous and some are subterranean, some are phytophagous, some are pollintors. 1. Minute to large sized with leathery or horny integument 2. Head highly sclerotized, free, normal or prolonged into a snout as in weevils. Ocelli usually absent 3. Antennae variable, usually 11 segmented 4. Mouth parts chewing type with well developed mandibles. The mandibles attain their greatest length in the males of stag beetles (Family Lucanidae) 5. Prothorox large and freely movable, mesothorax much reduced and fused with metathorax and the tergum of these segments is divisible into prescutum, scutum and scutellum. 6. Two pairs of wings. Forewings are horny and leathery known as elytra which almost always meet to form a straight mid dorsal suture. Hind wings membranous. In few beetles the wings are highly reduced 7. Legs well developed for walking /running and the tarsal segments variable within the same insect and are represented by tarsal formula. 8. Abdomen usually 10 segmented First tergum is membranous and one or more of the sterna from the first to third are aborted in many species. Terminal abdominal segments of the female are retractile and tubular thus functioning as an ovipositor (Family Cerambycidae) 9. The Larvae are known as grubs and generally thoracic legs are present - Pupa exarate, pale coloured and are invested by a thin soft cuticle. Most of the adults possess stridulatory organs and they are variable. Family : Coccinellidae (Ladybird beetles or coccinellid beetles) 1. Beetles of moderate size, ovate, convex dorsally and horizontal ventrally, brightly coloured or spotted 2. Head partly concealed by pronotum. 3. Antennae usually clavate, short and partly concealed. 4. Legs are short and hidden under the body. Tarsal formula 4 - 4 - 4 but appear 3 segmented since 3rd segment is small and concealed in the deeply bilobed second segment. Tarsal claws are toothed at the base

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5. Grubs are usually elongate covered with minute tubercles or spines known as setose or rugose and are usually flattened. 6. Both adults and grubs of most of the species are carnivorous and predacious feeding upon aphids, coccids and other soft bodied insects. A comparatively small group are phytophagous i.e. genus Henosepilachna Examples Menochilus sexmaculata Rodolia cardinalis Henosepilachna vignitioctopunctata Predator on aphids Predator on cottony cushion scale Ladybird beetle on brinjal

Family : Bruchidae (Seed beetles or pulse beetles) These are short, stout bodied beetles and body is often narrowed anteriorly and is usually dull greyish or brownish in colour 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Head is produced anteriorly into a short and broad snout Antennae serrate or pectinate. Prothorax prominent, somewhat triangular and its notum is greatly narrowed anteriorly. Elytra short, never cover the tip of abdomen and abdominal tip bluntly rounded. Legs short. Tarsal formula 5 - 5 - 5 hind femur thickened and often toothed. Grubs usually undergo hypermetamorphosis, first instar with well developed legs and possess spine or toothed thoracic plates to aid in entering smooth and hard seeds. After first moult it becomes partially or wholly apodous.

Examples : Callosobruchus chinensis C. maculatus Pachymerus gonagra Pulse beetles Tamarind bruchid

Family : Scarabaeidae (Chafer beetles or horn beetles or dung rollers or root grubs) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. These are hard bodied, oval or elongate usually convex beetles Head often with slender, recurved sometimes toothed or bifurcated frontal horn. Antennae 8-11 segmented and lamellate type Prothorax large, simple or with horny structures. Elytra not usually cover the abdomen completely. Abdomen has 6 visible sternites. Tarsal formula 5 - 5 - 5. Tarsi 5-segmented .The front femora more or less dilated with the outer edge toothed. 7. Adults usually feed on foliage. Grubs typically scaraboid and feed on roots known as root grubs which are very serious pests of most of the crops while some feed on organic matter living in manure pits.

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8. The grubs are sluggish, stout and usually white in colour and called as white grubs. Examples : Oryctes rhinoceros Lachnosterna serrata (Holotrichia ) Anomala varians Chafer beetle on orchards Rhinoceros beetle on coconut Root grub on sugarcane

Family: Chrysomelidae Flea beetles or leaf beetles. 1. Small to medium oval or spherical beetles with the upper surface of the body generally bare and shining frequently with metallic colouration. 2. Antennae short or of moderate length, usually with 11 segments. 3. Legs short, hind femora enlarged for jumping in many forms. Tarsal formula m5-5-5, tarsi 5 segmented but appear to be four segmented since the 4th segment is small and concealed in the bilobed 3rd segment. Tibial spurs absent usually. 4. Adult leaf beetles feed principally on flowers and foliage causing numerous holes. Some grubs feed on foliage. Some are leaf miners, some feed on roots and some bore into stems. 5. Abdomen with 5 visible sternites. Example: Dicladispa armigera Rice hispa. Raphidopalpa foveicollis Red pumpkin beetle. Aulacophora cincta Yellow pumpkin beetle. Metrioma circumdata Sweet potato tortoise beetle. Family: Cerambycidae Long horned or longicorn wood boring beetles. The leaf beetles (F: Chrysomelidae) are closely related to the Cerambycidae, both groups have a similar tarsal structure and both are phytophagous. The leaf beetles usually have much shorter antennae and are smaller and more oval in shape than the cerambycids. Most of the cerambycids are larger. Many are brightly coloured. 1. These are elongate and cylindrical with long antennae usually filiform and at least two thirds as long as body, capable of being flexed backwards, arising on prominent tubercles.

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2. Prothorax is narrow or as wide as mesothorax, usually spined or tuberculate. 3. Elytra usually cover the body but sometimes may leave the posterior one or two segments exposed in few cases (Pygidium). 4. Tarsal formula 5-5-5, tarsi 5- segmented but appear to be four segmented since the 4th segment is small and concealed in the notch of bilobed 3rd segment. All tibiae with two well developed spurs. 5. Most of the grubs are tree borers. Few are confined to the roots with powerful mandibles boring into deep and hard wood also. They are highly destructive. 6. Most of the adults feed on flowers and some of them produce a squeaking sound when picked up. Examples: Batocera rufomaculata Mango stem borer. Sthenias grisator Grapevine stem girdler. Plocaederus ferrugineus Cashew root and stem borer Family: Apionidae 1. Antennae clavate, rarely geniculate 2. Trochanter elongated. 3. Ventral surface of mentum without projecting setae 4. In the larvae, the abdominal segments have only two dorsal folds and the frontal sulci extended to the mandibular articulation. Eg. Sweet potato weevil Cylas formicarius

Family : Curculionidae (Weevils or snout beetles) They are sombre coloured, when disturbed they draw in their legs and antennae and fall to the ground and remain motionless. 1. Minute to large insects characterised by the head prolonged to form a pronounced rostrum or snout of variable size, shape and length. In most species it exhibits sexual dimorphism, being better developed in the female than in the male. In females it acts as a boring instrument for placing the eggs. 2. Antennae geniculate and clavate arising at about the mid length of the snout. 3. Labrum absent. Palpi reduced and rigid. Mouth parts small and arranged at the end of the snout. 4. Legs short or very long. Tarsi 5 segmented , 4th one often small, trochanter elongate.

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5. Wings well developed or rudimentary or absent. Abdomen with 5 visible sternites. 6. Adults and grubs are phytophagous and stored grain pests. Grubs usually apodous curved with well developed head Examples : Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Cylas formaicarius Sitophilus oryzae Fill in the blanks: 1. In Coleoptera, the variation in the number of tarsal segments with in the same insect is represented by .. 2. The phytophagous insect in Coccinellidae is (S.N.) 3. The grubs of tree borers with powerful mandibles while adults are with long curved antennae in family 4. Weevils belong to the family 5. C- shaped larva is characteristic of ..family

Coconut red palm weevil Sweet potato weevil Rice weevil

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Ex. No. 15

Date:

STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER HYMENOPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES Hymenoptera Hymen = Membranous Ptera = Wings Wasps, bees, ants, saw flies etc. This is the most beneficial order in the class Insecta comprising honey bees involved in pollination and honey production. Most of them are social living. Small to large insects. Head is free from the thorax and often extremely mobile. Acuteness of vision is a characteristic feature of the order and the compound eyes are almost always large and ocelli 3 or absent. Antennae variable, usually exhibit sexual dimorphism being longer in males. Mouthparts exhibit a wide range of differentiation from the generalized biting type to the highly modified lapping and sucking type. Mandibles always present. Usually 2 pairs of membranous wings with reduced venation. Hind wings are smaller than the fore wings and interlocked with the forewings by means of tiny hooks (hamuli) present along the costal margin. The hamuli catch on a fold along the posterior margin of the forewing. Usually stigma is present in the forewings along the costal margin near the apex Legs slender, trochanter two segmented (though the second piece, known as the trochantellus belongs to the femur) Tarsi mostly 5 segmented and an arolium present between the claws. Abdomen usually basally constricted to form pedicel or petiole, the first abdominal segment fused with metathorax and known as propodeum. The remaining region of the abdomen is known as gaster. Ovipositor often well developed and modified for sawing, boring, piercing or stinging. Larvae are known as grubs with well developed head and usually apodous rarely eruciform with three pairs of thoracic and six to eight pairs of abdominal legs. Peripneustic or holopneustic tracheal system. Pupa adecticous and exarate or obtect with a cocoon. Metamorphosis complete

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Family : Tenthredinidae (Sawflies) 1. These are stout wasp like insects often brightly coloured without abdominal pedicel. 2. Adults frequent visitors of flowers and some are carnivorous preying upon small flies and beetles. 3. Antenna 3 to 6 or 8 to 11 segmented, filiform or setaceous 4. Trochanter 2 segmented, fore tibia with 2 apical spurs. 5. Ovipositor is well developed, toothed, or saw like with two pairs of flattened plates. 6. In many species the sexes are differently coloured. Parthenogenesis is very common. 7. The larvae often bear a close general resemblance to those of the Lepidoptera. They are exclusively phytophagous. 8. Pupation occurs in an elongate oval silken cocoon or in an earthen cell. Example Athalia lugens proxima Family : Ichneumonidae (Ichneumons) 1. One of the largest families in class Insecta. Slender wasp like parasitic insects 2. Antennae large, filiform with more than 16 segments 3. Trochanter 2-segmented. Legs provided with conspicuous tibial spurs and strong claws. Tarsi 4 segmented 4. In forewings costal cell is wanting and have two recurrent veins (since the cross vein 2M - Cu is present) while braconids have one or none. 5. Abdomen long and slender, petiolate, petiole usually curved and expanded apically. Propodeum prolonged beyond the insertion of hind coxae. Gaster long. 3 times to head and thorax 6. Ovipositor very long, often longer than the body arising anterior to the tip of abdomen and permanently extruded. 7. Most of them are endoparasites and undergo complete metamorphosis. 8. First instar grub possess caudal prolongation or tail. Examples : Xanthopimpla stemmator Isotima javensis Parasite on jowar stem borer larvae Parasite on top shoot borer of sugarcane Mustard sawfly

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Family Braconidae (Braconids) 1. Closely related to ichneumonids but smaller. 2. Minute to small, stout bodied parasitic insects. 3. Abdomen sessile, subsessile or petiolate 4. Costal cell is wanting in forewings with only one recurrent vein 5. Ovipositor well developed. 6. Unlike ichneumons, pupate in a silken cocoon on the outside of the body of host 7. Polymbryony occurs in a few species. Examples : Apanteles flavipes Bracon hebetor Parasite on jowar stem borer larvae Early larval parasite on lepidopteron caterpillars

Family : Trichogrammatidae (Trichogrammitids) 1. Minute to small insects, economically important family, because they are egg parasites. 2. Fore wings broad, pubescence in lines or rows. Marginal and stigmal veins in a single curve 3. Tarsi 3 segmented. This character differentiates this family from other families Example : Trichogramma minutum T. australicum Fill in the blanks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Acuteness of vision is the characteristic feature of order In Hymenoptera, abdomen is divided in to ,.and .. In Hymenoptera, the second abdominal segment in known as In Hymenoptera, the first abdominal segment fused with meta thorax is known as.. The phytophagous insects of Hymenoptera belong to family The total number of legs in the larvae of mustard saw fly are.. The Hymenopteran family exclusive of egg parasitoids is.

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EX. No. 16

Date: STUDY OF CHARACTERS OF ORDER DIPTERA AND ITS FAMILIES

Diptera Di -Two Ptera -Wings Flies, mosquitoes, midges etc. 1. Order Diptera is economically very important comprising of important crop pests, parasites, blood sucking mosquitoes acting as vectors of human diseases, predators etc., 2. Small to medium, widely distributed soft bodied insects with prominent head and small neck. 3. Eyes large, usually larger in males, holoptic or dichoptic 4. Ptilinum or frontal sac is a characteristic feature of Cyclorrhapha, indicated by the ptilinial / frontal suture. 5. Antennae mostly 3 segmented and aristate 6. Mouth parts sucking type and form a proboscis. In some like mosquitoes piercing and sucking and in others like houseflies sponging and lapping type with labium distally expanded into a pair of fleshy lobes 7. Mesothorax large supporting the functional forewings Pro and metathoracic segments small and fused with mesothorax 8. Only forewings are present hind wings are modified into halteres and act as balancers in flight. 9. Legs well developed, tarsi 5- segmented, pulvilli and empodium present. 10. Larvae are eruciform, apodous and known as maggots, mostly amphipneustic 11. Pupa is free or enclosed in the hardened last larval cuticle known as puparium - coarctate pupa 12. Metamorphosis complete Family: Cecidomyiidae Gall flies/ gall midges Minute to small delicate flies, somewhat hairy with small head. Antennae long, moniliform with prominent whorls of hairs. Legs long resembling mosquitoes, tibia without spurs. Wings broad with a few are longitudinal veins (3-5) for the most part un branched with no obvious cross veins. 5. Larvae narrow at both ends, live in plants forming galls, some live under bark, some in decaying vegetation and a few are predacious or parasitic on aphids, scales etc. 6. Most species possess a sternal spatula or breast bone on ventral side of prothorax in the last larval instar. 7. Paedogenesis is seen in some species of this family. Example: Orseolia oryzae- Rice gall midge. Contarania sorghicola- Sorghum earhead midge. 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Family : Tephritidae / Trypetidae (Fruit flies) 1. Small to medium flies, slightly hairy / bristly. Head large, broad with small neck 2. Wings large, mostly pictured with spots or bands. Subcosta bends apically forward at almost right angle and then fades out without reaching the margin. 3. Legs normal, middle tarsi with spurs 4. Ovipositor very well developed, horny, flattened and usually 3 segmented. 5. Adults are visitors of flowers, fruits, foliage etc.. 6. Larvae are phytophagous amphipneustic Examples Dacus cucurbitae Chaetodacus incisus Carpomyia vesuviana Cucurbit fruit fly Guava Fruit Fly Ber Fruit fly

Family : Agromyziidae (Leaf miner flies) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Small blackish or yellowish flies Wings hyaline or pictured Femora of legs bristled Vibrissae are generally present Most larvae are phytophagous, mine into leaves producing characteristic blotches or into stems of young seedlings

Examples : Phytomyza atricornis Melanagromyza obtusa Melanagraomyza phaseoli Liriomyza trifoli Pea leaf miner Redgram or Tur pod fly Blackgram or pea stem fly Serpentine leaf miner

Family: Tachinidae (Tachinid flies ,Parasitic flies) 1. Small to medium, conspicuously bristly or hairy, active flies 2. Head is large and free. Arista on antennae often bare 3. Pteropleural bristles are present. Post scutellum is prominent 4. Wings are large , rarely mottled, Rs cell narrowed or closed apically 5. Abdominal sternite usually overlapped by the tergites on the sides. Abdomen clothed with long, conspicuous marginal, dorsal and apical bristles

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6. Larvae mostly parasitoids. Few are saprophagous. Metapneustic in first instar and amphipneustic subsequently. Distinctly segmented

Eg.Sturmia bimaculata parasitoid on Spodoptera and other caterpillars Stomatomia bezziana- parasitoid on black head caterpillar on coconut Exorista civiloides parasitoid on many caterpillars

Family : Muscidae (Shoot flies) 1. Small to medium dark flies resembling house flies 2. Fine erect hairs are present on the under surface of scutellum. Possess more than one sternopleural bristles. 3. In the forewings vein Cu1 + 1 A is short and does not reach the wing margin 4. Larvae are cylindrical and truncated posteriorly. Mostly phytophagous. Some are scavengers and a few are parasitic. Examples Atherigona varia soccata Atherigona oryzae Sorghum shoot fly Rice seedling fly

Fill in the blanks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In Diptera hind wings are known as .. The pupa of Diptera is known as Paedogenesis is observed in ..family of Diptera Flattened ovipositor is characteristic of .family Leaf miners belong to the family .