Introduction to Compressible Flow
D 0 Dt
The density of a gas changes significantly along a streamline
Compressible Flow
Definition of Compressibility: the fractional change in volume of the fluid element per unit change in pressure
p
p + dp
p + dp
v dv
p + dp
p + dp
Compressible Flow
1. Mach Number:
M = V local velocity = c speed of sound
2. Compressibility becomes important for High Speed Flows where M > 0.3 M < 0.3 Subsonic & incompressible 0.3 <M < 0.8 Subsonic & compressible 0.8 <M < 1.2 transonic flow shock waves appear mixed subsonic and sonic flow regime 1.2 <M < 3.0 - Supersonic shock waves are present but NO subsonic flow M > 3.0 Hypersonic Flow, shock waves and other flow changes are very strong
Compressible Flow
3. Significant changes in velocity and pressure result in density variations throughout a flow field 4. Large Temperature variations result in density variations.
As a result we now have two new variables we must solve for: T& We need 2 new equations. We will solve: mass, linear momentum, energy and an equation of state.
Important Effects of Compressibility on Flow
1. Choked Flow a flow rate in a duct is limited by the sonic condition 2. Sound Wave/Pressure Waves rise and fall of pressure during the passage of an acoustic/sound wave. The magnitude of the pressure change is very small. 3. Shock Waves nearly discontinuous property changes in supersonic flow. (Explosions, high speed flight, gun firing, nuclear explosion) 4. A pressure ratio of 2:1 will cause sonic flow
Applications
1. Nozzles and Diffusers and converging diverging nozzles 2. Turbines, fans & pumps 3. Throttles flow regulators, an obstruction in a duct that controls pressure drop. 4. One Dimensional Isentropic Flow compressible pipe flow.
Approach
Control volume approach Steady, One-dimension, Uniform Flow Additional Thermodynamics Concepts are needed Restrict our analysis to ideal gases
Thermodynamics
Equation of State Ideal Gas Law p = RT
R= Universal Gas Constant 8314 J/(kmol K) Ru = = = 287 J/(kg K) Molecular mass of air 28 .97kg/kmol Mm
Temperature is absolute and the specific volume is (volume per unit mass):
v= 1
Thermodynamics Internal Energy & Enthalpy
Internal Energy individual particle kinetic energy. Summation of molecular vibrational and rotational energy.
~=u ~ (v , T ) u ~ ~# u # & u ~=& du $ ! dT + $ ! dv % T " v % v " T
~=u ~ (T ) For an ideal gas u
~ = c dT du v
Recall from our integral form of the Energy Equation for ~ + pv Enthalpy of an ideal gas: h = u
h = h (T )
dh = c p dT
Thermodynamics Internal Energy & Enthalpy
~ + pv h=u ~ + RT h=u ~ + RdT dh = d u
Substituting:
p = RT
dh = c p dT
~ = c dT du v
~ + RdT dh = d u c p dT = c v dT + RdT c p = cv + R c p c v = R = const
Thermodynamics Internal Energy & Enthalpy
Define the ratio of specific heats: Then,
cp cv
= const
kR k 1 R cv = k 1 cp =
For Air: cp = 1004 J/kg-K k = 1.4
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics & Isentropic Processes
We define entropy by:
& Q # ds = $ ! % T " rev
Combining the 1st and 2nd Laws gives us Gibbs Equation
Tds = dh
dp
dp
Tds = c p dT
dh = c p dT
1
' ds = c '
p 1 1
dT dp R' T p 1
R p
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics & Isentropic Processes
s 2 s1 = c p ln p T2 R ln 2 p1 T1
For an Isentropic process: adiabatic and reversible We get the following power law relationship
p 2 & T2 =$ p1 $ % T1
# k 1 & 2 ! $ ! =$ % 1 "
# ! ! "
Control Volume Analysis of a Finite Strength Pressure Wave
Moving Wave of Frontal Area A
c
p
Stationary Wave Reference frame moving with wave
p
1 2
p + p
p + p
T V =0
+
T + T
T V =c
+
T + T
V = c V
Steady State Continuity Equation (Solve for the induced velocity V):
0=
cA = ( + )(c V )A c = c ( + ) V ( + ) V = c (A) +
CS
)dA = ' cdA + ' ( + )(c V )dA ' (V n !
1 2
The Speed of sound (c) is the rate of propagation of a pressure wave of infinitesimal strength through a still fluid.
Control Volume Analysis of a Finite Strength Pressure Wave
Steady State Momentum Equation: (Find p and c)
p
1 2
(F
)dA = m " (V ' V (V n !
x CS
V1 )
T V =c
p + p + T + T V = c V
pA ( p + p ) A = cA (c V c ) p = c V
p + p = p
(B)
& # $ $1 + ! ! % "
Now combine A & B and solve for the speed of sound:
c2 = c2 =
in the limit of 0
p = const
Small Amplitude moderate frequency waves are isentropic and
Control Volume Analysis of a Finite Strength Pressure Wave
Calculating the Speed of Sound for an ideal gas:
= const
p p =k
c= kRT
c=
kRT
Typical Speeds of Sound Fluid c (m/s)
Gases:
H2 Air 1,294 340
For Air:
k= 1 .4 cv R = 287 J/(kg K) cp
Liquids:
Water Ethyl Alcohol
Data From White 2003
1,490 1,200
Example 1: Speed of sound calculation
Determine the speed of sound in Argon (Ar) at 120 oC. MW = 40 kg/kmol:
c=
R=
kRT
Ru 8314 J/(kmol K) = = 207 .9 J/(kg K) Mm 4 0kg/kmol
k=
cp cv
1 .668
c = 1 .668 (207 .9 J/kgK )(393 K ) = 318 .8 ms -1
Movement of a sound source and wave propagation
Source moves to the right at a speed V
Zone of silence
3 c t
V<c
Mach cone
V>c
V=0 V t V t V t
sin =
V 1 = c M
Example 2: a needle nose projectile traveling at a speed of M=3 passes 200m above an observer. Find the projectiles velocity and determine how far beyond the observer the projectile will first be heard
M =3
200 m
Example 2: a needle nose projectile traveling at a speed of M=3 passes 200m above an observer. Find the projectiles velocity and determine how far beyond the observer the projectile will first be heard
V = Mc = 3(347.2 ) = 1041.6m/s c = kRT = 1.4(287 )(300 ) = 347.2m/s & 1 # 1 & 1 # o ! = sin $ ! = 19.5 %M " % 3" 200m tan = x 200m x= = 565m tan 19.5
= sin 1 $
Steady Isentropic Flow Control Volume Analysis
Applications where the assumptions of steady, uniform, isentropic flow are reasonable: 1. Exhaust gasses passing through the blades of a turbine. 2. Diffuser near the front of a jet engine 3. Nozzles on a rocket engine 4. A broken natural gas line
Steady Isentropic Flow
1
h
2
h + dh + d T + dT p + dp
dx
T p
V + dV
Steady State Continuity Equation:
! dA = 1V1 A1 + 2V 2 A2 0 = ' V n
VA = ( + d )(V + dV )( A + dA ) VA = AV + VdA + VAd + Vd dA + AdV + dAdV + Ad dV + d dAdV
CS
Steady Isentropic Flow
1
h V
2
h + dh + d T + dT p + dp
dx
T p
V + dV
Steady State Continuity Equation:
0=
)dA = V A ' (V n !
1 1 CS
+ 2V 2 A2
VA = ( + d )(V + dV )( A + dA ) ~ 0 ~0 ~0 ~0 VA = AV + VdA + VAd + Vd dA + AdV + dAdV + Ad dV + d dAdV
0= dA d dV + + A V
Only retain 1st order differential terms & divide By VA
Steady Isentropic Flow
1
h V
2
h + dh + d T + dT p + dp
dx
T p
V + dV
Steady State Energy Equation with 1 inlet & 1 exit:
" W " Q V 2 V12 s ~ + pv ) (u ~ + pv ) = 2 + g ( z 2 z1 ) + (u 2 1 " m 2
~ + pv Neglecting potential energy and recalling: h = u
" W " Q V 2 V12 s = 2 + h2 h1 " m 2
Assuming and ideal gas:
" W " Q V 2 V12 s = 2 + c p (T2 T1 ) " m 2
Steady Isentropic Flow
1
h V
2
h + dh + d T + dT p + dp
dx
T p
V + dV
Steady State Energy Equation with 1 inlet & 1 exit, neglecting potential energy & assuming Isentropic duct flow:
V22 V2 + h2 = 1 + h1 2 2
Assuming and ideal gas:
V22 V2 + c p T2 = 1 + c p T1 2 2 V22 k V2 k RT1 + RT 2 = 1 + 2 k 1 2 k 1
Insolated walls
1
Stagnation Conditions
Assume the area A2is so big V2 ~ 0, then
h2 =
V12 + h1 = ho 2
Stagnation enthalpy
Similarly, as we adiabatically bring a fluid parcel to zero velocity there is a corresponding increase in temperature
V22 V2 + c p T2 = 1 + c p T1 2 2 To = V2 +T 2c p
Stagnation Temperature
Stagnation Conditions maximum velocity
To = V2 +T 2c p
(+)
If the temperature, T is taken taken down to absolute zero, then (+) can be solved for the maximum velocity:
V max = 2 c p To
No higher velocity is possible unless energy is added to the flow through heat transfer or shaft work.
Stagnation Conditions Mach number relations
Recall, that the Mach number is defined as:
To = V2 +T 2c p
2
M =
V c
For Ideal gases:
1 & kR # c pT = $ !T = kRT k 1 % k 1" c2 cp k 1 2 To k 1 V 2 M +1 = +1 = 2 T 2 c 2
To V = +1 T T 2c p
To k 1 2 = M +1 T 2
Stagnation Conditions Isentropic pressure & density relationships
To k 1 2 = M +1 T 2 p o & To # k 1 & k 1 2 # k 1 =$ ! =$ M + 1! p %T " % 2 "
k k
o & To # k 1 & k 1 2 # k 1 =$ ! =$ M + 1! %T " " % 2
Critical Values: conditions when M = 1
T* & 2 # =$ ! To % k + 1 "
p * & 2 # k 1 =$ ! po % k + 1 "
k
* & 2 # k 1 =$ ! o % k +1 "
c* & 2 # 2 =$ ! co % k + 1 "
1
10
Critical Values: conditions when M = 1
For Air k = 1.4
T* & 2 # =$ ! = 0 .8333 To % k + 1 " p * & 2 # k 1 =$ ! = 0 .5283 po % k + 1 "
k
* & 2 # k 1 =$ ! = 0 .9129 o % k + 1"
c* & 2 # 2 =$ ! = 0 .9129 co % k + 1 "
1
In all isentropic flow, all critical values are constant.
Critical Values: conditions when M = 1
Critical Velocity: is the speed of sound c*
c* & 2 # 2 =$ ! co % k + 1 " V * = c* = & 2 # 2 & 2 kRT o # 2 kRT * = c o $ ! =$ ! % k +1" % k +1 "
1 1 1
Example 3: Stagnation Conditions
Air flows adiabatically through a duct. At point 1 the velocity is 240 m/s, with T1 = 320K and p1 = 170kPa. Compute (a) To (b) Po (c) ro (d) M (e) Vmax (f) V*
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Steady Isentropic Duct Flow
1
h
V
2
h + dh
T p
+ d T + dT
p + dp dx
V + dV
Recall, for Steady isentropic flow Continuity:
() 0 =
dA d dV + + A V
dA d dV = A V
For compressible, isentropic flow the momentum equation is:
2 (*) 0 = dp + dV = dp + VdV 2
Bernoullis Equation!
neglecting gravity
Substitute () into (*)
dA d dp dp & 1 d # $ 2 ! = + = V 2 $ A dp ! %V "
Steady Isentropic Duct Flow
1
h
V
2
h + dh
T p
+ d T + dT
p + dp
V + dV
dA dp & 1 d # $ 2 ! = $ A dp ! %V "
2 Recall that the speed of sound is: c =
dA dp & 1 dp & V 2 # 1 # ! $1 2 ! = != $ A % V 2 c 2 " V 2 $ c " %
Substituting the Mach number:
M = V c
dA dp = (1 M 2 ) V 2 A
Describes how the pressure behaves in nozzles and diffusers under various flow conditions
Nozzle Flow Characteristics
dA dp = (1 M 2 ) V 2 A
1.
2.
3.
4.
Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA < 0, then dP < 0: indicating a decrease in pressure in a converging channel. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA < 0, then dP > 0: indicating an increase in pressure in a converging channel. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA > 0, then dP > 0 : indicating an increase in pressure in a diverging channel. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 dA > 0, then dP < 0 : indicating a decrease in pressure in a diverging channel.
P
P
P P
P
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Steady Isentropic Duct Flow Nozzles Diffusers and Converging Diverging Nozzles
()
dA dp = (1 M 2 ) V 2 A
Describes how the pressure behaves in nozzles and diffusers under various flow conditions
Recall, the momentum equation here is:
0=
dp
+ VdV
dp
= VdV (**)
Now substitute (**) into () :
dA dV = (M 2 1) A V
Or,
dA A = M 2 1 dV V
Nozzle Flow Characteristics
dA dV = M 2 1 A V
1.
2.
3.
4.
Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA < 0, then dV > 0: indicating an accelerating flow in a converging channel. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA < 0, then dV < 0: indicating an decelerating flow in a converging channel. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA > 0, then dV < 0 : indicating an decelerating flow in a diverging channel. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 dA > 0, then dV > 0 : indicating an accelerating flow in a diverging channel.
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
Amin
Subsonic Supersonic
M=1
Amax
Subsonic Supersonic
M<1 M>1
Subsonic Supersonic
Flow can not be sonic
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Choked Flow The maximum possible mass flow through a duct occurs when its throat is at the sonic condition Consider a converging Nozzle: receiver
po To
pe Ve
pr
plenum Mass Flow Rate (ideal gas):
" = VA = m
" = m p M RT
p VA RT
M = V = c V kRT
kRT A = p k MA RT
k MA RT
" = p m
Choked Flow
Mass Flow Rate (ideal gas):
" = p m k MA RT
k
Recall, the stagnation pressure and Temperature ratio and substitute:
po & k 1 2 # k 1 =$ M + 1! p % 2 "
" = po m To k 1 2 = M +1 T 2
k +1
k k 1 2 # 2 (1 k ) & MA $ 1 + M ! RT o 2 " %
k & k + 1 # 2 (1 k ) $ ! RT o % 2 " & 2 + (k 1)M 2 $ $ k +1 % # 2 ( k 1 ) ! ! "
k +1 k +1
If the critical area (A*) is where M=1:
" = po A* m
The critical area Ratio is:
A 1 = A* M
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