Dictionary of

Media and
Communications
Dictionary of
Media and
Communications

Marcel Danesi

M.E.Sharpe
Armonk, New York
London, England
 foreword

Copyright © 2009 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
without written permission from the publisher, M.E. Sharpe, Inc.,
80 Business Park Drive, Armonk, New York 10504.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Danesi, Marcel, 1946–

Dictionary of media and communications / Marcel Danesi; foreword by Arthur Asa Berger.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-7656-8098-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Mass media—Dictionaries. 2. Communication—Dictionaries. I. Title.

P87.5.D359 2008
302.2303—dc22 2008011560

Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of

American National Standard for Information Sciences
Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,
ANSI Z 39.48-1984.

BM (c)   10     9     8     7     6     5     4     3     2     1

­———­—————————————————

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RDA/Hulton Archive: 53; Shelly Katz/Time & Life Pictures: 178; Stringer/AFP: 303; Stringer: 137;
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 foreword

Contents

Foreword
by Arthur Asa Berger vii
Introduction xi

A–Z 3

Chronology 313
Bibliography 325
Resources on the World Wide Web 329
About the Author 333

v
 foreword

Foreword

With each year that passes, the mass media and the various means of communi-
cation available to us exert a greater and more direct impact upon our cultures,
societies, economies, and everyday lives. Most of us live in a media-saturated
society and spend increasing amounts of time with different kinds of media.
According to a 2005 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation, young people
from the ages of eight to eighteen in the United States devote approximately
forty hours a week to using media of all kinds for recreational purposes.
In addition to more time, most of us also spend more money on accessing
the media and on buying devices for recording information and for communi-
cating with one another. Consider how much your family spends, for example,
on all of the following:

access to the Internet,

cable and satellite services,
video game players and video games, and
cell phones and cell phone contracts,

not to mention all of the other gizmos and gadgets that come flooding onto the
market in rapid succession. Think, for example, of the price tag on those large-
screen high‑definition digital television sets; some run into thousands of dollars.
Every day, meanwhile, we send billions of e-mail messages and receive
billions of others—wanted or unwanted—from friends, family members,
fellow student and colleagues, or spammers. Internet technology makes it as
easy to send someone a message 10,000 miles away as it is to send a message
to someone ten feet away. In barely more than a decade, cell phone use has
exploded all over the world, with still new (non-talking) uses of the device—

vii
 foreword

from texting to searching the World Wide Web to accessing satellite navigation
systems—constantly are being developed. Cell phones have already exerted a
major impact on society and our daily lives, shaping everything from politics
to the dating behavior of adolescents. At the same time, video games and video
game players now constitute a multibillion-dollar industry, even larger than the
film industry. Apple’s iPods, other portable media players, and all the devices
created for them have radically altered the way many of us, especially young
people, access and listen to music.
Powerful tools for using the Internet likewise have had a transformative
effect, enabling millions of people to spend time blogging, buying and selling
products on eBay, looking up information on Google and other search engines,
ordering books and other products on Amazon.com and similar sites, compil-
ing their pages on Facebook and MySpace, watching videos on You Tube, and
guiding their avatars on Second Life. We use the Internet now to do everything
from finding dates and marriage partners to looking up travel information,
obtaining medical data, paying bills, and buying stocks.
As the media and the means of communication have grown in importance
and influence, studying them has become ever more widespread in high schools
and universities. Courses on subjects that involve media literacy—such as
advertising, marketing, linguistics, anthropology, and sociology—have become
common. These courses are designed to teach students about the impact of the
media and communications on our institutions and way of life, as well as on
those in other countries—also part of the “global village.”
Given the ubiquitous nature of old and new media and the new technolo-
gies that are constantly being developed, it is invaluable to have a single,
handy reference book that covers all of them and related cognate fields (dis-
ciplines) in an informed and insightful manner. The Dictionary of Media and
Communications enables students from high school to graduate school to find
accessible, authoritative explanations of essential theories and concepts in all
relevant subject areas. Also included are portraits of leading figures in media
scholarship and clear, straightforward explanations of practical methods and
constructs used in media studies, communications, and related fields, such as
semiotics and psychoanalytic theory.
With more than 2,000 entries of varying lengths, the Dictionary of Media
and Communications is an authoritative and reader-friendly reference that en-
ables anyone interested in the media and communications to find clearly written
definitions and explanations. In addition to defining terms, individual entries
may also include examples of how the terms are used and background history
on the origins and development of related concepts. For visual appeal and to
illustrate diverse subjects in terms that are meaningful to readers, the volume
also includes dozens of photographs, line drawings, and diagrams.

viii
 foreword

In addition to the alphabetical listing of definitions, the Dictionary of

Media and Communications contains several information-packed appendices.
The Chronology is a detailed list of historic events for various media types,
industries, means of communication, and cognate fields. To help readers pursue
further research, the Bibliography suggests recommended books in the field,
also organized by media and communications categories. Finally, Resources on
the World Wide Web offers similar assistance with an extensive list.
The Dictionary of Media and Communications is an invaluable resource
that is readable, comprehensive, and authoritative. It is more than a reference
book. Because of the centrality of media and communications in modern life,
it is, in effect, an introduction to contemporary culture and to the wide-ranging
theories and concepts that scholars have developed to better understand the
world—some would say the “brave new world”—in which we now live.

             Arthur Asa Berger

             Professor Emeritus
             Broadcast and Electronic Communication Arts
             San Francisco State University

ix
 introduction

Introduction

In 1938, a truly significant event took place that epitomized the power of the
emerging role of the media in the modern world. That event was the radio
adaptation of H.G. Wells’s novel about interplanetary invasion, The War of
the Worlds. It was created by the famous actor and director, Orson Welles, as
a radio drama simulating the style of a news broadcast. Welles pulled off his
“reality-inducing effect” by using a series of fake “on-the-spot” news reports
describing the landing of Martian spaceships in New Jersey. An announcer
would remind the radio audience, from time to time, that the show was fic-
tional. But many listeners believed that what they were hearing was factual.
In New Jersey, many people went into a state of panic, believing that Martians
had actually invaded the Earth. Concerned citizens notified the police and the
army; some ran onto the streets shouting hysterically; and a few even contem-
plated escaping somewhere—anywhere. The event was a watershed one in the
history of the modern world, becoming itself a topic of media attention and, a
year later, leading to the first psychological study of the effects of the media
on common people, called the Cantril Study, after Hadley Cantril who headed
a team of researchers at Princeton University. Cantril wanted to find out why
some believed the fake reports and others not. After interviewing 135 subjects,
the research team came to the conclusion that the key was critical thinking—
better-educated listeners were more capable of recognizing the broadcast as a
fake than less-educated ones.
The Cantril report also laid the foundation for a systematic study of the
media in universities and colleges, leading eventually to the establishment of
departments, institutes, journals, book series, and the like for the study of mod-
ern media. Since the 1940s, such study has skyrocketed, becoming an area of

xi
 introduction

intense interest, not only on the part of academics and researchers, but also on
the part of virtually everyone.
A seemingly different path of study was opened up in the late 1940s by the
late engineer Claude Shannon (1916–2001). Shannon was the one who laid the
foundations for investigating the relation between communication (in all its
forms) and technology. He did this by devising a theoretical framework intend-
ed originally to improve the efficiency of telecommunication systems. Known
as the “bull’s-eye model,” the framework was intended originally to identify the
main components of such systems and describe in precise mathematical terms
how they functioned in the transmission and reception of information. In bare
outline form, Shannon’s model consisted of a sender aiming a message at a re-
ceiver as if in a target range—hence the designation bull’s-eye model. Shannon
also introduced terms such as feedback and noise into the lexicon of commu-
nications study. However, few at the time saw a connection between the study
of media and communications until a Canadian professor at the University
of Toronto started to amalgamate the two domains in the 1950s. That profes-
sor was the late Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980), whose work on the relation
between media and communications technologies brought to common aware-
ness the fact that culture, social evolution, and technology are intrinsically
intertwined. Ever since, the study of media and communication as an integrated
phenomenon has been the rule in academia.
McLuhan’s basic approach was to show that there exists a built-in synergy
between media, mass communications technologies, and culture. He claimed
that each major historical era took its character from the medium used most
widely at the time. For example, he called the period from 1700 to the mid-
1900s the “Age of Print,” because in that period printed books were the chief
media through which mass communications took place. But that is not all that
occurred. The Age of Print changed the state of the world permanently, he sug-
gested, because print literacy encouraged a radical new form of individualism
and the subsequent growth of nationalism. The “Electronic Age” displaced the
Age of Print in the twentieth century. The consequences of that displacement
also have been colossal. Because electronic technology has increased both the
breadth and rapidity of communication, it has radically changed how people
interact and behave socially. Phones, radios, computers, and instant messaging
devices have influenced the lives of everyone, even those who use them spo-
radically or who do not use them at all. The Electronic Age may in fact be lead-
ing, as McLuhan suspected, to the end of individualism and literacy-inspired
notions of nationalism generated by the previous Age of Print.
In a fundamental way, the study of the media-communication nexus is an
exercise in unraveling the psychological reasons why we evolve through com-
munication devices and why modern economies and political systems depend
so much on these devices. Without the media and its supporting mass com-

xii
 introduction

munications technologies to “spread the message,” so to speak, fads and crazes

such as sports spectacles, Hula Hoops, recipes, posters, songs, dance crazes,
sitcoms, and clothing fashions, would hardly gain popularity. The world we
live in is largely fabricated by a media-communications interconnection. No
wonder, then, that studying this interconnection has become so critical. Mass
communications technologies have literally brought about Huxley’s “brave new
world”—a world described rather accurately by the prophetic 1999 movie, The
Matrix. Like the main character of that movie, Neo, we all live our daily lives
“on the screen” and our engagement with reality is more often than not through
the “matrix”—which means both the network of circuits that defines computer
technology and “womb.” With the advent of the Internet, new generations are
now born within two kinds of wombs—the biological one and a technological
one, as the movie so brilliantly brings out.
The study of the media-communications nexus now has its own set of theo-
ries and analytical frameworks. These provide concepts and discourses that can
be applied in part or in whole to a study of all modern-day cultural trends or
processes. The appeal of such study is that it leaves the interpretation of these
processes open to variation. This is the reason why there is no one theory of the
media, but many. Media analysts today use a blend of concepts and techniques
at various stages of analysis and for diverse purposes.

Purpose of This Dictionary

As McLuhan anticipated, the media and mass communications devices are

at the center of our world, shaping lifestyle and worldview. Relatively young
by academic standards, media and communication studies started growing in
the late 1950s, after McLuhan’s influential writings started receiving interna-
tional attention. The field has since produced a vast repertory of notions, ideas,
techniques, theories, and methods of analysis. Many of these were originally
borrowed and adapted from cognate disciplines such as psychology, linguistics,
semiotics, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology; but many others have been
self-generated, and are thus new, interesting, and often controversial. Newcom-
ers to this area may thus experience unease or consternation with the vast reper-
tory of terms that populate the field. This dictionary is an attempt to provide a
comprehensible map through that field.
Thus it contains entries dealing with the basic ideas, concepts, personages,
schools of thought, theories, and technical trends that come up recurrently in
the literature on media and communication. Since the literature also makes
frequent references to cognate fields such as semiotics, psychology, linguistics,
mythology, literary studies, cultural anthropology, and a few others, some of
the most frequently used terms and ideas within these are also included. I must
warn the user, however, that to keep the proportions of this dictionary within

xiii
 introduction

the limits of a compact practical reference work, I have had to limit my choices
to the main items that recur in the relevant literature. Inevitably, there will be
some omissions and gaps. Nevertheless, I have tried to cast as broad a net as
possible, so as to gather within two covers the bulk of the ideas and technical
terms that the beginning student or interested general reader will need to know
in order to decipher the relevant literature.
Cross‑references to other terms contained in this dictionary are indicated
with small capitals. The commentary provided for each of the personages con-
sists of a brief statement about his or her relevance and/or contribution to the
field. Only those personages to whom the technical literature regularly alludes
have been included in this dictionary. A bibliography of relevant works is in-
cluded at the back. Also listed are timelines for specific media or media genres,
as well as a list of useful Web sites.
Hopefully, the user will find in it all the relevant information she or he
might need for conducting a personal analysis of the media-communications
nexus that now “rules the universe,” so to speak. I also hope to have provided a
framework for understanding the world we live in and probably will live in for
the foreseeable future.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank the editorial staff at M.E. Sharpe for all their advice, support,
and expert help in the making of this dictionary. I am especially grateful to
Peter Mavrikis, without whom this volume would never have come to fruition.
Needless to say, I alone am responsible for any infelicities that remain in the
volume.
I also wish to thank Victoria College of the University of Toronto for
having allowed me the privilege of teaching and coordinating its Program in
Semiotics and Communication Theory over many years. Another debt of grati-
tude goes to the many students I have taught. Their insights and enthusiasm
have made my job simply wonderful! They are the impetus for this dictionary.

xiv
Dictionary of
Media and
Communications
 last item

A
A roll footage used in an cations: for example, bf =
edited film sequence, con- boyfriend; gf = girlfriend.
sisting mainly of interviews
or images that relate to ABC [see American
the theme or topic being Broadcasting Company]
showcased
abduction in contrast to, but also
A&E Network [abbreviation of in complement with, induction
Arts and Entertainment Network] (generalizing on the basis of obser-
cable and satellite television channel vations of particular patterns inher-
launched in 1984 that produces and ent in something) and deduction
broadcasts programs dealing with the (forming a conclusion on the basis
arts and educational topics, as well of given premises); this term was
as documentaries, biographies, and proposed by American philosopher
popular entertainment formats. Web Charles Peirce to characterize a
site: www.aetv.com method of reasoning carried out by
informed hunches or “best guesses”
A&R executive [abbreviation of on the basis of previous experience,
Artists and Repertoire executive] knowledge, or understanding. In
an executive of a record company classic mystery stories, the detective-
who oversees artists and the record- protagonist solves a crime by using
ing process abduction—that is, crime scene clues
are interpreted in terms of skilled
AAA [see American Academy of inference and previous experience.
Advertising]
aberrant decoding interpretation
AAAA [see American Association of a media product or text that is not
of Advertising Agencies] the one intended by the creator of the
product or text. The term was coined
AAI [see audience appreciation by Umberto Eco in 1965 to describe
index] what happens when a message that is
put together according to a specific
AB roll sequence of two segments code (a set of meanings) is inter-
(video, musical), composed so that as preted according to another code. For
one fades away the other one blends in example, specific groups who are ex-
posed to a particular media message
abbreviation shortening of words, (such as an ad for beer) will decode
phrases, or sentences: for example, hi it differently—an abstinent group
(hello); bye (good-bye). Abbreviation might see it as an immoral message,
is a major feature of communication while another group might view it
in online chat rooms, text messages, as a lifestyle message that promotes
and other types of digital communi- beer as a component of that lifestyle.

3
 aberrant reading

aberrant reading interpretation of a tion to show that the same position

text in a way that was not intended or can be filled by other signs, but with
expected by its author different meanings. For example, in
the sentence The . . . ate the cake,
aberration distortion of a video the empty slot can be filled by nouns
image, caused by a corrupt signal or such as boy, girl, woman, or man.
improper adjustment Absence is a technique for showing
ways in which meaning is deter-
Aboriginal People’s Television Net- mined.
work [abbreviated as APTN] televi-
sion network launched in 1999 with absence-of-language technique
headquarters in Winnipeg (Canada) advertising strategy employing the
devoted to broadcasting the stories omission of taglines, slogans, or any
and cultural interests of Canada’s other kind of verbal commentary,
First Nations. It is available nation- suggesting implicitly that a product
ally on basic cable and via satellite. “speaks for itself.” Print ads without
Web site: www.aptn.ca captions and TV commercial scenes
without dialogue or explanation
above-the-fold 1. top part of the are common absence-of-language
front page of a newspaper (story techniques. Sometimes, the technique
and/or photo) that is visible when is intended to provoke the viewer
the newspaper is folded; 2. the most through the image.
valuable part of a Web page, placed
at the top part of the screen so that absolute cost actual cost of placing
the user does not have to scroll down an ad in some medium (magazine,
to see it; 3. any prominent story (in newspaper, radio, television, Internet)
any medium)
absolute time length of time that an
above-the-line advertising promo- audio disc has been playing
tional message for which a commis-
sion is paid, such as commission for abstract data type in computer
an ad in a magazine or a stand at a ­programming, a data set defined
trade fair by the programmer in terms of the
­information it can contain and the
above-the-title the location of credits ­operations that can be performed
that appear before the title of a movie with it
(for example, the names of the star-
ring actors, the name of the director, abstract expressionism a move-
and the name of the producer) ment in twentieth-century art that
broke away from the concept of art
absence the exclusion of a sign (a as representation, promoting instead
word, a symbol) from a specific loca- a mode of painting that expresses the

4
 Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

absurdist theater [also called

theater of the absurd] popular and
influential nonrealistic drama genre
of the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced
by existential philosophy, and
especially by Albert Camus’s essay
“Le Mythe de Sisyphe” (1942; “The
Myth of Sisyphus”), absurdist dramas
are characterized by such features
as the elimination of traditional plot
lines, the reduction of language to a
game, the downgrading of characters
to archetypes, the allusion to settings
and locations as nonspecific, and
portrayals of the world as alienating
and incomprehensible. Key works in
the genre include Samuel Beckett’s
Waiting for Godot (1952) and Eugène
Ionesco’s Le Rhinocéros (1959).
Upward (1929) by Wassily Kandinsky
AC Nielsen leading global market
research firm, founded in 1923, best
emotions spontaneously through the known for its Nielsen’s ratings,
act of transferring paint onto a can- which measure audience size and re-
vas. The term was used originally to action to media programs and events.
describe Russian-born artist Wassily Web site: www.acnielsen.com
Kandinsky’s painting style between
1910 and 1914. Influenced by Euro- Academy Award [also called the
pean avant-garde artists, the abstract ­Oscar] prestigious honor ­conferred
expressionist movement found its annually by the Academy of
main home in New York City in the ­Motion Picture Arts and
1950s. Abstract expressionist paint- ­Sciences in the United States to out-
ings consist mainly of shapes result- standing actors, directors, composers,
ing from the gestures made by the and ­others involved in motion pictures
artist’s hand, called action paintings;
or compositions of colors and shapes Academy of Motion Picture Arts
for their own sake, called color field and Sciences professional organiza-
paintings. Jackson Pollock, Willem tion founded in 1927 to promote the
de Kooning, Mark Rothko, Helen advancement of the motion picture
Frankenthaler, and Robert Mother- industry; composed of over 6,000
well are some well-known abstract motion picture professionals, includ-
expressionists. ing actors, directors, writers, produc-

5
 Academy ratio

ers, and technical artists. Web site: access number telephone number
www.oscars.org dialed by a computer to link it to an
Internet service provider or other
Academy ratio the ratio (1.33 to 1) type of network provider
of the width of a film frame to the
height of the frame, as standard- access panel group monitored for
ized by the Academy of Motion research purposes so as to document
Picture Arts and Sciences before the their television viewing habits
­development of widescreen format
access provider [see Internet ser-
acceleration factor increased vice provider]
­efficiency in communications
technologies, which causes a more access television television that
immediate impact of events upon the broadcasts independently of state
media controls, usually with a small budget
and reaching a limited area
accent distinctive manner in which
a language is pronounced, character- accessed voices individuals who are
istic either of individuals, a region, given exposure by the media (celeb-
a social group, or some other com- rities, politicians, experts) because
munity their views are considered to be
distinctive or, at least, not necessarily
access ability of people to view, representative of those of the general
investigate, or question the products, public
activities, or motives of major media
outlets and companies accessing practice of including ver-
bal quotations and taped interviews
access channel in cable television, a from various media originating from
nonbroadcast channel dedicated to lo- people not employed by the media
cal issues (for example, educational, organizations
governmental, among others)
accessory shoe camera bracket to
access controller 1. device that which an accessory such as a flash
moves image data to a video control- unit may be attached
ler; 2. hardware that provides data
link connectivity for area network accordion insert advertisement
providers such as Ethernet inserted in a magazine, folded in an
accordion style
access head disk drive component of
a computer that moves to a specific acculturation adaptive process by
part of the disk’s surface to read the which change in culture occurs when
information stored there two or more societies (with their own

6
 acronym

cultural traditions) come into contact acoustics study of the wave pat-
for an extended period of time. Often terns produced by language sounds
the result is a bidirectional adapta- (­consonants, vowels, tones, etc.).
tion, whereby the beliefs, conven- Now classified as a branch of
tions, customs, and art forms of each phonetics, the physical analysis of
society in contact become fused or linguistic sound waves is traced to
mixed (to varying degrees); or one Tonempfindungen als physiologische
society may undergo partial or total Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik
adaptation to the culture of the other (1863; On the Sensation of Tone as
society (or societies). a Physiological Basis for the Theory
of Music) by the German physi-
accumulation audience-counting cist Hermann von Helmholtz.
method by which people exposed Acoustic phoneticians record and
to a specific media product are analyze speech waves with devices
counted once within a specified time and instruments ­designed to identify
period recurrent ­patterns.

acid house electronic disco music acquiescent audience people who

popular in the 1980s, associated with are receptive to advertising and
the use of the drug Ecstasy are more likely to be impressed by
­humorous, clever, or eye-catching
acid jazz musical genre consisting of ads
a blend of funk, jazz, and soul music
that emerged in the 1980s acquisitions editor editor of a book
publishing house who seeks new
acid rock type of rock music popular works or evaluates submissions
in the 1960s that used peculiar instru-
mental effects suggestive of psyche- acronym word, form, or abbre-
delic (hallucinatory) experiences viation constructed with the initial
letters of a phrase, expression, or
ACORN [acronym for a classifica- group of words (or parts of words):
tion of residential neighborhoods] for example, CD = compact disc,
consumer research method of clas- DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid, laser
sifying residential areas according to = light amplification by stimulated
the type of people who live in them, emission of radiation, IQ = intelli-
the type of homes in which they live, gence quotient. Acronymy is a major
and other such categories feature of the language used in online
social sites such as chat rooms, text
acoustic rock style of rock music messages, and other types of digital
played mainly on acoustic instru- communication venues: for example,
ments (instruments without amplifi- cm = call me; ruok? = are you OK?;
cation) g2g = got to go.

7
 Acta diurna

Acta diurna (Acta publica or Acta action theory in some philosophi-

populi) the first known newspaper, cal systems, the idea that actions are
written on a tablet, which reported on different from behaviors. The term
matters of public interest in ancient comes up occasionally in media
Rome, after 27 b.c.e. studies in discussions of the relation
between media and its effects on hu-
actant in narrative theories, a recur- man behavior.
rent role that manifests itself in stories
across the world and across time: for ActionMedia trade name of a digital
example, a hero, an o­ pponent, a helper, video system developed by Intel that
etc. The ­notion was developed primar- allows a computer to record, play
ily by the twentieth-century French se- back, and manipulate video
miotician Algirdas Julien Greimas,
who claimed that actants relate to each active audience in uses and grati-
other in a binary fashion, giving the fications theory, the people who
narrative its trajectory and plot form: do not accept a media representation
subject vs. object, sender vs. r­ eceiver, or text as it is presented to them, but
helper vs. opponent, and so on. interpret it, or interact with it, for
their own purposes and in their own
actantial theory model of n­ arrative way, regardless of the intention of the
analysis based on the concept of creator of the representation or text
­actant
active listening manner of listening
action code 1. code used to describe to a speaker, group, or media product
events in a narrative; 2. commands (such as a documentary, feature film,
used in computer programming or television program) so as to take
into serious consideration the point of
action code script (abbreviated as view being put forward
ACS) scripting language used in
some modem Doom source ports active participation way in which
media intrude upon and influence
action genre story that revolves the stories they are supposed to be
around pugilistic action, martial arts reporting impartially
action, or some other form of violent
combat featuring a large number of active pixel region area of a com-
action sequences puter screen that displays graphic
information
action replay repeat of a brief filmed
segment, often in slow motion active reader in uses and gratifi-
cations theory, the individual who
action shot scene involving move- does not read a media representation
ment in a film or television program or text as it is presented to him or her,

8
 Adbusters

using it instead for his or her own ad impression opportunity to see

purposes and in his or her own an advertisement; in online advertis-
way, regardless of the intentions of ing, ad impressions are the number
the maker of the representation or of times an ad is downloaded from a
text Web page

active video part of a video signal ad panel [see advertisement panel]

that contains picture information
adage [also called aphorism] formula-
activism theory, doctrine, or practice ic statement designed to bring out some
of assertive, often militant, action, generally accepted intuition, experi-
such as mass demonstrations or ence, or truth, gaining currency over
strikes, used as a means of opposing time: for example, haste makes waste;
or supporting a controversial issue, necessity is the mother of invention.
entity, or person
adaptive control expenditure model
actual malice reckless disregard of used by advertisers that takes into ac-
the truth or falsity of some published count consumer responses to adver-
or broadcast story tising campaigns. It does so typically
by using statistical methods that
actuality the live recording of an indicate the success of a campaign
event on location as it actually un- and, thus, how much money can be
folds poured into it.

ad [see advertisement] Adbusters Canadian group of social

activists with a popular Web site
ad agency [see advertising agency] and magazine who are critical of the
advertising process itself. The Web
ad campaign [see advertising site and magazine of the same name
­campaign] were founded in 1989 by Kalle Lasn
and Bill Schmalz in Vancouver. The
ad copy printed text or spoken words organization offers not only serious
in an advertisement critiques of advertising and consum-
erism, but also many clever parodies
Ad Council [see Advertising of advertising campaigns, articles,
­Council] and forums on how one can recog-
nize media manipulation, information
ad hoc balancing of interests in on lawsuits and legislation on con-
First Amendment cases, factors that sumer issues, and links for sending
should be taken into consideration in e-mails to big businesses to contest
determining how much freedom the their marketing strategies. Web site:
press is granted www.adbusters.org

9
 added value

added value extra or additional pro- ies of media reception and communi-
motion service or benefit that a pub- cation problems.
lication can offer its advertisers, such
as supplements or special sections admass segment of society at which
an advertising campaign is aimed
addendum section of a book, maga-
zine, or Web site that is tacked on, administrative research term first
usually at the end, such as an appen- used by Paul Lazarsfeld in 1941
dix or a further reading section to describe the type of research car-
ried out by teams of researchers or
addressable technology equipment institutions, using empirical methods
enabling a program provider (such as (such as opinion polling) and seeking
a cable television provider) to switch to answer clearly defined problems
to pay services (who watches TV, why they watch it,
how effective are advertising mes-
addressee in Roman ­Jakobson’s sages, and so on)
model of communication, the
receiver(s) of a message; the person(s) adnorm measure of readership aver-
to whom a message is a­ ddressed ages for print publications over a
two-year period, used as a baseline
addresser in Roman Jakobson’s for comparing specific ads on average
model of communication, term refer- terms
ring to the sender(s) of a message;
that is, the person(s) who addresses a Adobe Acrobat trade name for soft-
message to someone ware developed by Adobe Systems
that converts documents and format-
adjacency commercial break be- ted pages in such a way that they can
tween television programs be viewed on a computer

Adler, Alfred (1870–1937) Austrian Adobe Photoshop graphics edit-

psychiatrist who coined the term ing software developed by Adobe
inferiority complex, which he saw as Systems
the primary source of characteristic
behaviors and of most neuroses—in Adorno, Theodor (1903–1969)
contrast to Freud’s emphasis on influential German Marxist thinker
sexual drives as the primary psychic who was a leading figure in the so-
forces. Adler’s most influential works called Frankfurt School. Adorno
are Über den nervösen Charakter berated pop culture as an aberra-
(1912; The Nervous Constitution) tion of true culture. He and Max
and Menschenkenntnis (1927; Under- Horkheimer (another Frankfurt
standing Human Nature). His works School founder) coined the term
are often cited in psychological stud- culture industry to describe the

10
 advertisement panel

process by which mass forms of advance statement given to the

culture were produced—in analogy media in advance of an event’s occur-
with the industrial manufacturing rence so as to optimize coverage
of commercial products. Adorno
did not see pop culture as a threat to adventure spy genre narrative that
social authority, but rather as a way involves espionage, mystery, crime,
to homogenize cultural products so and/or adventure
that they can be consumed easily and
without thought. His ideas are often adventure story action tale revolving
cited in media studies. His work The around daring heroes and sly villains
Culture Industry: Selected Essays on in fantastic situations. Robert Louis
Mass Culture (English translation Stevenson’s novel Treasure Island
published posthumously in 1991) is (1883) is an example of this popular
considered significant. form of children’s literature.

adperson [previously adman] advergame term that appeared in

person whose job is in the field of Wired magazine’s “Jargon Watch”
advertising column in 2001, now applied to free
online games commissioned by major
ADR [see automatic dialogue companies to promote their prod-
­replacement] ucts. Advergaming is the practice of
using games to advertise a product,
ADSL [see Asymmetrical Digital organization, or viewpoint. Typically,
Subscriber Line] companies provide interactive games
on their Web sites in order to draw
adspeak kind of jargon used in the potential customers to them so that
advertising field users will spend more time on the
Web sites, becoming more aware of
adspend amount of money spent on their products.
advertising a particular product
advertisement [abbreviated as ad]
adult contemporary music genre public promotion of a product or
popular music that appeals mainly service by means of a notice, such as
to an older audience; this genre can a poster, newspaper display, or paid
include music that was once aimed announcement in some electronic or
primarily at teenagers, such as the digital medium, designed to attract
music of Frank Sinatra, the Beatles, public attention or patronage
the Rolling Stones, or Madonna
advertisement panel [abbreviated
adult movie [also called porn as ad panel] specially designed
movie] sexually explicit movie that is advertising space in a newspaper or
primarily of prurient interest magazine

11
 advertiser

advertiser manufacturer, service and Baltimore). In the first decade

company, retailer, or supplier that of the twentieth century advertising
advertises its product(s) or service(s) agencies began to hire psychologists
to help create campaigns designed
advertising public announcement, to increase the desire to buy goods
promotion, support, or endorsement through persuasion techniques.
of a product, a service, a business, American psychologist John B.
a person, an event, etc., in order to Watson, for instance, was hired by
attract or increase interest. A poster the J. Walter Thompson Agency.
found in Thebes, dated to 1000 b.c.e., Today the ad agency business has
which offered gold for the capture of developed into an enterprise so huge
a runaway slave, reveals that adver- that, for some critics, it has come
tising has been practiced since antiq- to symbolize the style of American
uity. In both the ancient and medieval capitalism—a style based on hype
worlds, advertising was also carried and evangelical fervor.
out by town criers—people who read
advertising materials to the public— advertising boycott boycott orga-
since many people were illiterate. In nized against companies so as to
the seventeenth century, the London persuade them to abandon an adver-
Gazette became the first newspaper tising campaign for a specific social
to set aside a section for purposes of or political reason
advertising. Book ­publishers, seed
companies, railroads, and steamship advertising brief list of objectives
lines were among the early users and instructions issued by a company
of nationwide advertising. Today, to an advertising agency for
advertising has morphed into a the d­ esign of an advertising
dominant form of social discourse ­campaign
influencing lifestyle, worldview,
economic systems, politics, and advertising campaign [abbreviated
even traditional values, since it is as ad campaign] series of advertise-
designed to suggest how people can ments constructed around the same
best satisfy their needs and reach theme or using the same style, which
their goals. together attempt to make the identi-
cal pitch for a product in a specific
advertising agency [abbreviated as way. For example, the McDonald’s
ad agency] company that creates ad- “I’m lovin’ it!” campaign directed
vertising campaigns for products. its message to a young audience; the
The first modern agency was founded DeBeer’s “Diamonds are Forever”
in 1841 by Philadelphia entrepreneur campaign used images of elegance,
Volney B. Palmer. A few years later, romanticism, and the like to pitch its
Palmer opened offices in major East message about the beauty and classic
Coast cities (New York, Boston, elegance of the company’s diamonds.

12
 aerial

Advertising Council [abbreviated magazine, radio program, television

as Ad Council] private nonprofit slot)
organization founded in 1942 that
produces and disseminates public advertising specialties special items,
service announcements on behalf of such as T-shirts, mugs, pens, or cards,
various sponsors. Web site: www. given away as part of an advertising
adcouncil.org campaign

advertising impressions number of advertising techniques procedures

times that an advertisement actually designed to inform or persuade
reaches an intended audience, that is, people. Among the most common
the total number of views by all audi- techniques are the attention-
ence members ­getting headline, the basic appeal,
the comparison of products, the
product character, repetition in
advertising media communication
advertising, the slogan, and the
channels that carry advertising mes-
testimonial.
sages to consumers. These include
print media (newspapers, magazines, advertising time amount of time
pamphlets), electronic media (radio, on radio or television set aside for
television), outdoor signs and posters, advertising
phone directories, direct mailings,
novelties, and the Internet. advertorial advertisement that has
the appearance of a news article or
advertising page exposure measure editorial, in a print publication
of the opportunity for readers to
see a particular print advertisement, advice column section of a news-
whether or not they actually look at paper, magazine, or Web page that
the ad is intended to give advice to readers
who have sent in questions or queries
advertising plan explicit outline of
what goals an advertising campaign advocacy advertising type of adver-
should achieve, how to accomplish tising used to promote a particular
those goals, and how to determine position on a controversial political
whether or not the campaign was suc- or social issue
cessful in achieving those goals
advocacy journalism type of jour-
advertising rate amount of money nalism intended to promote a position
charged for advertising space or time on a political, controversial, or social
issue
advertising space any space avail-
able for advertising in a media aerial [also called antenna] metal-
product (for example, newspaper, lic apparatus used for sending and/or

13
 aerial advertising

receiving electromagnetic waves or among the greatest works of theater

signals ever written.

aerial advertising ads of products affective behavior category of hu-

or services displayed in the air from man behavior based on feelings,
balloons or planes sentiments, and emotions

aerial perspective technique of mak- affiliate local radio or television sta-

ing objects appear more distant by tion that is part of a national network
portraying them less sharply; based
on the phenomenon of atmospheric affiliate fee monthly fee that cable
distortion programming services charge local
cable operators for the right to carry
aerial shot camera shot taken from a their programs
high position above the action
affiliate marketing practice of pro-
aesthesia in both art criticism and moting companies that pay to have
psychology, a subject’s sensory and their products or services advertised
emotional reaction to a stimulus on a centralized Web site
(a melody, painting, etc.), inducing
a heightened sensitivity to its affiliate partner company that puts
beauty advertising for other companies on its
own Web site
aesthetics the perception and experi-
ence of beauty and meaning in art; affiliate program form of advertis-
aesthetics deals in particular with the ing on the Internet in which busi-
question of whether such perception nesses use banners or buttons on their
exists in the mind of the interpreter Web sites to advertise the products or
or whether it is an intrinsic part of services of another business
a work of art (independent of an
interpreter). The term was introduced affirmative disclosure identifying
in 1753 by the German philosopher the source of information contained
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. in an advertisement, required by the
Media scholarship has shown that Federal Trade Commission or other
aesthetic value is often determined authority, which may not be desired
by tradition, trends, and other social by the advertiser. This consists gener-
pressures on tastes, regardless of the ally in some statement that admits to
intrinsic value of a work. For ex- some limitation in the product or the
ample, in the early eighteenth century offer made.
the plays of William Shakespeare
were viewed as barbaric and obscene. Afrocentric talk term coined by
Today, they are considered to be American researcher Jennifer Wood

14
 aida

to refer to the use of oral storytell- agency commission agency’s fee for
ing traditions and themes by African designing and placing advertisements
Americans to make sense of their
world and thus to build self-identity agency roster list of different adver-
and a sense of dignity tising agencies that work for the same
company
Afropop contemporary music from
Africa and African communities agenda list of items or issues to be
covered (e.g., by the media) in order
Afropop Worldwide public radio of their purported importance
international that features Afropop
music. Web site: www.afropop.org agenda setting according to one
theory, influential role played by the
afterimage visual sensation in which media in their determination of which
an image persists after the visual issues are covered and their relative
stimulus has been removed; for ex- order of importance
ample, the spot of light one sees
following a burst of light, such as that agent person who is authorized to act
from the flash of a camera as the representative of another party
(for example, a literary agent who
afterpiece short comedic entertain- represents a writer)
ment that follows the performance of
a play aggregator Web site that collects
syndicated news from other Web sites
agate line standard measure of news-
paper advertising space, used espe- aggressive cues theoretical model
cially for classified advertisements that identifies certain classes of
(1 column wide by 1/14 inch deep) people as acceptable media targets
for real-world aggression
age profile audience for a particular
media event, ad, or product, classified agit-prop practice of using the media
according to age group to spread propaganda

agency 1. means or mode of acting agora 1. a gathering place; in par-

or behaving in a socially meaningful ticular, the marketplace in ancient
way; 2. ability of individuals to act Greece; 2. a marketplace on the
self-consciously and to exert their Internet
will through involvement in social
practices; 3. an establishment that AI [see artificial intelligence]
conducts business for another
party (e.g., an advertising AIDA [acronym for Attention,
agency) Interest, Desire, and Action] model

15
 aided recall

of how to use advertising to get the

consumers’ attention, then develop
their interest in a product, followed
by consumers’ desire to purchase
the product, and finally resulting in
consumers’ action to actually go out
and purchase it

aided recall research method

frequently used to determine what
consumers remember about an adver-
tisement they have seen or heard

AIR [see average issue readership]

Album cover of Yellow Submarine (1969)
airbrush technique for covering im-
perfections or removing flaws from text or its representation of a theme.
photographic images Famous album covers include those
created for the Velvet Underground
airdate date of a radio or television by Andy Warhol, featuring the im-
broadcast age of a banana, and several created
for the Beatles, especially the Sgt.
airplay occasion when a recording is Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band
broadcast on the radio, or the number (1967) cover.
of times a record is actually played
alienation term coined by Karl
airtime amount of time given to Marx to describe a sensed estrange-
a program in radio and television ment from other people, society, or
broadcasting work. Today, psychiatrists define
alienation as a blocking or disso-
airwaves radio waves making broad- ciation of a person’s feelings. Some
casting possible philosophers believe that alienation
is produced by a shallow and dep-
album recording of music that is ersonalized society. Fourth-century
issued and marketed as a single theologian Saint Augustine wrote
product, e.g., a record album or a CD that. due to its sinful nature, human-
album ity was alienated from God. To Aus-
trian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud,
album cover jacket of a record alienation resulted from the split be-
album (originally for a 33 1/3 rpm tween the conscious and unconscious
record album), often of interest either parts of the mind. French social
because of its relation to the musical theorist Émile Durkheim suggested

16
 alphabet

that alienation stemmed from a loss alliteration rhetorical (poetic tech-

of societal and religious tradition. nique) consisting of the repetition
Existentialists saw some measure of of the initial consonant sound(s) in
alienation as an inevitable part of the several words in a phrase, expression,
human ­condition. etc.: The sun always shines in sum-
mer; Peter plays the piano perfectly
alienation effect in Marxist theory,
the result of using alienating tech- alliteration technique advertising
niques, such as unsettling lighting method based on alliteration, usu-
effects or bizarre soundtracks, that ally involving the name of the brand
force an audience to develop a criti- being advertised, purportedly enhanc-
cal attitude toward a performance or ing the probability that a product’s
message to which they are exposed name will be remembered: Marlboro
man; Guinness is good; Frosted
Al Jazeera influential satellite televi- Flakes; Tony the Tiger
sion channel, based in Qatar and
launched in 1996, that broadcasts in allness attitude the outlook of
Arabic. Al Jazeera came to interna- people who think that they know
tional notice after the terrorist attacks everything there is to know about
of September 11, 2001, because of someone or something. In the field of
its contrasting coverage of world semantics, this attitude is thought to
issues compared with that of Western make communication more difficult.
media. Web site: www.aljazeera.net/
English allofmp3.com one of numerous
Russian Web sites that offer popular
all-channel legislation U.S. federal music (for downloading to a com-
law, passed in 1962, requiring all puter or mp3 player) for a fraction of
television sets to be equipped with what iTunes charges
both VHF and UHF receivers
allusion indirect reference (to person,
allegory literary work with a purely character, idea, etc.) in common
symbolic meaning; that is, a work discourse or narrative art
in which the characters and events
­symbolize spiritual, moral, or Alpha international code word for
­political meanings or ideas. Some the letter A, used in radio communi-
historically important ­allegorical cations
works are Le roman de la rose
(­thirteenth century) by Guillaume alphabet system of symbols, com-
de Lorris and Jean de Meung; The monly called letters or characters,
Divine Comedy (1321) by Dante used for representing speech sounds.
Alighieri; and Pilgrim’s Progress Alphabets are distinguished from
(1678) by John Bunyan. other systems by the fact that, ideally,

17
 alphanumeric

each letter in the system stands for a alternative comedy style of comedy
particular sound in a word. A syl- and/or humorous material that is de-
labary, on the other hand, consists of liberately different from mainstream
symbols representing syllables; a pic- comedy
tographic system consists of picture
symbols for representing things and alternative media nonmainstream
ideas (rather than sounds in words); media forms (such as pamphlets or
and an ideographic system consists graffiti) that arise to complement
of picturelike symbols that stand and sometimes challenge traditional
for complex ideas (such as motion, media forms
states, etc.).
alternative newspapers [see alter-
alphanumeric letters, numerical native press]
symbols, and punctuation marks,
mathematical symbols, and other alternative press nonmainstream
conventional symbols, used in some press with a small circulation, which
combination to create words, phrases, espouses radical viewpoints, espe-
or entire sentences. This is a major cially in the area of politics
feature of language used in chat
rooms, text messages, and other types alternative rock rock music that is
of digital communications: g2g = performed by relatively unknown
Got to go; 2dA = today; gr8 = great. musicians and/or is promoted by
small record companies
alt Internet Web site that posts dis-
cussions about alternative subjects of Althusser, Louis (1918–1990)
all kinds French Marxist scholar whose ideas
are often cited in the literature on
alterity [also called otherness] view media and pop culture, especially his
that emphasizes diversity in phi- view that media are part of ideologi-
losophy, the arts and sciences, and cal systems. Among his important
media representations. This concept works are Pour Marx (1965; For
gained prominence after Michel Marx) and Lénine et la philosophie
­Foucault’s allegation in the 1980s (1969; Lenin and Philosophy).
that the Other—anyone who was
different in sexual orientation, eth- AM radio [abbreviation of ­amplitude
nicity, etc., from those with social modulation radio] radio ­broadcasting
power—had been excluded from or system based on a carrier wave of con-
marginalized by Western systems of stant frequency but of varying amplitude
representation.
Amazon.com Web-based bookstore
alternate media any media of adver- that has become one of the largest
tising other than direct mail bookstores in the world

18
 Ascii

ambient advertising [also called the well-known Journal of Advertis-

ambient media] advertising intended ing. Web site: www.aaasite.org
for the outdoors (posters, ads on
subway platforms, ads on buses) so American Association of Advertis-
that people can be exposed to an ad ing Agencies [abbreviated as AAAA]
during their everyday activities U.S. national trade association
founded in 1917 whose members are
ambisonics [also called surround ad agencies. Web site: www.aaaa.org
sound] technique of using several
separate audio channels to record and American Broadcasting Company
produce sounds so that they com- [abbreviated as ABC] broadcast-
pletely surround listeners ing network created in 1943 that,
along with CBS and NBC, was one
ambivalence category used by adver- of the Big Three in the golden era
tisers to describe consumers who are of television from the 1950s to the
neither interested in, nor opposed to, 1970s. ABC is now a New York City-
advertising based American communications
corporation, whose holdings include
ambush interview line of ques- television and radio stations, Inter-
tioning that is intended to catch an net services, and print publications.
interviewee off guard The company was acquired by Walt
Disney Company Media Networks in
America Online [abbreviated as 1996. Web site: www.abc.org
AOL] online service provider created
by Steve Case in 1985 as Quantum American dream belief that any-
Computer Services. It changed its body can succeed in America, regard-
name to America Online and its cor- less of background, race, gender, and
porate structure in 1991. In January so on
2000, AOL announced its plans to
merge with Time-Warner; the merger American Society for Composers,
was approved by the Federal Trade Authors and Publishers [abbrevi-
Commission in January 2001, and the ated as ASCAP] major U.S. perform-
new corporate entity became one of ing rights organization founded in
the world’s largest media conglomer- New York City in 1914 to protect au-
ates. Web site: www.corp.aol.com thors, composers, and publishers by
licensing and distributing royalties.
American Academy of Advertising ASCAP’s earliest members included
[abbreviated as AAA] association of Irving Berlin and John Philip Sousa.
advertising educators, students, and Web site: www.ascap.org
professionals, dedicated to the evalu-
ation and improvement of advertising American Standard Code for
education. The association publishes Information Interchange [abbrevi-

19
 aT&T

ated as ASCII] standardized way of amplifier device or equipment that

converting text into a format that can makes sound louder
be interpreted by any computer
anachronism something that is, or
American Telephone and Telegraph seems to be, out of its proper time;
Company [abbreviated as AT&T] for example, using the word thou
one of the largest communications rather than you would be considered
companies, providing voice, data, an anachronism in modern English
video, and online communications
services to residential, business, anaglyph photograph or paint-
and government customers through- ing showing different perspectives
out the world. AT&T also operates or aspects of something with two
a cable television system and of- ­contrasting colors that are super-
fers local telephone service through imposed on each other. The image
its cable lines in some parts of the is perceived as a three-dimensional
United States. Its headquarters ­object when viewed with “3-D
are in New York City. Web site: ­glasses” (two correspondingly
www.att.com ­colored lenses).

Americanization purported influ- anagram a word or phrase produced

ence that the United States has on the by rearranging the letters of another
culture of other nations. The term has word or phrase: for example, Elvis =
a negative connotation if the influ- lives; Presbyterian = best in prayer;
ence is imposed unwillingly; it has a deliver = live red
positive connotation if the influence
is sought voluntarily. analog 1. mechanism in which data
are represented by continuously vari-
A-movie in contrast to a B-movie, able quantities; 2. transmission of a
a film that is considered to be of continuous electrical or radio fre-
the best quality aesthetically and quency wave; opposite of digital;
­technically 3. recording that uses magnetic tape

amplification technological en- analog channel communications line

hancement of sound transmission to (such as a telephone line) that carries
increase volume analog signals

amplification of deviance process analogy 1. comparison between

whereby some activity, labeled as two things that are similar in some
­deviant, is exaggerated as a result of respects, so as to explain one of the
social reaction to it, which is largely things or make it easier to compre-
shaped and influenced by the mass hend: the atom can be understood as
media a miniature solar system;

20
 angle

2. process by which language forms the twentieth-century semiotician

are created on the model of already Roland Barthes.
existing forms: the suffix -ize (used
for example in apologize, realize, ancillary market movie revenue
categorize, symbolize, etc.) has been source other than the domestic box
extended to create new words such as office one (foreign box office, video
energize or digitize rights, television rights)

analytic editing type of video or film ancillary-to-trade any product or

editing in which a sequence of im- service, such as advertising, that sup-
ages is constructed to follow a plot, ports trade
rather than to explain it
Andersch, Staats and Bostrom’s
analytical engine calculating model of communication model
machine invented by British math- proposed in 1969 stressing the
ematician Charles Babbage in the ­transactional nature of communica-
1830s, of which only a part was ever tion, in which meanings are created
built. Babbage’s engine was, in ef- and interpreted by both the sender
fect, the first general-purpose digital and the receiver in tandem, and
computer, although it was conceived are partially shaped by outside
long before electronics technology ­influences
appeared. It had the capacity to per-
form various mathematical opera- androcentric revolving around or
tions, using punched cards as a form emphasizing a male perspective
of permanent memory.
anecdote short account that helps
anamorphic lens a lens that “squeez- to illustrate or stimulate interest in a
es” or distorts a filmed image for more general issue
widescreen projection
Ang, Ien (1960–) international
anarchist cinema genre that revolves media scholar known for her work
around the theme that life is mean- on audiences, identity politics, and
ingless or unfair and that includes an media representation. Some of her
anti-authoritarian element. important works include Desperately
Seeking the Audience (1991) and
anchor main presenter of the news in Living Room Wars: Rethinking Media
a televised newscast Audiences for a Postmodern World
(1996).
anchorage in advertising, the ability
of captions to influence the meaning angle main point or focus of a story,
gleaned from images (photos, print in journalism usually emphasized as
ads, etc.). The term was coined by a headline

21
 animal communication

animal communication [also called anomie term coined by sociologist

zoosemiotics] discipline that studies Emile Durkheim to refer to the sense
ways in which animals communicate, of alienation and purposelessness
focusing on innate signaling systems experienced by a person or a class
as a result of a breakdown or lack
animated motion picture movie based of standards and values. The term is
either entirely or in part on animation often used in the literature by those
who believe that anomie makes some
animation moviemaking technique people more susceptible to the effects
of showing slightly different draw- of mass media.
ings in rapid succession, creating the
illusion of continuous motion (this anonymous written, created, or
visual illusion is also illustrated by produced by an unknown person or
“flip books”) persons

animatronics technique of using anonymous audience listeners or

electronic and/or mechanical devices recipients who have no connection
to animate puppets, models, or any to any single group and who are
relevant object unknown to the creator of a media
product
anime [also called manga] Japa-
nese comic-book drawing technique anonymous FTP method of con-
characterized by very large eyes and necting to a remote computer without
a layout in which the panels run from requiring special permission or a
right to left password to download files

annals records of published events or anonymous remail service for

information within a particular field forwarding e-mails or newsgroup
postings so that personal details are
annotation act or process of provid- excluded
ing critical commentary or explana-
tory notes to a text or performance answerprint final edited version of
a filmed piece to be checked for final
announcement formal or public no- corrections or modifications
tice uttered or communicated in some
medium (oral, written, or recorded) antenna [see aerial]

announcer person who introduces anthology collection of vari-

radio or television programs or ous works taken from a ­specific
shows; in sports, person who pro- genre within a medium (for ex-
vides continuous commentary during ample, ­essays, poems, sitcoms, or
the broadcast of a sports event ­documentaries)

22
 antimonopoly controls

anthology drama popular form of anticlimax rhetorical technique

early television programming that of sequencing ideas in a phrase or
brought live theater to television ­sentence in diminishing impor-
audiences tance, usually for some humorous
or s­ atirical effect: He is intelligent,
anthropology study of humankind handsome, but short. Thousands died
from all points of view (evolution, in that horrific war; a great deal of
culture, etc.). Lewis Henry Morgan, time was also lost. The term anti-
who conducted research on the cul- climactic is often used to describe
tures of the Iroquois in the nineteenth a sudden change from something
century, is considered the North serious to something trivial or from
American founder of the discipline; something compelling to something
in Europe, British scholar Edward B. dull.
Tylor is credited with its foundation.
In the 1970s, anthropological meth- antics ludicrous or extravagant ac-
ods such as ethnography (studying tions performed by an actor playing
some cultural phenomenon through an exaggerated comic role
systematic observation) were adopted
by media researchers to gain insights antihero character in a story who
into the ways in which traditional lacks the traditional qualities associ-
forms of culture have been changed ated with heroes, such as bravery,
by the mass media and mass commu- strength, idealism, or courage
nications technologies.
antilanguage 1. language created by
anthropomorphism in literature a specific group in order to exclude
and the arts, the attribution of human outsiders from the group; 2. language
qualities to objects, animals, plants, created and sustained by a specific
or gods group to express opposition to a
­dominant linguistic order. An ex-
anthroposemiotics branch of semi- ample of anti-language is that found
otics studying sign use in the human in some rap lyrics, characterized by
species (as opposed to sign use across intentional misspellings and other
species). Biosemiotics is the more ge- devices that are in breach of standard
neric term, used to refer to the study English.
of sign use across species.
antimonopoly controls regulatory
anti-aliasing technique that mini- legislative measures designed to
mizes the distortion of a digital image inhibit the control of business or sup-
or sound signal, accomplished by ply by a single entity (for example,
“smoothing,” or removing compo- to prevent media conglomerates from
nents that have too high a frequency monopolizing the delivery of mass
to be resolved by the recording device communications)

23
 antinarrative

antinarrative [see antinovel] similar characteristics (for example,

calling a philanderer a Don Juan)
antinomy putting together two
reasonable but opposite premises in a antonym word that means the op-
seemingly contradictory fashion so as posite of another word: light is the
to achieve some rhetorical effect: for antonym of dark; hot is the antonym
example, what is bad is really good of cold
for you; inelegance is in fashion
AOL [see America Online]
antinovel [also called antinarrative]
novel lacking the traditional elements AP [see Associated Press]
of the narrative, such as plot struc-
ture, realistic characters, etc. Mol- Apache silence in sociolinguistic
loy (1951) by Samuel Beckett is an analysis, the use of silence as a form
antinovel. of communication in situations where
words are difficult to find
antirealism storytelling technique in
which no attempt is made to repre- aphorism [see adage]
sent a situation realistically
apocalyptic thriller genre in which
antithesis use of words, phrases, the story revolves around a c­ ataclysmic
clauses, or expressions of opposing event or disastrous end to life on earth
meaning to emphasize contrasting
concepts: for example, He is laugh- apocryphal of questionable author-
ing; I am crying. They are growing; ship or authenticity
I am shrinking.
apologue fable intended to impart
antitrust laws legislative measures a moral lesson, in which animals or
designed to protect trade and com- inanimate objects represent human
merce from unlawful control by large characters: for example, the stories in
corporations or single entities Aesop’s Fables (sixth century b.c.e.)
and in the late nineteenth-century
antiwar genre narrative that revolves Uncle Remus tales by American
around a plot or a situation that writer Joel Chandler Harris
brings out the absurdity or depravity
of war aporia in discourse theory, the state
or expression of doubt or uncertainty
antonomasia 1. use of a title or about how to proceed in a conversa-
honorific (Your Honor, Your Majesty, tion or in a communicative exchange
etc.) in place of the person’s name; 2.
using the name of a well-known per- apostrophe rhetorical strategy
sonage to describe someone who has whereby an actor (or writer) turns

24
 arbitrary code

from the other characters, the audi- application software computer

ence, or the reader to address a per- software designed for a specific task,
son, a god, etc., who is either absent such as word processing, accounting,
or deceased: for example, What is or inventory management
life, my long-departed uncle?; Oh
Death, who are you? appreciation index measure of how
much someone has enjoyed a televi-
apothegm [also called maxim] terse sion or radio program that he or she
statement designed to embody a self- has viewed or listened to. The subject
evident truth: for example, Beauty is is asked to record his or her degree of
skin deep; Night follows day enjoyment as a score from 1 to 10.

appeal 1. degree of likability of an appropriation process by which

advertisement; 2. program or ad innovative or resistant cultural forms
campaign asking for donations for a are taken up and commodified by
particular cause media or culture industries; for
­example, rap music and lifestyle have
appendix material added to the been appropriated by various brands
end of a text (book, Web page, to advertise their products via images
video) and personalities associated with rap
culture
apperception process of understand-
ing by which new observations are APTN [see Aboriginal People’s
related to past experience. This term Television Network]
is used in the psychological literature
on media processing. arbitrariness in Saussurean
­semiotics, the theory that a sign
Apple Computer Corporation trade stands for something in an arbitrary
name for a computer technology way and not in a way motivated by
company founded in 1976 by Steve the nature of its referent. There is no
Jobs and Steve Wozniak that has evident reason for using, for exam-
developed, among its many products, ple, cat to designate “a small feline
the Apple Macintosh personal com- considered to be a domestic animal.”
puter and the iPod. Web site: www Indeed, any well-formed word could
.Apple.com have been coined for this naming
purpose—as long as it was consistent
application service provider [ab- with the word-formation patterns of
breviated as ASP] 1. technology for English.
delivering software applications and
data via the Internet; 2. a business arbitrary code system of signals or
that sells ASPs on a subscription or symbols that bears no direct relation
rental basis to the ideas it portrays or reflects

25
 arbitron

Arbitron provider of radio and tele- archive site on the Internet, a site
vision rating and marketing services, that provides a large collection of
founded in 1949, that publishes regu- downloadable public-domain files
lar reports for selected markets. Web and programs
site: www.arbitron.com
Areopagitica pamphlet (1644) writ-
archetype an inherited memory rep- ten and distributed by John Milton,
resented in the brain by a recurring which defended freedom of the press
image, form, or pattern. This mean- and the inviolability of books
ing of the term was introduced by
psychologist Carl Gustav Jung to argot jargon used by a particular
refer to symbolic and ritualistic forms group for in-group communication
that manifest themselves universally (although it can spread to the soci-
across cultures. A humorous clownish ety at large). The term is generally
or jester figure, known as the trick- used to refer to the language used
ster, for instance, is an archetype. by criminals or those belonging to
This archetype surfaces as a buf- delinquent organizations.
foon or fool at various rituals (as in
carnivals), in narratives (for example, argument summary of the plot or
Rumpelstiltskin), and in the assumed theme of a literary work
character of modern-day comedi-
ans. Jung suggested that archetypes Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) Greek
are the building blocks of culture, philosopher, a student of Plato,
enabling people to react to various whose ideas on logical thinking and
life situations in ways similar to their on the nature of reality have influ-
ancestors. enced (and continue to influence)
modern-day Western philosophy
archie early search system (consid- and scientific method. Aristotle’s
ered the first Internet search engine) notion of catharsis has become
for locating publicly accessible files widespread in the study of media
or software ­audiences.

architecture-opera exhibition con- Arnold, Matthew (1822–1888)

sisting of a walk-through installation nineteenth-century British poet and
and a live opera, presented on a set social critic whose ideas against the
with video sculptures banality of popular forms of culture
are still cited today. His classic study
archive public records or historical Culture and Anarchy (1869) is a po-
documents that have been preserved lemic against Victorian materialism.
for future access; material (such as
newspaper articles and film segments) Arpanet [abbreviation for Advanced
that can be used again if needed Research Projects Agency ­Network]

26
 article

wide-area network created in the

1960s by the U.S. Department of
Defense for the free exchange of
information between universities and
research organizations, also used by
the military for its own communica-
tions. Arpanet was the network from
which the Internet evolved.

art any work or text (a painting, a

sculpture, a musical composition,
etc.) that evokes an aesthetic reac-
tion, impelling people to contemplate
its meaning and its qualities. The
drawings found during the Paleolithic
period, some 20,000 to 35,000 years
ago, are likely to be the first works of
art. Twenty-first-century art includes
a wide range of media, such as film,
video, sound recordings, and digital
images.
Isolde (1895) by Aubrey Beardsley
art deco design style of the 1910s,
art nouveau style of painting of the
1920s, and 1930s, which emphasized
late nineteenth and early twentieth
sleek elegance in form, reflective
centuries, characterized primarily by
of “modern” technology. The style
the depiction of leaves and flowers in
became popular in 1925 at the Paris
flowing, sinuous lines. The earliest
exhibition called Exposition Interna-
examples of art nouveau are usually
tionale des Arts Décoratifs et Indus-
considered to be a chair designed in
triels Modernes. Prominent examples
1882 and an engraved frontispiece for
of art deco style include the interior
an 1883 book (Wren’s Early Churches)
of the Chrysler Building (1930) and
by English architect Arthur Mackmur-
Radio City Music Hall (1931), both
do. The illustrations of Aubrey Beards-
located in New York.
ley are considered the most prominent
art director individual who coordi- examples of this style. In the twentieth
nates creative artwork in a­ dvertising, century, the art nouveau style became
or the individual who oversees the fashionable in interior decor as well as
design of a television or movie set magazine illustrations.

art film experimental film created as article 1. text on a particular subject

an artwork, not aimed at mass audi- in a newspaper and magazine; 2.
ences, but at cinema connoisseurs online message or posting

27
 articulation

articulation 1. process of expressing ASP [see application service

something; 2. in Marxist theory, a ­provider]
term referring to the joining together
of social forces in a hierarchical aspirer in advertising research, the
way (with one being dominant over type of individual who wants prod-
the other); for example, in many ucts that improve his or her lifestyle
present-day societies, capitalism is image
the dominant force even in political
systems that include different modes assets data components (audio,
of production video) that are used in multimedia
applications
artificial intelligence [abbreviated
as AI] branch of computer science assignment desk [also called news
devoted to the development of pro- desk] in print and televised media,
grams that will allow computers to staff responsible for dispatching re-
simulate or even replicate patterns of porters and/or camera crews to cover
human intelligence (problem solving, news events
speaking, etc.)
assimilation [see acculturation]
artificial language linguistic system
invented for a particular purpose. assistive technology [abbreviated as
The best-known artificial language AT] technology designed to assist
devised to facilitate c­ ommunication disabled individuals
among people of different l­anguages
and cultural backgrounds is ­Esperanto. Associated Press [abbreviated as
AP] major international news agency
ASCAP [see American Society founded in 1949 in New York City.
for Composers, Authors and Serves as a source of news informa-
­Publishers] tion and visual images for print me-
dia, radio, and television. Web site:
ascription in media studies, adjust- www.ap.org
ment of statistical information to
reflect unexpected circumstances; for association psychological notion
example, the reduced circulation of a which contends that concepts are
magazine due to a printing delay formed on the basis of one thought
leading to another that is connected
A-side the more important side of a with it in some way (through experi-
music single (recording) that usually ence, analogy, comparison, etc.).
contains the title track Starting in the 1920s, psychologists
of the behaviorist school used the
ASCII [see American Standard theory of association to explain the
Code for Information Interchange] development of mental skills and

28
 attention-getting headline

the acquisition of language. The ATM [see Asynchronous Transfer

theory has been used to explain how Mode]
certain media products are received
and linked both to each other and to atmosphere 1. dominant mood or
social life. tone elicited by a work; 2. ambient
noise added to a recording in order to
association principle in advertis- make the sound track more realistic
ing, persuasive technique that aims
to associate a product with a cultural atmospherics 1. noises that interfere
value or theme, even though the with radio reception, caused by natu-
cultural value may have no actual ral disturbances in the atmosphere;
connection to the product 2. in advertising, tools for the cre-
ation of an “atmosphere” or identity
assonance poetic effect achieved by for a brand, such as its name, logo,
using words containing the same or and so on
similar vowel sounds: for example,
I hate to be late for my date ATR [acronym for awareness, trial,
repeat] advertising model which
asterisk a symbol (*) used to indi- claims that a consumer first becomes
cate an omission or a reference to a aware of a product through advertis-
note. Asterisks are sometimes used ing, then buys it once to try it, and
to replace letters of words, or entire will buy it again if it is acceptable or
words, that are considered obscene. suitable

Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber attack ad political advertisement that

Line [abbreviated as ADSL] employs repeated negative assaults
high-speed technology providing on another candidate’s character
high-speed Internet access to local
telephone service customers over attention economy theory that links
conventional phone lines the present-day wealth of informa-
tion to an economy, or scarcity, of
Asynchronous Transfer Mode attention by individuals, particularly
[abbreviated as ATM] high-speed as consumers; the proliferation of
communications network technology available information on the Internet
that allows multiple types of traffic is viewed as a significant factor in
(voice, video) to be transmitted over attention economy
a network in bundles called cells
attention-getting headline style of
AT [see assistive technology] headline used in printed advertise-
ments, designed to immediately
AT&T [see American Telephone attract the attention of the consumer.
and Telegraph Company] Some headlines attract attention by

29
 attention model of mass communication

promising that some benefit will book or sees the movie at the same
ensue from buying a product (such as time). The idea of audience entered
a savings in money, improvement in media studies through psychologi-
physical appearance). Other head- cal research on people’s responses
lines are worded to arouse curiosity, to certain media messages according
or to attract the attention of a spe- to age, social class, gender, and so
cific group (e.g., “For those who are on. It is now believed that there is a
young at heart”). constant dynamic interplay between
audiences and producers of media
attention model of mass commu- products. ­Audience research aims
nication paradigm that presents the to identify the views, habits, and
design of mass communication in opinions of media audiences of all
terms of attracting and maintaining kinds.
the attention of consumers, viewers,
or listeners audience appreciation index [abbre-
viated as AAI] measure of audience
attention value likelihood that an reaction to a certain media product.
advertisement or media product will The measure is used as a factor in rat-
attract and maintain attention and/or ings research.
interest
audience competence knowledge
attitude in media studies, the dis- that audience members build up
position of an individual toward a regarding their interests, which may
media product, especially as acquired create an increase in audience satis-
through cultural conditioning faction

attitude change theory in media audience differentiation classifying

studies, a principle that aims to audiences into categories, such as
explain how people’s attitudes are age, social status, gender, and educa-
formed and/or changed through me- tion, so as to determine the needs of
dia exposure each group

audience any group of people audience duplication percentage of

exposed to media. Some audiences people reached by an advertisement
(such as those for sports events or (or other media event) more than
concerts) are physically present at once
the media event. Other audiences
(such as those for novels, televi- audience ethnography research
sion, or radio) are not. Additionally, method in which the researcher joins
audience members need not undergo a specific audience group in order to
the ­experience at the same time (for observe their reactions to media from
example, not everyone reads the within the group

30
 audiology

audience factor average number of by AC Nielsen to monitor viewing

audience members for a specific type habits.
of program or event
audio related to sound or its repro-
audience flow particular pattern duction; recorded sound material of
shown by audiences who change ra- any kind, including the sound com-
dio or television channels throughout ponent of a video or film recording
a given period of time
audio branding building a brand
audience measurement research identity through auditory association
technique that identifies what kinds of techniques, such as jingles and songs
audiences receive a particular kind of
media product and how they react to audio console unit consisting of elec-
it. The audience is determined accord- tronic and/or digital components such
ing to some variable or set of variables as a radio tuner or a disc player
(age, class, gender, e­ thnicity).
audio description oral description of
audience positioning advertising, what is happening on screen for the
designing, and showcasing a product visually impaired
in such a way as to appeal to an audi-
ence characterized as having certain audio feed sound recording sent
demographic or psychographic from one place to another
features
audio insert device on video equip-
audience segment specific group ment that allows dubbing (the addi-
of individuals exposed to a media tion of new sound effects or dialogue
product. The group is determined to previously recorded material)
according to some variable or set of audio recording sound reproduc-
variables (age, class, gender, ethnic- tion of any kind. The first device
ity, specialized tastes, media habits). that allowed for sound reproduction
was Thomas Edison’s phonograph,
audilog diary kept by selected audi- invented in 1877.
ence members to record which televi-
sion programs they watched over a audiocassette an audiotape in a
given period of time. It was intro- small plastic box for use in a tape re-
duced by AC Nielsen as a means of corder. Audiocassettes have virtually
rating television shows. disappeared, having been replaced by
other kinds of audio recording and
audimeter electronic recording playback devices.
device that keeps track of when a
television set is in use and to what audiology science devoted to the
station it is set. It was introduced diagnosis and treatment of hearing

31
 audiophile

problems. Audiologists also study the auteur theory view that a director may
effect of partial or total hearing loss be regarded as a film’s author, whether
on a person’s ability to communicate. or not he or she wrote the script

audiophile individual who has an author creator of a media product

avid interest in stereo or high-fidelity (book, poem, play, program, etc.). In
sound recordings traditional literary theory, the author
is seen, implicitly, as the one who
audiotape narrow magnetic tape injects a personal viewpoint into
used to record sound for subsequent a work; the role of the reader is to
playback discern and comprehend the author’s
viewpoint. Recent theories, however,
audiovisual [abbreviated as AV] view the meaning of a work as result-
materials, such as films and DVDs, ing from a negotiation of meaning
that present information in audible between the author and the reader.
and pictorial form
authoring systems and software
Audit Bureau of Circulation inde- computer systems and/or software
pendent body consisting of members that allow for the creation of multi-
from the media and the advertising media texts (texts that incorporate
field, which provides circulation print, video clips, images, and sound)
figures for print media. It also audits
the circulation of print publications authoritarian theory hypothesis
to insure that reported circulation which claims that the role of the
figures are accurate. Web site: www press is to serve the interests of
.accessabc.com government, not of the citizenry,
and should submit to governmental
Austin, John L. (1911–1960) British control
philosopher who developed a logi-
cal theory of speech acts, describing autobiography biography of a
utterances in terms of the functions person written by himself or herself.
they have and the actions they are The term probably was coined by
designed to bring about. His ideas are the British Romantic poet Robert
often cited in media and communica- Southey in 1809.
tion studies.
autofunction device used for video
auteur filmmaker or director who is editing and playback that performs
perceived as having a unique ­ functions such as focusing or
personal style or approach to film- ­tracking
making and who takes complete
control over all aspects of film automatic dialogue replacement
production [abbreviated as ADR] process that

32
 Ayer Agency

allows actors to re-record dialogue campaign; 2. average number of op-

while watching themselves on screen portunities that individuals have to
(during feature film production) view an advertisement

autonomy in aesthetic theory, the average hours per head average

act of creating a work without any number of television viewing hours
reliance on some other idea, cultural that an entire population spent, or
product, or value could have spent, watching a particu-
lar program or series
autoscript type of prompting device
or system used by television an- average issue readership [abbrevi-
nouncers or presenters ated as AIR] estimated number of
people who have read an issue of a
AV [see audiovisual] publication during the period that it
has been in print
availability time and number of slots
in a medium available for advertising average quarter-hour average
purposes number of people listening to a radio
program, or watching a television
avant-garde experimental work program, during a 15-minute period
whose style or content falls outside
the mainstream avi extension for a multimedia video
format file
avatar 1. in virtual reality
environments (such as certain types awareness test advertising research
of Internet chat rooms), a picture, technique that measures the cumula-
photograph, or animation of a human tive effect of an ad campaign in
user, chosen by the user to depict his terms of a product’s ability to enter
or her virtual-reality identity; 2. in into consumer consciousness
advertising, a brand icon designed to
move or morph freely across media axiom notion universally believed to
be true and therefore accepted with-
average audience 1. average num- out proof. Mathematics, for instance,
ber of homes or persons tuned into a is constructed on the basis of axioms,
radio or television program during a which are consistent with one another
minute of broadcasting time; 2. aver- and few in number.
age number of persons who viewed
an issue of a print publication Ayer Agency one of the first docu-
mented ad agencies in the United
average frequency 1. average num- States, founded by advertising
ber of times that the same individual pioneer Francis W. Ayer in 1869 in
is reached by the same advertising Philadelphia

33
 first item

B
B movie [also called B for various purposes (for
picture] 1. motion picture advertising, to explain the
produced on a low budget; contents of the book, etc.)
2. low-budget motion pic-
ture produced to accompany back issue previous issue
the main feature of a double or edition of a periodical
billing during the 1930s and 1940s
back projection cinematic technique
b2b advertising [see business-to- in which the background for a scene
business advertising] is created by projecting images onto
a screen that is behind the action
Babbage, Charles (1792–1871) being filmed; also called background
English mathematician who designed projection or rear-screen projection
a machine (called the analytical
engine) that he claimed would be background 1. setting or part of
capable of carrying out complex scene (in a movie, photograph, etc.)
operations. Although he never built that appears to be located at the back
even a working model of the ma- of the scene; 2. information that pro-
chine, lacking appropriate technology vides details or resources for a news
and funding, its principles of design story; a background story provides
foreshadowed the modern computer. information on events that preceded
His book Economy of Machines and the current news story
Manufactures (1832) became the ba-
sis of the field of study known today background music music that ac-
as operational research. companies action or dialogue in a
film or television program, usually
baby boomer individual belonging added at the postproduction stage
to an age category of people born
during the period after the end of backing 1. accompaniment provided
World War II (1945) through 1961. for a solo musician or singer, usually
This category is quoted often in recorded on a separate track; 2. in the
the media literature. Baby boom- theater, a flat piece of scenery placed
ers constitute a market segment in behind an opening such as a window
­advertising. or door

back catalog all the publications, backlist list of books that are not
recordings, videos, etc., that a par- currently promoted by a publisher but
ticular artist or company has ever that are still in print
produced
backup 1. accompaniment to the
back cover back of a book or maga- main performer of a piece of popular
zine on which text is normally added music; 2. a reserve or replacement, as

34
 banner

in backup computer files or a backup mance and love; 2. popular romantic

schedule for filming song with a slow tempo

badge distinctive branding that is balloon in comics and cartoons,

given to a product in order to increase figure resembling a balloon, which
its appeal contains words that represent either
the speech or thoughts of a character
Baird, John Logie (1888–1946) Scot-
tish electrical engineer who was a pio- bandwagon effect advertising
neer in the televising of moving objects ­strategy that focuses on the pressure
to conform to a commonly held view;
Bakhtin, Mikhail (1895–1975) it incorporates exaggerated claims
Russian literary theorist who claimed that everyone is using a particular
that communication, including both product
literature and dialogue among people,
is not merely an exchange of infor- bandwidth 1. range of frequencies
mation, but rather, a negotiation of involved in radio and telecommunica-
meanings. Bakhtin also introduced tions transmission; 2. amount of data
the idea that pop culture serves that a communication channel, such
the same kind of social functions as an Internet connection, is capable
as medieval carnivals. Among his of transmitting
most important works are Problemy
tvorchestva Dostoevskogo (1929; bank 1. place of storage, such as
revised in 1963 as Problemy poetiki a data bank; 2. secondary part of a
Dostoevskogo; translated in 1973 as headline, running just below it (nor-
Problems of Dostoyevsky’s Poet- mally in smaller type)
ics) and Voprosy literatury i estetiki
(1975; The Dialogic Imagination, banned books books that have
1981). been banned from public libraries or
schools for social, political, moral,
balance leveling of a signal coming or other reasons. Among the most
from each channel in a stereo audio famous banned books in the United
recording, so that the sound can be States are The Adventures of Huck-
blended for various acoustic and leberry Finn (Mark Twain), Of Mice
aesthetic purposes and Men (John Steinbeck), and The
Catcher in the Rye (J.D. Salinger).
balanced programming the practice
of giving fair and/or impartial cover- banner 1. print media term for
age to a topic or issue the headline of a story of unusual
importance, stretching over the entire
ballad 1. song or poem, in folk or width of the page; 2. slogan used by
traditional style, dealing with ro- a newspaper immediately below its

35
 banner exchange

in Europe in the late 1500s, lasting

until the mid-1700s, characterized
by ornamentation. In music the style
is emblemized by the composers
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750)
and Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741).

barrier signal a defensive nonverbal

signal, such as crossing the arms or
holding a hand in front of the face

barter deal in television syndication,

an arrangement whereby no money is
exchanged between the local station
and the syndicator. The syndicator
offers a new program in exchange for
P.T. Barnum
a portion of advertising revenue.

title; 3. online advertising message Barthes, Roland (1915–1980)

that runs across the top of a Web page French semiotician who has become
widely cited in media and pop culture
banner exchange agreement be- studies, particularly concerning his
tween two businesses allowing ban- view that modern systems of repre-
ner advertisements to be displayed on sentation, as well as performances
each other’s Web site and spectacles, are recreations of
ancient myths. Popular wrestling, for
Barnum, P.T. (1810–1891) famous instance, is a complex performance
U.S. showman who presented such in which bodies, facial expressions,
popular and sensationalized attrac- gestures, and speech evoke ancient
tions as General Tom Thumb, a forms of theater and spectacle. Bar-
midget, and Chang and Eng, con- thes was also a founder of the “New
joined twins. With James Bailey, Criticism,” a literary movement
he founded the Barnum & Bailey Cir- prominent after World War II, which
cus, which merged with the Ringling emphasized the interpretation of a
Brothers Circus in 1919 to become text itself, independent of authorial
the Ringling Brothers and Barnum intentions or historical factors. His
& Bailey Circus. To promote his at- most quoted work in media studies is
tractions, Barnum relied on colorful Mythologies (1957).
advertising and publicity stunts.
base and superstructure in Marx-
Baroque style in painting, litera- ist theory, an economical system is
ture, and music that first appeared called the “base” of society, around

36
 beach box

which a “superstructure” (consist- the values and norms of the news

ing of laws, religion, culture, etc.) is organization (editors, writers, etc.)
constructed
bathos sudden stylistic descent from
base band 1. in telecommunica- the lofty to the trivial, producing a
tions, the narrow range of frequencies comical effect: or example, What
required for transmitting a single shall I do? I lost my best friend and
message; 2. form of a satellite signal my scarf!
as it is being transmitted, before it is
converted into sound and/or pictures baud rate speed of data transfer
within a network in bits per second
BASIC [abbreviation of beginner’s
all-purpose symbolic instruction Baudrillard, Jean (1929–2007)
code] a simplified high-level pro- French sociologist often quoted in
gramming language developed in media studies. Among Baudrillard’s
the mid-1960s by John Kemeny and ideas, perhaps the one most discussed
Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College. is that of the simulacrum, which
It is widely considered to be one of claims that people have become
the easiest programming languages so accustomed to viewing reality
to learn. through the media that they are no
longer capable of distinguishing
basic cable service package of ­practically between fact and fiction.
television channels that a cable com- The gap between the two is filled by
pany makes available to subscribers, a simulacrum, or a mode of seeing
usually at a lower cost than packages one in terms of the other. Among
that include premium channels his most quoted works in the media
literature are La société de consom-
Basic Telecommunications Agree- mation (1970; The Consumer Society,
ment of 1997 accord drawn up by the 1998) and Simulacres et simulation
World Trade Organization to allow (1981; Simulacra and Simulations,
free trade for telecommunications 1994).
services. The agreement was signed
by 69 countries. Bay Psalm Book the first book
published in the American colonies
Bass’s double action model of in- in 1644; originally titled The Whole
ternal news flow (1969) model that Booke of Psalms
describes news as being processed
in two stages before release: first, by BBC [see British Broadcasting
those who gathered the information Corporation]
(reporters, researchers, etc.), and
second, by those who process the in- beach box device that connects an
formation to make it consistent with external microphone to a digital

37
 beam

video camera, designed to provide inquiry (term coined in 1913 by John

better sound recording quality B. Watson). Behaviorism traces its
roots to the ideas and methods of the
beam (n) 1. shaft of light; 2. direc- Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. In
tional radio signal; (v) 3. to broadcast 1904, Pavlov introduced the idea of
radio or television signals conditioned response, on which be-
haviorism is based. He demonstrated
beat generation 1950s generation the notion with an experiment that
of American writers, including Jack has become a classic in the annals of
Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William S. psychology. He started by presenting
Burroughs, and Lawrence Ferlinghet- a piece of meat to a dog, noting that
ti. Beat writers became famous for the animal would salivate instinctive-
their eccentric lifestyle and literature, ly, as anticipated. Pavlov called this
which was intended to denounce the dog’s unconditioned response. He
the American dream of wealth and then began to ring a bell while pre-
prosperity. Their style was typically senting the meat; after a number of
improvisational and dealt with the repetitions, the dog began to salivate
role of drugs, sex, and mysticism in in response to the ringing bell, even if
modern human life. The beat writers no meat were presented. The ringing,
are often considered to have set the Pavlov noted, would not have made
stage for the hippie and countercul- the dog salivate initially, but asso-
ture movements of the 1960s. ciating it with the meat eventually
brought about a conditioned response
bebop style of jazz music that origi- in the dog. Starting in the 1960s,
nated in the 1940s, when a number of behaviorism became marginalized
young American musicians began ex- within psychology. Today it has been
perimenting with more complicated revived somewhat to explain certain
chord patterns and melodic ideas in a types of behaviors and is thus viewed
combo (small group) setting as part of a more comprehensive
theory of human behavior. It is used
beginner’s all-purpose symbolic as well in media studies to explain
instruction code [abbreviated as responses to mediated stimuli.
BASIC] programming language
developed in the mid-1960s by Bell, Alexander Graham
John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz (1847–1922) Scottish-born Ameri-
at Dartmouth College. It is widely can inventor of an apparatus for the
considered to be one of the easiest telephonic transmission of voice, first
programming languages to learn. demonstrated in 1875, patented as the
telephone in 1876.
behaviorism the study of observ-
able and quantifiable behavior as the Bell, Daniel (1919–) American
only legitimate form of psychological sociologist whose work concerns

38
 Bettelheim, Bruno

the effects of political and economic a channel for the release of pent-up
structures, including mass media, on emotions
the individual. Among his frequently
cited works are The End of Ideology Berne Convention [full form:
(1960) and The Cultural Contradic- International Convention for the
tions of Capitalism (1976). Protection of Literary and Artis-
tic Works] international copyright
below-the-fold 1. the lower half of agreement, originally adopted in
the front page of a newspaper, gener- 1886. The agreement provides a
ally considered to have less impor- framework for the protection of intel-
tance than the upper half; 2. the parts lectual property, copyright, patents,
of a Web page that can be seen only and trademarks.
by scrolling down the page
Berners Lee, Tim (1955–) inventor
benchmark 1. point of reference; 2. of the World Wide Web and director
in advertising, a measure of a target of the World Wide Web Consortium,
audience’s response to the early stag- which seeks to create protocols
es of an advertising campaign, which and standards for the sharing of
is later compared to the response at ­information
the end, so as to test the efficacy of
the campaign Bernstein, Basil (1924–2000) Brit-
ish sociologist who developed the
Benedict, Ruth (1887–1948) concept of social code as a means
­American anthropologist who of understanding social beliefs and
­conducted important research on behaviors. Among his works are
Native American cultures in the Class, Codes, and Control (1971)
1920s and 1930s. Benedict claimed and Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and
that culture largely determined Identity (1996).
the choices that individuals made
throughout their lives. Among her best seller product such as a book,
most influential works are Patterns compact disc, etc., that sells very
of Culture (1934); Zuñi Mythology well, often shortly after it is pub-
(1935); Race: Science and Politics lished or issued
(1940); and The Chrysanthemum BET [see Black Entertainment
and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Television]
Culture (1946).
Beta trade name for a video format,
Benjamin, Walter (1892–1940) phi- known for the fact that it was overtaken
losopher and aesthetician associated in the consumer marketplace by VHS
with the Frankfurt School, often
cited in media literature with regard Bettelheim, Bruno (1903–1990)
to his view that pop culture provides American psychologist (born in

39
 Bezos, Jeffrey Preston

Austria) who is well-known in media tions that promote the standardiza-

studies for his penetrating analyses of tion of bibliographical methods and
fairy tales. Bettelheim claimed that research.
the fairy tale represents a universal
need to engage with the workings of Big Band music music popular in the
the imagination and an innate sense 1930s and 1940s, performed by large
of fantasy. Its elements (from the dance or jazz bands, usually featuring
characters to its settings) are essen- improvised solos by lead players
tially archetypes, in the Jungian
sense of the term. His major work is big beat [also called electronica]
The Uses of Enchantment: The Mean- type of electronic music that blends
ing and Importance of Fairy Tales elements of rock with other styles,
(1976). distinguished by its constant rock-
style drum beats
Bezos, Jeffrey Preston (1964–)
founder and CEO of Amazon.com Big Brother concept introduced by
(in 1994) George Orwell in his 1949 novel
1984, describing a totalitarian society
bias 1. failure to cover the news in in which the government, like a “big
an impartial manner (intentionally brother,” constantly watches and
or not); 2. a high-frequency volt- monitors its citizens in order to detect
age combined with an audio signal any signs of unrest or nonconformity
during recording in order to reduce
­distortion big city dailies newspapers published
in cities such as New York, Los An-
bibliography list of books, articles, geles, Chicago, and Boston
etc., consulted and thus considered
to be pertinent to a given subject. Big Five studios the five major mo-
The General Catalogue of Printed tion picture studios—Paramount,
Books maintained by the British MGM, Warner Brothers, Twentieth
Library, the catalogs of the Biblio- Century Fox, and RKO—during the
thèque Nationale in Paris, and the 1930s and 1940s
Library of Congress in Washington,
D.C., are widely used bibliographi- Big Four networks CBS, NBC,
cal collections. Publishers also issue ABC, and Fox, the leading television
bibliographies for informational (and networks (before the advent of cable
publicity) purposes. In the United and satellite television)
States, Publishers Weekly first ap-
peared in 1872, and Books in Print in big idea an innovative new idea
1948. The International Federation behind an advertising ­campaign
for Documentation and the American ­intended to attract potential
Documentation Institute are institu- ­consumers

40
 binary opposition

big screen movies made to be seen in of Communication and Journal of

a movie theater rather than on televi- International Communication.
sion or on a Web site
binarism a structuralism theory
Big Three networks the original that we extract meaning from two
networks—CBS, NBC, ABC— forms (words, symbols, etc.) simul-
considered the leading television taneously by detecting a minimal
­networks before the advent of Fox difference between them. The words
and of cable and satellite television cat and rat differ minimally in terms
of the initial sounds with which they
Bildungsroman literary genre that are constructed. This binary differ-
emerged in the early part of the ence keeps the two words distinct.
Romantic period; a novel revolv- Binarism can be applied to a vast
ing around the development of a array of forms; for example, in music
young protagonist in psychologi- the difference between a major and
cal and ­social terms. Perhaps the minor chord is signaled in a binary
most ­famous Bildungsroman is fashion by a semitone difference in
Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young the middle tone of the chord.
Werther (1774). J.D. Salinger’s The
Catcher in the Rye (1951) is a well- binary feature element that is either
known American example of the present [+] or absent [–] in the consti-
­Bildungsroman. tution of form, thereby keeping it
distinct. The word cat is marked as
billboard 1. outdoor advertising [+singular] and cats as [–singular].
sign; 2. poster advertising a newspa- The [±singular] is a binary feature.
per by showing the main headline of
the day (usually found outside news- binary opposition refers to the fact
paper stands); 3. advertising message that many aspects of meaning are
shown before, after, and during the perceived in terms of opposites, such
breaks of a television program as good vs. evil, night vs. day, etc. An
opposition often leads to a connected
billing 1. listing of performers, set of derived oppositions. So, for
with prominence given to the lead- example, in a narrative the good char-
ing performers; 2. way in which a acters are opposed to the evil ones
performance, product, or spectacle is in terms of derived oppositions such
publicized as us vs. them, right vs. wrong, truth
vs. falsity, and so on, which manifest
Biltereyst, Daniel (1962–) well- themselves in actions, statements,
known scholar who has written on plot twists, etc. In social theory, some
film censorship and reality television; binary oppositions, such as self vs.
his articles have been published in other, us vs. them, man vs. woman,
journals such as European Journal young vs. old, are seen as potentially

41
 biodata

dangerous because of the tendency of In groups of eight, bits become the

people to identify with the positive familiar bytes that are used to repre-
element in the opposition, seeing the sent all types of information, includ-
other as negative. ing the letters of the alphabet and the
digits 0 through 9.
biodata biographical details about an
individual bit caster radio station accessible
only on the World Wide Web
biography 1. account of a person’s
life in the form of a book, movie, bit map an image stored in the form
television program, etc.; 2. literary of bits. Bit maps cannot be enlarged
genre dealing with people’s lives as without some distortion of quality.
metaphors of life in general. In the
ancient and medieval worlds, biog- BITNET [acronym for Because
raphies were written primarily about It’s Time Network or Because It’s
the most prominent individuals— There Network] network created in
heroes, rulers, saints, etc. Giorgio 1981 connecting computers in the
Vasari’s Vite de’ più eccellenti educational and research domains (at
architetti, pittori e scultori italiani universities, schools, institutes, etc.)
(1550; Lives of the Most Eminent to communicate news of develop-
Architects, Painters, and Sculptors) ments in academic, scientific, and
marked a humanistic interest in the related matters.
lives of other types of individuals. As
a literary genre, the biography traces biweekly newspaper or magazine
its roots to The Life of Samuel John- that is published once every two
son, LL.D. (1791) by James Boswell. weeks

biopic [abbreviation of b
­ iographical black box technologies television
picture] movie that presents the biog- systems (such as TiVo) that allow
raphy of (usually) a well-known person viewers to record and save programs
by digital storage means rather than
biotechnology 1. use of microorgan- onto videotape, as with older VCR
isms as agents to produce useful ma- systems
terials or aid in industrial processes;
2. application of technological facts Black Entertainment Television
and principles to biological science, [abbreviated as BET] American
as in bioengineering cable network with programming tar-
geted at African American audiences
bit [short for binary digit] the small- in the United States
est unit of information handled by a
computer; one character of a system black-and-white movie or photo-
that uses only two characters (0 and 1). graph using only black and white

42
 blockbuster era

bleed 1. to print something so that

the colors blend into each other; 2. to
print something beyond the edge of
a page

bleep out to efface an offensive

word or phrase uttered on radio or
­television

blind booking practice of renting

films to exhibitors without letting
them view the films beforehand

blind certificate type of online

cookie used to track which Web sites
have been visited by an individual by
identifying the computer system used
BlackBerry
blink ad television commercial last-
ing just one second
BlackBerry trade name for a hand-
held wireless device that provides blitz intensive, short-term marketing
­e-mail and Internet services, along campaign
with phone, text messaging, and
software applications block-booking early movie studio
tactic of getting theaters to accept
blacklist 1. list of people who are not marginal or inferior films in order to
approved or who are to be boycotted; obtain access to major films with the
2. list of people from whom corre- most popular stars
spondence (especially e-mail corre-
spondence) is not welcome block printing technique of printing
from carved blocks of wood or other
blackout any interruption or exclu- materials
sion of a broadcast for technical rea-
sons, on account of a labor dispute, blockbuster film or book that gains
or due to government prohibition widespread popularity and achieves
enormous sales
blanket coverage advertising to the
general public (with no target group blockbuster era period from the
in mind) 1970s onward, when movie studios
started making relatively inexpensive
blat slang term for tabloid newspaper movies for large audiences. These

43
 blockbuster mentality

movies came packaged with cable secular songs in the early 1900s,
deals, video/DVD products, etc. distinguished by slow tempo and
sorrowful melodies and lyrics and
blockbuster mentality movie-­making played on simple instruments. After
philosophy characterized by the 1950 some blues musicians, includ-
taking of reduced risks by producing ing B.B. King and Ray Charles, used
movies with blockbuster potential electric guitars and louder electric
basses. Record companies applied the
blog [abbreviation of weblog] Web terms rhythm and blues and soul to
site with a regularly updated list of music in these styles.
commentary and links to information
on the Internet. A blog often serves Bluetooth trade name for a technol-
as a publicly accessible journal for an ogy that enables portable electronic
individual or community of individu- devices to connect with each other
als, and tends to reflect the distinct and the Internet
character and personality of the site’s
users. Blogs are set up with easy-to- Blumler, Jay G. (1924–) one of the
use authoring tools. founders of uses and gratifica-
tions theory. Among his key works
blogosphere parts of the World Wide are Television in Politics (with D.
Web where bloggers communicate McQuail; 1968) and The Uses of
with each other Mass Communication (as editor, with
E. Katz; 1974).
blogware software designed to help
people set up blogging sites blurb short complimentary text, of-
ten written about a book on its cover
blowup enlargement of a photograph, or jacket
or part of a photograph, so that its
details can be seen more clearly BMI [see Broadcast Music Inc.]

blue-eyed soul soul music performed Boas, Franz (1858–1942) German-

by white musicians, rather than Afri- born American anthropologist who
can American musicians laid the foundations for modern
theories about the effects of culture
bluegrass music type of folk music on human behavior and develop-
originating in the southern United ment. Boas argued that differences
States, typically played on banjos and in human behavior are determined
guitars and characterized by rapid primarily by environment, not
tempos and jazzlike improvisations genetics. He was among the first to
emphasize field research—studying
blues style of music that evolved a people by living among them. His
from southern African American books include The Mind of Primitive

44
 boom

Man (1911) and Race, Language, and had invented printing on paper from
Culture (1940). movable type in the eleventh cen-
tury. Paper was introduced to Europe
body double actor whose job is to in the fifteenth century by Islamic
substitute for a starring actor for scholars. The technology for mov-
some reason during filming (for able metal type was perfected by the
stunts, for specific action sequences, ­German printer Johannes Gutenberg,
etc.) making the production of paper-
based books rapid and much more
body language set of manner- affordable. The first book printed
isms, gestures, postures, and facial with such technology was the Bible
expressions that represent or com- in 1455. The mass-produced book
municate something. The elements encouraged literacy among all classes
of body language are divided into of people.
witting (gestures, expressions, etc.,
used intentionally to communicate book club 1. organization that sells
something) and unwitting (gestures, books to members, generally at
expressions, etc., used instinctively reduced rates, such as Book-of-the-
to reveal an emotional or affective Month Club and Literary Guild; 2.
state). informal group formed to read and
discuss books
Bollywood name (mimicking “Holly-
wood”) that refers to India’s prolific book superstores large book chains,
movie industry such as Barnes & Noble and Borders,
that sell not only books but also other
book collection or assemblage of products (videos, records, etc.) and
pages held together in some way and usually include a coffee shop and
containing verbal text and (some- other amenities
times) figures and illustrations. The
clay tablets of ancient Mesopotamia bookmark address of a Web site that
and the scrolls of ancient Egypt, is stored in a computer’s memory so
Greece, and Rome were the earliest that it can be revisited easily
books (or proto-books). By the fourth
century c.e., a ringed assemblage, books on tape audiotape books that
called a codex, became popular as a generally feature actors or authors
book form. It was made with wooden as narrators of entire or abridged
tablets covered with wax. In the early versions of popular fiction and trade
Middle Ages scribes in monasteries books
used quill pens to copy books. As a
result of this costly process, books boom long, adjustable stand or pole
were rare objects, read primarily by used to suspend a microphone or
clerics and aristocrats. The Chinese camera

45
 boomerang response

boomerang response any audience box office 1. booth in a theater where

response to a media text that is the tickets can be purchased; 2. income
opposite of the one intended from ticket sales for a movie or enter-
tainment event
boosted sample used primarily for
marketing purposes; to sample from brainwashing 1. severe, forcible in-
a portion of a population, rather than doctrination, usually with a political
the whole or religious intent, aimed at destroy-
ing someone’s basic convictions and
bootlegging illegal pirating of CDs, attitudes and replacing them with an
DVDs, etc., that are produced and alternative set of fixed beliefs;
sold without permission from the 2. application of a concentrated
original copyright holder means of persuasion, such as an
­advertising campaign, in order
borderless world common reference to induce a specific belief or
to the global economy in the age of ­motivation
the Internet
brand 1. trademark or distinctive
Bourdieu, Pierre (1930–2002) name identifying a product or a
French sociologist, well-known for ­manufacturer; 2. product line so iden-
his treatment of the notion of cul- tified; for example, a popular brand
tural capital. Among his key of soap
works are Sens pratique (1980; The
Logic of Practice, 1990) and La dis- brand awareness measure of how
tinction (1979). many people are aware of a brand
and to what degree
boutique agencies in advertis-
ing, small regional advertising brand development index [abbre-
­agencies that offer personalized viated as BDI] comparison of the
services percent of a brand’s sales in a market
to the percent of the national popula-
bowdlerize to eliminate from a piece tion in that same market
of writing whatever is construed as
being obscene or offensive. The term brand image imbuing a product
was coined from the surname of Dr. with an identity or distinct
Thomas Bowdler, the English editor “­personality” by giving it an
who, in 1818, published Shake- ­appealing name, designing a distinc-
speare’s plays in an edition, titled The tive logo for it, devising appropriate
Family Shakespeare, from which he pricing (for a specific market seg-
excised “those words and expressions ment), associating it with a certain
which cannot with propriety be read lifestyle through advertising, and
aloud in a family.” so on

46
 bbc

brand loyalty the tendency of con- ies literature to refer to the process
sumers to buy the same brands they whereby the messages of brand
have bought in the past advertising and those of other cul-
tural sectors are no longer separate.
brand magazine consumer magazine Revlon, for instance, spent millions
published by a retail company for of dollars in the early 2000s for
readers with demographic charac- close-up shots of its products during
teristics that are similar to those the broadcasting of the American TV
consumers with whom the company soap opera All My Children.
normally does business
Break dancing acrobatic style of
brand manager person who has dancing to rap music, characterized
marketing responsibilities for a spe- by body spins on the ground
cific brand
breakfast television informal,
brand name product name that is magazine-style television program
designed to convey a specific image broadcast early in the morning
with which consumers can identify
or relate to. In the last two decades breaking news unplanned news
of the nineteenth century many U.S. coverage of an event that is in the
firms began to market packaged process of unfolding or has only
goods under brand names. Previous- recently happened
ly, such everyday household products
as sugar, soap, rice, and molasses bricolage technique of putting
had been sold in neighborhood stores together different elements from a
from large bulk containers. The first media text to create something new.
brand names of products date from Bricolage involves the borrowing
about 1880, and include Ivory, Pears, and mixture of sources to produce
Sapolio, Colgate, Kirk’s American new forms. The notion has been used
Family, and Packer’s. Along with in particular to describe subcultures
Bon Ami, Wrigley, and Coca-Cola, that appropriate elements of main-
such products quickly became house- stream culture in order to transform
hold names. or subvert their meanings (as in punk
fashion).
branding 1. practice of attaching
distinctive meanings to a product, Brin, Sergey (1973–) Russian-born
thus identifying it to consumers in a American cofounder of Google,
specific way (in terms of quality, in along with Larry Page
terms of its lifestyle connotations,
etc.); 2. integration of brands with British Broadcasting Corporation
media events, programs, etc. Today, [abbreviated as BBC] one of the first
branding is used in cultural stud- broadcasting systems, established in

47
 British invasion

1922 in the United Kingdom. The November 2, 1920, is generally con-

BBC is noncommercial and is, there- sidered to constitute the starting point
fore, funded by an annual license fee of professional broadcasting.
paid by television owners.
broadcast spectrum portion of
British invasion a musical move- the electromagnetic spectrum on
ment that began in 1964 when British which the Federal Communications
rock bands such as the Beatles and Commission allows broadcasters to
the Rolling Stones achieved immense transmit
popularity in the United States and
elsewhere broadcast television television pro-
gramming reaching mass audiences.
broadband high-speed connec- Experimental telecasts took place
tion capable of transmitting a large in the late 1920s and the 1930s. In
quantity of data. Cable TV uses the United States, cbs and nbc were
broadband, and so do many computer leaders in such telecasts. In 1936 the
connections. Radio Corporation of America
(later RCA Corporation), which
Broadcast Music Inc. [abbreviated owned NBC, installed television
as BMI] agency that collects license receivers in 150 homes in the New
fees on behalf of American music York City area. NBC’s New York
creators. It was established in 1939 station began experimental telecasts
by the American radio industry. ­Web to these homes. A cartoon of Felix the
site: www.bmi.com Cat was its first program. NBC estab-
lished the first regular TV broadcasts
broadcast radio radio program- in the United States in 1939. Televi-
ming reaching mass audiences. sion broadcasting was suspended in
Experimental radio broadcasts began 1941, when the United States entered
around 1910, when Lee De Forest World War II, until after the war’s
produced a radio program from the end in 1945.
Metropolitan Opera House in New
York City, starring the famous opera broadcasting transmission of pro-
singer Enrico Caruso. Many histori- grams (radio, television, Web-based,
ans consider radio station WWJ, in etc.) for public purposes and utiliza-
Detroit, the first commercial radio tion. Many historians identify the
station. It began regular broadcasts Westinghouse Electric Corporation
on August 20, 1920. Others claim as the first commercially owned radio
the distinction for station KDKA in station to broadcast to the general
Pittsburgh. KDKA grew out of an ex- public, shortly after World War I.
perimental station that began in 1916. The station was called KDKA, and
The station’s broadcast of the 1920 it broadcast mainly variety pro-
U.S. presidential election results on grams. The American Telephone and

48
 bulletin board system

Telegraph Company was probably buddy movie film genre that focuses
the first broadcaster to charge fees on the relationship between friends
regularly, starting in 1922, for airing
commercials. Early radio program- buffoonery comedy characterized
ming consisted of variety shows as by ridiculous jokes, antics, and tricks
well as adaptations of stage works
redesigned for radio in the form of bulk mail mail (usually advertising)
action serials, situation comedies, that is sent by regular (snail) mail at
and so-called soap operas. The Public reduced rates
Broadcasting Act of 1967 led to the
establishment of noncommercial bulk rate reduced rate offered to
broadcasting and the founding of the advertisers who buy large amounts
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) of advertising space
in the United States. Public stations
operate on contributions from various bull’s-eye model of communication
sources, including government, view- model that depicts communication
ers, corporations, and benefactors. as a mathematical process dependent
Broadcasting technologies continue on probability factors, that is, on the
to develop. Direct Broadcast Satel- degree to which a message is to be
lite (DBS) uses satellite signals for expected or not in a given situation. It
transmission. is called the bull’s-eye model because
it envisions the process as consisting
broadsheet [also called (errone- of a sender aiming a message at a re-
ously) broadside] 1. early colonial ceiver as if in a bull’s-eye target range:
newspaper imported from England,
consisting of a single sheet; 2. full-
Sender → Message → Receiver
size newspaper; 3. a newspaper that
covers the news in a serious, informa-
tive way bullet model [alternative name for
hypodermic needle model] model
brochure booklet or pamphlet con- positing that media have direct
taining advertising material ­powerful effects on people

Bronze Lion award for advertising bulletin board Web site that allows
given at the Cannes International members of an interest group to
Advertising Festival ­exchange messages, chat online, and
exchange software
browse to look up and view Web sites
Bulletin Board System precursor to
browser software program allowing the Internet, using software capable
a user to browse the Internet and to of dialing up a connection and up-
download and view Web files loading and downloading information

49
 Bundling

bundling any transmission system burst campaign concentrated adver-

that allows for the delivery of televi- tising period for a product, especially
sion, video-on-demand, audio, high- before it is launched
speed Internet access, phone service,
and fax via cable bus physical signal path that allows
signals to travel between system
burden of representation 1. the components within a device such as a
difficulties that media face when they computer or set-top box, or between
use a single personage to represent computers in a network
an entire group; 2. the fact that a few
personages from a previously under- business-to-business advertising
represented group in the media will advertising aimed at businesses and
bear the burden of promoting a posi- not at consumers
tive role model for the entire group
button fatigue in television audi-
burlesque variety show that includes ence measurement research, the
comedy skits and sometimes a strip- ­phenomenon of weary viewers fail-
tease act. The term was used origi- ing to log on and report their viewing
nally to characterize the plays of the habits
Greek dramatists Aristophanes and
Euripides and the Roman playwright buying motive explanation of con-
Plautus. The two main genres of liter- sumers’ desires to purchase particular
ary burlesque are known as the mock products
epic (which treats a lofty subject in
a ludicrous way) and the travesty byline identification, usually printed
(which satirizes a serious subject in a at the beginning of an article, of the
frivolous way). In the United States, journalist or reporter who is respon-
the word was applied to a form of the- sible for the story
ater that became the rage in the 1920s
and 1930s, characterized by comedy byte basic unit of electronic data
acts, musical acts, and the striptease. storage, equal to 8 bits. Files and
computer memory are measured
burn to copy data onto a compact in bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, or
disc, DVD, or other digital format gigabytes.

50
 last item

C
cabaret 1. club or restau- in the late 1940s in order to
rant that provides entertain- broadcast television signals
ment consisting of singing, to places that either could
dancing, or comedy; 2. the not receive them through
show that takes place at a the air, or who could re-
cabaret ceive them only with much
interference. Some cable systems car-
cable wire or bundle of wires that ry more than 100 channels; this large
carry electric current, or a bundle of number has made narrowcasting
glass fibers that carry pulses of light. possible. Unlike broadcasting, which
Cables provide the most practical tries to appeal to the largest possible
means of transmitting communica- audience, narrowcasting offers pro-
tions signals. grams that appeal to a particular in-
terest. Cable channels may specialize
cable drop system system connect- in news, movies, ­comedy, science,
ing individual homes to the coaxial music, health, religion, weather, and
cable that distributes cable television so on. Customers pay a monthly fee
for service, plus additional fees for
cable modem modem connect- certain channels. Most cable services
ing a computer to the Internet via also offer one or more channels that
a ­specified Internet service make movies or special events avail-
­ rovider
p able on a pay-per-view basis. These
can be ordered either by telephone or
cable network television network through a set-top box.
that consists of channels distributed
by companies to paying subscribers cablecast any broadcast that is trans-
(usually by transmitting signals via mitted via a cable television network
cables, rather than through the air)
cache area in a computer’s memory
Cable News Network [abbreviated that stores frequently used data so
as CNN] international news broad- that it can be retrieved more quickly
casting company, based in the United than data stored the computer’s in-
States and founded in 1980, which ternal hard disk. Caches allow a user
was the first to introduce 24-hour faster access to Web pages because
news coverage the cache stores these in a temporary
file.
cable telephony telephone ser-
vice offered by a cable television cacophony literary and rhetorical
­company technique aimed at creating a disso-
nant effect through the use of words
cable television television service via with harsh sounds: for example, yuk
cable. Cable television was first used for disgust; blah for boring

51
 callback

callback 1. practice of interviewers camera 1. device for taking photo-

or researchers of making a further graphs or motion pictures; 2. part of
­attempt to contact a person or group a device that converts images into
for an interview; 2. a second audi- electronic impulses for television
tion for a role in theater, television, broadcasting
or film
camera angle relation between the
calligraphy art of handwriting, usu- position of a camera to the action be-
ally perceived as being beautiful or ing filmed (higher, lower, closer, etc.)
artistic in order to provide a different view of
the action
call-in phone call from a radio lis-
tener or a television viewer to a talk camera control unit console in a
show, a current affairs program, etc., television production room that con-
upon invitation of the program to do trols the cameras on the studio floor
so remotely

calotype early system of photog- camera lucida instrument that proj-

raphy using translucent paper from ects an image onto a surface such as a
which prints could be made piece of paper (so that the image can
be traced)
calypso 1. Caribbean ballad, es-
pecially Trinidadian, consisting of camera obscura instrument that uses
syncopated rhythms and usually deal- a dark chamber with a small aperture
ing satirically with public issues; 2. that brings the image of an outside
Caribbean dance music, often played object into focus on a facing surface.
by a steel band The camera obscura is the precursor
of the modern camera.
camcorder portable video camera
and recorder cameraperson [previously camera-
man or camerawoman] someone
cameo 1. in literature, a brief depic- who operates a movie or television
tion of someone or something; 2. camera
brief appearance of a well-known
actor in a scene in a movie, television camera-ready material that is in its
program, etc. (also called a cameo finished format, ready to be photo-
role or appearance) graphed or scanned for publication

cameo appearance single brief camera shot 1. the part of the subject
appearance by a well-known per- that is recorded on film by a camera;
former in a play, movie, or television 2. a particular view of a scene, a
program person, etc.

52
 Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival

camera work series of camera tech-

niques used in shooting movies or in
making television programs

camp a style of performance that is

affectedly feminine, exaggerated,
or deliberately brash in an amusing
­manner

campaign journalism 1. journal-

ism that relates to the events, issues,
etc., that come up during a political
campaign; 2. by extension, any type
of journalism that reports a story
from a particular viewpoint in order
to promote a cause

Campbell, Joseph (1904–1987)

American scholar famous for his
ideas and writings on myth, based on
the writings of Sigmund Freud and Cannes Film Festival Poster,
Carl Jung and the novels of James September 1939 (The actual event was
Joyce and Thomas Mann. Camp- postponed to 1946, after World War II.)
bell analyzed the archetypes that
surface in all myths (the hero, the candid camera hidden camera used
mother, the father, the trickster, the to film people unawares, often in
journey, etc.). His book The Hero situations designed to elicit amusing
with a Thousand Faces (1949) has in- responses
fluenced many subsequent studies of
myth. Campbell’s four-volume Masks canned laughter prerecorded laugh-
of God (1959–1967) has also become ter used for a specific broadcast event
a classic in the field. (especially for a sitcom) in place of a
real audience
Canadian Broadcasting Corpora-
tion [abbreviated as CBC; also called Cannes Film Festival one of the old-
Société Radio-Canada] government- est and most prestigious film festivals
owned public service Canadian radio in the world, held each May in the
and television network. The CBC city of Cannes in southeastern France
operates two television networks; one
broadcasts in English and the other in Cannes Lions International Adver-
French. The CBC also operates two tising Festival annual festival held
cable television news networks. to recognize the best advertisements,

53
 canon

including television commercials, nally published in 1940 by Princeton

print marketing, direct marketing, University Press.
and online advertising. The festival
awards the prestigious Palme d’Or to CAP codes [full form: ­Committee
the best production company. of Advertising Practice codes]
codes of advertising standards and
canon 1. in aesthetic theory, the stan- practices, drawn up by the Com-
dard by which a work is judged; 2. a mittee of Advertising Practice (a
sanctioned or authenticated group of U.K. agency), designed to protect
literary works ­consumers

cant 1. group-based language with its capitalism political and economic

own distinctive markers (tone, gram- system based on the private owner-
matical features), especially jargon; ship of the means of production and
2. boring style of speech character- distribution of goods. Capitalism is
ized by clichés and worn-out phrases. characterized by a free competitive
market and by the “profit motive.”
Cantril Study famous media ef-
fects study, conducted by Hadley caption 1. tagline for an advertise-
Cantril and his team of researchers ment; 2. verbal text accompanying
at Princeton University following an illustration or photograph; 3. short
the famous “War of the Worlds” on-screen text that explains or relates
broadcast of 1939 by Orson Welles to the visual image (for example, the
as part of Mercury Theater of the name of the person who is talking)
Air Presents. The broadcast was a
radio version of H.G. Welles’s 1898 capture theory view that regulators
novel, but it interspersed fake “news” are influenced by the interests of the
reports of ­Martian landings in New industries they regulate
Jersey, which were so realistic that
near p­ anics occurred in many areas— car card [also called bus card]
despite periodic announcements by poster placed on buses, subway cars,
CBS that the program was merely a etc.
dramatization. The Cantril research-
ers wanted to find out why some card rate advertising charge without
listeners believed the fake reports any discounts
and others did not. After interview-
ing 135 people, the team came to the caret symbol written on a section of
conclusion that the key was critical text indicating where something (a
thinking—better-educated listeners letter or a word) is to be inserted
were more capable of recognizing the
broadcast as a fake than were less- caricature distorted or exaggerated
educated ones. The study was origi- visual portrayal of someone (usually

54
 cartoon

exhibits, games, rides, and shows; 2.

feasting and merrymaking just before
Lent. The idea of carnival has been
used to explain the appeal of pop cul-
ture spectacles, which allow people
to temporarily ignore the restrictions
by which they normally abide.

carrier company that delivers tele-

communications messages

cartel large group of businesses

that agree to operate as a monopoly,
especially to regulate prices and
production

cartoon drawing that caricatures an

Caricature of Charles Dickens (1868) event or personage. There are three
by André Gill main types of cartoons: editorial
cartoons, which caricature current
events in magazines and newspapers;
a well-known personage) for comical gag cartoons, which usually carica-
effect. By extension the term is used ture groups rather than individuals,
to refer to any representation of this in magazines and on greeting cards;
kind, including verbal. The use of and illustrative cartoons, which are
caricature can be traced to the ancient used to illuminate aspects of a new
Egyptians and Greeks. It was also product or educational topic in a
used by Italian artists of the Renais- humorous way. The term is also used
sance. In the eighteenth century it to refer to strips of drawings (comic
emerged as a form of satire. Spanish strips) and to animated humorous
painter Francisco José de Goya, for
instance, used caricature to satirize
political and social injustices in his
80 etchings called Caprichos (1799).
In 1841, the English weekly maga-
zine Punch became the first maga-
zine to use caricature. In the United
States, The New Yorker magazine
continues the tradition.

carnival 1. traditional form of Looney Tunes characters Sylvester

outdoor amusement that consists of and Tweety, introduced in the 1940s.

55
 cascading style sheet

films intended primarily for children castoff estimate of how much space
(also called toons). a piece of text will occupy when it is
printed
cascading style sheet technique for
storing font, spacing, and color in- casualization the trend in the media
formation in a style sheet that can be industry of full-time jobs becoming
applied to any text on a Web page increasingly reorganized into part-
time or project-based employment
case study analysis based on exhaus-
tive compilation of data regarding an catachresis vague, improper or
individual or group ambiguous use of language for ef-
fect: for example, the misuse of the
case-study method method of media suffix -ish to mean “bad qualities” as
research that makes use of a group clownish, childish, etc.
of case studies from which to draw
general conclusions and principles catalog album in record retailing,
any album that is more than three
cassette sealed plastic device con- years old
taining audiotape or videotape
catalyst effect the support the media
cassette recorder device for recording can garner for an issue simply by
and playing audiotape or videotape showcasing it, leading to an increased
interest in the issue, to financial
cast actors and other performers who commitment to it on the part of audi-
play the parts in a play, dance, movie, ences, etc.
etc.
catchline word or phrase at the top
Castells, Manuel (1942–) Marxist of a script that identifies an item on a
theorist known for his critical studies program
of media. His key works include The
Urban Question: A Marxist Approach catchword first word or phrase on a
(1977) and City, Class and Power page of printed text, designed to draw
(1978). attention to it

casting agency agency that audi- catharsis the “purification” or

tions and hires actors for a particular “emotional release” that the theatri-
production cal representation of tragic events has
on an audience (as coined by Aris-
Casting Society of America [abbre- totle). Through the tragic drama,
viated as CSA] American association the audience’s pent-up emotions are
of film, television, and theater casting sublimated and thus cleansed. This
directors, founded in 1982 term is now used in media studies to

56
 censorship

refer to the purported purging effect exposure. A celebrity is usually an

of some media representations. actor, a television personality, a pop
musician, etc.
catharsis hypothesis claim that
the representation of sexuality and cellular phone [also called cell
violence in media has a preventive phone] wireless telephone that
effect. The claim posits that engaging transmits and receives messages via
in fantasy sex or violence releases radio signals. It enables people to
potentially negative impulses that communicate over a wide area by
otherwise might be acted out in real using a network of radio antennas
life. and transmitters arranged in small
geographical areas called cells. The
cathode-ray tube outmoded vacuum first commercial cellular system went
tube used on older television sets for into operation in 1983 in the United
creating images and text on a screen States. Cellular service is now avail-
able throughout most of the world.
CATV [see community antenna
television] cellular radio radio that receives fre-
quencies that operate in cells accord-
CBC [see Canadian Broadcasting ing to position. This reception allows
Corporation] car radios to be swapped to the right
frequency as the car travels from cell
CBS [see Columbia Broadcasting area to cell area.
System]
celluloid 1. photographic film used in
CD [see compact disc] making movies; 2. by extension, the
cinema as an art form
CD-ROM [see compact disc read-
only memory] censorship the control of what
people may say, hear, write, or read.
CD-RW [see compact disc In most cases, this kind of control
­rewritable] comes from a government agency
or from various types of private
cease-and-desist order directive groups. Censorship can be directed
issued by a regulatory agency, such at books, newspapers, magazines,
as the Federal Trade Commission, re- motion pictures, radio and television
quiring an advertiser to stop running programs, and speeches. It also may
a deceptive or unfair advertisement, influence music, painting, sculpture,
campaign, or claim and other arts. In the United States,
the Bill of Rights and the Supreme
celebrity person who is widely Court serve as checks on unlimited
known primarily because of media censorship.

57
 censorware

censorware term used to describe system (antenna, cable, etc.) capable

Web content-filtering software of transmitting information

central processing unit [abbrevi- channel of distribution route used

ated as CPU] microprocessor chip by a company to distribute its prod-
that translates commands and runs ucts (through wholesalers, retailers,
programs. The CPU coordinates mail order, etc.)
computer functions, retrieves instruc-
tions from memory, executes instruc- channel surfing [also called
tions, and stores results in memory ­channel-hopping] going from chan-
locations. nel to channel (with a remote control)
with no particular program in mind
centralized organizational struc-
ture a method of organizing inter- chanson de geste one of more than
national advertising campaigns 80 Old French epic poems of the
whereby decision making occurs eleventh to the fourteenth centuries
through a company’s central office celebrating the deeds of historical
or legendary figures, especially the
Certeau, Michel de (1925–1986) exploits of Charlemagne and his
French scholar who wrote influential successors. The Chanson de Ro-
books critiquing pop culture and land (circa 1100), attributed to the
mass media, including L’invention du Norman poet Turold, is the most
quotidien (1980; published in English popular of the chansons. It recounts
as The Practice of Everyday Life, the Battle of Roncesvalles in 778 and
1984) and Heterologies: Discourse the heroic feats of Roland, a knight
on the Other (1986). of Charlemagne’s court. Roland’s
death in a suicide-like defense of a
chain break pause for station iden- mountain pass renders him a Chris-
tification and commercials during a tian martyr.
network telecast
character 1. role played (by an
channel 1. physical system used in actor) on stage, in a movie, etc.; 2.
the transmission of signals (such as personage depicted in a text (a play,
the air in speaking); 2. television or a novel, a movie, etc.); 3. famous
radio station broadcasting on a speci- or well-known person (also called a
fied frequency band personage); 4. symbol used in a writ-
ing system or code (for example, a
channel capacity amount of infor- computer code)
mation that a communications system
can carry character actor actor who normally
plays a particular type of role (the
channel of communication any “bad guy,” the “sidekick,” etc.)

58
 chief shopper

charade game in which two compet- chiasmus rhetorical technique con-

ing groups of participants choose a sisting of the inversion of two paral-
team member to act out the syllables lel phrases or clauses: I went to New
of a hidden word or an entire phrase York; to Chicago went he
using pantomime so that the group
members can guess the word or phrase Chicago School school of philo-
sophical inquiry at the University
charge artist member of a theater of Chicago between 1894 and 1904.
troupe who is responsible for over- Founded by John Dewey (1859–
seeing the physical layout and ap- 1952), its notable members included
pearance of a stage George H. Mead, James H. Tufts,
James R. Angell, Edward Scribner
charts list of the best-selling musical Ames, and Addison W. Moore. The
recordings over a given time period Chicago School sought to apply the
(week, month, etc.) principles of pragmatism to social
inquiry. As such, it rejected strictly
chat group group of computer users empirical approaches and attempted
sharing a common interest who com- to understand the ways in which hu-
municate with each other on-line man groups shaped meanings collec-
tively and interactively. This implied
chat room Web site where computer a systematic questioning of received
users can exchange messages in real notions and standard explanations
time that makes the Chicago School a
representative of critical inquiry. A
chauvinism excessive or biased al- leading contemporary exponent of
legiance to a particular gender, group, Chicago School pragmatism is phi-
or cause losopher Richard Rorty.

checkbook journalism practice of chick flick film that is intended or

paying money to get an exclusive sto- perceived to appeal primarily to
ry that will purportedly sell many cop- women, given its romantic or senti-
ies of a newspaper or ­magazine and/or mental plot, or its focus on human
bring prestige upon the ­journalist relationships or the changing role of
women in society
chiaroscuro use of light and dark
colors or shades together in drawing, chief income earner in marketing,
painting, or cinematic representa- the individual in a household earning
tion to emphasize contrast. Promi- the highest income
nent artists who used the technique
include Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, chief shopper in marketing, the
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, individual who does the shopping for
Georges de La Tour, and Rembrandt. the household

59
 children’s movies

duced the phrase “manufacturing

consent” to refer to the manipula-
tion of the media in order to gain a
consensus on political ideologies
and programs. Among his works are
Manufacturing Consent: The Po-
litical Economy of the Mass Media
(1988) and Media Control (1997).

chopsocky genre of film featuring

violent martial arts action

choreography art of planning a

dance and other movements or forms
Noam Chomsky that accompany music

children’s movies films that are chorus 1. group of people who sing
intended to appeal to children. The together; 2. type of song performed
pioneer in this area was Walt Dis- by many singers together; 3. repeated
ney (1901–1966), who first became part of a song coming after each stan-
known in the late 1920s and 1930s za, in which a whole group of singers
for creating such cartoon film often joins the soloist; 4. in ancient
characters as Mickey Mouse and Greek drama, group of singers and
Donald Duck. He later produced dancers who engage in dialogue with
feature-length cartoon films as well the actors and comment on the action
as movies about wild animals in their on stage
natural surroundings and films star-
ring human actors. chroma key filming technique
whereby the background of a filmed
children’s television television scene is altered or replaced without
programming, including television affecting the foreground
channels, intended to appeal primar-
ily to children, consisting typically chromaticism 1. style or composi-
of cartoons, educational stories, and tion in music based on the chromatic
the like. scale (a scale consisting of twelve
notes whereby every note is a semi-
Chomsky, Noam (1928–) American tone apart from the next one; 2. the
linguist and social critic, internation- science of colors
ally renowned for his methods of
linguistic analysis and his work on chronemics study of cultural history
power structures in media and the in terms of eras, dates, and the sig-
dangers of globalization. He intro- nificant events associated with them

60
 circulation

chronicle long historical narrative, life, as seen in Carl-Theodor Dreyer’s

often including legends and myths, La passion de Jeanne d’Arc (1928)
presented in chronological order and Luis Buñuel’s and Salvador Dalí’s
Un chien andalou (1929); 2. alternate
chronology order in which events term for documentary, meaning
occur, and its significance to a sto- literally the “cinema of reality”
ryline or to some other aspect of a
movie, program, etc. CinemaScope brand name for an
early widescreen projection system
churn the turnover in cable subscrib-
for movies, developed in 1953 by
ership, whereby the number of new
Twentieth Century Fox, intended pri-
subscriptions offsets the number of
marily to lure the curious away from
cancellations
their television sets
cine club independent rival to con-
ventional movie theaters, typically cinematheque small movie theater
showing independent films with an intimate atmosphere

cineaste filmmaker or any film cinematic relating to films, filmmak-

­enthusiast ing, or to the style in which films are
made
cinema art, industry, or business
of making movies developed origi- cinematographer person responsible
nally from the technology of moving for the lighting and camerawork in
pictures. According to most histo- the making of a movie
rians, the first true movies were the
ten-part version of the trial of French cinematography the art or technique
army officer Alfred Dreyfus (1899); of shooting movies
Cinderella (1900); and A Trip to the
Moon (1902) by French magician Cinerama trade name for a method,
Georges Méliès. Although shown introduced in the 1950s, of produc-
originally in Paris, Méliès’s films ing early widescreen movies with
were an instant success and were enhanced three-dimensional effects;
subsequently shown in many coun- like CinemaScope, Cinerama was
tries. In the United States, Edwin S. intended to attract people to the
Porter’s 1903 film, The Great Train movie theaters and away from their
Robbery, became a sensational hit. television sets

cinema advertising advertising circular advertisement (or similar

shown on cinema screens before the text) distributed to a large number of
featured film people

cinéma vérité 1. cinematic style circulation average number of cop-

stressing the stark, realistic portrayal of ies distributed of some publication

61
 citizen journalism

(newspaper, magazine, etc.) during classical music music composed

a given period. In advertising, this by musicians considered to be the
term is also used to refer to the total founders of high musical art (Bach,
­number of people who have an op- Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, etc.).
portunity to observe a billboard or The term classical music is used to
poster. contrast with popular music, which
includes country music, jazz, and
citizen journalism [also called civic rock music. Classical also has other
journalism] practice centered on the meanings. If capitalized, it refers to
participation of readers and journal- a style of music that developed in the
ists in community issues, making late 1700s.
newspapers a forum for discussion
and engagement classical narrative structure domi-
nant mode of storytelling found in
city desk newspaper section devoted Hollywood films, consisting of three
to financial topics and/or local news distinct stages: a state of equilibrium
or order; a period of disruption to that
city editor newspaper editor who is state; and a climactic resolution that
responsible for financial news and/or restores the equilibrium
local news
classicism 1. a literary and artistic
civil society a society in which style associated with the ancient
institutions, social relationships, and Greeks and Romans; 2. a style,
organizations operate under the rule movement, or period distinguished
of the state, but are not necessarily by qualities that suggest ancient clas-
aligned with it sical art and writing: for example,
the art and music of the period that
clandestine stations illegal or spans the mid-1700s to around 1820
­unlicensed broadcast stations is called classical
­operated by clandestine groups or
agencies (revolutionary sub­- classification system of identifying
cultures, intelligence agencies, movies according to content: PG,
etc.) PG-13, R, etc.

clapper board pair of hinged classified ad small notice, usually

boards used at the start of each take on a special page of a newspaper or
in a film, identifying the film and magazine, indicating that something
scene is wanted or offered (a job, an apart-
ment, a pet, a car, etc.). Classified ads
classic rock rock music of the 1960s are usually grouped into categories,
and early 1970s, associated especial- such as “real estate,” “help wanted,”
ly with the hippie movement etc.

62
 close-up

Claymation trade name for a stop- and finally we obliterate them; 2.

frame animation method that uses point at which a narrative, perfor-
clay figurines mance, etc., takes a decisive turn

clean feed 1. video recording without Clio Award annual award for excel-
captions; 2. sound recording without lence in product package design and
commentary; 3. earpiece used by brand advertising
radio or television announcers so that
they can hear all sound apart from clip extract from a recording
their own statements
clip art commercially produced
cliché word or phrase that has lost its artwork, usually copyright-free, avail-
original effectiveness through over- able on-line and through many digital
use: for example, All’s well that end’s products (such as CD-ROMs), that can
well; Father Time; Mother Nature; be used to enhance presentations of text
lips sweeter than wine
closed captioned any television
click stream the series of choices broadcast that has captions that can
(clicks) made by a user or browser on be seen at the bottom of the televi-
the Web sion screen if the television set has
the appropriate device
click through clicking on a banner
ad or other onscreen ad that allows closed-circuit television television
the user to get to the advertiser’s Web system in which video cameras are
site hooked up by cable to monitors.
Surveillance systems use this type of
click through rate fee applied to television.
advertisers for the display of ban-
ner ads. Each time a visitor clicks closed text a type of text (usually
through the ad, the advertiser is narrative) from which only a limited
charged a fee. range of meanings can be extracted
(term coined by Umberto Eco). De-
cliffhanger story, play, or motion tective or crime scene stories are usu-
picture that depends on strong and ally closed texts because the idea is to
sustained suspense for its dramatic figure out the identity of the murderer
interest or criminal. An open text, on the other
hand, is one from which readers can
climax 1. rhetorical technique extract multiple m
­ eanings.
consisting of the progressive arrange-
ment of ideas from the least to the close-up filmed shot that shows a
most forceful: First we comment on person’s face (or other part of the
what they did, then we attack them, body), to the exclusion of other parts

63
 cluster group

cluster group group of people with something. For example, the code
similar traits (lifestyle, social back- that underlies an action adventure
ground, etc.) for the purpose of audi- hero is based on the ancient view
ence analysis of heroes as having superhuman
strength, as being moral and good-
clutter the appearance of many sepa- looking, as having (often) some
rate commercials during one televi- tragic flaw or weakness, and so on.
sion commercial break This code is implicit in how fictional
heroes are portrayed. One of the first
CNN [see Cable News Network] to use code theory to study media and
pop culture was Roland Barthes,
cobranding practice of display- who claimed that a print ad, for ex-
ing two or more corporate logos in ample, can be decoded (understood)
certain venues (such as in bookstores as a text with two levels—the literal
where coffee brands are sold), on a level, consisting of the objects and
product Web site, etc., to indicate straightforward message of the ad,
joint business partnership which is a “noncoded” level; and the
symbolic level, based on ideological
cobweb site Web site that has not and cultural meanings, which is the
been updated in a long time “coded” level. Stuart Hall argues
that sometimes the audience does not
co-culture a cultural strand that ex- actually receive the coded message
ists alongside a mainstream cul- of a media text, but rather that it can
ture. For example, some aboriginal decode it in oppositional ways, that
societies have preserved their original is, in ways that the maker of the text
cultures, which exist alongside main- did not anticipate or desire.
stream culture.
codes of narrative a set of codes
coda 1. in music, a section at the supposedly underlying narrative texts
end that brings the work to a formal singularly, in part, or in combination.
conclusion; 2. by extension, any These include action code, enigma
concluding addition to a text (verbal, code, referential code, semantic
artistic, etc.) code, symbolic code

code 1. system of signs with specific codex 1. book formed by putting

functions (alphabet code, decimal together sheets of paper; 2. collection
number system, etc.); 2. system of of ancient manuscripts in book form.
cultural meanings implicit in a media The codex was popularized by early
product that is built into it. Basi- Christians, who cut pieces of papyrus
cally, a code is a system of elements into sheets and sewed them together
(features, traits, meanings, images, on one side. They bound the pages
etc.) that we perceive to be a part of with thin pieces of wood. As a result,

64
 collocation

a reader could open it at any page. cold medium [also called cool me-
The codex remains the major book dium, as opposed to hot medium]
form today. according to Marshall McLuhan,
any medium that requires a greater
cognition faculty of knowing based degree of interaction from the user in
on reasoning, intuition, or perception, order to determine meaning
or a combination of these
collage a work of art created by cut-
cognitive dissonance sense of ting, arranging, and adhering various
anxiety resulting from a discrep- materials, such as cloth, paper, pho-
ancy between beliefs and actions, tos, and other objects, onto a surface
such as opposing air pollution while
engaging in activities, like driving, collateral materials the print, visual,
that cause pollution (term coined by and other materials that go into a
American psychologist Leon Fest- marketing or advertising campaign
inger). To avoid this sense of anxiety,
people will typically search for infor- collective identity identification
mation that will confirm or reinforce with a community or the institutions
their beliefs, rather than contradict by which it is represented, based on
them. gender, class, lifestyle, and nation

cognitive psychology theory theory collective representation creation of

of media claiming that exposure to media texts or products by a com-
media shapes cognition munity that reveal something crucial
about it (its history, beliefs, etc.)
cognitive style mode or way in
which information is processed: collective unconscious As defined
for example, auditory cognitive style by Carl Gustav Jung, an inher-
(= processing information audio- ited part of the unconscious mind
­orally), visual cognitive style that is shared by all members of a
(= processing information visually), culture. It includes thought patterns
and so on called archetypes, which have
developed through the centuries.
cognitivism 1. psychology move- According to Jung, archetypes en-
ment or school, which emerged in able people to react to situations in
the 1950s, emphasizing the study of ways similar to their ancestors. For
mental processes by seeking parallels this reason, the collective uncon-
between brain function and computer scious contains wisdom that guides
operations; 2. general approach in all humanity.
psychology that focuses on how
the mind handles different kinds of collocation the meaning that a word
­information and problems or phrase develops by virtue of its

65
 colonialism

association with other words that are Columbia Broadcasting System

used commonly with it. For ex- [abbreviated as CBS] early televi-
ample, pretty is linked with girl, boy, sion network that, along with ABC
woman, flower, garden, color, etc. and NBC, was one of the Big Three
(e.g., pretty girl, pretty boy); whereas in the golden era of television, from
handsome is associated with man, the 1950s to the 1970s. CBS is best
vessel, overcoat, airliner, etc. (e.g., known in the annals of broadcasting
handsome man, handsome vessel). history for the work of broadcaster
The collocation may overlap, but Edward R. Murrow (1908–1965),
when it does, it involves subtle nu- who become renowned during World
ances in meaning: for example, pretty War II (1939–1945) for his on-the-
boy vs. handsome boy. scene radio broadcasts describing
German bombing attacks on London.
colonialism 1. the rule of a group His listeners in America could hear
of people by a foreign power; 2. in the bombs exploding in the back-
Marxist theory, any form of eco- ground.
nomic, political, or social oppression
(unjust treatment) of one group by Columbia Pictures early Hollywood
a group of different cultural back- studio established in 1914, producing
ground many popular family films, includ-
ing The Karate Kid (1984) and the
colonization in advertising, use of Spider-Man films (from 2002).
the symbolism of a culture in order to
appeal to its members column article in a newspaper or
magazine that appears on a regular
color field painting technique estab- basis, and that is usually written by
lished by a group of artists during the the same person, usually on the same
1950s and 1960s that aimed to reduce subject. For example, Dear Abby,
painting to the purity of color on a one of the most famous advice col-
flat plane umns, was written under the name of
Abigail Van Buren starting in 1956.
color grading process of preparing The column has been published in
film so that color effects are uniform over 1,200 newspapers in the United
throughout the movie (now done States and other countries. It con-
digitally) sists of responses to reader questions
about such subjects as family life,
color temperature warmth of any marriage, health, death, and social
color as measured on the Kelvin issues.
scale
comedy form of drama or entertain-
colorcast television program broad- ment that deals with humorous or
cast in color ridiculous aspects of human behavior

66
 comics

comedy-variety hour television

entertainment program that features a
wide variety of acts

comic book magazine using cartoon

characters. Most tell stories, though
they have also been used for educa-
tion, artistic expression, and other
purposes. Because of their popular-
ity, characters from comic books
have been used in advertising. Many
characters have also appeared on
radio and television and in motion
pictures, as well as in books, plays,
songs, and as toys. Characters called
superheroes, who have extraordi-
nary powers, are especially popular.
Among the first American comic
books are the Famous Funnies (first First issue of Spider-Man (1962)
sold in 1934). In 1938 Jerry Siegel
and Joe Shuster put out the first
Superman comic, one of the most comic opera opera with a humorous
popular characters in the history of plot and a happy ending
comic books. Superman inspired
the creation of other heroes, notably comic relief interlude inserted or
Captain Marvel and Batman. Start- introduced in a serious literary work,
ing in the 1970s, many independent play, movie, etc., designed to provide
or “alternative” artists experimented relief from tension through humor
with new styles, more sophisticated
formats, and stories suited to adults; comics story consisting of cartoons
this form is usually called a graphic arranged in panels (horizontal lines
novel. The most celebrated ex- or strips). Dialogue and thoughts are
amples are Maus: A Survivor’s Tale shown in balloons. Historians trace
(1986) and Maus II (1991) by Art the origin of comics to the Richard
Spiegelman. They tell of the artist’s Felton Outcault’s series Hogan’s Al-
relationship with his father and the ley, first published in 1895. Two other
experiences of his parents in the early comic strips were The Katzen-
Holocaust. jammer Kids (1897) by Rudolph
Dirks and Little Bears (1892) by
comic-book movie genre of film James Guilford Swinnerton. Com-
based on a comic book, comic book ics quickly became a popular feature
character, or comic strip of newspapers. The first successful

67
 coming-of-age movie

daily strip, by Bud Fisher, came out (Pantaloon) was a greedy and lustful
in 1907 with the title Mr. A. Mutt; merchant who tried to disguise his
it was later renamed Mutt and Jeff age by wearing tight-fitting Turkish
and was turned into a comic book in clothes. The Doctor used senseless
1911. The first mass-produced series Latin phrases and prescribed worth-
was Famous Funnies, which first less remedies. The boastful Captain
appeared in 1934. The 1938 publi- was actually a coward and a childish
cation of Action Comics, featuring lover. Pulcinella (Punch) was a pot-
the Superman comic strip, inspired bellied rascal who planned outra-
countless other comic books. The geous plots to satisfy his desires.
adventure comic genre, however, Columbine, a female character, was
actually began with the publication in intelligent and charming, standing
1929 of Tarzan and Buck Rogers. In out noticeably in a world character-
1934, Alex Raymond’s Flash Gordon ized by masculine idiocy.
and Al Capp’s Li’l Abner (a satirical
comic strip) gained broad appeal. commentary news or other report,
One of the most respected comic broadcast live from an event (for
strips of all time was Peanuts by example, a televised baseball game)
Charles M. Schulz, which appeared
in more than 2,000 newspapers and commercial radio, television, or
was translated into more than 20 Internet advertisement. Commer-
languages. cials were first developed for radio
in the 1920s. Based on narrative, the
coming-of-age movie movie dealing persuasive qualities of the human
with young people and the problems voice, and often the allure of musi-
they face during adolescence cal jingles, the radio commercial
became a highly effective vehicle for
comix comics and comic strips promoting products. With the advent
designed for adults, especially those of television after World War II, the
involving eroticism advertising industry adapted the idea
of the radio commercial to the new
commedia dell’arte comedic style visual medium. And, of course, to-
that was extremely popular in Italy day, commercials are found through-
in the sixteenth and seventeenth out cyberspace.
centuries, in which stock characters
improvised their dialogues from commercial art art created for
standard plot outlines, usually wear- ­commercial reasons, especially
ing traditional masks and costumes. advertising
The commedia style was eventually
adopted by conventional theater. commercial break slot during a ra-
Arlecchino (Harlequin) was a lecher- dio, television, or Web program dur-
ous and artful character. Pantalone ing which commercials are broadcast

68
 Communication science

commercial laissez-faire model of common culture cultural forms,

media communication model claim- rites, beliefs, symbols, etc., that all
ing that there should be “free trade” members of a community share and
in the marketplace for media prod- that define the community as such
ucts, as there is for goods
communal sense idea that the
commercial radio radio run by a pri- ­meanings attached to things are
vately owned business. In contrast to shaped by the beliefs held by specific
public and nonprofit radio, commer- communities
cial radio stations sell broadcasting
time to advertisers who want to reach communication exchange of mes-
listeners. Sponsors pay the stations sages through some channel and in
for time during and between the pro- some medium. Communication theo-
grams to advertise their products. rists usually classify communication
into modes, that is, different ways of
commercial television television run exchanging messages: for example,
by a privately owned business, which gestural (hand-based communica-
sells broadcasting time to advertisers tion); vocal (voice-based com-
munication); visual (picture-based
commodification in Marxist theory, communication); signaling (bodily
the idea that in capitalist societies, based communication); and so on.
works of artistic or cultural value When pluralized (communications),
are valued in ways that parallel how the term refers to media systems or
commodities or articles of trade are technologies of communication.
valued
communication network any system
commodification of information (such as the Internet) that connects
idea that information is a commod- people for communication purposes
ity that can be bought and sold like
goods, not something that should be communication science [also called
freely available communication studies] discipline
that studies communication in all its
commodity fetishism in Marxist dimensions and manifestations. The
theory, view that the commodities technical features of communica-
produced and sold under a capitalist tion systems were first studied by the
system take on the characteristics of American electrical engineer Claude
fetishes E. Shannon. In 1948 he developed
a model of communication that has
common carrier communications become the point of reference for
company (such as a phone company) all subsequent models. In Shannon’s
that provides telecommunications model, communication is said to
services to the general public occur between a sender (a speaker,

69
 communication theory

a ­radio transmitter, etc.) who (or phy on the Internet. The Act has been
which) encodes a message—that criticized as a breach of freedom of
is, uses a code to construct it—and speech as well as for its difficulty of
a receiver (a listener, an audience, implementation.
etc.) who (or which) has the capac-
ity to decode the message—that is, communications gap misunder-
to use the same code to decipher the standing caused by a failure in
message. The sender uses a natural communication between different
medium or artificial device, or both, individuals or cultural groups who do
to convert a message into a physical not share a common reference system
signal so as to be able to transmit it (language, set of values, etc.)
across a channel. Any interference
in the channel is called noise; the communications satellite satel-
process by which the receiver regu- lite used to relay radio, telephone,
lates itself by feeding back informa- television, and other signals around
tion on the transmitted message is the world. Communications satellites
called feedback. play a major role in modern forms
of broadcasting, delivering programs
communication theory any theory to local cable companies or directly
aiming to explain how (and perhaps to homes through direct broadcast
why) communication takes place. satellite (DBS) systems. The Interna-
Communication theorists investigate tional Telecommunications Satellite
verbal and nonverbal forms (­gesture, Organization (INTELSAT) owns the
body language, facial e­ xpression) largest system of communications
of human com­munication, a­ nimal satellites.
­communication, and the e­ ffect
of technological change on communications spectrum range
­communication and culture. of electromagnetic frequencies
used in wireless communication
communications [used in the plural] systems
system of communicating by some
technological means (telephone, ra- communicative competence capac-
dio, television, computers). In media ity to use and adapt speech to match
studies, communications refers to the social contexts or to carry out social
study of providing information and functions
entertainment through media such
as magazines, newspapers, radios, communicology term sometimes
televisions, computers, etc. used for communication science

Communications Decency Act of communiqué official announcement

1996 U.S. legislation intended to given by an agency or person to the
prevent the transmission of pornogra- press or the public

70
 complicity of users

communisuasion communication offers full recordability and re-

that is intended to be persuasive or ­recordability
suggestive
comparative analysis 1. comparative
community antenna television [ab- study of the mass media systems in
breviated as CATV] outmoded term different areas of the world; 2. in ad-
for cable television vertising, analysis of different media
available for producing an advertis-
community publishing construction ing campaign
of Web pages by local schools, clubs,
and nonprofit groups, carried on-line compassion fatigue diminution or
by newspaper Web sites loss of sympathy on the part of
an audience for a group or cause
commutation test procedure for ­because of overexposure by the
fleshing out meaningful differences media
in forms and media texts, consisting
of substituting (commuting) elements compensation payments made by
in forms and texts in specific ways networks to affiliates for clearing
or locations. For example, in the content
word pair cat and rat, one element
of sound—the initial consonant in competence in linguistics, the ability
each word—produces a difference in to use language and understand its
meaning. In advertising studies, the rules, structures, etc.
test consists of removing an image
or a word from an ad and replacing competitive check analysis of rival
it with another, in order to see what advertising trends conducted on the
kind of subject or audience reaction it basis of data supplied by monitoring
produces. agencies

compact disc [abbreviated as CD] compilation film film put together

disc without grooves whose data is from previous footage
stored digitally and is readable only
by laser compiler computer program that
converts another program from a
compact disc read-only memory high-level language to an intermedi-
[abbreviated as CD-ROM] compact ate one
disc containing digital information
(such as data and instructions) that complicity of users idea that an
cannot be manipulated or altered audience does not want the full truth
in news reports about difficult situa-
compact disc rewritable [abbrevi- tions, reinforcing a reporter’s ten-
ated as CD-RW] compact disc that dency to censor coverage

71
 composer

composer creator of music for a film computer art graphic element

score, a television program, etc. or other artwork created on a
­computer; or art generated by a
compositing merging of different computer itself, given appropriate
levels of film or digital images instructions

composition 1. way in which the computer-assisted personal inter-

parts of a media text are put together; view face-to-face interview during
2. the social characteristics of a target which the interviewer inputs the
audience responses directly into a computer for
immediate analysis
compulsory heterosexuality in
feminist theory, the idea that ho- computer conferencing a meet-
mosexuality is repressed in media ing of two or more people at distant
representations and heterosexuality sites, each at a computer exchanging
emphasized or portrayed as the norm ­messages

computer electronic device ca- computer games games found on-

pable of performing a vast array of line or available in some format such
tasks (calculating, word processing, as CD-ROM
etc.) on the basis of the instructions
(called a program). Digital comput- computer graphics pictures (charts,
ers operate using numerical digits to drawings, figures, icons, etc.) on a
represent something; analog comput- computer screen, as opposed to al-
ers operate using numerical values phabetic and numerical symbols and
to represent a continuous range; characters
mainframe computers are computers
housed in specific locations (early computer literacy understanding of
mainframe computers had more the basic principles of computers and
memory, speed, and capabilities their uses, including computer terms
than personal computers); personal
computers are smaller computers de- computer memory capacity of a
signed for individual use, which now computer to store data, measured
have many of the same capacities as in bytes. Random Access Memory
mainframe computers; supercomput- (RAM) can be read or changed by the
ers are powerful mainframe comput- user; Read-Only Memory (ROM) can
ers with a vast computation capacity. only be read, not altered.

computer animation use of comput- computer network combination of

ers to create film animation, rather hardware, software, and connections
than the traditional (now largely that allows individual computers to
abandoned) hand-drawing techniques communicate with each other and

72
 confidence limits

share common resources such as among the first rock groups to record
files, software, hardware peripher- such albums, starting with The Who
als, and electronic mail. Networks Sell Out (1967). Probably the most
may also protect shared data from popular of these albums is the rock
mistakes made by any one individual opera Tommy (1969).
and assure that data is transmitted
correctly. Since the first computer conceptual art art movement that
networks debuted in the late 1960s, views the representation of traditional
they have had an enormous impact on objects as irrelevant and that focuses
the way information is stored, distrib- instead on ideas and information
uted, and processed. as the essential elements of a work.
Conceptual artists use various media,
computer science systematic study such as written documents, photo-
of all aspects of computers—design, graphs, video, film, charts, and maps,
operation, etc. in nontraditional ways.

computer-telephone integration in- concrete music type of electronic

tegration of computer and telephone music created by combining record-
systems so that the same networks ings of live sounds (natural, mechani-
can be shared by both cal, etc.) with previously composed
musical tracks
conative function the way in which
a message influences a receiver or the concurrence-seeking tendency the
response of the receiver (the term is inclination of people in audiences to
associated with Roman Jakobson’s agree with each other or to respond to
model of communication) a media event in similar ways

conceit amusing or imaginative condensation in the field of psycho-

expression that connects things that analysis, one of the mechanisms by
are perceived to be dissimilar: for which dreams express subconscious
example, my life is a barnyard feelings, condensing the emotions
into symbolic forms
concentrated marketing promotion
of a product in one market area conference 1. meeting of two or
more persons to discuss common
concentration of ownership owner- concerns; 2. meeting to discuss the
ship of numerous media companies previous edition of a newspaper,
by a few individuals or companies magazine, etc., in order to plan for
the forthcoming one
concept album musical album
centered on a story line or theme. confidence limits range within which
The British rock group The Who was the statistical findings of a survey can

73
 confidentiality

be said to be trustworthy or useful for The power of connectionism in

inferential purposes computer design entered popular
culture in 1996 when chess master
confidentiality the practice of media Garry Kasparov played against a
professionals to keep secret the supercomputer called Deep Blue,
names of those who provide them which operated on the basis of 256
with information microprocessors connected to each
other. Deep Blue had the capacity
conglomerate large business orga- to compute more than 100 million
nization consisting of a number of chess positions per second. Although
media companies Kasparov won the match (with three
wins, two draws, and one loss), Deep
conglomeration process by which Blue was the first computer to win a
one individual, group, or organization game against a chess master.
buys up media systems or outlets.
For example, when one newspaper or connectivity ability to communi-
newspaper chain buys other newspa- cate with another piece of software,
pers, the press industry is said to be hardware, or entire communication
undergoing conglomeration. Support- system
ers of conglomeration claim that it is
a desirable business practice that pro- connotation added or associated
tects jobs and brings stability to the senses of something (a word, symbol,
marketplace. Opponents claim that it figure, story, etc.). The word square
confers too much power on dominant means, at a primary literal level,
owners who can shape knowledge of “plane figure with four equal sides
events to suit their interests. and four right angles.” However, it
is also used with a large number of
congruence theory premise that peo- added meanings, all of which never-
ple prefer balance and consistency theless imply the square figure or its
among their beliefs and that changes uses: he’s a square (a person who is
in attitude occur largely in order to too conventional or old-fashioned;
create agreement with existing beliefs a square meal (an adequate meal);
lay it out squarely on the table (say
conjuncture in Marxist theory, the something honestly). Creative texts
interrelation of all social factors that (poems, novels, etc.) are interpreted
bring about social change. The fac- primarily in connotative ways.
tors include political climate, tech-
nology, and economics. consensus shared acceptance of
norms, values, beliefs, worldview, etc.
connectionism in computer science,
the execution of multiple operations consistency practice of ensuring that
in tandem, rather than in sequence. media coverage is uniform and does

74
 consumer sovereignty

not contradict itself, so that audiences consumer activism direct action by

will be more likely to accept the consumers to protest some aspect of
coverage as believable advertising, production, or sales, par-
ticularly concerning their influence
consolidation reduction of media on social values
outlets and concentration of owner-
ship in a few large companies consumer advertising advertising of
products and services for the general
conspiracy of silence agreement not public (as opposed to specialized,
to broadcast a certain piece of sensi- trade, or professional advertising)
tive information among those who
have it consumer behavior ways in which
people behave when obtaining, us-
conspiracy theory belief that there is ing, and disposing of products (and
a conspiracy among those in control services)
of the media to cover up or suppress
sensitive information consumer culture 1. a lifestyle or
value system in which worth does not
constituency specific readership of a reside in people themselves but in the
newspaper or magazine. The implica- products with which they surround
tion is that the political views of the themselves; 2. view of society as be-
readership are shaped by the newspa- ing dominated by consumerism
per or magazine.
consumer jury test method of test-
construct the specific concept or ing advertisements that involves ask-
hypothesis underpinning any me- ing consumers to compare, rank, and
dia product (e.g., political or social otherwise evaluate an advertisement
theories) or an ad campaign

constructivism [also called con- consumer panel group of consum-

structionism] 1. art movement ers who report on products they
originating in Moscow around 1920, have used so that manufacturers can
emphasizing abstract geometric improve them on the basis of what
figures constructed with industrial they report
materials; 2. philosophical view that
reality does not exist outside the consumer research studies con-
artifacts, representations, and theo- ducted by advertising and marketing
ries constructed by human beings to firms regarding consumers, includ-
interpret that reality; 3. theory that ing determining their needs, lifestyle
the language(s) spoken by someone choices, etc.
filters (constructs) that person’s per-
ception of reality consumer sovereignty 1. the view

75
 consumer survey

that a consumer should have the created by effective media marketing

power to influence what is produced; campaigns.
2. the view that the consumers of
media products should dictate what is contemporary hits radio radio sta-
broadcast tion broadcasting the latest trends in
popular music
consumer survey collection of
data regarding the lifestyle, habits, content 1. meaning of a message, a
etc., of a specific group of potential program, a movie, etc.; 2. in mul-
­consumers timedia, information sources and
programs that can be digitized for a
consumerism 1. concern or preoc- communications network. The con-
cupation with material goods; 2. tent is what the work means, and the
advocating the rights of consumers, form how it has been created.
as against the efforts of advertisers
content analysis 1. study of how the
consumerization process by which a mass media create their content
society evolves into a predominantly and why they do so; 2. any statistical
consumerist one, as a result of forces description of media content, as for
such as globalization example, how many times a certain
theme, word, etc., appears in a text, a
contact 1. Roman Jakobson’s term program, and so on; 3. technique of
for the physical context in which counting the number of times that an
a message is transmitted and the item appears in a media text
connections that exist or are estab-
lished between the participants; 2. content management management
person who provides information to a of the material contained on a Web
­journalist site

contagion effect theory that the me- content providers media companies
dia have the emotional power to bring or individuals that produce mate-
about a craze. A classic example is rial to be broadcast on a particular
the “Cabbage Patch doll craze” of network or Web site
1983, when hordes of parents were
prepared to pay anything to get the context situation, background,
dolls for their daughters at Christmas. environment (physical, social,
Another example is the hysteria gen- psychological), function, utilization,
erated by the arrival of the new video etc., that determines the meaning of
game system by PlayStation in 2007. something. A discarded cigarette butt
Such examples of mass hysteria are is seen as rubbish if it is found on a
attributed to the contagion effect and city street. But if the butt is inserted
are thus explained as having been in a picture frame, displayed in an art

76
 convergence

gallery, and given a title such as A online encyclopedia that encourages

Final Smoke, then its meaning would users to add to an entry or to correct
be vastly different. The cigarette it; the latter is a dictionary containing
butt’s context of occurrence and so- pop culture terms as contributed by
cial frame of reference will determine users.
its meaning.
control group in a media-based
contextual advertising online experiment, the group that is not
advertising technique by which ads exposed to something for purposes
automatically intrude into a Web ses- of investigation (in contrast to an
sion, whether wanted or not experimental group, which is)

continuity scheduling advertisements controlled circulation circulation of

to appear at regular intervals over a a magazine free of charge to readers
period of time who meet a specific set of advertising
criteria
continuity editing editing a film to
make sure that time sequences, along conundrum type of riddle based on
with costumes, references in the ac- punning: for example, When is a win-
tion, etc., are consistent throughout dow not a window? When it’s ajar.
the film
convention in media content, certain
contracting company independent standardized elements of style that
broadcasting company that sells distinguish specific genres
advertising time and space
convergence 1. erosion of traditional
contrast technique of opposing two distinctions among media due to con-
elements in some way (two words, centration of ownership, globaliza-
two symbols, two forms) so as to sig- tion, and audience fragmentation;
nal a difference. The words night and 2. process by which formerly sepa-
day contrast with each other in mean- rate technologies such as televi-
ing, whereas cat and rat contrast with sion and the telephone are brought
each other both in meaning and in together by a common technologi-
the initial sound with which they are cal base (digitization) or a common
constructed. industrial strategy. The Internet is
a perfect example of technological
contributed content Web site Web convergence; it can deliver digitized
site that allows visitors to add con- print, images, sound, voice, data, etc.,
tributions to its content. Two well- equally well. Large corporations such
known contributed content Web sites as AOL are examples of industrial
are www.wikipedia.com and www. convergence; they bring together
urbandictionary.com; the former is an various media systems (television

77
 convergence theory

broadcasting, newspapers, etc.) under cooperative news gathering practice

a single corporate umbrella. whereby member newspapers share
the expenses of acquiring news and
convergence theory view that all returning profits to the members
media are constantly undergoing
convergence cooption the appropriation by ad-
vertisers of trends in youth culture,
conversation communication by making them appear to be their own,
means of language and subsequently promoting their
products through the template of
conversation analysis identification these trends
and study of the patterns that under-
gird conversations, from turn-taking copy 1. spoken words or written text
to topic switching, and the reasons in an advertisement; 2. text designed
why these take place to be read out loud on radio or
­television
conversion rate proportion of people
contacted through some marketing copy editor person whose job it is
scheme who actually end up purchas- to check and correct written texts for
ing a particular product publication

converter [also called set-top box] copyright exclusive right held by

device in a radio or television re- the creators of original works to
ceiver for changing from one range ­reproduce, distribute copies of,
of frequency to another, allowing perform publicly, or display their
users to get different channels original work, or to create derivative
works based on the original.
cookie 1. file that a Web site creates The duration of copyright is the au-
to identify visitors and potentially thor’s life plus 50 years (in ­Canada),
track their activities on the site and plus 70 years (in the European
on the Web; 2. information profile Union), or plus 75 years (in the
about a user that is automatically United States).
accepted by the Web browser and
stored on the user’s hard drive copy testing technique of measuring
the effectiveness of advertising mes-
co-op placement placement of ads sages by showing them to specific
on the Web pages of on-line book- types of consumers
sellers
corantos early seventh-century
cooperative advertising practice by one-page newssheets, published in
which two companies share advertis- Holland and imported to England by
ing costs British booksellers

78
 counterculture

core audience percentage of people media and audience reactions or

who watch or listen to an entire pro- behaviors
gram from beginning to end
correspondence column section of a
corollary something that follows newspaper or magazine where read-
logically from something else, requir- ers’ letters are contained
ing little or no additional proof
correspondent journalist or reporter
corporate advertising advertising of who regularly reports on a particular
an entire corporation rather than of area of information, usually from the
its products same geographical area

corporate media mass media con- cost-per-thousand [abbreviated

trolled by large corporations as CPM] cost of reaching 1,000
consumers, calculated by the cost of
corporate portal Web site that al- placing an advertisement divided by
lows access and provides links to all the number of thousands of consum-
the information and software applica- ers it reaches
tions held by a corporation
costume drama drama set in a
corporate video video produced by particular historical period, requiring
a company to inform or educate its costumes and sets that are authentic
employees to the period

Corporation for Public Broadcast- cottage industry industry charac-

ing U.S. nonprofit agency that funds terized by relatively smaller opera-
local noncommercial broadcasters for tions and closely identified with its
cultural or educational programming ­personnel

corporatization process of making couch potato person who watches a

a government agency behave like a lot of television
private company under marketplace
rules counteradvertising advertising that
is designed to respond to a competi-
corrective advertisement advertise- tor’s advertising
ment that a regulatory body requires
of an advertiser that will correct counterculture a subculture whose
misleading information contained in values contradict those of the domi-
a previous advertisement nant culture. The term crystallized
in the 1960s to refer to young people
correlation analysis statistical study who rejected the worldview and the
of any potential relation between lifestyles of the middle class. They

79
 counterleak

used music and other forms of protest coverlines suggestive headlines on

to argue against gender and race magazine covers designed to shock
discrimination, the Vietnam War, and or intrigue potential consumers
other causes that were prominent dur-
ing the era. cowboy genre narrative that revolves
around the time frame of the 1800s in
counterleak revealing to a reporter the American West, featuring a heroic
that somebody else has leaked infor- cowboy and his horse, often fighting
mation, so as to induce the reporter to Native Americans or outlaws
believe that there is a conspiracy
CPM [see cost-per-thousand]
counterprogramming scheduling of
television programs in order to attract CPU [see central processing unit]
audiences that have been watching
similar programs aired at the same crane shot film shot taken from a
time on other channels crane (a large movable arm for a
camera), creating a higher angle from
coupon ad print advertisement with which to view the scene
a discount coupon attached, which
the consumer can cut out and use crawl scrolling text across a televi-
at a retail store or can return to the sion or movie screen to convey infor-
advertiser mation such as programming credits
or news updates
coups and earthquakes syndrome
supposed practice of Western creative director person in an
­societies to ignore news events advertising agency who coordinates
related to other societies unless they the creation of advertisements for a
involve political turmoil or natural product or service
disasters credits the names of photographers,
camerapersons, costume designers,
courtroom TV television channel etc., who were part of the production
that presents information, stories, and team; often broadcast at the end of a
documentaries dealing with criminal film or program
cases, as well as broadcasting actual
trials creole language that evolves from
contact with another language,
cover story most important story becoming the native language of a
in a magazine, featured on its front community (Haitian Creole, Guya-
cover nese Creole, etc.)

coverage attention the media give to crew persons who carry out technical
a certain person, event, etc. work for a television program or film

80
 cross-media ownership

(camerapersons, lighting managers, New Criticism movement, influenced

etc.) by T.S. Eliot, proposed the study of
works aside from historical context or
crisis definition theory that a crisis authorship. By mid-century, several
is defined as such only when it is other trends emerged: psychoanalytic
covered by media, forcing those in criticism focuses on the unconscious
authority to act accordingly aspects of the work (archetypes,
dreams, myths, etc.); semiotic (or
critic person who expresses opinions structuralist) criticism focuses on
about a work (a book, a film, etc.) the meanings of texts in sign-based
terms; hermeneutic criticism looks at
critical media theory theory that the the language with which, and cultural
media operate primarily to justify and context in which, a work is created;
support the status quo at the expense Marxist criticism interprets works
of ordinary people in terms of ideological factors and
forces at work in its production; femi-
critical news analysis news coverage nist criticism investigates the role and
that is perceived as being neutral and representation of women in works;
highly reliable and deconstructivist criticism looks
at a work in terms of the meanings it
critical research term first used by creates by itself, rather than through
Paul Lazarsfeld in 1941 to describe some external channel.
research that takes as its object the im-
pact of media on people by examining Croce, Benedetto (1866–1952) Ital-
how certain media products influence ian philosopher and critic who argued
audience behaviors, as well as the rela- that art allows human beings to give
tion of media to culture and history expression to their instinctive sense
of beauty and ugliness
critical studies examination of
the overall impact of the media on crosscutting repeated alternation
society between filmed sequences to give
the impression that the sequences are
criticism examination of literary, ar- simultaneous
tistic, or media texts (novels, poetry,
films, television programs, etc.) in cross-media advertising advertising
terms of their aesthetic worth, their the same product in several media
social import, their style, their genre forms and outlets (radio, television,
characteristics, and so on. Tradi- print, etc.)
tionally, criticism revolved around
issues such as the author’s intent, the cross-media ownership ownership
structure used to make the work, etc. of several media outlets (press, radio,
In the early twentieth century, the television, etc.) by one company

81
 crossover

crossover 1. media product that was

made for one medium, but that gains
popularity in another (for example, a
novel such as The Godfather that is
known more in its movie form than
in its book form); 2. any popular
work that crosses over to another
genre where it may become even
more popular (for example, from
rock to country). The music of Elvis Woman in a Hat (1934) by Pablo Picasso
Presley was considered to be pure
rock music in the 1950s and 1960s. CSA [see Casting Society of
It started to cross over to the country America]
field in the late 1970s and is still
classified as both “early rock” and C-SPAN U.S. cable television chan-
“country.” nel that covers politics and current
affairs
cross promotion technique by which
two or more advertisers associate cubism twentieth-century art move-
with each other to reach more people ment based on the use of cubes and
other geometric forms, rather than
cross-reference reference from one a naturalistic representation. The
part of a book, index, or table to movement started in Paris around
another 1908, becoming popular in the 1920s,
marking the beginning of abstract
crossword puzzle with sets of art. Cubist painters include Pablo
numbered squares to be filled in with Picasso, Georges Braque, and Marcel
words, according to given clues, Duchamp. Cubist sculptors include
one letter to each square, so that the Picasso, Raymond Duchamp-Villon,
words may be read both across and and Aleksandr Archipenko.
down
cue 1. written text to a piece of
cryptogram something constructed audio; 2. sign given for some action,
in code or cipher: for example, event, or broadcast to begin
1–14–4 = and (each number stands
for a letter in the English alphabet, in cue card card placed near a televi-
order) sion camera that a presenter reads,
while appearing to look straight at
cryptography making or decipher- the viewers
ing messages in a secret code that has
a key, or method, for identifying the cult film film that gathers a devoted
hidden message group of followers

82
 culture jammers

cultivation differential degree to particular culture concerned. What is

which persons have been undergo- right in one society may be wrong in
ing the cultivation effect and the another, and thus no basic standards
degree of influence this has had on exist by which a culture may be
their views and beliefs judged right or wrong.

cultivation effect process by which cultural studies tradition of research

audiences are purportedly inclined to that contends that the examination
accept values, beliefs, etc., that are of cultural context is essential for an
presented to them by media coverage accurate understanding of media
over an extended period of time
cultural theory the idea that cultural
cultural capital particular knowl- meanings are negotiated by media
edge and background possessed by and audiences as they interact
audiences, which shape their inter-
pretation of media texts culture the arts, beliefs, language(s),
institutions, rituals, etc., practiced by
cultural imperialism belief that the a specific group of people
cultural artifacts of a politically and
economically dominant power enter culture industries in the Frankfurt
into another country and eventually School specifically, and in early cul-
dominate it, thereby spreading the ture theory generally, profit-making
cultural, political, and specific values enterprises that have debased culture
of the dominant power to the exclu- by turning it into a commodity. In
sion of indigenous values and voices this view, the function of culture is
not to enrich or enlighten but to ma-
cultural memory complex of sym- nipulate and indoctrinate.
bols, rituals, etc., that are acquired
from being immersed in a culture, culture jammers a group social
which, over time, becomes part of activists with a popular Web site and
memory magazine that are critical of the ad-
vertising process itself. The Web site
cultural proximity desire of people and magazine offer not only serious
to see or hear media products from critiques of advertising and consum-
the comfort of their own cultural erism, but also many clever parodies
backgrounds of advertising campaigns, articles and
forums on how one can recognize
cultural relativism view that differ- media manipulation, information on
ent cultures predispose their members lawsuits and legislation on consumer
to view the world in different ways. issues, and links for sending e-mails
Essentially, relativists maintain that to big businesses to contest their
what is right or wrong depends on the marketing strategies. Culture jam-

83
 culture of deference

mers see themselves as a loose global Among his works are Mass Media
network of media activists aiming to and Society (as editor, with Michael
change the way in which informa- Gurevitch, 1991) and Culture Wars:
tion flows. They claim that brands, The Media and the British Left (with
fashions, celebrities, spectacles, and Ivor Gaber and Julian Petley, 2005).
entertainments are all that consumer
culture has to offer. It is only by “de- current events news or a discussion
constructing” the symbols of branded of news of the present time
culture that true culture can reassert
itself. curtain raiser story that precedes the
main story, so as to provide back-
culture of deference the tendency of ground information
news reporters to censor themselves
so that the organization for which custom publishing creation of cus-
they work will not find their coverage tomized versions of print newspapers,
objectionable magazines, or books for particular
audiences
culture wars any clash of tastes and
ideologies with regard to cultural cutaway short scene inserted be-
products. For example, in the United tween two scenes in order to avoid
States there is currently a “culture clumsy editing
war” between right-wing ideologues,
who consider pop culture products cut-in scene that is inserted into
portraying sex and violence generally another scene in a film
to be improper and even destructive
of “traditional values,” and civil liber- cutting room room in which film
tarians who see such popular expres- editing is carried out
sions as necessary to keep a political
system based on freedom of speech cyberadvertising placement of com-
intact and functional. mercials on on-line sites

cumulative audience [abbreviated cybercafé café that provides comput-

as cume] 1. number of people who ers where people can pay to browse
listen to a radio station for at least the Internet
five minutes a day; 2. proportion of a
target audience who have had the op- cybercommunications communica-
portunity to hear or see an advertise- tions that take place over the
ment during some broadcast Internet

Curran, James (1973–) scholar cyberculture culture that is evolving

whose work on globalization comes over the Internet, including chat-
up frequently in the media literature. rooms, profile sites, etc.

84
 cyborg

cyberfeminism study of the effects of cybersex sexual activity involving

new technologies on women’s issues virtual reality on the Internet

cyberjunkies persons who spend too cybershopping buying goods and

much time on the Internet, becoming services over the Internet
“addicted” to it
cybersleuthing in popular culture,
cybermall on-line shopping site link- crime solving that uses advanced
ing a home page with a large num- cyber technologies
ber of online businesses, allowing
customers to make purchases cyberspace the realm in which elec-
tronic information exists (term coined
cybermarketing any kind of by American writer William Gibson
­­Internet-based marketing strategy or in his 1984 science fiction novel
promotion (targeted e-mails, bulletin Neuromancer). The term has given
boards, etc.) rise to a host of derived terms, such
as cybercafes, cybermalls, etc.
cybernetics science that studies
communication in living organisms, cybersurfer person who spends a lot
computers, and organizations. The of time on the Internet
science was founded in 1948 by
Norbert Wiener, who claimed that cyberterrorism terrorism that em-
the control systems in machines ploys the Internet to communicate
process information in ways that are with fellow terrorists and to enter the
analogous to the ways in which the communication systems of targets in
nervous system processes stimuli, order to destroy them
that is, primarily on the basis of
the nature of the stimuli. Known as cyberwar use of electronic commu-
feedback, this concept is the founding nications and the Internet to damage
notion of cybernetics. an adversary’s computer systems and
files
cyberporn pornographic material
available on the Internet cyborg human body or other organ-
ism whose functions are taken over in
cyberpunk movement associated part by various electronic or electro-
with the technological breakthroughs mechanical devices
of the early 1980s and their effect on
the popular culture of the era

85
 first item

D
D3 digital tape format that Daily Me news Web site
is capable of recording that lets users tailor con-
composite video signals tents to their liking. Some
media analysts argue that
DAB [see digital audio this type of site empow-
broadcasting] ers common people to
become more sophisticated informa-
dactylology communication by signs tion consumers, drawing those who
made with the fingers, especially as might otherwise be disinclined to
practiced by people who are speech- reflect critically on information into
impaired the world of news and public affairs.
Others argue that it cuts users off
Dadaism (also called Dada) art and from the full richness of news and
literary movement, starting around information, confining them to their
1916 and fading by 1922, that re- preexisting preferences. Web site:
jected traditional forms of art through www.DailyMe.com
incongruity and nonsensicality.
The term dada, a French baby-talk dance music style of popular
word for “hobbyhorse,” was chosen electronic music with a disc jockey
arbitrarily by Romanian-born writer talking or rapping as people dance
Tristan Tzara because it was nonsen- (usually in a club setting)
sical. Revoking all accepted values in
traditional art making, Dadaists used dance program reality television
art techniques that were deliberately program featuring dancers, usually in
unintelligible and outrageous. competition

DAGMAR [full form: defining darkroom room isolated from

advertising goals for measured all outside light that is set up and
advertising results] model intended equipped for developing photographs
to identify the effects that advertis-
ing has on consumers, measured in DARS [see digital audio radio
stages, from awareness of the product service]
to action (purchasing)
DAT [see digital audiotape]
daguerrotype (early forerunner of
the photograph) process of recording data [singular, datum] 1. informa-
images on polished metal plates tion of any type (usually in the form
of facts and figures and obtained
daily 1. newspaper published every through surveys, experiments, etc.);
day; 2. in film, an unedited print of 2. information available on computer
a day’s filming, usually created for (text, images, numbers, etc.) that can
review by the director be stored or processed

86
 Davis, Angela

data analysis compilation and database marketing strategy where-

­interpretation of data so as to by advertisers store information
­ascertain patterns implicit in it, about consumers so that they can use
often by employing a statistical it to personalize or target messages
method according to consumer characteris-
tics such as age, gender, social class,
data compression [see digital lifestyle, etc.
­compression]
data entry putting information in a database modeling technique of
computer by keyboarding, scanning, using the information in a database
or some other way to create a Web site or to simulate or
predict something, such as trends in
data mining compiling and sifting a market
through large quantities of data so as
to extract from it any usable patterns; datacasting 1. distribution of digital
for example, using demographic data data, usually online; 2. transmitting
to analyze the shopping habits of a data on demand (such as weather
targeted advertising population reports)

data protection any strategy, such as

dataveillance (imitating surveil-
legislation or software applications,
lance) any massive electronic com-
used to prevent data from being used
pilation and distillation of consumer
in an unauthorized fashion
data

data sheet online document that

provides a detailed description of a dateline line at the beginning of a
product, service, etc. printed news story or news release
giving the place and date of the
database organized compila- story’s origin
tion of data structured logically
(­alphabetically, topically, etc.) for DATV [see digitally assisted
quick access and utilization. A ­television]
few computer databases became
­commercially available in the Davis, Angela (1944–) prominent
1960s; online databases (usually feminist social critic whose analyses
available to anyone) started in the of the representations of race, gender,
1970s. hegemony, homophobia, and sexu-
ality in representational practices
database management system com- are widely cited. Her works include
puter program that allows a user to Women, Culture, and Politics (1989)
organize and manipulate the informa- and Blues Legacies and Black Femi-
tion in a database nism (1998).

87
 day-after recall test

day-after recall test advertising re- death metal music type of heavy
search method designed to ascertain metal music characterized by hard-
how much someone can remember edged loud instrumentation, brutality
about an advertisement or commer- in lyrical material, growling vocals,
cial the day after it was broadcast and horror symbolism

day player actor or technician who Debord, Guy (1931–1994) French

is hired on a daily basis for a film social critic who described the
production purportedly destructive effects of
modern-day circus-like spectacles
daypart partition of a day into blocks on human cultures. Among his best
for programming and advertising known works are La société du
purposes (for example, 6 a.m. to spectacle (1967; published in English
10 a.m., 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., 3 p.m. as Society of the Spectacle, 1973)
to 7 p.m., 7 p.m. to 12 midnight) and Commentaires sur la société du
spectacle (1988; published in English
d-book book that can be downloaded as Comments on the Society of the
in electronic form from the Internet Spectacle, 1990).

DBS [see direct broadcast by decentralized system in advertising,

­satellite] mode of operation in which a man-
ager, rather than a centralized depart-
deadline time by which copy must ment, is responsible for marketing
be submitted for publication or and advertising a product
broadcast
deceptive advertising advertising
dead spot geographic area where that is purported to make misleading
radio or television reception is poor, or untruthful claims
even though it falls within the usual
range of the transmitter decipher in literary and media stud-
ies, to determine the meaning of a
dead zone area where mobile phone complex or ambiguous text (to de-
networks do not operate cipher a novel, to decipher a movie,
etc.)
dealer aids advertising materials and
devices used by stores to stimulate deck secondary part of a newspaper
sales (posters, in-store television sets headline that summarizes a story
showcasing a product, and the like)
decode [synonym for decipher] to
dealer tie-in advertising that publi- determine the meaning of a ­complex
cizes the names of local dealers who or ambiguous text. The term implies
stock a product that there is a hidden code in the

88
 definition

text that guides its reception and a greeting or tribute, especially on

­under­standing at an unconscious the radio
level.
deduction [in contrast to abduction
decoder 1. person who decodes and induction] process in which a
media texts; 2. device designed to conclusion about a particular follows
unscramble mixed signals or to select from a general premise: for example,
signals so that a program can be All cats are mammals; Pumpkin is
received on a television set a cat; therefore we can deduce that
Pumpkin is a mammal.
deconstruction approach to liter-
ary and media texts instigated by deep focus cinematic technique of
Jacques Derrida in the 1960s bringing the components of a scene
and 1970s. Because of the relative into focus by using a camera shot that
nature of language, Derrida claimed, shows a large depth of field
no text can have an unchanging or
central meaning. Deconstruction is defamation statement about a person
also called poststructuralism. that is untrue and impugns his or her
It challenges traditional assump- reputation in some way
tions about texts as mirrors of reality
because words, being what they are, default option or mode (a font style,
refer to other words. Since texts are a letter case, etc.) that will auto-
structured on binary oppositions matically be selected by a computer
(e.g., man vs. woman, good vs. evil), when the user does not specify an
they tend to produce biased inter- ­alternative
pretations, wherein one of the two
concepts in the binary opposition defensive communication mes-
is given prominence, and this has sage that recipients will intentionally
vast cultural consequences. Decon- misinterpret or reject because it jars
structionist readings of media texts with their own values, beliefs, or
thus involve an examination of the worldview
unarticulated oppositions that under-
pin their seemingly straightforward deficit financing in television par-
surface meanings. lance, strategy used by a TV produc-
tion company of leasing programs to
decor scenery used on a stage or a a network for a fee that is less than
movie set the cost of production in the hope
of recovering the loss later through
dedication 1. inscription in a liter- rerun syndication
ary or musical work, intended as a
tribute to an individual or cause; 2. definition degree of clarity that an
musical piece played or requested as image or sound has (in a photo, on a

89
 defocusing

television screen, on a monitor, in a demographic editions national

recording) magazines that tailor their advertis-
ing according to the demographics of
defocusing filmic technique of their subscribers (age, gender, occu-
blurring an image deliberately for a pation, education, income, ethnicity,
psychological effect education)

delay line device that delays the demographic segmentation

transmission of an electronic signal ­classification of media audiences
according to a pre-arranged or preset or ­consumers according to demo-
interval graphic characteristics (age,
gender, class, economic level,
delay system mode of operation education)
employed to delay the transmission
of a live broadcast by a few seconds demographics classification of
so that infelicities such as profanities ­audiences and consumers according
can be removed to their age, sex, income, educa-
tion, and other variables. It does
deleted scene any scene deleted from not include classification by their
a film or program either for artistic, ­subjective attitudes or opinions.
political, or legal reasons
demonization undermining of a
deliberative listening interpreting a ­person (or group) by the media,
media text with the sole intention of usually by means of an attack on
deciphering the message built into ­personal characteristics of an indi-
it (rather than simply taking it in for vidual (or the leader or members
­enjoyment or some other such reason) of a group)

delivery system computer system demonstration effect claim that

combining the hardware and software some people buy products to
required to play a certain multimedia impress or keep up with their
product neighbors

demand programming radio format denotation initial, specific, or literal

based on requests by listeners meaning of a word, text, etc., as
opposed to its connotative meaning.
demo sample or entire version of a The denotative meaning of square
recording, produced for promotional is a “plane figure made up of four
purposes equal lines meeting at right angles.”
On the other hand, in the expression
demodulation process of translating a square person, it has a nondenota-
an analog signal into digital form tive meaning (unfashionable, old-

90
 dma

fashioned). In advertising analysis deregulation loosening or elimina-

the term is often used to refer to the tion by the government of ownership
surface meaning of an ad, that is, and other rules for media systems
what the ad is designed to highlight
about the product. However, the Derrida, Jacques (1930–2004)
actual meaning of an ad depends on French philosopher who founded the
some encoded message that is be- deconstruction movement that
yond its denotative meaning (usually has been applied broadly to media
involving lifestyle, instinctive needs studies. Derrida’s main contention is
and fears, etc.). that the meaning of a text cannot be
determined with any degree of cer-
denouement final part of a plot in tainty because it shifts according to
a drama or narrative in which the who analyzes it, when it is analyzed,
outcome is clarified how it is analyzed, and so on.

dependency theory hypothesis that desensitization process through

people who are exposed habitually which audiences, as a result of view-
to a medium tend to become psycho- ing portrayals of violence or degra-
logically dependent on the medium, dation in the media, are thought to
much as a drug user becomes depen- become insensitive to violence and
dent on a drug suffering in real life

depth interview method of advertis- desexualize 1. to remove sexual

ing research, whereby a trained inter- features or ideas from a media text,
viewer meets with consumers, asking so as to make it acceptable to a wider
each of them a series of unprepared audience; 2. to deemphasize sexuality
questions that aim to identify at- or the role of sex and gender in media
titudes and values that might have portrayals
been missed with other methods. The
interviewer does not use predeter- design audit process of checking
mined questions because the purpose and evaluating the design of a brand
of the interview is to give respon- product, an ad, a Web site, etc.
dents the opportunity to express their
personal views and tastes openly and design grid basic form or grid used
spontaneously. as a template for designing a maga-
zine’s page layout
depth of field distance in front of a
camera within which actors and an designated market area [abbreviat-
entire scene can be shown in focus. ed as DMA] geographic designation,
This technique guides the viewer’s used by AC Nielsen, that specifies
eye to particular characters or areas which population areas fall into a
on the screen. specific television market segment

91
 desk

desk in newspaper parlance, a depart-

ment concerned with a certain topic
or area of coverage (e.g., sports desk,
city desk)

desk editor in newspaper parlance,

person who prepares texts in a final
version for publication

desktop publishing [abbreviated as

DTP] publication by means
of computers equipped with
­specialized software, rather than by
means of traditional typographical
practices

detective story work of fiction

that centers on a crime, featuring a
detective who will solve the crime
by questioning suspects, putting to-
gether clues, and eventually hunting
down the perpetrator. The detective Cover of The Union Jack (1900)
featuring Detective Sexton Blake
generally withholds the significance
of the clues until the end. Edgar
Allan Poe’s C. Auguste Dupin, who determination in Marxist theory,
appeared in an 1841 story titled claim that the economic system used
“Murders in the Rue Morgue,” is in a society determines its “super-
considered the first fictional detec- structure” (culture, beliefs)
tive. Charles Dickens followed Poe’s
lead with Bleak House (1852–1853) determinism doctrine or view that
and his unfinished novel, The every human act is caused by some-
Mystery of Edwin Drood. Shortly thing or is subject to universal laws
thereafter, The Moonstone (1868), of causation, thus denying any free
by Wilkie Collins, became the first will (the ability to make choices
popular detective novel. Sir Arthur freely)
Conan Doyle’s A Study in Scarlet
(1887) introduced Sherlock Hol- development theory idea that
mes, perhaps the most famous of media systems and governments
all fictional detectives. Today, the should work together to ensure that
detective story has become one of a country will be better served, or
the most popular forms of fiction in to promote partnerships with other
movies and television. countries

92
 dial-up access

deviance behavior that departs from dialectic philosophical term describ-

or challenges social norms. Deviance ing the process of examining ideas
is a major theme in crime narratives, logically, through discussions based
for example, and in moral panic on questions and answers. Plato’s
theory. Dialogues used the dialectic method,
which he based on observations of
deviancy amplification spiral his teacher Socrates, who used it
social phenomenon whereby media to reveal truth through disputation.
coverage of a deviant event makes Plato’s student Aristotle used the
it appear to be more common than term as a synonym for logic. Hegel
it is and causes people to pay more used the term dialectic with a differ-
­attention to it than they otherwise ent meaning, namely as one phase of
would any historical development that tends
to be confronted and replaced by its
diachrony [in contrast to s­ ynchrony] opposite which, in turn, tends to be
change in language over time; by replaced by a phase that is some-
extension, any kind of change in any how a resolution of the two opposed
representational system. Diachrony phases. This meaning was adopted by
refers to evolutionary tendencies Marx and elaborated to encompass
within systems to produce change in the tension that exists in capitalist
those systems. societies between the proletariat and
the ruling classes
dial radio or television plate or
disk, with numbers or letters on it dialogics as defined by Mikhail
for tuning into a station. Dials are Bakhtin, the construction of
now largely obsolete, having been verbal utterances in a dialogue
replaced by devices such as remote on the basis of opinions and
controls. The term has remained, ­ideologies, which reflects a web of
however, in expressions such as: ongoing power struggles between
“Turn the dial” and “You can always people
dial that program out.”
dialogue 1. conversation of any kind;
dialect variant of a language used 2. literary genre modeled on every-
by a particular group of speakers. day conversation; 3. words spoken
­Dialects may arise from geographic by characters in a text (book, radio,
or social factors. For example, movie, program, etc.)
­American and British dialects of
English differ due to geographic dial-up access nonpermanent con-
­distance; dialects within British nection to the Internet requiring a
English reflect differences in the level modem or other device that allows
of education, economic status, and a user to dial a telephone access
the like. number in order to make such a con-

93
 diary column

nection. This method of connection is originate in the narrative, such as

now largely obsolete. soundtrack music and credits.

diary column column written by jour- différence Ferdinand de ­Saussure’s

nalists or bloggers about their lives term for contrast, which claims that
two forms are kept distinct in meaning
diary method market research tech- through some minimal difference such
nique whereby respondents keep a as a sound: for example, pin versus
regular written account of the adver- bin. By extension, the term is now
tising materials (ads, commercials, used to refer to any difference, includ-
posters, etc.) they have noticed, the ing social differences, such as young
purchases they have made, and the versus old. The term is used in current
products they have actually used media analysis to support the view
that meanings are constantly shifting
diaspora scattering of any com- and thus reconstructing each other
munity that once lived together in a through minimal differences.
single location because of some event
(war, persecution); the term has been diffusion spread of media content
applied traditionally to the Jewish either generally throughout society or
diaspora specifically within a target audience

dictionary reference book or list- digerati [in imitation of literati]

ing containing words, phrases, and people with expertise in, or profes-
expressions with their definitions and sional involvement with, computers,
other information the Internet, or the World Wide Web

dictum authoritative saying or digest compilation of articles, stories,

pronouncement: Those who ignore reviews from different sources,
history are condemned to repeat it brought together in a magazine,
book, or broadcast, often in summa-
didactic containing a moral, social, rized or condensed form
or ethical message; of an instruc-
tional nature digicam [see digital camera]

diegesis the fictional world created digital 1. any medium that operates
by narratives by means of a digital system; 2. any
form of transmission in which a sig-
diegetic elements originating in a nal is sent in small, separate packages
narrative (including dialogue and (in contrast to analog)
sound effects) that appear to be aris-
ing out of the plot. In film, nondi- digital audio broadcasting [abbre-
egetic elements are those that do not viated as DAB] audio broadcasting

94
 digital music distribution platforms

using digital recordings, which give social inequalities, because not every-
clearer sound than analog recordings one has equal access to such technol-
ogy and, even among those who do,
digital audio radio service [abbre- not everyone is equally competent in
viated as DARS] delivery of digital using it. Unequal access or unequal
audio signals by satellite directly to competence is thus said to create
homes or automobiles classes of “information haves” and
“information have-nots.”
digital audiotape [abbreviated as
DAT] audiotape cassette or other digital film production produc-
magnetic tape that offers high-quality tion of films using primarily digital
digital sound technology, rather than previous
technologies
digital cable television digital televi-
sion delivered to homes via cable digital galaxy [in imitation of
Gutenberg galaxy] notion that
digital camera [abbreviated as digi- digital technologies have changed the
cam] camera that takes and stores ways in which people communicate
pictures in digital form. Like previ- and interact
ous cameras, digital cameras have
lenses, apertures, and shutters, but digital imaging any form of photog-
they do not use film. Instead, they use raphy that is based on digital technol-
devices that transform images into ogy. It has been suggested that this
digital information. Digital photos term should replace photography
can then be manipulated and printed altogether.
using a computer.
digital media media based on digital
digital compression [also called technologies
data compression] 1. method of
representing data in an abbreviated digital media players computer
form by removing redundant data, programs or systems that allow
by replacing repeated data with a ­individual users to display video
shortening code, or some other such or audio data on home computers.
technique; 2. digitizing signals so that RealPlayer, Windows Media Player,
they can be carried over one channel and QuickTime are examples of such
systems.
digital delivery daily online distribu-
tion of daily newspapers digital music distribution
platforms online sites like PressPlay,
digital divide view that digital Rhapsody, MusicNet, iTunes, and
technology and its attendant culture others that ­allow for downloading of
contribute to the exacerbation of music files

95
 digital photography

digital photography [also called mation are stored digitally. A DVD is

digital imaging] photography using the same size as a standard compact
digital cameras and equipment disc (about 4 3/4 inches or 12 centi-
meters) in diameter, but it can store
digital radio radio broadcasting that much more information. Each side of
is transmitted digitally, with the ca- a DVD can contain two data layers,
pacity to provide a greater choice of one beneath the other. A single DVD
channels and a superior sound quality currently has the capacity to store up
than all previous nondigital systems to 17 gigabytes (billion bytes) of in-
formation. DVD technology was one
digital recording audio recording of the first types of digital technol-
made with digital equipment, produc- ogy that made it possible to integrate
ing a high-quality clear sound computer, audio, and video material.

digital retouching use of digital digital video editing editing video

technology to alter a photograph, materials using digital technology
either to remove imperfections or to
change something in the photo with- digital video recorder [abbrevi-
out revealing that it was altered ated as DVR] video recording and
playback device attached to a televi-
digital rights management protec- sion set that allows users significant
tion of digitally distributed intellec- control over the content they record
tual property or see

digital service line [abbreviated as digitally assisted television [abbre-

DSL] line providing access to the viated as DATV] television signals
Internet that is faster than the previ- transmitted partly through digital
ous dial-up modem devices means

digital television [abbreviated as digitally originated graphic [abbre-

DTV] television set and television viated as DOG] small logo used to
broadcasting system using digital identify a television channel, shown
technology typically in one corner of the screen

digital terrestrial broadcasting digitization [also called digitaliza-

course of action aiming to make all tion] conversion of any kind of data
forms of broadcasting digital (text, images, sound, graphics) into
an electronic language that can be
digital versatile/video disc [ab- used by computers or other digital
breviated as DVD] round flat platter systems. Because it offers unprec-
on which motion pictures, computer edented opportunities for manipu-
programs, and other types of infor- lation of data, digitization raises

96
 drtv

crucial questions about authorship, dipstick survey survey intended to

intellectual property, and selectiv- identify only one aspect of some au-
ity of information. This term is now dience behavior, such as the number
used to characterize the evolutionary of viewing hours independently of
characteristics of all media—which the TV programs watched
are becoming digitized throughout
the world. direct action advertising advertising
intended to elicit a quick response
digizine [abbreviation of digital in consumers, appealing directly to
magazine] magazine that can be ac- emotional needs
cessed by computer from a Web site
direct broadcast by satellite [abbre-
diglossia use of different forms of the viated as DBS] generic term for the
same language or, sometimes, of dif- broadcasting of radio and television
ferent languages in the same speech signals over a wide area by satellite
area, one of which is sometimes con- technology. DBS began in 1994.
sidered more important or functional
than the other direct cinema a type of cinéma
vérité developed in the 1960s in the
Dijk, Jan A.G.M. van (1952–) United States, in which the setting
scholar whose work on the effects of is not a studio or designated area but
new media technologies on cultures the real world (the ghetto of a real
and societies is often cited in the city, the backstreets of a town, etc.)
media literature. Among his most
influential works are The Network direct mail advertising practice
Society (1999) and Digital Democ- of sending people leaflets or bro-
racy (2000). chures through the mail. Today, such
advertising also takes place in online
dime novels [also called pulp versions, where it is called spam.
­fiction] inexpensive nineteenth and
early twentieth century novels that direct marketing marketing practic-
deal mainly with sensationalized es that are aimed directly at (and are
adventure, crime, horror, or romance. accessible to) consumers, bypassing
The term dime comes from the fact retailers (for example, through mail
that they were originally sold for a order and the Internet)
dime.
direct response television [abbrevi-
dionysian as defined by Friedrich ated as DRTV] advertising strategy
Nietzsche, the creative and intuitive seeking immediate response to a
aspects of the human psyche, as op- television commercial by providing
posed to the mind’s rational mode of an on-screen phone number, e-mail
thinking address, or Web site

97
 direct sponsorship

direct sponsorship radio and televi- disaster (such as an asteroid hitting

sion programming bearing the name earth) or a human-related disaster
of the advertiser who has sponsored (such as a ship sinking in the ocean)
a program or series (appearing in the
program’s title) disc a storage device, built into a
computer or removable as a separate
directional medium advertising me- device (such as a flat plastic object)
dium that gives potential consumers
information on where to find products; disc jockey [abbreviated as DJ]
for example, a directory, a catalog announcer for a radio program that
consists chiefly of recorded popular
directness of address the way in music; by extension, anyone who
which television addresses people. plays recorded music for a specific
Since television is essentially a do- function (such as at a wedding, a
mestic medium, its style is typically dance, etc.)
conversational (rather than formal),
engaging audiences directly and disclosure of information act of
emotionally, rather than logically and passing on information that was in-
rationally. tended to be kept secret. This term is
used especially in journalism jargon.
director person who plans and con-
trols the performance of a play, a mo- disco music flamboyant, dance-
tion picture, or a show on television, oriented popular music genre that
radio, or the Internet. In traditional emerged in the 1970s. Disco music
film theory, the director is considered was emblemized by the 1977 movie
more important than the scriptwriter; Saturday Night Fever. The punk
often the two are one and the same rock and new wave movements that
person. surfaced in the mid- and late 1970s
began partly as a backlash against the
direct-to-home multichannel broad- perceived superficiality and glitziness
cast service for television and radio of disco.
transmitted via communication satel-
lite that subscribers receive directly discography list or catalog of record-
on their own receivers ings (by a performer, a group, etc.) or
of writings or annotations about them
director’s cut version of a movie
over which the director has complete discourse 1. use of language in
control; often, this version is not communication; 2. serious discus-
released to theaters sion about a subject; 3. particular
style of talking and writing (as in the
disaster movie film genre in which “discourse of science”). This term
the plot revolves around a natural was used by Michel Foucault

98
 displacement

to describe how language is used a message on a particular subject,

by people and institutions to shape which is then displayed on the site
social reality. In this sense, discourse
is seen as a form of power because dish antenna television antenna in
it articulates and ensconces (through the form of a dish that can receive
language) the ideas that are accepted many channels and services from a
as truth. The term is now extended to satellite
include nonverbal and other kinds of
“languages” (visual discourse, narra- Disneyification the spread of Ameri-
tive discourse, and other discourses). can representations of childhood
culture, as symbolized by the Walt
discursive contestation ability of the Disney Company, which are seen to
audience of a news broadcast to chal- be intrusive into other cultural views
lenge its content and slant (as opposed of childhood
to passive reception of the broadcast)
disparaging copy advertising copy
discursive form as defined by phi- that is critical of another company’s
losopher Susanne Langer, anything products or campaigns
constructed in linguistic form and
thus governed by the properties of dispatch news item sent by a news
that form. One of these is detach- correspondent or agency to a net-
ment, since one can focus on a word work, station, or Web site
in a sentence or a phrase without
impairing the overall understanding displacement capacity of words (and
of the sentence or phrase. Presen- symbols generally) to displace refer-
tational forms, on the other hand, ents (the things to which they refer),
cannot be detached without impairing evoking them mentally (not physical-
the overall meaning; for example, ly). A word such as cat is a sequence
one cannot focus on a note or phrase of sounds (or letters) that evokes a
in a symphony without destroying the particular mental image of an animal,
sense of the work. even if the animal is not physically
present. The animal is thus said to
discursive gap breach in language have been “displaced” from the
that can exist between senders (such physical world to the mental world.
as television newscasters) and receiv- In Marxist theories of media, the
ers (such as audiences). The popular term is sometimes used to refer to
press has attempted to close this gap the process by which the meaning of
by using primarily colloquial or slang something is transferred to something
language. else; for example, portraying punk
musicians as having the same charac-
discussion group on the Internet, a teristics as criminals, thus implying
Web site that lets any visitor write that they are socially deviant.

99
 display advertising

display advertising 1. advertising distinctive feature aspect of lan-

that includes product or company guage or some other code that keeps
features and symbols (such as a logo) forms within the code discernibly
in addition to the ad text itself; 2. ad- distinct. For example, the difference
vertising taking up a substantial area between the s sound in sip and the
of a newspaper page z sound in zip exists as the absence
or presence, respectively, of the
dissemination distribution of an vibration of the vocal cords during
idea, statement, or information pronunciation. Such vibration is a
through a medium distinctive feature.

dissident press press that publishes distribution system electronic sys-

articles, reviews, etc., that are per- tem that moves signals over a cable
ceived as opposing the mainstream television network from the headend,
press, usually challenging the social where signals are received and pro-
and political status quo cessed, to the geographical areas that
receive cable service
dissonance conflict between the
ideas, values, or views that a person diurnals daily accounts of local news
holds and those directed at him or her printed in England in the 1600s.
through some form of communica- Diurnals are the forerunners of the
tion (especially the media) modern dailies.

dissonance theory view that people diversification a company’s venture

will experience a kind of discomfort into ownership of other related or
when confronted with new informa- unrelated enterprises, thus “diversify-
tion and thus will attempt to limit the ing” its business
discomfort through manipulation of
the information (selection of some DJ [see disc jockey]
aspects and rejection of others, adapt-
ing it to previous information, etc.) docudrama dramatization of real-life
events (such as the sinking of the Ti-
distantiation idea that media tanic) through film, radio, or television
products “keep a distance” from the
ideological systems within which docufiction 1. any fictional narrative
they were created. The term was used using documentary techniques; 2.
in the past to refer, for example, to work in which actual recorded events
classical musicians in Soviet Russia are combined with recreations or
(Shostakovich, Prokofiev, etc.) whose imaginary scenes
compositions, though created in
Soviet Russia, “kept their distance” documentary nonfictional movie or
from Communist ideology. program dealing with events or issues

100
 doo-wop

in a factual manner, including inter- domestic problem that the characters

views, film footage, and other types have to solve.
of information
dominant culture culture that is
docusoap documentary that follows accepted as the norm, or the main-
the lives of real people at home, stream, by most people living in a
work, play, and other locales, resem- specific society
bling the style of a fictional soap
opera dominant discourse form of dis-
course that is given the highest
DOG [see digitally originated social authority or precedence over
graphic] other discourses. For example, in a
religious society, the discourse of
dog-eat-dog marketing and advertis- clerics and theologians is dominant,
ing strategy of attacking the competi- whereas in secular societies it
tion mercilessly through disparaging is not.
ads and other promotional strategies
dominant ideology system of beliefs
Dolby trademarked electronic circuit and values that a culture accepts as
that improves the quality of recorded the norm
sound by reducing noise
dominant reading one of three
dolly shot filmic tracking shot using supposed readings or interpretations
a moving platform (dolly) rather than that can be gleaned from a media text
some other platform (for example, a (the other two being subordinate
guiding rail) and radical) whereby the audience
accepts the meanings, values, and
domain name 1. on the World Wide viewpoints built into the text by its
Web, a name that identifies the makers
owner of a site in some way (with a
sequence of words, phrases, ab- doorstepping practice of journalists
breviations, symbols, etc.); 2. more to pressure an individual who is an
generally, the Internet address of a unwilling source of information by
computer or network (for example, standing outside the person’s resi-
.edu, .org, etc.) dence or place of work, or by asking
questions as the person walks by
domestic comedy a television hybrid
of the sitcom in which characters doo-wop style of singing and
and settings are usually more impor- songwriting, starting in the 1950s,
tant than the complicated situations characterized by catchy melodies,
that characterize sitcoms. The basic simple rhythms, beautiful vocal har-
structure of the text revolves around a monies, and often featuring a choral

101
 dot-com

accompaniment with the expression downlinking transmission of data

“doo-wop” (hence the name of the from a satellite downward to receiv-
genre) ers within its range (called a foot-
print)
dot-com any company that conducts
its business primarily through the In- downloading transferring data from
ternet. The term refers to the fact that the Internet to a computer, or from
the Internet address of such compa- one computer to another
nies ends in “.com.”
downtime period of time in which
dot-com crash the burst of the “dot- a communication network is inop-
com bubble” (the increase in dot-com erative, because of maintenance or
businesses that gained rapid success mechanical breakdown
in the late 1990s) in which many dot-
com businesses went bankrupt in the drabble short fictional work, usually
early 2000s around 100 words in length

dot-comer person who owns or drama [also called theater] 1. play

works for a dot-com enterprise (usually serious in tone) written to
be performed on a stage or platform
double substitute who resembles an with appropriate props; 2. by exten-
actor and who stands in for him or sion, any play in any media (e.g.,
her, especially in scenes that are dan- radio, television). It is not known
gerous or that require some special how or when drama began, but nearly
skill every culture has had some form of it.
Some archaeologists claim that it may
double exposure exposure of two have developed from religious ritu-
images on the same piece of film, als and ceremonies in which people
making it seem that they have been impersonated gods or animals. Others
shot at the same time suggest that drama may have origi-
nated in rituals of praise performed
double feature [also called twin bill] for a dead hero, when the deeds of the
two films shown on the same bill (for hero’s life were acted out. Eventually,
a single price of admission) the stories of the lives were per-
formed apart from the rituals, leading
double opt-in method by which us- to the birth of drama. A third theory
ers who want to receive information claims that drama evolved from
from a Web site can register them- mythic storytelling, which developed
selves as subscribers into dramatic retellings of events.
There are four main forms of West-
double-spotting technique of run- ern drama. First, the tragedy, which
ning a commercial twice in a row revolves around some tragic event or

102
 drive-time audiences

life story, usually of a hero who dies dramatization adaptation of a work

at the end because of a flaw in his or of fiction, or the presentation of a
her character or on account of a devi- real-life event, in dramatic form (for
ous act perpetrated by an evil per- the stage, radio, etc.)
sonage. Second, the serious drama,
which emerged in the 1800s and dramaturgy art of drama, referring
which shares many of the features of to both the actual dramas and how
tragedy, but in which the hero is more they are staged and the analysis of
ordinary than the traditional tragic drama in all its dimensions (from the
hero and which does not necessarily script to the performance)
have to end in his or her death. Third,
the melodrama, which revolves dramedy [blend of drama and
around the actions of a villain who ­comedy] television program that
threatens the “good characters” in the blurs serious and comic themes
play, and which usually has a happy
ending. Fourth, the comedy, which dress program television program
aims to evoke laughter, but which can in which a real person (rather than
raise serious questions. an actor) is transformed socially by
dress experts who change his or ap-
drama documentary [also called pearance by suggesting what clothes
docudrama] television or radio pro- to wear, what cosmetics are appropri-
gram that dramatizes real events, fic- ate, etc.
tionalizing them somewhat for effect
dress rehearsal final rehearsal of a
drama series television or radio play or musical performance, usually
drama broadcast in episodes in costume

dramatic irony stage technique of drip campaign low-profile ad

telling an audience about an incon- campaign for a product, intended to
gruity on the stage, of which the maintain brand awareness in a subtle
characters in the play or movie are way, rather than through an intensive
unaware campaign

dramatis personae list of the names driver brand product brand that
of the characters in a play or story influences (that is, “drives”) a
(Latin for the “characters of the ­purchase decision (e.g., Classic
drama”), often printed at the begin- Coca-Cola versus a sub-brand of
ning or end soft drink manufactured by the
same company)
dramatist someone who writes dra-
mas for the stage, radio, television, or drive-time audiences radio audienc-
some other medium es who listen to the radio in their cars

103
 dropped call

in the morning on their way to work duopoly single ownership of a media

or school (usually 6 a.m.–9 a.m.) outlet by two organizations (as op-
and in the late afternoon on their way posed to monopoly, in which several
home (usually 4 p.m.–7 p.m.) media outlets are owned by the same
organization). Duopoly was sanc-
dropped call a call on a mobile tioned by the FCC in 1992.
phone that is terminated because of
loss of signal Durkheim, Émile (1858–1917)
French sociologist who saw simi-
DRTV [see direct response larities among the world’s myths
­television] as evidence for a “collective con-
sciousness” in the human spe-
dry run rehearsal that does not use cies. ­Durkheim saw the spread
any recording equipment of ­materialism as a destructive
spiritual force in modern-day societ-
DSL [see digital service line] ies, ­leading to alienation and other
psychic ­disorders. One of his most
DTV [see digital television] influential books is De la division du
travail social (1893; The Division of
dualism philosophical view that the Labor).
mind and body are separate entities,
and that human beings have a dual DVD [see digital versatile/video
nature—the corporeal and the psychic disc]

dubbing 1. adding music, voices, or DVR [see digital video

sound effects to a film, a broadcast, recorder]
or a recording by making a new
sound track; 2. recording a sound dystopia [opposite of utopia]
track in a different language 1. place or condition that is bad or
imperfect; 2. literary genre in which
dumbing-down making popular everything is flawed, condemning
media texts (such as news reports) modern forms of social life. The
less intellectually challenging so that ­classic example of dystopian litera-
a larger audience can be gained ture is Brave New World (1932) by
Aldous Huxley. The novel reflects
dummy layout of a newspaper page, Huxley’s concern over the impact
showing where advertising materials of science and technology on
are to be placed society.

104
 last item

E
ear box in the top corner of a meaning in the text that
the front page of a news­ transcends these factors and
paper, used for advertising cannot be simply discarded
or weather information (as deconstructionsists
claim). Perhaps his most
early window theory no- influential works in the area
tion that media provide children with of text interpretation are The Role of
a “window on the world” before they the Reader (1979) and The Limits of
have developed the critical ability to Interpretation (1990).
judge what they are exposed to, thus
influencing their worldview as they e-commerce [see electronic
grow up ­commerce]

earned rate discounted rate for print economic determinism view of

advertising space, reserved for fre- some social theorists that economic
quent advertisers conditions, structures, or systems de-
termine social and cultural conditions
easy listening style of popular music
with simple melodies, lyrics, and economies of scale 1. view that the
harmonies, aimed mainly at adult relative cost of some media ventures
audiences tend to decline as the size of the
­ventures grow; 2. more generally,
eBay one of the largest online com- the savings that can be gained
merce companies by ­producing larger quantities of
­something
e-book [see electronic book]
e-consulting [see electronic
e-business [see electronic business] ­consulting]

Echelon global computer surveil- écriture in semiotic theory, writing

lance system that has the capacity to as a critical tool or as a means of
intercept communications challenging certain values, norms,
social practices, ideologies, or views
echo plate device used in broadcast- (originally proposed by Jacques
ing or recording that creates rever- Derrida)
berations or echo effects
e-democracy [see electronic
Eco, Umberto (1932–) Italian semi- ­democracy]
otician and novelist who claims that,
while the interpretation of a text may Edison, Thomas Alva (1847–1931)
indeed be influenced by tradition and American inventor of the phonograph
reader whims, there is nevertheless (early record player), and contributor

105
 editing

to the development of the telegraph, educational advertising advertis-

telephone, and motion pictures ing designed to simulate education,
informing (“educating”) consumers
editing altering texts of any kind to about a product, especially if it has re-
make them clearer, more appropriate, cently been introduced into the market
or more effective
edutainment [blend of education and
editing decision list in film parlance, entertainment] any media product or
list of all the shots, audio tracks, and text that both educates and entertains
images available for editing
effective frequency exposure to an
editing system computer system advertisement that brings about con-
(such as software) that allows users sumer awareness with little expendi-
to create, modify, add, and/or delete ture of time, money, and effort
any type of information found on a
Web site or file effective reach percentage of an
audience that has had an effective
edition 1. copies of a publication exposure to an ad or commercial
that have been printed on a specific
date; 2. particular version of a regular effects coordinator member of a
broadcast film or television production crew
responsible for planning and direct-
editor 1. person in charge of editing ing special effects
any text; 2. person in charge of the
direction and content of a newspaper effects models in media studies,
or magazine models that explain any effects
(psychological, social, cultural) that
editorial 1. article or column in a media may have on people, societ-
newspaper or magazine written by ies, and cultures, such as hypoder-
the editor or under his or her direc- mic needle theory, moral panic
tion, giving opinions about a subject theory, and uses and gratifica-
or event; 2. broadcast expressing the tions theory
opinion of the announcer, program,
station, or network effigy dummy made to represent
a hated person or group, used to
editorial policy the stance or critique, affront, or insult the person
­position taken by a media outlet or group
on a specific issue or set of
issues e-fraud [see electronic fraud]

EDTV [see extended-definition ego in psychoanalysis, the part of

television] the psyche containing consciousness

106
 Electronic Frontier Foundation

and personal memories. The ego is electronic bulletin board systems

one of the three basic constituents computerized systems, e-mail or
of human character, the others being Web-based, that allow users to post
the id and the superego. In classical and share messages, computer pro-
psychoanalytic theory, the ego is said grams, and other digital information
to resolve conflicts among a person’s
instinctive impulses, his or her sense electronic business [abbreviated as
of guilt, and the demands of social e-business] 1. Internet company;
reality. In popular usage, the word 2. practice of conducting business
has come to mean selfishness, losing through the Internet
its psychoanalytic sense.
electronic cartoon [abbreviated as
eighty-twenty rule in marketing, e-toon] a humorous drawing that is
rule-of-thumb which assumes that 80 produced online
percent of the products marketed will
be consumed by 20 percent of the electronic church use of electronic
customers media to broadcast religious subject
matter
e-journalism [see electronic
­journalism] electronic commerce [abbreviated as
e-commerce] business transactions
elaborated codes [in contrast to carried out over the Internet
restricted codes] discourse patterns
that are thought to be characteristic electronic consulting [abbreviated
of the middle classes and educated as e-consulting] consulting services
individuals, involving the use of a on such matters as Web page design,
large vocabulary, full grammar, and offered to companies that do business
other formal speech devices on the Internet

e-learning [see electronic learning] electronic democracy [abbreviated

as e-democracy] use of the Internet
electronic book [abbreviated as to distribute information freely on
e-book] digital book having the matters of a political, social, and/or
­appearance of a traditional paper ideological nature
book but with its content stored
­digitally. E-books can be updated electronic fraud [abbreviated as
from a bookstore or a Web site that ­e-fraud] criminal fraud that takes
sells them. place on the Internet

electronic bookmark function on an Electronic Frontier Foundation

Internet browser that allows a user to nonprofit agency that supports the
return to a Web page easily protection of individual civil liberties

107
 electronic game

in the world of advanced communica- puter networks and systems such as

tions technology the World Wide Web

electronic game [see computer game] electronic music [also called elec-
tronica or techno] style of music that
electronic journalism [abbreviated became popular in the 1980s, using
as e-journalism] publication of news equipment such as synthesizers and
that occurs on the Internet or in some computers to produce its characteris-
other electronic broadcast medium tic “electronic sound”

electronic learning [abbreviated electronic news gathering record-

as e-learning] learning involving ing of news events using small video
the utilization of electronic technol- cameras and a minimal crew
ogy, such as computer networks and
Internet-based coursework electronic news production system
software that allows newsroom pro-
electronic magazine [abbreviated duction on a desktop computer
as e-zine] magazine that is accessed
online Electronic Numerical Integra-
tor and Computer [abbreviated as
electronic mail [abbreviated as ENIAC] world’s first all-electronic
­e-mail] mail sent from one computer general-purpose computer; designed
to another. To send and receive e-mail and built in 1946 by American
messages, an individual must have engineers John W. Mauchly and J.
an e-mail address, which serves the Presper Eckert, Jr., at the University
same function that a street address of Pennsylvania. ENIAC was 1800
does for traditional mail delivery, square feet in size, weighed 30 tons,
now called “snail mail.” Such ad- contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, and
dresses are obtained from commer- had 6,000 manual switches.
cial businesses known as Internet
service providers (ISPs) or online electronic program guide on-screen
services. These also supply the com- television guide providing informa-
puter software needed to compose, tion about programs and channels
send, receive, and read e-mail.
electronic publishing [abbreviated
electronic media media such as as e-publishing] publication and dis-
radio and television (in contrast to tribution of books online or in some
print media) electronic format (such as CD-ROM)

electronic money [abbreviated as electronic shopping [abbreviated

­e-money] currency in digital form as e-shopping] buying products and
that can be transmitted through com- services online

108
 emergent culture

electronic smog electronic fields Ellul’s theory of technique

produced in the atmosphere because [after philosopher Jacques
of overflow radiation from radar, Elull] idea that technological
broadcasting transmissions, electrical ­advances make communication
appliances, or mobile phones; consid- and social interaction increasingly
ered by some to constitute a serious ­efficient
health risk
e-mail [see electronic mail]
electronic town hall use of elec-
tronic media (television, Internet) for e-mail campaign advertising cam-
political purposes on the part of both paign that uses e-mails to deliver
politicians and the public pitches for a product, service, or
political purpose
electronica [see electronic music]
embedded journalism news cover-
electrotactile illusion semblance of
age in which correspondents actually
touch produced by virtual reality
take part in some aspect of a war
technology
(such as accompanying a specific
battalion) in order to report on it “as
elegy poem or song lamenting a
it happens”
deceased person. The elegy became
popular in the ancient world through
the writings of Callimachus (third emblem visual symbol designed to
century b.c.e.) and Catullus (first ennoble something or someone or
century b.c.e.). Among the best- to represent it as distinctive in some
known English-language elegies are way: for example, the emblem used
Lycidas (1638) by John Milton and by the Girl Scouts
Elegy Written in a Country Church-
yard (1751) by Thomas Gray. emergent attribute benefit, quality,
concept, or experience that is associ-
ellipsis 1. omission of a word or ated with a brand: for example, the
words necessary for making a “friendliness” of Google
complete grammatical construc-
tion, because the construction can emergent culture 1. idea that
be understood in the context in radical cultural forms tend to emerge
which it occurs: for example, Sarah ­spontaneously from the general
is as smart as her brother instead ­population to challenge the status
of Sarah is as smart as her brother quo; 2. notion developed by British
is smart; 2. series of dots used in social critic Raymond ­Williams
writing or printing to indicate an that at any point in its history, a
omission: The colors are red, blue, new form of culture emerges to
orange . . . and yellow ­prominence

109
 Emmy Award

Emmy Award honor conferred an- empiricism view in philosophy and

nually by the American Academy psychology that we learn through
of Television Arts and Sciences for experience and thus that we are born
outstanding achievement in televi- with an “empty slate” (tabula rasa),
sion. Emmys are given to perform- as opposed to innatism, which asserts
ers, directors, writers, art directors, that we are born with all knowledge
costume designers, editors, sound structures already intact and that the
mixers, and performers. The first environment simply triggers them
­Emmys were awarded in 1949. Web
site: www.emmys.org empowerment process (political,
social) that gives people the ability to
e-money [see electronic money] make their own choices and control
their lives
emoticon string of keyboard char-
acters that, when viewed sideways encoder person, group, or institution
(or in some other orientation), can that creates a message on the basis of
be seen to suggest a face expressing a specific code or codes
a particular emotion. An emoticon is
often used in an e-mail message or encoding [opposite of d ­ ecoding]
newsgroup posting as a comment on process of making or saying some-
the text that accompanies it. Common thing with the resources of a spe-
emoticons include the smiley :-) or :) cific code. The quantity ‘“four”
and the winkey ;-) and the yawn :-O, can represented with the digit “4”
among others. or “100”—the former is encoded
from the decimal code and the latter
emotional appeal advertising from the binary code of numbers.
technique designed to appeal to the Analogously, a media text, such as a
emotions rather than to the rational sitcom, is put together with a spe-
intellect of the consumer cific social code (father as head of
the family, mother as wise leader of
emotive function as defined by the family, etc.), which shapes how
­Roman Jakobson, the role played it is perceived, which audiences it is
by the addresser’s (sender’s) emo- meant to attract, and so on.
tions in the construction and delivery
of messages in communication encryption electronic masking of
information on the Web that can be
empathy feeling of identification deciphered only by a recipient who
with the experience or emotions of has the unmasking code, known as
another person the decryption key

empirical data data that comes from enculturation process whereby

actual observations someone acquires the values, ­beliefs,

110
 enlargement

and worldview of the culture in endnote reference that appears at the

which he or she is reared or to which end of a chapter or book, rather than
he or she is exposed at the bottom of a page

encyclopedia reference work (paper, endorsement public support given to

electronic) giving information on a product for advertising purposes
all or specific types of knowledge.
In ancient times, scholars presented engraving art of carving images on a
information in any order they chose, hard surface
and they had few ways to check its
accuracy. They also scattered these in enhanced television services op-
various forms (in scrolls, on papyri, tional or additional services, such
etc.). The word encyclopedia did as subtitles and closed captioning,
not come into common use until the provided by some channels or cable
1700s, when the modern concept of companies
this work surfaced as a result of the
ideas of Enlightenment scholars who ENIAC [see Electronic Numerical
started listing items of knowledge in Integrator and Computer]
alphabetical order and according to
field (science, music, art, language, enigma baffling puzzle or riddle.
etc.). The first popular encyclopedia The Riddle of the Sphinx, solved
of this kind was constructed by Denis by Oedipus, is probably the first
Diderot as a 28-volume work titled enigma ever composed: What is it
Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonée that walks on four at sunrise, on two
des sciences, des arts et des métiers at noon, and on three at dusk? The
(1751–1772)—Encyclopedia of Sci- answer is human beings who crawl
ences, Arts, and Trades—that set the (on all fours) at birth (the sunrise
standard for all subsequent encyclo- of life), stand up as they grow (the
pedias. Until the mid-1980s, most noon hour of life), and need a cane
encyclopedias were only available to make it through old age (the dusk
in book form. The first compact disc of life).
encyclopedia was produced by Grolier
in 1985. Compton’s Multimedia En- enigma code one of the five codes
cyclopedia was released in this format used in the construction of media
in 1989, integrating various media texts, based on secrets and how they
(sound, pictures, etc.) and text in what work emotionally and intellectually
came to be called a CD-ROM. There in texts. The other codes are called
are now online encyclopedias, the action, referential, semantic,
most widely used being Wikipedia and symbolic.
(Web site: www.wikipedia.org). Since
these can be updated, many predict the enlargement copy of a photographic
end of the paper encyclopedia. image that is larger than the original

111
 Enlightenment

Enlightenment [also called the constant search for novelty and the
Age of Reason] eighteenth-century avoidance of offending or alienat-
philosophical movement that em- ing important audience segments. In
phasized reason and science (rather Marxist theory, entertainment is seen
than faith and religion). The Enlight- as part of capitalist ideology, since
enment lasted until the late 1700s; it is claimed that entertainment is
its leaders included several French used to justify discursive and social
philosophers—the Marquis de Con- practices, especially discriminatory
dorcet, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques ones, such as sexism.
Rousseau, and Voltaire—and the
English philosopher John Locke. entertainment reporter journalist
Philosophers of the Enlightenment or broadcast announcer who reports
started the tradition of organizing on entertainment news, especially
knowledge in encyclopedias and of concerning celebrities
creating institutes for the preserva-
tion of knowledge and the conduct of entertainment television television
scientific inquiry and debate. channel that deals with ­entertainment
news, issues, announcements, ­celebrities
énoncé in cultural theory, the way in
which a content of a text is presented enthusiast in advertising jargon, any
since, as its French name implies, the individual who loves ads and com-
text has to be enunciated or expressed mercials for their own sake
in a specific way
entropy measure of information
entailment 1. process of coming to a and of the efficiency of information
logical conclusion on the basis of the systems based on probability factors.
given premises or facts; 2. in lin- When an alarm system is “off” it has
guistics, any sentence that is inferred virtually no entropy, whereas when
from another: for example, Bill is a it is “on” it has maximum entropy.
bachelor entails Bill is not married. The term is also used to indicate the
amount of “disorder” that exists in a
enterprise fiction literary genre of system, as measured by randomness
fictional works, written primarily by factors present in it.
women, revolving around the theme
of female triumph (enterprise) in a epic lengthy narrative poem or song
male-dominated world through hard telling about the deeds of heroes and
work and determination the gods. Some epics recount how a
culture or people began. The earliest
entertainment mode of contact with epics were probably sung and had
an audience that aims to provide no established text, just the outline
an experience that is pleasurable. of a well-known tale. In Western
Entertainment is characterized by a culture, the epic began with the Iliad

112
 e-publishing

and the Odyssey by Homer, who may episode 1. part of a serial (novel,
have lived during the eighth or ninth movie, television, etc.) that is
­
century b.c.e. Both form a cycle published or broadcast separately;
based on the partly historical and 2. incident in a plot that has signifi-
partly mythical Trojan War. Homer cance for the overall story
was followed in Roman culture by
the poet Virgil. Epics start in medias epistemic as defined by Michel
res (in the middle of things), that is, Foucault, the ways of thinking and
after a significant portion of the action knowing that are characteristic of a
has already taken place and with an specific intellectual era: for example,
“invocation” in which the poet asks “medieval thought,” “Enlightenment
a Muse for divine inspiration. Epic philosophy.” For Foucault, an episteme
poetry declined during the 1700s with is a form of knowledge grounded in
the rise of prose fiction. Its appeal discourse derived from a specific era
was revived in the Romantic period and mode of thought. For instance, the
by English poet William Wordsworth gender of an individual (the role he or
with his epic poem The Prelude she is expected to play according to his
(1805, published 1850) and by Ameri- or her biological sex) is an episteme
can poet Walt Whitman with his Song that can only be interpreted in specific
of Myself (1855); and in the twentieth discourse and cultural terms, not to
century by British poet T.S. Eliot with mention historical traditions.
his Four Quartets (1943). The popular
series of Star Wars movies (starting epistemology in Western philosophy,
1977) have epic structure, starting in the study of knowledge in all its di-
medias res and having the same type mensions, from what it is to how it is
of thematic content of ancient epics, acquired and encoded by language. It
especially the Homeric epics. also includes the study of the relation
between knowledge, belief systems,
epigram short, usually witty poem or truth, and reality.
saying. In ancient Greece, e­ pigrams
were inscribed often on statues, epithet descriptive word or phrase
build­ings, coins, and the like. Popular (usually with satirical or critical intent)
sayings are really epigrams: When it used in place of the actual name of
rains it pours; The only way to get rid someone, highlighting an attribute or
of a temptation is to yield to it (Oscar feature of his or her personality: for
Wilde). example, egghead for “a smart person”

epilogue 1. short section added to eponym person for whom a place or

the end of a work, providing further thing is named
information, insight, etc.; 2. speech
given by an actor to address an audi- e-publishing [see electronic
ence directly at the end of a play ­publishing]

113
 equal time

equal time Federal Communications etching the art of engraving a figure,

Commission requirement that when symbol, or word on a hard surface
a political candidate is allowed to
broadcast a message by commercial ethics rules or principles of behavior
media, opposing candidates must be that are purported to guide actions
offered equal time
ethnocentrism tendency of seeing
equilibrium in a narrative, the state things in terms of the values, beliefs,
of stability present at the start and and worldview associated with one’s
the state to which it returns after the ethnic heritage
resolution of tensions. A narrative
starts off typically with a situation in ethnographic research [also called
which things are as they are (hence participant observation] anthropo-
in equilibrium). Then something logical method of describing peoples
happens to upset the equilibrium or groups by becoming involved with
(a crisis, a challenge). This state of them in some way (such as living
imbalance is eventually resolved and among them for a period of time).
the initial stable state is put back, The term also refers to a written,
regained, or re-evoked in some way. photographic, or filmed report that
provides such a description.
escapism use of media (such as
going to the movies) to escape from e-toon [see electronic cartoon]
daily routine or pressing personal
problems euphemism word or phrase used in
place of another because it is consid-
escapist genre any text (novel, ered less offensive or discordant: for
television program, film, piece of example, pass away for die; vomit for
music) that provides pure entertain- throw up
ment, rather than engagement, allow-
ing people to “escape from reality” Euro English an official language of
­temporarily the European Union

e-shopping [see electronic eurocentricism tendency of

­shopping] ­Europeans, or those of European
heritage, to evaluate things in
essentialism view that a text always terms of their European cultural
contains an “essence” that defines it heritage
as an exemplar of a genre
evaluation research advertising
esthetics [see aesthetics] method of analyzing how well an
ad campaign has met its original
e-system [see electronic system] aims

114
 expression

event television television program- lenged because they are not articulat-
ming that involves reporting an event ed as such. The term was introduced
live, such as a baseball game or a by Roland Barthes to explain why
concert the dominance of those in power
goes unexamined—because it is
evergreens in television syndication, not named as such (exnominated).
popular and enduring network reruns This ensures that people will see the
such as I Love Lucy and Seinfeld values of dominant groups not as tied
to any special interests, but rather as
exclamation abruptly uttered word or implicit human values. The term has
phrase expressing a strong emotion, been used, by extension, to explain
such as fright, grief, imploration, why stereotyping persists in the
hatred, and so on; for example, Yikes! media.
Help!
exogenous stations clandestine
exclusive story that has only been broadcasting operations situated
covered in one media outlet in ad- outside the regions to which they
vance of other outlets transmit programs

exegesis critical explanation or analy- experiential advertising advertising

sis of a text method based on getting the consum-
er to experience the product directly
existentialism twentieth-century (for example, by trying it)
movement in philosophy, writing, and
the arts which denied that life has any experimental group group that is
intrinsic meaning or purpose and thus being experimented upon (as opposed
that individuals must assume responsi- to the control group, which is not) in
bility for their actions. Existentialism order to see if it reacts, behaves, or
crystallized from the ideas of Danish does something differently
philosopher and theologian Søren
Kierkegaard and German philosopher experimental research research
Friedrich Nietzsche. Existentialist using actual subjects to discover
writers emphasize the isolation that an if a media text or an advertising
individual experiences in a cold and campaign produces observable (and
barren universe. The most prominent sometimes measurable) results
existentialists include writers Albert
Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Gabriel exposé newspaper report, television
Marcel; and philosophers Karl Jaspers documentary, or Web site designed to
and Martin Heidegger. reveal a scandal, crime, etc.

exnomination view claiming that expression 1. look on someone’s face

widely held values are rarely chal- that communicates some thought or

115
 expressionism

external search method of finding

information from external sources or
from the World Wide Web

external service in international

broadcasting, service used by a coun-
try to counter enemy propaganda and
spread information about itself

extra actor employed temporarily in

a minor role in a film production

extramercial in cyberadvertising
(advertising online), an ad that slides
down a Web page

eye candy nonessential features on a

The Scream (1893) by Edvard Munch Web page

emotion; 2. word or phrase com- eye tracking 1. advertising research

municating a specific concept: in the method whereby the eye movement
mood, night and day, etc.; 3. interpre- of subjects is recorded in order to
tation of a musical text that draws out determine which parts of the brain
its emotional qualities are activated while viewing an ad or
commercial; 2. technique of follow-
expressionism early twentieth- ing the eye movements of Internet
­century art movement emphasizing users in order to determine what they
the inner experiences of humans look at and for how long, so that Web
(such as fear, love, etc.). Edvard page designers can improve the ef-
Munch’s expressionist painting The fectiveness of their sites
Scream, for example, conveys a feel-
ing of anguish and inner torment in a eyeballs Internet users who visit a
very dramatic way. particular Web site frequently

extended-definition television [ab- eyewitness account report of an

breviated as EDTV] enhanced televi- event by someone who was there to
sion transmission system that offers a observe it
very high definition and wider aspect
ratio e-zine [see electronic magazine]

116
 last item

F
fable story designed to profiles can be posted. It
impart a moral lesson or a was originally developed
verity about human life; the for university students,
characters are often animals faculty, and staff, but has
or mythical creatures who since expanded to include
are given human traits, and anyone. Web site: www.
the moral is often stated explicitly at facebook.com
the end. The animal stories of Aesop
(sixth century b.c.e.) are among the facial expression appearance as-
best-known and oldest fables in histo- sumed by the face, unconsciously or
ry. Another collection of beast fables wittingly, to communicate something
is the Sanskrit Panchatantra (ca. third (usually an emotional state). Facial
century c.e.). A popular collection of expressions include winking, smil-
fables, entitled Le roman de Renart, ing, grimacing, and the like. In 1963
emerged in France between the late psychologist Paul Ekman established
twelfth and fourteenth centuries. The the Human Interaction Laboratory
fables of Jean de la Fontaine, pub- in the Department of Psychiatry at
lished between 1668 and 1694, be- the University of California at San
came internationally renowned. Other Francisco for the purpose of studying
fabulists include the nineteenth- facial expressions. Ekman and his
century Danish writer Hans Christian research team have established some
Andersen and the twentieth-century facial expressions as universal signs
Italian novelist Italo Calvino. of particular emotions.

fabliau generally satirical, often facsimile [see fax]

bawdy tale composed and recited
by wandering minstrels; the genre fact sheet 1. information sheet or
emerged in France in the twelfth booklet that provides details about
century and was popular through the a subject covered by a broadcast or
mid-fourteenth century. Around 150 news story; 2. sheet containing data
fabliaux have survived. The form was about a product, used by advertisers
emulated by medieval writers, includ- to help them create ads and cam-
ing Geoffrey Chaucer, whose Canter- paigns
bury Tales contains six fabliaux. The
fabliau is considered a precursor to factory studios the first film produc-
the modern short story. tion studios

fabula in narrative theory, any story fad a craze or fashion trend that is
with fable-like qualities and ­structure taken up with great enthusiasm for a
brief period of time: for example, the
Facebook online social networking hula hoop fad, the sudoku fad, and
site, founded in 2004, where personal so on

117
 fadeaway

fadeaway filming technique of

gradually decreasing light or sound
until it disappears completely

fade-in technique of gradually intro-

ducing images or sounds until they
become visible or audible

fade-out 1. technique of gradually

removing images or sounds until they
become invisible or inaudible; 2. Still from Snow White and the Seven
gradual loss of a broadcast signal Dwarfs (1937)

fair use legal principle stating that false consciousness in Marxist

under certain limited conditions (e.g., theory, the claim that common people
for educational purposes) individuals develop a false sense of their social
may make copies of copyrighted ma- identity, which helps maintain the
terial without seeking the permission status quo and is thus of great advan-
of the copyright holder tage to the ruling class, which wants
to avoid change in social structure.
Fairness Doctrine U.S. broad- Essentially, false consciousness oc-
casting regulation (abolished in curs when people are conditioned
1987) that required broadcasters to not to see any need to take political
cover issues of public importance action in their own best interests.
fairly and to provide equal air time
to ­representatives of opposing family movies movies designed for
­viewpoints viewing by families together; the
story line often revolves around rela-
fairy tale story revolving around tions between children and parents
fairies or other imaginary supernatu-
ral beings who become involved in family viewing television program-
human affairs using magic. Tales ming that is deemed suitable for
of Mother Goose (1697) by French children
writer Charles Perrault and Fairy
Tales (2 volumes, 1812–1815) by the famous-person testimonial in adver-
Grimm brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm tising, the endorsement of a product
Karl, are among the best-known fairy by a well-known person (a movie
tales in Western literature. star, an athlete, etc.)

false claim untrue or exaggerated fan (derived from “fanatic”) a person

claim made in the advertising of a with a strong liking for or interest in
product or service a performer, program, event, or sport

118
 fast motion

fan fiction fictional story written by visitors often have about the site or
the fan of a celebrity, in which the ce- the information it contains
lebrity is the main character (posted
typically on Web sites) farce comedy genre intended to
evoke laughter through caricature by
fantasy literary genre that features placing characters in improbable or
imaginary or magical worlds, charac- ludicrous situations. In the medieval
ters, and events, usually intended for period, farces were often based on
children. The most famous fantasy folk tales. Today, farce, slapstick, and
in children’s literature is, arguably, buffoonery are used interchangeably
Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in to designate any comedy involving
Wonderland (1865), revolving around pranks (e.g., throwing a pie in some-
the adventures of a girl named Alice, one’s face, pushing unsuspecting
who reaches a magic land after she people into swimming pools, etc.).
follows a white rabbit down a hole in
the ground. Perhaps the most popu- Farnsworth, Philo T. (1906–1971)
lar fantasy novel by an American American pioneer in television
author is L. Frank Baum’s Wonderful technology, who built an electronic
Wizard of Oz (1900), which follows television camera tube known as an
the adventures of a girl who has been image dissector in 1927; it produced
carried by a cyclone from Kansas to a an electronic signal that corresponded
magic land. E.B. White’s Charlotte’s to the brightness of the objects being
Web (1952), about friendship among televised
animals on a farm, is another classic
example of a fantasy story. fashion shoot session for photo-
graphing models wearing clothing
fanzine magazine produced by fans fashions, usually for publication in a
for other fans of a celebrity or a magazine
hobby (such as a particular video
game). The early fanzines were fashion show exhibition of clothing
created around punk bands in the in the latest styles, worn and displayed
mid-1970s and then spread to other by models on a runway, usually ac-
domains of popular culture, such as companied by music. Many media
sports (teams, for example, published critics now identify fashion shows as a
fanzines). Today, Internet discussion specific genre of variety show.
sites and blogs have taken on the
functions of fanzines, rendering them fast-forward function on a tape
virtually obsolete. recorder that causes the tape to wind
forward rapidly
FAQ [full form: frequently asked
questions] section on Web sites that fast motion film action that ap-
provides answers to questions that pears faster than is naturally possible

119
 fasttrack

because it was shot at a slower speed Federal Communications Act of

than the speed at which it is projected 1934 U.S. legislative act that estab-
lished the Federal Communications
FastTrack network application that Commission
permits users to interconnect, search
file directories, and share music, Federal Communications Commis-
video, and other files sion [abbreviated as FCC] federal
agency, founded in 1934, responsible
fax [abbreviation of facsimile] de- for regulating broadcast and elec-
vice allowing the electronic transmis- tronic communications in the United
sion of printed or pictorial documents States. Web site: www.fcc.gov
across telephone lines or through
wireless technology from one loca- Federal Trade Commission [abbre-
tion to another viated as FTC] federal agency, estab-
lished in 1914, that is responsible for
FCC [see Federal Communications regulating national advertising and
Commission] for ensuring consumer protection.
Web site: www.ftc.gov
fear appeal advertising message that
makes the audience anxious or fear- feedback 1. response pattern to a
ful, emphasizing ways in which the given communication; 2. information
product can help people overcome that is fed directly back to the sender
their anxiety or fear in a communication system, enabling
the system to adjust its operation as
feature 1. longer, more probing article needed; in linguistic communication,
or story in a print medium (newspaper the process by which people adjust
or magazine) covering human inter- their messages as they are delivering
est topics as opposed to hard news; 2. them, in response to the reactions
item for a radio or television program, (­facial expressions, bodily move-
usually consisting of interviews ments) of their interlocutors.

feature film main film shown at a feeder cables television cables that
motion picture theater (or on televi- run from trunk cables to individual
sion), usually the longest of two or neighborhoods
more films shown in one program
feeding sending a program or signal
feature syndicates clearinghouses from one station to other stations
(such as United Features and King
Features) that provide the work Fellinesque a film or media text that
of journalists, feature writers, and blends reality and fantasy, remi-
cartoonists to newspapers and other niscent of the methods of Federico
media outlets Fellini, the renowned Italian ­motion

120
 feminist theory

picture director. Fellini often de- media and society. Early feminist
veloped the script as the film was criticism viewed media representa-
being made. Many of his films rely tions of women as constructs that
heavily on the use of symbolism and were subservient to the male psyche,
imagery, creating obscure dreamlike arguing that these were degrad-
sequences. ing to women, as well as a source
of influence in promoting violence
feminism movement advocating against women. Some of these cri-
equal rights and opportunities for tiques were well founded, given the
women. Feminist beliefs have existed spread of images of women as either
throughout history, but feminism “sexual cheerleaders” or “motherly
did not become widespread in the homemakers” in many media pro-
Western world until the mid-1800s, grams (such as TV sitcoms). How-
when women began to protest against ever, already in the 1950s, there were
social and political injustices, such sitcoms such as The Honeymooners
as the barring of women from voting and I Love Lucy that featured strong-
in elections and serving on juries, willed, independent females as
and from admission to most institu- protagonists. Moreover, having inter-
tions of higher education and most preted the display of women’s bodies
professional careers. Many histori- in media and advertising as serving
ans regard the feminist movement male voyeurism, the early feminists
as a turning point in the history of are now critiqued as having ignored
modern societies. There have been the fact that open sexuality played
several waves of feminism, starting a critical role in liberating women.
in the 1960s, influencing theories of With the entrance of Madonna onto
culture, gender, and the like. The first the pop culture stage in the mid-
one, called strictly “feminism,” took 1980s, the tide in feminist theory
the general slant on sexual culture as changed radically, leading to what
serving male-oriented interests and, is now called postfeminism. Post-
thus, catering to male voyeurism; feminists interpret the representation
the second main wave, called “post- of female sexuality in public places
feminism,” starting in the 1980s, took and in media not as exploitation,
the view that females have actually but rather as a transgressive form of
always been in charge of the gaze social discourse, even viewing strip-
themselves, that is, that while the teasing and pornography as crucial
voyeurs may be men, what they look players in the ongoing sexual revolu-
at is under the control of women. tion in women’s liberation. The post-
feminist perspective has thus come
feminist theory [also called femi- forward to provide a vastly different
nist criticism] important theory view of media representations of
emerging in the late 1960s devoted womanhood than traditional feminist
to deconstructing gender biases in and religious views.

121
 femme fatale

femme fatale female character in figure a representation of someone or

movies and other media of great something (a diagram, picture, draw-
seductive charm who leads men into ing, etc.)
compromising or dangerous situ-
ations or who destroys those who figure of speech word, phrase, or
succumb to her charms expression that has a nonliteral sense,
adding color, evaluation, or insight
Ferguson, Marjorie (1929–1999) to a text: He was born with a silver
feminist scholar whose work on the spoon in his mouth = He was born
representation of women in media is into a privileged situation
widely respected. Among her most in-
fluential works are Forever Feminine: file sharing activity of exchanging
Women’s Magazines and the Cult of information electronically, especially
Femininity (1983) and Cultural Studies through the Internet
in Question (with P. Golding, 1997).
File Transfer Protocol [abbreviated
fetish 1. object perceived as having as FTP] common way of transferring
magical powers; 2. object or body files across the Internet, usually with
part that causes sexual arousal, often a browser
becoming an object of fixation
film 1. thin sheet or strip of devel-
feuilleton section of a European oped photographic negatives or
newspaper containing fiction, re- transparencies; 2. sequence of images
views, and cultural articles projected onto a screen with suffi-
cient rapidity as to create the illusion
fiber-optic cable cable that carries of motion and continuity; 3. by ex-
signals rapidly over very thin glass tension, a work (narrative, documen-
fibers for long-distance transmissions tary, etc.) realized in this form [see
also cinema]
fiction any work whose content is
imaginary rather than purely factual. film music music composed to ac-
The fabliaux, romances, and novellas company a film
of the Middle Ages were the forerun-
ners of the novel, the first true fiction film noir moody, pessimistic film-
genre. making style that was very popular
in the United States during the 1940s
field of view extent of a scene that and 1950s (in French, the term noir
can be captured by a camera means “black”). A typical film noir
showed a world of corruption and
fieldwork in marketing, research crime, with cynical characters trapped
method consisting of gathering infor- in dismal situations that led invariably
mation by conducting surveys to their destruction. The plot gener-

122
 Fiske, John

ally took place in large American fine arts arts (such as sculpture,
cities, generally at night and in dingy painting, and music) that are per-
surroundings. The movie’s gloomy ceived to have aesthetic qualities
tone was accentuated by edgy music rather than simple decorative or
and shadowy backgrounds. Some utilitarian functions (crafts)
famous examples of film noir include
The Maltese Falcon (1941), Double fin-syn [see Financial Interest and
Indemnity (1944), and The Big Heat Syndication Rules]
(1953). Starting in the 1970s some
American directors attempted to fireside chat broadcast in which the
recapture the film noir style with mov- president of the United States talks
ies such as Chinatown (1974), Taxi in an informal manner to the people.
Driver (1976), The Grifters (1990), This type of program was initiated on
and L.A. Confidential (1997). radio by Franklin D. Roosevelt dur-
ing the Great Depression as a way of
film theory area of film studies that reassuring people about his policies.
deals with film genres, rather than
any specific analysis or critique of firewall software preventing unau-
films. Film theorists look at movies thorized access to a computer, Web
as texts and how they deliver mean- site, etc.
ings (aesthetic or otherwise).
First Amendment amendment to
filmography 1. writing about movies; the U.S. Constitution that guarantees
2. list of movies, usually of a given freedom of speech and is thus continu-
director, actor, or a specific genre ally cited in media debates: “Congress
shall make no law respecting an es-
filtering software software that auto- tablishment of religion, or prohibiting
matically blocks access to Web sites the free exercise thereof; or abridging
containing offensive material the freedom of speech, or of the press;
or the right of the people peacefully to
final cut final edited version of a film assemble, and to petition the Govern-
released publicly ment for a redress of grievances.”

first edition 1. first print run of a

Financial Interest and ­Syndication daily newspaper; 2. first published
rules [abbreviated as fin-syn] FCC version of a book
rules outlining the amount of pro-
gram ownership that television first-run syndication programming
networks are allowed. Rescinded in produced specifically for the syndi-
the mid-1990s, the rules were in- cated television market
tended to prohibit the major networks
from running their own syndication Fiske, John (1939–) scholar whose
­companies. insights on the meanings built into

123
 fixed break

media products and events (intention- flashback literary or cinematic tech-

ally or unconsciously) have become nique of inserting an earlier event into
widely cited. Among his most influ- the normal chronological order of a
ential works are Television Culture narrative, showing what happened or
(1987) and Understanding Popular providing further ­information
Culture (1989).
flick colloquial term for movie or film
fixed break practice of placing com-
mercials in a specific place within flier leaflet used for advertising
a radio or television programming purposes
format
floodlight lamp with a wide angle,
fixed spot item that is broadcast at a used to provide light broadly for film-
specific time; for example, news on ing purposes
the hour
floor manager person who is re-
flack derogatory epithet describing a sponsible for the technical aspects
public relations professional of filming during a film shoot or in a
television studio
flaming act of sending an offensive
e-mail or of posting an offensive floppy disk small plastic disk coated
newsgroup item on both sides with magnetic material
that can record and store computer
flappers stylish and fun-loving data. Floppy disks are being used less
young women of the 1920s, who and less as new technology is mak-
showed disdain for the previous ing available more convenient and
Victorian social conventions through powerful devices such as USB ports
changes in clothing and lifestyle that have rendered the floppy disk’s
storage capacity inadequate for many
flash 1. brief news story that is types of files.
broadcast immediately, often inter-
rupting an ongoing program; 2. flow 1. movement of something
device used to produce a short bright such as information; 2. an evening’s
light in photography scheduled programming; 3. view put
forward by Raymond Williams
flash forward to jump forward to a that audiences experience television
later point in a narrative for a dra- programs not as autonomous entities
matic effect but as elements in a flow of similar
entities
flash prank Web site designed to
shock visitors with sudden scary im- flow chart diagram used in computer
ages and loud noises science and other sciences and dis-

124
 footnote

ciplines, which is designed to show folk rock style of music developed

how the procedures used in perform- by Bob Dylan (1941–) in the 1960s
ing a task are connected to each other with poetic lyrics set to a rock beat,
but evoking traditional folk music
fly-on-the-wall documentary docu- melodies, rhythms, and themes. Folk
mentary style, similar to cinéma- rock was the first major challenge to
vérité, in which small cameras are rock’s domination by the British in
used to film subjects as they go about the 1960s.
their routine business
folklore set of traditional beliefs, sto-
FM radio [full form: frequency ries, sayings, and art forms. Folklore
modulation radio] system of radio includes cures, superstitions, festival
transmission in which wave frequen- customs, games, dances, proverbs,
cies are modulated in tandem with nursery rhymes, charms, and riddles.
the audio signal being transmitted.
The first FM system was established folktale narrative tale, usually cre-
in 1936, but became popular only in ated in early oral traditions; examples
the late 1960s. Frequency modulation include myths, legends, fables, and
has several advantages over the al- fairy tales
ternate radio broadcasting system of
amplitude modulation (AM): greater follow shot camera shot in which a
freedom from interference and static; moving subject is filmed as the cam-
a higher signal-to-noise ratio; and op- era follows the subject
eration in the high-frequency bands.
follow-up news report that further
focal points five main areas of inter- investigates an earlier news story
est in the study of media and com-
munication: the media text, the maker font character or set of characters of the
of the text, the audience, American same style of typeface (such as Times)
society (or its equivalent in other
parts of the world), and the media footage selection of film sections that
have been already shot
focus group interview research
method that brings together audiences footer 1. text that appears at the bot-
or consumer groups to discuss a media tom of a page; 2. section at the bot-
text or an ad, under the guidance of a tom of a Web page containing links
trained interviewer. The responses are and information on how to contact
recorded and are later analyzed. the owners of the Web page and on
the copyright policy in place
folk music music style consisting
of a people’s traditional songs and footnote 1. note at the bottom of a
melodies page containing information, such

125
 footprint

as a reference citation or further perceived by a viewer to be nearest to

explanation, about the preceding text; him or her
2. something appended to a text as an
explanation, reference, or comment foreign correspondent journalist
who lives or visits another country to
footprint area supplied by a signal report news about it for broadcast or
from a satellite publication

forced exposure advertising research form theory art and philosophi-

technique whereby consumers are cal theory claiming that the physi-
brought to a facility to view and pro- cal structure of a work is separable
vide commentary on a commercial or from its content. In a work of art, the
ad campaign content is defined as the meaning of
the work, and the form is the way in
Fordism view that a product should which the work has been put togeth-
be accessible and affordable to the er. Recent form theories stress that
workers who produce it and that they form and content are interconnected,
should be paid a fair wage based on rather than separable.
the value of what they are producing.
The term makes reference to auto- formalism emphasis on form rather
maker Henry Ford’s highly mecha- than content in a work of art
nized and standardized mode of
automobile production in the 1920s. format 1. in computer science, the
This term is now used, by extension, way data is structured so that it can
to describe a type of situation that be used, stored, and retrieved; 2. pre-
stresses conformity and uniformity. sentation and style that distinguishes
The term post-Fordism has recently a radio or television program from
emerged to describe a world in which others; 3. difference in size, shape,
new technologies and economic mar- and appearance of media products
kets have made it possible to break (for example, tabloid vs. newspaper
away from the mechanized form of format)
production and, by extension, from
social conformity. format clock hourly radio program-
ming schedule
forecast prediction of what the
weather will be like in the near format radio radio station that plays
future, broadcast or printed regularly only one type of music (for example,
(on radio, on television, in newspa- country) or broadcasts one type of pro-
pers, on Web sites) gramming (for example, news radio)

foreground in painting and filmic formula technique advertising

technique, part of a scene that is technique that uses formulaic speech

126
 framing

Fourth Estate a synonym for the

press

Fox Broadcasting Company known

as the “fourth network” (after NBC,
CBS, and ABC), launched in 1986 by
Rupert Murdoch. This broadcast-
ing company introduced many new
types of programs, including reality-
based shows such as Cops. Web site:
www.fox.com

fragmentation process by which a

Vinyl 45 record formerly unified or mass audience
fragments into segments. For example,
to describe a product, imitating the availability of specialty television
proverbs, sayings, etc.: for example, channels has resulted in the fragmenta-
A Volkswagen is a Volkswagen! Coke tion of the television audience. Radio
is it! underwent a process of fragmentation
in the 1950s with the introduction of
forty-fives [45 rpm records] discon- television. Fragmentation makes it
tinued type of record disc that could difficult to reach mass audiences and
be played on phonograph turntables may threaten the economic survival of
operating at 45 rpm. It was developed media that depend on them.
by RCA in the late 1940s. It had high
quality but had limited storage space. frame 1. a phrase or sentence with a
blank in it for assaying which kinds
Foucault, Michel (1926–1984) of words or forms are permissible
French philosopher who became there (structurally or semantically);
widely known in the 1970s for 2. a rectangular image on a screen;
his writings on the role of history 3. on a Web page, a part that allows
and culture in determining how for modification of other parts of the
people develop beliefs and how same page
everyday practices guide people in
defining their identities. In Mad- framing 1. adjusting the position of
ness and Civilization (1960), for a film in a projector so that the image
instance, he showed how definitions can be seen correctly on the screen;
and ­perceptions of madness have 2. the way in which a film is put to-
changed over time to reflect changes gether by specific camera techniques;
in cultural worldviews. His most 3. the way in which people organize
quoted work is the History of Sexual- and interpret events (such as spec-
ity (1984). tacles and programs)

127
 franchise

franchise 1. right to sell certain as Thomas Frank, Todd Gitlin, and

products or services for a particular Mark Crispin Miller, draw heavily
period; 2. conversion of a media upon the general arguments made by
product (such as a film) into a series the Frankfurt School.
of sequels and spin-offs; 3. license
to use a brand name; 4. license to free market model economic system
broadcast within a specific area and/ in which nongovernmental decision
or for a specific time period makers determine how resources will
be used, what goods and services will
franchise films movies produced be produced, and how these will be
with the intention of making sequels distributed among members of soci-
ety; free competition in the market
Frankfurt School [full form: helps to guide these decisions
­Frankfurt Institute for Social
Research] school of critical inquiry freedom of expression basic right
founded at the University of Frank- of any free society, without which,
furt in 1923; the world’s first Marx- it is claimed, journalists, academics,
ist institute of social research. Its and others cannot perform their vital
leading members included Theodor role of seeking and spreading new
Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Herbert knowledge
Marcuse, Erich Fromm, and Leo
Lowenthal. Its aim was to understand freedom of information basic
the way in which human groups cre- right to have access to information
ate meaning collectively under the of all kinds, from the type held by
impact of modern technology and governments to that held by media
how modern societies have come ­organizations
under the domain of culture in-
dustries. The Frankfurt School was freedom of speech right to speak out
highly pessimistic about the possibil- publicly or privately, through any me-
ity of genuine individuality under dium of expression, including books,
modern capitalism and condemned newspapers, magazines, radio, televi-
most forms of popular or mass sion, motion pictures, and electronic
culture as channels of consumerist documents on computer networks
propaganda that indoctrinated the
masses and disguised genuine social freedom of the press freedom to
inequalities. The School’s main publish anything without censorship
contention was that typical media before or after. Freedom of the press
fare was vulgar, functioning primar- has been debated since modern print-
ily to pacify ordinary people. Though ing began in the 1400s. Some govern-
not affiliated with the School, some ments place limits on this freedom,
contemporary critics of contempo- fearing the power of words to spur
rary pop culture and media, such people to act against them.

128
 ftp

freelance writer, journalist, or artist

who works independently and is paid
by assignment

freenet online information network

run by volunteers, charging no access
fees

freeware software available primar-

ily through electronic bulletin boards
and user groups that can be down-
loaded free of charge

freeze frame single image held still

in the middle part of a motion picture
sequence

frequency measurement of radio

Sigmund Freud
waves, indicating where a station is
found on the radio dial Friendster online social networking
site launched in 2002 where personal
frequency modulation [see FM profiles can be posted. Web site:
radio] www.friendster.com

Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939) fringe time television time slot just

Austrian neurologist and founder before or after prime time, when
of psychoanalysis. Freud claimed there is more program availability
that human behavior was guided
by the unconscious—the part of Frith, Simon (1946–) musicolo-
the psyche that contains wishes, gist best known for his work on the
memories, fears, etc., which mani- sociology of popular music. In Sound
fest themselves in dreams, symbols, Effects (1983), Frith examined how
syndromes, and the like. Freud popular music relates to audience
introduced such terms as ego, id, su- expectations of a social and political
perego, and Oedipus complex, among nature.
others, which have become widely
used in media studies. Froogle Google’s shopping engine

friends on social networking Web FTC [see Federal Trade

sites, people who have access to other ­Commission]
people’s profiles and who post their
own profiles FTP [see File Transfer Protocol]

129
 full duplex

full duplex network connection that but rather as tools that are used by
makes it possible to send signals in people for recreation or even to gain
opposite directions at the same time knowledge of the world. Functional-
ism holds that if there were no need
full nester in marketing jargon, an for the media, the media would
older consumer who owns his or her not exist. The media, therefore, are
home and is interested in living the adaptations to our needs. Functional-
“good life” ists ask, therefore, how the media
contribute to social equilibrium,
fully connected world concept in how the media system constitutes an
which most people and organizations integrated whole, and what needs the
can be linked via the Internet media answer or fulfill.

functionalism 1. twentieth-century funk music style of popular music

architectural movement stressing derived from jazz, blues, and soul,
functional rather than decorative characterized by a heavy bass line
design; 2. twentieth-century psycho- and syncopated rhythms
logical school founded by William
James and John Dewey; 3. in media funnies part of a newspaper where
theory, the claim that the consump- cartoons and comic strips are pub-
tion of media products is due to the lished
individual’s active view of these
products as functional. In effect, me- futurism Italian art movement that
dia and psychological functionalism lasted from 1909 to about 1916.
is based on the view that individuals Futurist artists glorified the power,
can make their own choices. Media speed, and excitement of the machine
are not seen as manipulation systems age.

130
 last item

G
gag joke or comic skit told maintaining their flow, and
or acted out by a comedian so on: for example, uh . . .
or by comedians together huh, yeah, well, May I . . . ?

gag order restriction of the game console computer

publication, discussion, or console for game play-
broadcasting of specific information ing, usually operated with a game
controlling device, such as a joystick
gallery television studio produc- or game pad
tion room where the director and the
members of the production crew sit game show television program in
during filming or taping which a game is played by contes-
tants, offering prizes to the winner
Gallup Poll public opinion poll on
a political or social topic or issue, as gangsta rap style of rap music in
developed by George H. Gallup, an which the lyrics deal with themes
American statistician who specialized involving gangs, gangsters, and/or
in public opinion surveys. The poll criminal lifestyles
became well-known after it predicted
correctly the outcome of the 1936 gangster film film genre dealing with
presidential election. Gallup also gangsters or with plots revolving
developed a method of measuring around criminal activity with gang-
audience interest in news features sters as primary role players
and advertising. Web site: www
.galluppoll.com garage music style of electronic
dance music inspired by disco and
Galtung, Johan (1930–) Norwegian ­associated primarily with urban styles
analyst of news media and a leader of of rap and hip-hop
the global peace movement. Galtung
has studied the socio-psychological gatekeepers in media studies, those
reasons why certain items receive who make the decisions regarding
media attention, while others (just as what will appear in media and espe-
socially important) do not. cially which items are newsworthy
and which are not
Galvanometer test research method
that measures physiological changes gateway page opening page of a Web
in consumers when they are asked a site containing the key words that en-
question or are shown some stimulus able a search engine to locate it
material (such as a print ad)
Gauntlett, David (1971–) major
gambit speech strategy used for researcher on media effects, whose
opening and closing conversations, work is quoted often in the relevant

131
 gaze

media literature. Among his most gendered genre movie genre, televi-
influential works are Moving Experi- sion program, or television chan-
ences: Understanding Television’s nel directed at a specific gender by
Influence and Effects (1995) and providing themes, characters, and
Media, Gender, and Identity (2002). situations that are purported to appeal
to a specific gender exclusively; for
gaze in feminist theory, the act of example, WE: Women’s Entertain-
looking at representations of women, ment is a network designed to appeal
which reveals information about the primarily to women, while Spike TV
power relations that exist between is designed to appeal primarily to
men and women. In Western society, men.
the gazers have typically been the
males; the ones gazed at, the fe- genderlect [blend of gender and
males. This pattern is apparent in the dialect] language choices that are
artistic and erotic portrayals that have characteristic of males or females in
characterized the history of Western speech situations
visual representation. Following
the rise of feminism and gender general audience made up of people
theory, gazing patterns have started from all walks of life, and with “ge-
to change radically. neric” or “random” properties, rather
than segmented into demographic
gazette local newspaper or one that is categories (age, class, etc.). This cat-
associated with an organization egory is used in rating systems as a
comparison base to the demographi-
gender sexual identity constructed cally segmented ones.
in cultural context. For example,
in Western society, men are often Generation X the children of
portrayed as “sex-seekers,” showing “baby boomers,” born in the 1970s
an aggressive interest in sex as part and purported to lead a lifestyle that
of their gender identity, and women is vastly different from that of
as the targets of their interest; in their parents, based on a rejection
other cultures, such as several Na- of their parents’ values. They are
tive American traditions, that inter- more ­inclined than their parents
est is seen as part of female gender to use new media technologies
­identity. as sources of information and
­entertainment.
gender theory in feminism, theoreti-
cal framework that evaluates repre- generational marketing marketing
sentations, genres, etc., in terms of and advertising tailored to specific
how they represent gender and how generations of consumers (baby
they reflect ideologies (for example, boomers, Generation X, teenagers,
patriarchy) older people)

132
 gesture

genre category or classification of perception such as feelings, images,

works of art based on subject matter, and sensations, and behaviorism,
themes, and/or style. Examples of lit- which called for the study of observ-
erary genres are poetry, prose, drama, able aspects of behavior.
fiction, science fiction, and mystery
novel. Examples of television genres gestural dance dance deliberately
are sitcom, soap opera, quiz show, structured by gesture patterns, including
and talk show. body language, eye contact, and posture

geodemographic clustering tech- gesture movement of the body,

nique of classifying consumers on the especially the hands, to communicate
basis of the demographic character- something, unconsciously or witting-
istics common to the area in which ly. The former are called, more pre-
they live cisely, natural gestures and the latter
conventional gestures. Several main
geographics measurement of where types of gesture have been identified.
audiences and consumers live Illustrators are gestures that literally
illustrate vocal utterances: for ex-
Gerbner, George (1919–2005) wide- ample, the circular hand movements
ly quoted media theorist whose con- typically employed when talking of a
cept of the cultivation effect has circle; or moving the hands far apart
become a target of major discussion when talking of something large.
and debate. His model of communica- Emblems are gestures that directly
tion, developed in 1956, emphasizes translate words or phrases: for exam-
the interactive role of the sender and ple, the “OK” sign, the “Come here”
the receiver, the context, and the me- sign, the hitchhiking sign, waving,
dium used during the different stages obscene gestures, etc. Affect displays
of communication. His major work is communicate emotional meaning: for
The Global Media Debate (1993). example, the typical hand movements
that accompany states and expres-
Gestalt psychology school of sions of happiness, surprise, fear,
psychology, founded around 1912 anger, sadness, contempt, disgust,
by Max Wertheimer, that stresses etc. Regulators are gestures that are
the study of patterns, or forms, as used to monitor, maintain, or control
the important part of perception and the speech of someone else. Exam-
experience, since form in its total- ples include the hand movements for
ity is seen as being more important “Keep going,” “Slow down,” “What
than the sum of its parts. Gestaltists else happened?” Adaptors are the
rejected structuralism, the most gestures used to satisfy some need:
common psychological theory in the for example, scratching one’s head
early 1900s, based on studying the when puzzled, rubbing one’s fore-
separate elements of experience and head when worried, and so on.

133
 ghetto cool

computer memory required to store a

single character

girl groups musical ensembles made

up exclusively of female performers
and, usually, portraying a gendered
view of topics

Gitlin, Todd (1941–) radical

­American critic of the mainstream
­media and popular culture. His most
influential works are Inside Prime
Time (1983) and Watching Television
(1986).

glam rock popular rock music style

of the 1970s, characterized by per-
The V-sign for peace
formers who wore glamorous cloth-
ing and jewelry

ghetto cool the adoption of a “ghet- global advertising advertising

to” lifestyle (in a real or simula- directed at global audiences and thus
tive way), generally in imitation of adapted to the global context. For
gangsta rap and other hard forms example, the use of sexual themes
of hip-hop culture in the promotion of an automobile
would be attenuated or removed in
ghost site Web site that is no longer a global advertising campaign so as
being updated but is still available for to avoid offending societies where
viewing sexuality is not expressed openly.

ghostwriter person who writes global branding inserting brand

­something for another person, usu- products into world markets, adapt-
ally a celebrity, pretending to be the ing their promotion to the legal,
author social, and cultural exigencies of
each market
GIF [full form: graphic interchange
format] computer image format used global marketing use of a com-
commonly for nonphotographic im- mon marketing plan to sell a product
ages on Web sites everywhere in the world

gigabyte unit equivalent to 1,024 global media media systems, such as

megabytes, a byte being a unit of AOL or Disney, that possess com-

134
 Goffman, Erving

munication and media networks (and

distribution capacities) that embrace
most of the world

Global Positioning System [abbrevi-

ated as GPS] system comprised of 24
satellites (21 active and three spares)
that allows users to precisely identify
their location anywhere on the globe Glyph indicating “No Smoking!”

global village term coined by Mar- glocal genre any media text pro-
shall McLuhan to characterize a duced by local groups but incorporat-
world that is united electronically, ing global forms and ideas
in a virtual (or cybernetic) village.
McLuhan argued that the medium glocalization process whereby local
in which information is recorded or regional cultures are becoming
and transmitted is decisive in shap- increasingly similar to each other as
ing trends and in charting future a result of aspects of globalization
progress. So, by simply switching (economic, technological, etc.)
on their television sets to satellite-
transmitted programs, or visiting Web gloss short definition, translation,
sites, people tend to feel connected to or explanation of a technical term,
others in an abstract, rather than real, usually inserted in a footnote or in
fashion. parentheses

globalization process by which glossary alphabetical list of glosses,

formerly separate, discrete, or local often placed at the end of a work or
cultures, businesses, or institu- a section of the work (such as at the
tions are brought into contact with end of a chapter)
one another and with new groups
of people in an interactive fashion, glyph public sign that provides infor-
generally through the Internet. This mation visually
gives the sense that the world is a
single place. Supporters of global- Goffman, Erving (1922–1982) soci-
ization claim that it liberates popula- ologist who examined the self-image
tions from local and often restrictive or persona that people present in
lifestyles, generates wealth, makes social situations, arguing that social
possible the movement of people life was very much like the theater,
and ideas, and contributes to the de- as people perceived themselves as
velopment of human rights. Critics playing specific roles, adapting to the
claim that it eliminates crucial social situation linguistically, behaviorally,
and cultural differences. and in other ways. His most impor-

135
 go-go

tant work is The Presentation of Self gonzo journalism style of journal-

in Everyday Life (1959). ism that is more concerned with such
things as the reporter’s relation to the
go-go popular style of music originat- story or the emotional effects on the
ing in Washington, D.C., in the 1970s, people involved in the story, rather
which featured a strong beat and than the actual facts of the story
“go-go dancers,” scantily clad women
dancing alone to the music on special Google largest Internet search en-
raised platforms during a band perfor- gine, founded in 1998, which has an
mance or during a floor dance index of over 10 billion Web pages.
The name originated from a play
Gold Lion award given at the on the word googol, which refers to
Cannes International Advertising 10100 (the number represented by a 1
Festival for achievement in various followed by one-hundred zeros). The
categories, including print marketing, word has found its way into everyday
outdoor advertising, and television language as a verb, meaning, “to use
­commercials the Google search engine to obtain
information on the Internet.” Internet
gold record a golden replica of a address: www.google.com
record that has achieved at least one
million in sales gopher computer program that
searches file names and resources
golden age of cinema period of on the Internet, organizing them into
movie production during the 1920s menus that contain links to other files
and 1930s when cinema was in its or databases
infancy and when Hollywood movies
enjoyed an unprecedented, and since gospel music evangelical music
unparalleled, popularity derived from African American spiri-
tual and blues vocal music. Gospel
golden age of radio period from the music’s first influential composers
late 1920s to the late 1940s when and performers included Thomas A.
radio was the dominant medium for Dorsey, who coined the term; C.A.
home entertainment Tindley; Gary Davis; Sister Rosetta
Tharpe, who first brought gospel into
golden age of television period from nightclubs and theaters in the 1930s;
the early 1950s to the late 1980s and Mahalia Jackson. Gospel music
when television was the dominant has had a significant influence on
medium for home entertainment, rhythm and blues, soul music, and
before the rise of the Internet other pop music styles.

golden oldie piece of music that was gossip column regular newspaper
popular in a previous era or magazine column dealing with

136
 graffiti

typified by the Cathedral of Notre-

Dame de Paris; the style was revived
in the nineteenth century; 2. literary
style generally characterized by dark-
ness and gloom. The term was used
during the late 1700s and early 1800s
to describe a type of popular fiction
that revolved around mysterious
and supernatural events; the novels
were called Gothic because they
took place in gloomy castles built in
the Gothic style of architecture. The
first such novel was The Castle of
Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole.
Other early gothic novels include
The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) and
The Italian (1797) by Ann Radcliffe;
The Monk (1796) by Matthew G.
Lewis; Melmoth the Wanderer (1820)
by Charles Maturin; Frankenstein
A Goth at the Wave Gothic Festival,
Leipzig, Germany, May 25, 2007
(1818) by Mary Shelley; and Wuther-
ing Heights (1847) by Emily Bronte.
rumors and gossip about celebrities
and well-known public figures governmentality concept developed
by Michel Foucault meaning,
gotcha journalism news reporting essentially, the art of government;
in which journalists nab evildoers intended to imply that governing is
or interview people caught in some not limited to the political sphere, but
illegal act reaches out to all spheres, from the
cultural to the artistic
goth form of punk music and
lifestyle, especially among youths, GPS [see Global Positioning ­System]
characterized by the wearing of dark
clothes, the use of dark cosmetics, graffiti inscriptions of various kinds
and other gothic forms of symbolism, scratched, carved, or drawn on a
intended to challenge mainstream wall, pole, or other public surface.
society Graffiti have allowed linguists to re-
construct earlier stages of a language,
Gothic 1. architectural style preva- and social scientists to examine the
lent in Europe from the twelfth ideologies or lifestyle of certain
through the fifteenth centuries, groups (as has been done to study the
emphasizing light and verticality, graffiti of gangs, teen cliques, etc.).

137
 GrammAtology

grammatology term coined by or bombastic diction and mode of

Jacques Derrida, term referring delivery
to the priority of writing over vocal
speech in the development and use of graph 1. in mathematics, diagram
language, contrary to what linguists representing changes in a variable;
have traditionally maintained. Derrida 2. unit in writing representing a
claimed that pictographic language sound, a syllable, or entire concept
preceded vocalized language and that,
to this day, writing has a much more graphic art form of visual art relat-
crucial function in human affairs than ing to methods of reproduction such
do other forms of language. as printing, engraving, or etching.
The term is used generally in refer-
Grammy Awards honors given an- ence to the illustrations found in ad-
nually for outstanding achievement in vertisements, book designs, posters,
music. The first Grammies (the name is and the like.
an abbreviation of gramophone) were
given in 1958. They are now awarded graphic design craft of combining
in dozens of categories, from best com- text and illustrations in design (for
position to the best musical arrange- example, in ad texts, book covers).
ment. Web site: www.grammy.com Writers produce words while pho-
tographers and illustrators create
gramophone machine used formerly images; the graphic designer incorpo-
for playing records, invented in 1887 rates these elements into a complete
by Emile Berliner, a German immi- layout.
grant to the United States
graphic display computer screen
Gramsci, Antonio (1891–1937) Ital- with the capacity to display graphics
ian Marxist intellectual and politician
who is often quoted in media studies graphic equalizer device on an elec-
because of his notion of hegemony, tronic playback machine that allows
or domination of the media by those separate adjustments to be made to
in power in order to subtly influ- the sound quality
ence public opinion in their favor.
His influential Lettere dal carcere graphic novel novel developed from
(published posthumously in 1947; comic books, in which cartoon im-
published in English as Letters from ages are interspersed in the written
Prison in 1973) actually outlines a text. An example of a graphic novel
less dogmatic version of communism is Frank Miller’s Batman: The Dark
than that of most Marxists. Knight Returns (1986).

grandiloquence form of speech and graphical user interface [abbreviat-

discourse characterized by pompous ed as GUI] display format that allows

138
 gross rating point

a computer user to select commands, WDOO  VKRUW

call up files, start programs, and do

other tasks by using a mouse to point
to icons or lists of menu choices on
the screen as opposed to having to
type in text commands. The first GUI
to be used in a personal computer QRWVKRUW QRWWDOO 

appeared in Apple Computer’s Lisa,

introduced in 1983; its GUI became
the basis of Apple’s extremely suc- amplified the field narratology,
cessful Macintosh (1984). the study of narratives of all kinds.
Greimas’s most significant contri-
graphics 1. pictorial manipulation of bution in the field is the “semiotic
data, used in computers, the graphic square,” which posits that opposi-
arts, and so on; 2. pictorial display of tions hold in a square-like fashion
information on a computer rather than in a binary manner. For
example, the word tall takes on
Graphics Interchange Format meaning in contrast to not tall, short,
[see GIF] and not short. Thus, the meaning of
tall is gleaned from a semiotic square
G-rating movie and television clas- of oppositions.
sification indicating that the movie
or program is suitable for general gripe site Web site providing an op-
audiences portunity for users to counter or chal-
lenge another person or an institution
grazing act of watching several tele-
vision programs simultaneously gross audience compilation of all the
audiences studied for an advertising
green light process procedure lead- campaign or media experiment. The
ing to the decision to make a movie gross audience may actually include
duplicated audience members.
green room small room near a
broadcast studio in which program gross cover number of times a radio
guests wait before they are inter- or television commercial has been
viewed or where actors can go to rest seen or heard

greenwashing public relations strat- gross rating point method of deter-

egy of companies to counter the ad- mining the effectiveness of outdoor
vertising tactics of ­environmentalists advertising, with 1 percent of a
sample group represented by a
Greimas, Algirdas Julien (1917– point in a statistical method of
1992) French semiotician who ­analysis

139
 Grossberg, Lawrence

Grossberg, Lawrence (1947–) grunge, consisting of torn jeans and

American cultural theorist who has flannel shirts
sought to show how audiences be-
come attached to certain performers, guerrilla marketing marketing that
texts, or programs. His most influen- uses nontraditional media and strate-
tial book is We Gotta Get Out of This gies to promote products or services
Place (1992), in which he contends
that rock culture, once considered GUI [see graphical user interface]
deviant and aberrant, has become
part of conservative culture. guide publication that lists program-
ming (radio or television) times and
ground entire or connecting surface typically describes the content of
of a scene in a movie shoot each program listed

Gutenberg Galaxy [after Johannes

group in Web talk, network of online
Gutenberg (c. 1390–1468), a German
individuals who share a common
printer] term coined by Marshall
interest
McLuhan to refer to the world that
resulted from the availability of
group system method of organizing
cheap books and the spread of litera-
an advertising agency into groups,
cy as a consequence of the invention
each with its own area of specialized
of print technology.
expertise (marketing, ad creation)
gutter press generic term to describe
grunge style of rock music made tabloid newspapers
famous by the late musician Kurt
Cobain, derived from punk rock, and gynocriticism in feminist theory,
characterized especially by anguished study of the writings produced by
lyrics; also used to describe the style women and how they convey the
of clothing worn by followers of “female experience”

140
 last item

H
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–) tion posted on the World
German philosopher who Wide Web
sees art as the force of
change in cultural systems. hacktivism the use of hack-
Habermas is widely known ing for political or social
for his critiques of the ten- purposes [blend of hacking
dency of Western capitalist democra- and activism]
cies to evaluate social progress in
terms of economic efficiency. His halftone image produced by break-
major works include Theorie und ing down photographs into a series of
Praxis (1963; Theory and Practice, dots that appear as shades of gray on
1973), Erkenntis und Interesse (1968; a page
Knowledge and Human Interests,
1971), Theorie des kommunikativen Hall, Stuart (1932–) influential
Handelns (1981; A Theory of Com- media scholar who has become
municative Action, 1984), and Der well-known as a major proponent of
philosophische Diskurs der Moderne reception theory, or the view that
(1985; The Philosophical Discourse audiences are not passive consumers
of Modernity, 1987). of media texts but, rather, selectors
of them according to their particular
habitus [term coined by Marcel preferences. Among his best-known
Mauss and later used by Pierre works are Encoding and Decoding
Bourdieu] the ways in which soci- in Television Discourse (1973) and
ety’s dominant classes talk, act, and Representation: Cultural Represen-
behave. Noting that success in society tations and Signifying Practices (as
depends largely on the individual’s editor, 1997).
ability to absorb the habitus of the
dominant class, Bourdieu suggested halo brand product brand that lends
that it is similar to, but more funda- value to a company’s subbrands by
mental than, knowing a language. association. The halo brand is also
called the master brand.
hacker 1. individual who uses his
or her computer expertise to gain halo effect theory that the way some-
unauthorized access to a computer one looks and acts can lead observers
system or a site either to learn about to make unwarranted assumptions
the system or to examine and/or about the person. For example, some-
­manipulate its data; 2. more gener- one who is unkempt and appears
ally, an aficionado of information scruffily dressed might be judged
technology (perhaps mistakenly) to be some-
one who would not be suitable for a
hacker ethic view that users should white-collar job. In media studies, it
have absolute free access to informa- is used to refer to the phenomenon of

141
 hammocking

viewers reporting not what they actu- hard sell aggressive methods of
ally watched but what they believe advertising
they should have watched.
hardback book published with a
hammocking technique of inserting rigid cover, usually more expensive
a television program between two and in a larger format than paperback
highly popular programs to boost its
ratings hardcore 1. extreme form of a pop
music style such as punk or hip-hop;
hang time amount of time someone 2. sexual portrayal in movies that is
spends visiting a Web site completely explicit

Haraway, Donna (1944–) important hardware [in contrast to software]

feminist critic whose analyses of the the computer’s actual machinery
cyborg have ignited a wide-ranging and equipment, including memory,
debate on the amalgamation of hu- cabling, power supply, peripheral
mans with technology and especially devices, and circuit boards. Hardware
of the effects of this amalgamation specifies a computer’s capability;
on women. Her most cited book is software instructs the computer what
­Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: to do.
The Reinvention of Nature (1991).
Harlequin traditional commedia
hard copy printed copy of a text, as dell’arte character; a wily, unscru-
opposed to electronic copy (con- pulous comic servant. By the early
tained in a computer file or docu- seventeenth century Harlequin had
ment) been transformed into a faithful valet
involved in amorous exploits. He
hard disc permanent storage disc in wore tight-fitting peasant clothes with
a computer. The term is also used to colored patches decorated with bright
refer to the entire hard drive. triangles and diamond shapes. He
carried a slapstick and wore a black
hard news news stories that are half-mask.
designed to help audiences make
intelligent decisions about an issue harmony 1. in music, two or more
or event, with little accompanying tones used together and perceived as
commentary pleasant-sounding; 2. chord structure
and movement in a piece of music
hard rock type of rock music that is (as distinguished from melody and
characterized by loud guitar accom- rhythm)
paniment and a strong insistent beat,
with singing that often simulates a Hartley, John (1948–) influential
form of shouting culture theorist, whose analyses

142
 heavy viewer

of television have become widely headline news newscast or channel

quoted, particularly Reading Televi- that deals only with topical news and/
sion (written with John Fiske, 1978) or events that are currently taking
place
Hawthorne effect tendency of
research subjects to give the type headphones pair of earphones joined
of information that they believe is across the top of a listener’s head
required by the researchers. More
generally, it refers to how people headset headphones that have a small
react to different situations and are microphone for two-way communica-
influenced by factors in those situa- tion, used by television producers,
tions (such as the type of interview camerapersons, and others during
used by researchers, the personality filming, taping, or ­broadcasting
of the researchers, etc.). The term Hearst, Randolph (1863–1951)
comes from the name of a factory one of the most prominent figures in
called the Hawthorne Works, where the history of newspaper publishing
a series of experiments were carried in the United States. Hearst helped
out between 1924 and 1932. bring about the era of yellow
journalism, employing circulation-
Hays Code set of censorship guide- boosting tactics. In 1935 he owned
lines for movies in the United States 28 major newspapers, 18 magazines,
issued in 1934. Under severe criti- radio stations, movie companies, and
cism, the Code was abandoned in news services.
1967 and replaced by a rating system.
heavy metal rock music style
HDTV [see high definition marked by amplified and sometimes
­television] distorted guitar “power chords,” a
hard beat, a thumping bass, and an
headend equipment that allows cable aggressive style of singing. Heavy
subscribers to receive transmission metal emerged in the late 1960s from
signals. The headend receives signals the heavy, blues-oriented music of
from an antenna or antennas, process- Steppenwolf and Jimi Hendrix. In the
es the signals, sending them through 1970s and 1980s bands such as Led
the distribution system to customers. Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, Kiss, ­
AC/DC, Aerosmith, Def Leppard,
headline 1. short title printed in Iron Maiden, Mötley Crüe, and Van
heavier type at the top of a newspaper Halen developed the style further.
article telling what it is about; 2. line
printed at the top of a page giving heavy viewer person who watches
the running title, page number, and television frequently and, for that
possibly other information related to reason, is often included in target
content study audiences

143
 Hebdige, Dick

Hebdige, Dick (1951–) media analyst on the part of the dominant class in
renowned for his studies of youth sub- a society to gain the consent of those
cultures. His best-known book is Sub- who are dominated. The instruments
culture: The Meaning of Style (1979). of hegemony range from outright
coercion (incarceration, secret po-
hedge redundant phrase used in lice, threats, physical elimination) to
conversation, such as “I mean” and gentler and more “managerial” tactics
“you know,” which nevertheless has (education, religion, control of the
a communicative function, such as mass media). The concept of hegemo-
making a statement less blunt or ny has found widespread use in media
conveying personal assurance studies, where it is used to refer more
to the cultural production of consent,
hedonism ancient Greek philosophy rather than overt forms of coercion.
that pleasure is the only true goal
of life and that its pursuit is what Heidegger, Martin (1889–1976)
motivates humans. British philoso- German philosopher who posited that
phers Jeremy Bentham and James the individual living in a consumerist
Mill and his son, John Stuart Mill, mass culture is always in danger of
renamed the philosophy utilitarian- being deprived of a sense of self-
ism, expanding it to encompass the worth. He called the resulting mental
well-being of the greatest number of state nihilism. His most influential
people, not just individuals. work, Sein und Zeit (1927; Being and
Time), dealt with the fundamental
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich philosophical question of “being-in-
(1770–1831) German philosopher the-world,” or “What is the meaning
who defined a process of human of being?” His work had a significant
progress (which became known as influence on French philosophers
the Hegelian dialectic) that involved Michel Foucault and Jacques
the generation and interaction of op- Derrida.
posing concepts. To understand any
aspect of culture or the human condi- Helmholtz, Hermann von (1821–
tion, one must retrace its origin and 1894) German physicist whose
development through this process. research on the physics of sound
His works include Phänomenologie ranked as the outstanding work of his
des Geistes (1807; The Phenomenol- time in acoustics
ogy of Mind), Wissenschaft der Logik
(1812–1816; Science of Logic), and herd journalism practice of report-
Grundlinien der Philosophie des ers staking out a house or following a
­Rechts (1821; Philosophy of Right). story in large groups

hegemony [as defined by Italian Herder, Johann Gottfried von

Marxist Antonio Gramsci] the efforts (1744–1803) German philosopher

144
 hidden-fear appeal

who claimed that national character 2. a view of history from the female
is encoded in a people’s language perspective, as opposed to history =
and literature. His Ideen zur Philoso- his story, or the conventional view of
phie der Geschichte der Menschheit history from the standpoint of men
(1784–1791; Outlines of a Phi-
losophy of the History of Mankind) heterogeneous audience audience
opened the way to the modern-day consisting of demographically di-
systematic comparative study of verse members, that is, members who
civilizations. differ in age, gender, education, class,
ethnicity, religion, or another variable
Herman and Chomsky’s propa-
ganda model [as articulated by heteroglossia exposure to, or con-
Edward Herman and Noam Chom- struction of, an unfamiliar language
sky in Manufacturing Consent: The or languages, implying new perspec-
Political Economy of the Mass Media tives or new meanings
(1988)] a model of news reporting
that claims that the overriding con- heterophily differences of opin-
sideration of news agencies is sup- ion, values, or viewpoints that arise
porting the views of those in power, between two people conversing with
thus essentially producing a form each other
of propaganda rather than impartial
news commentary heterotopia the different “social
spaces” (features of language, deliv-
hermeneutics 1. systematic study of ery, turn-taking sequences, etc.) that
texts on the basis of their language arise surreptitiously and unconscious-
and their history; 2. study of how ly between two people conversing
people interpret texts. The essence with each other
of hermeneutic method is to locate
a text in the context of the times in heuristic 1. designed to facilitate
which it was produced, not in terms learning (for example, a pedagogi-
of current ideas and theories. cal method); 2. in computer science,
a program that can adapt to user
hero/heroine 1. personage, often su- instructions, activities, or responses
pernatural or mythical, endowed with (for example, checking spelling and
bravery and strength (in myth, the grammar)
hero is remarkable for his or her bold
exploits and is favored by the gods); hidden-fear appeal [also called
2. principal character in a work of scare copy] advertising technique
fiction designed to promote such goods and
services as insurance, fire alarms,
herstory 1. the biography or study of a cosmetics, and vitamin capsules by
particular woman or group of women; evoking the fear of poverty, sick-

145
 hierarchy of effects

ness, loss of social standing, and/or ated with fine arts such as classical
impending disaster music, the ballet, opera, and painting,
and low culture with popular spec-
hierarchy of effects series of steps tacles such as wrestling and erotic
by which consumers receive and use movies. This distinction raises the
information in reaching decisions question of what cultural content is
about whether or not to buy a prod- better or worse and, more important-
uct. The steps include: awareness of ly, who has the right (if any) of de-
the product, knowledge about it (and ciding so. In actual fact, most people
the company that makes it), tastes can easily distinguish between the
connected with it, preference, convic- two levels of culture. Great works of
tion, and purchase. art foster engagement; many popular
media artifacts, on the other hand, are
hieratic flowing script (executed with designed solely to provide distraction
reed pens on papyrus) developed by and entertainment, even though the
the Egyptians around 2700 b.c.e. in dividing line between the two is often
place of hieroglyphic writing blurry indeed. Many of the forms
intended originally for entertainment
hieroglyphic ancient Egyptian writ- have themselves evolved into works
ing system, originating around 3000 of art. Some pieces of jazz and rock
b.c.e., based on stylized pictorial music, for example, are now listed
symbols. These represented not only alongside the works of the great
people, things, and ideas, but also classical composers. Some types of
a few consonant sounds. The latest advertising, too, may be considered
hieroglyphic writing dates from 394 artistically interesting.
c.e. Hieroglyphic writing was deci-
phered after the discovery in 1799 of high definition television [abbrevi-
the Rosetta Stone, a slab that had the ated as HDTV] television system
same text in Greek and hieroglyphic that presents a picture that is wider
writing. Jean François Champollion than conventional television screens
compared the two, thus deciphering and has twice as many lines of scan-
the hieroglyphs. ning for increased clarity and detail.
HDTV uses digital technology to
high-concept movie movie produced process the original signal, transmit
with a large budget on the belief that it, and reproduce it in the television
it can be easily marketed and turned set. In addition to providing digital
into a commercial success high-resolution video, HDTV trans-
mits a digital audio signal that results
high culture vs. low culture distinc- in CD-quality sound. Essentially,
tion made between forms of culture the technology used to create HDTV
considered to be of greater or lesser produces picture and sound that rival
worth. High culture is often associ- those found in movie theaters.

146
 history technique in advertising

hi-fi [abbreviation of high fidelity]

reproduction of sound by a radio, CD
player, or other device with as little dis-
tortion of the original sound as possible

high-speed photography filmic

technique in which consecutive
multiple shots are taken quickly to
capture an action that is too fast to be
seen with the naked eye

hip-hop youth-based music and life-

style that emerged in African Ameri-
can neighborhoods of New York in Hippies (also called “freaks”) in Los
the 1970s, characterized originally Angeles in the summer of 1967
by rap music and breakdancing. Rap
came to national prominence with their worldview. They let their hair
Sugar Hill Gang’s Rapper’s Delight grow long and walked barefoot or
(1979). In its original form, hip-hop wore sandals. Many used marijuana,
combined spoken street language LSD, and other drugs. The Beatles
with cuts, called samples, from older helped spread the hippie movement
records. The themes of hip-hop lyrics with their songs, as did the Grateful
originally revolved around political Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Joan Baez,
issues, racial discrimination, mas- and Bob Dylan, among other such
culinity, and an implicit mockery of musicians of the era.
the existing social order. Over time,
hip-hop has become more melodic historicism 1. theory that forces
and eclectic, incorporating elements beyond human control influence the
from the blues, rhythm and blues, course of human history; 2. theory
jazz, and soul. that each historical era develops its
own unique forms of culture that can
hippies counterculture youth of only be understood in context
the 1960s and 1970s. The hippies
rejected the traditions and lifestyles historiography study of history in
of bourgeois (capitalist) society. They general, or of the history of a move-
proclaimed a world based on love ment, era, trend, etc.
and peace, strongly opposing the
Vietnam War. Many lived together on history technique in advertising
communes, refusing to be tied down technique whereby a significant
to a fixed job. They were sometimes historical event is incorporated into
called “flower children” because they the ad, either by allusion or by direct
gave people flowers to symbolize reference

147
 hit

hit a record, play, movie, or other er to use the Internet; 2. the first page
creative product that has become of a Web site that welcomes a user
a success with both audiences and
critics home video theater system com-
posed of audio and video equipment
hit rate number of occasions that a that recreates the movie theater
Web site has been viewed by Internet experience in the home. The system
users includes a large-screen television and
a multi-speaker sound system.
Hoggart, Richard (1918–) Marxist
cultural theorist and founder of the homology in Marxist theory, view
Centre for Contemporary Cultural that a media text is designed to de-
Studies at the University of Birming- liver meaning in politically controlled
ham. In The Uses of Literacy (1957), ways (either explicitly or implicitly)
Hoggart laments the passing of true
culture under the forces of capitalist- homophily situation in which
based consumerist economics. interlocutors share the same values,
ideas, beliefs, and worldview during
Hollywood city originally founded dialogue, conversation, or other form
by Horace Wilcox in 1887, a prohi- of verbal communication
bitionist who envisioned a commu-
nity based on religious principles. It hooks, bell (1952–) [written in
was consolidated with Los Angeles lower-case style] prominent African
in 1910 and became the center of American feminist critic (born Gloria
the movie industry by 1915. By the Watkins) whose work on race and
1960s, it also was the source of much gender representations in the media
American network television pro- have become topical and widely
gramming. Web site: www quoted. Among her works are Black
.hollywoodchamber.net Looks (1992) and Reel to Real: Race,
Sex, and Class at the Movies (1996).
holography photography without
lenses, whereby a three-dimensional horizontal integration acquisition
image is recorded on a plate or film of a smaller company by a larger
by laser, which splits into two beams, one, such as, for example, a large
forming a pattern reflecting the shape newspaper taking over a smaller rival
of the photographed object. When the newspaper
pattern is exposed to light, a three-
dimensional image (a hologram) is Horkheimer, Max (1895–1973) a
formed. founding member of the Frank-
furt School. His Dialektik der
home page 1. the page that is loaded Aufklärung (1947; Dialectic of En-
when someone opens up their brows- lightenment), written with Theodor

148
 human interest

Adorno, is a widely quoted work house music style of dance music,

that traces the origins of modern-day derived from disco music, using elec-
totalitarianism to the Enlightenment tronic or synthesized sound ­effects
concept of instrumental reason.
house organ magazine published
horror genre literary genre intended by a company for its employees and
to provoke feelings of fear or shock. clients, containing information about
Horror stories are of ancient origin the company, its products, and its
and form a substantial part of folk employees
literature. They may feature super-
natural beings such as ghosts, witches, houses using television [abbreviated
or vampires, or may address more re- as HUTs] percentage of homes watch-
alistic psychological fears. In Western ing television during a specific time
literature, the horror genre emerged period and within a specific region
in the eighteenth century with the
gothic novel. The horror genre was html [abbreviation of hypertext
also one of the first to become popular markup language] computer lan-
in movies, remaining so to this day. guage that is used to prepare hyper-
text documents on the World Wide
host 1. person who welcomes and Web. The text coding consists of
speaks to invited guests on radio and commands in angle brackets < > that
television programs; 2. in a computer affect the display of elements such as
network, the main computer control- titles, headings, text, font style, color,
ling functions and files; 3. computer and references to other documents.
linking individual personal comput-
ers to the Internet http [abbreviation of hypertext
transfer protocol] protocol used for
hosting business of putting Web sites exchanging files on the World Wide
onto the Internet Web. Web browsers are http clients
that send file requests to Web servers,
hot in reference to a microphone, hot
which in turn handle the requests via
means that the microphone is “on”
an http service.
hot medium [in contrast to cold
­medium] Marshall McLuhan’s huckster a publicity agent or writer
term referring to any medium, such of advertising copy (usually used as a
as film and radio, that requires little pejorative)
interaction and interpretation on the
part of an audience human interest reporting style that is
designed to touch audiences emotion-
hot spot building or area where ally on issues that are important to
wireless Internet users can access an most people. Often a human-interest
Internet connection story focuses on the trials and tribula-

149
 humanism

tions of ordinary humans caught in different identities (in contrast to the

extraordinary predicaments construction of self on the basis of a
single cultural model)
humanism a cultural movement in
Renaissance Europe, characterized hype exaggerated publicity strategy
by a revival of classical letters, an for a movie, a program, a product,
individualistic and critical spirit, and or a spectacle, designed to create
a shift of emphasis from religious to ­excitement
secular concerns
hyperbole exaggerated statement
humor state of producing or perceiv- used for effect and not meant to be
ing something as funny, generally ac- taken literally: for example, Waves as
companied by laughter. Humor takes high as mountains hit the beach
many literary and media forms: wit
is humor based on cleverness; satire hypercard software designed by
deals with human weaknesses, making Apple that provides users with a
fun of them; sarcasm is more nasty, of- processing tool consisting of “cards”
ten taking the form of indirect stinging collected together in a “stack,” with
commentary (That’s a lovely suit—too each card containing text, graphics,
bad they didn’t have your size); irony and sound.
implies the opposite of what is being
said or done through understatement; hypercommercialism increasing the
farce, slapstick, and buffoonery involve amount of advertising and blending it
pranks and practical jokes; parody and into actual media content
burlesque alter a story comically; and
mimicry involves imitating someone hyperlink word, symbol, image, or
else for comic effect. other form in a hypertext document
that “links,” or directly transfers the
humor in advertising use of humor user, to another element in the docu-
to make a product appealing, which ment or to another site. The hyperlink
allows a brand to keep in step with is activated with a mouse click.
changing times and with changing
humor trends hypermedia information retrieval
system used for accessing texts,
HUTs [see houses using television] audio, video, etc., on the World Wide
Web. A hypermedia navigation might
hybrid combination of art forms, include links to music, opera, har-
styles, or genres resulting in a new mony, composers, and musicology.
form, style, or genre
hyperreality the simulation of reality
hybridity in cultural theory, the in media, perceived by some com-
crossbreeding and intertwining of mentators as more authentic than ac-

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 hypothesis

tual reality. The term is used often in hypertext markup language

semiotics and psychology to portray [see html]
the inability of people to distinguish
reality from fantasy, especially in hypertext transfer protocol [see http]
technologically advanced societies.
Some well-known theorists of hyper- hypodermic needle theory in media
reality include semioticians Jean Bau- studies, a theory that the mass media
drillard and Umberto Eco. The main can directly influence behavior. The
thrust of hyperreality theory is that theory claims that media are capable
the real world has been replaced by a of directly swaying minds with the
copy world, where we seek simula- same kind of impact that a hypo-
tion for its own sake. For example, dermic needle has on the body. This
life within a theme park such as Dis- theory is now largely discredited. It
neyland allows people to engage in has been found, for example, that me-
the fantasy worlds such a park creates dia impacts are indirect and are often
and live through them temporarily. mediated by group leaders. People of
The problem, argue Baudrillard and different social classes come up with
Eco, is that such hyperreal experienc- different interpretations of media
es start to dominate consciousness, products, tending to perceive them as
making it difficult for many humans interpretive communities. However,
to distinguish between the simulation this theory is still used by some to
and its object of representation. This claim that people are influenced by
theme is, incidentally, intrinsic in the what they watch on TV, to variable
1999 movie The Matrix. degrees.

hypertext system of storing text, im- hypothesis an assertion that is as-

ages, and other files that allows for sumed to be valid or true because it
links to related text, images, etc. The seems likely to be so; a hypothesis
term surfaced in 1965. Hypertext is usually set forth as an assump-
makes it easy for users to browse tion that must be tested and proved.
through related topics, regardless The term is used in social scientific
of their presented order. In Internet research on media primarily in the
browsers, hypertext links (hotlinks, expression hypothesis testing, a
or hyperlinks) are usually indi- method of assuming an hypothesis
cated by a word or phrase with a (for example, television induces vio-
different font or color. These create lence) and then conducting a study or
a branching structure that permits experiment to ascertain if the hy-
direct, unmediated jumps to related pothesis is true or false (and to what
­information. degree it is so).

151
 first item

I
IBM [see International superego. The id is defined
Business Machines] as part of the unconscious,
where instinctual drives
IBOC [see in-band-on- and accumulated memories
channel] exist, influencing behavior
reflexively.
iceberg principle in advertising, a
principle claiming that advertising idealism philosophical theory that
should aim its messages at the strong physical reality does not exist inde-
needs and desires that lie hidden pendently of human minds, which
deep within the psyche, in analogy filter it accordingly. Idealism is the
to an iceberg that is only 10 percent opposite of both materialism, which
visible, with the remainder hidden claims that mental consciousness is
below the water a purely physical phenomenon, and
realism, which claims that physi-
icon 1. sign or symbol resembling cal reality is independent of human
its referent (e.g., a star figure stand- minds and can be understood objec-
ing for a star); 2. a visual image; 3. tively through the senses. Idealism
picture of a sacred personage; 4. a starts with Plato, who maintained
person in pop culture who is revered that the ideas produced by the mind
(e.g., a celebrity); 5. picture on a imperfectly mirror physical reality.
computer screen standing for a spe- In the eighteenth century Irish phi-
cific command, function, etc. (e.g., losopher George Berkeley extended
icon of a file folder) Plato’s concept by claiming, es-
sentially, that nothing exists outside
iconography 1. the imagery used in the mind, since it is the mind that
a work of art or a body of works; 2. classifies matter and not matter itself.
study of art that focuses on icons or German philosopher Immanuel Kant
symbols in painting and sculpture. also claimed that the properties of
Icons of pagan gods have been found ­human perception shape how reality
as far back as 3000 b.c.e. in the is understood. In contrast, G.W.F.
Middle East. Iconography became a Hegel believed that the human mind
main aspect of the Eastern Orthodox was capable of truly understanding
Churches, where icons are painted reality as it is, not as it is perceived.
according to rules established by
ecclesiastical authorities. ideational function of language use
of language to express or construct
iconoscope tube first television cam- ideas
era tube, developed in 1923
ident visual image identifying
id in psychoanalytic theory, the in- a channel that is inserted briefly
stincts, in contrast to the ego and the ­between television programs

152
 illuminated manuscripts

identification 1. form of unconscious

imitation on the part of people of what
they have seen or heard in the media;
2. ability of audiences to identify emo-
tionally with fictional characters

ideogram 1. picture sign represent-

ing an object or idea, rather than a
word: $ = dollars; & = and

ideological criticism critical reading

of a text from a specific ideological
perspective, that is, from the stand-
point of a specific set of assumptions,
beliefs, or viewpoints

ideological state apparatus in Marx-

ist theory, ways in which a society
imposes an ideology on its mem-
bers, either by coercion or persuasion

ideology system of thought based Illuminated manuscript

on a specific set of assumptions,
beliefs, or viewpoints that appears patterns, tone of voice, and typical
to be a product of common sense, choice of words
but which is actually socially con-
structed. Those strongly committed idiom expression that cannot be un-
to a particular ideology have diffi- derstood from the individual mean-
culty understanding and communicat- ings of its words, but in its totality:
ing with supporters of a conflicting to be born with a silver spoon in
ideology. For Karl Marx, ideology one’s mouth; to go on a wild goose
referred to the ideas and values of the chase
ruling classes, which are reproduced
by the dominant social institutions idol 1. image or statue of a deity used
(the law, family, religion, education). as an object of worship; 2. by exten-
The term was coined in 1796 by the sion, any celebrity who is worshipped
French writer Antoine-Louis-Claude, by certain types of fans: a teen idol, a
Comte Destutt de Tracy to describe matinee idol, etc.
his “science of ideas.”
illuminated manuscripts books
idiolect an individual’s manner of written and illustrated by hand, with
speaking, including pronunciation bright colors and precious metals.

153
 illusion

image advertising advertising aim-

ing to make a brand or company
name easily remembered, that is, to
transform it into an image

image map graphic image on a Web

An illusion form site that has hyperlinks in it that
link to another Web page
Illuminated manuscripts were created
as objects of luxury during the medi- image processing computer analysis of
eval and Renaissance eras. an image, identifying its components

illusion form (drawing, figure, photo) image schema [introduced by

that produces an erroneous percep- American linguist George Lakoff and
tion. People are typically fooled into American philosopher Mark Johnson]
seeing AB as longer than CD, even in linguistics and media studies, recur-
though it is not. Called the Müller- ring abstract images that guide lan-
Lyer illusion, it is caused in all guage and perception. These function
likelihood by the fact that people are to compress sensory information into
accustomed to interpreting outward- general patterns. For example, image
extending arrowheads as increasing schemas derived from the experience
the length of lines and, vice versa, of orientation—up vs. down, back vs.
to interpreting inward-extending ar- front, near vs. far—can be detected
rowheads as decreasing the length of in such expressions as: I’m feeling up
lines. In cultures where such drawing today; We are getting closer to each
techniques do not exist, it has been other every day; He’s at the top of his
found that the illusion does not occur. class; and She’s near her goal.
illusionism 1. techniques designed imagery 1. picture formed in the
to make representations resemble mind; 2. comparisons, descriptions,
reality; 2. techniques that produce and figures of speech that help the
illusions; 3. stage magic mind form images; 3. expressive im-
illustration picture, figure, or ages used in art and media
diagram used to explain or decorate
something, especially written text imagined community idea that
media audiences form abstract
IM [see instant messaging] communities in the “mediasphere”
according to shared beliefs and
image 1. mental picture; 2. public ideas that influence how they
view of something or someone, often ­interpret the media. The term was
intentionally instigated by advertising coined by the American scholar
or propaganda Benedict Anderson.

154
 impressionism

Impression, Sunrise (1872) by Claude Monet

imaging system software capable of imperative form in advertising

digitizing images technique consisting in the use of the
imperative form of verbs, creating
IMAX trade name for a large-format the sense that an authoritative source
movie projection system with three- is giving advice: for example, Just do
dimensional technology it! (Nike); Have a Bud! (Budweiser)

IMC [see integrated marketing imperialism 1. extending power

communications] and dominion, either by invasion or
by gaining political and economic
immediacy view that a news story control; 2. by extension, the spread of
will have greater impact if it refers to a particular type of media fare (such
a recent or ongoing event as American media) to other areas of
the world
impact scheduling practice of run-
ning advertisements for a product close impressionism art style emerging in
together (on radio or television) so as to France in the 1870s, characterized
make a strong impact on audiences by rich hues that allow the painter to
convey an “impression,” rather than
impartiality being completely objective a realistic or exact representation, of
and uninvolved in reporting the news light and form. The subject matter

155
 impulse pay-per-view

of impressionists consisted of the independent phone companies local

objects of everyday life (landscapes, service telephone companies that
street scenes, etc.). The principal are not affiliated with a major phone
artists of the movement were Claude company
Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Alfred
Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Édouard in-depth reporting news report-
­Manet, and Camille Pissarro. ing that goes into detail and is well
researched
impulse pay-per-view pay-per-view
television service that makes it pos- index 1. list of the contents of a print
sible to order programs on the spot, publication; 2. in semiotics, sign
without advance reservation whose function is pointing out some-
thing real or imaginary in temporal,
in-band-on-channel [abbreviated as spatial, or relational terms; for ex-
IBOC] digital radio technology that ample, the index finger; words such
allows for the integrated use of digi- as this or that and here or there.
tal and analog signal transmissions
indicator any nonverbal cue used
incentive marketing strategy, such during conversation, such as a frown,
as the giving away of free gifts, de- scratching the head, folding the arms,
signed to provide a favorable image nodding, etc.
of the product or company
indie [abbreviation of independent]
incidental music music composed to any production or broadcast compa-
be played at the same time as some ny, group, or individual not tied to a
action in a film, play, or television mainstream studio, network, or media
program organization

indecency in broadcasting, any individualism belief or social theory

material that depicts sexual or other maintaining that a single individual’s
biological activities in ways deemed freedom is as important as the wel-
unacceptable by community stan- fare of entire groups, communities,
dards societies, and the like

independent film [abbreviated as indoctrination any forcible imposi-

indie] any film that is not produced tion (overt or covert) of a particular
by a major studio, but by an “inde- system of values and beliefs
pendent” producer, company, etc.
induction [in contrast to abduc-
independent media media outlets tion and deduction] logical process
not tied to a major network or large of reaching a general conclusion
media system on the basis of particular facts; for

156
 information processing model

example, if one measures the num- est amount of information because it

ber of degrees in a large number of has a lower probability of (expected)
triangles (in the plane), one comes to occurrence.
the induction that there must be 180°
in all triangles—a conclusion that information architecture methods
remains valid unless or until proved used in designing a Web site
differently
information blizzards information
industrial advertising advertising to overload to which people are exposed
businesses, rather than to individuals by media, which is difficult to digest
and reflect upon
infoholic individual who has become
obsessed with information, seeking information gap disparity in access
it out constantly, especially on the to information among individuals and
Internet groups

infomediary Web site where special- information highway 1. computer

ized information is available network, such as the Internet, link-
ing many users, making it possible
infomercial [blend of information to transfer information quickly
and commercial] extended television and broadly; 2. circulation of both
commercial that mimics a television personal communication and mass
program. Often infomercials feature media through new technologies
celebrities who advertise a product in
talk show style. information line line of text running
across a computer screen providing
infonesia [blend of information and information about the program being
amnesia] inability to remember a executed or the file being used
piece of information or its location
information management task of
on the Internet
controlling information and its flow
within an organization or system
information 1. anything that can
be perceived, accessed, stored, and information overload according to
retrieved; 2. measure of the prob- one view, the excess information that
ability that a message will occur. If a information technology has pro-
message is expected with 100 percent duced, which is too much for people
certainty, its information value is to use intelligently or even practical-
0. For example, in a house alarm ly, and which may have deleterious
system, the “no ringing” state is the effects on social systems
expected one and, thus, the one that
carries this value; the “ringing” state, information processing model ad-
on the other hand, carries the high- vertising model evaluating the effects

157
 information retrieval

of an advertising strategy directed at uses are, etc. Perhaps the first true
audiences who are identified as being theory of information was the one put
effective in processing information forward by Claude Shannon in the
late 1940s, known as the bull’s-eye
information retrieval process of model, because it depicts informa-
using or manipulating a database in tion transfer as a closed system
order to extract some specific infor- between a sender directing a mes-
mation from it sage at a receiver as if he or she were
a bull’s-eye target. Although many
information science science that have since been critical of the uses
concerns the production, compila- of this model to explain how human
tion, structuring, storage, retrieval, communication works, its general
and propagation of information. outline and corollary notions, espe-
The field is interdisciplinary, utiliz- cially that of feedback, have proved
ing ideas and techniques from other to be useful in all areas of communi-
cognate disciplines (computer sci- cation science.
ence, linguistics, etc.). Today, most of
the research within the field revolves information worker individual who
around how to use computer-based works with information in some way,
methods in the organization of in- such as creating Web pages or con-
formation. It also includes the study structing computer databases
of bibliometrics, the discipline that
measures such things as the growth informational appeal advertising
or decline in the number of books on technique describing the demonstra-
a specific topic. ble characteristics of a product (how
it works, how it is made, and so on)
information society world order in
which the exchange of information infotainment [blend of information
(more than goods) shapes social and and entertainment] television or
economic systems other media form of entertainment
based on presenting factual informa-
information superhighway [variant tion in an engaging way
of information highway]
inherent drama advertising utilizing
information technology range of a mini-drama style that emphasizes
computer-based media systems and the benefits that accrue from purchas-
telecommunication, including radio, ing a product, such as the nutritional
television, print, and the Internet value of a food or the gas-saving
quality of a car
information theory any theory
attempting to explain what informa- inheritance factor tendency for
tion is, how it is processed, what its ratings of a program to rise if it is

158
 im

aired after a popular program; the achieve an output, that is, a desired
rise is said to be “inherited” from the result
preceding program
input hardware computer devices
in-house agency advertising agency or systems that allow for information
that is owned and operated by a to be introduced into a computer,
company to manage its advertising including a mouse, a keyboard, an
program optical scanner, a voice recognition
module, and the like.
in-line graphic image that is part of a
Web page inquiry test in advertising, a test
measuring the effectiveness of an ad
Innis, Harold (1894–1952) Canadian or ad campaign based on responses
historian famous for his studies of the to it
interrelation between culture, media,
and technology. Innis divided media insert shot close-up shot of a
into time-biased and space-biased headline or some other item that is
media. The former include handwrit- inserted into a filmed scene in order
ten and oral media that are intended to show the viewer what a character
to last for many generations, but are in the scene can see
used in relatively small communities;
the latter include most of the modern inside back cover page on the inside
electronic and print media, which are of the back cover of a publication that
designed to reach as many people can be used for advertising and vari-
as possible, but will typically not ous information-providing purposes
last long in time. While time-biased
media favor a sense of community, inside story reportage based on the
space-biased media favor commer- firsthand experiences of those who
cialism and imperialism. Among his are inside a company or organization
most important works are Empire and in the news
Communications (1950); The Bias
of Communication (1951); and The instant book in the book industry,
Strategy of Culture (1952). strategy of publishing a topical book
as quickly as possible after a major
inoculation effect ability of audiences news story
to resist being persuaded by a com-
mercial, a news program, etc., if they instant messaging [abbreviated as
are warned beforehand that an attempt IM] real-time communication be-
to persuade them is about to occur tween two or more people based on
typed text, which is transmitted via
input information introduced into a the Internet. An early form of IM was
computer system that allows a user to used on private computer networks

159
 instant replay

such as the Plato system of the early intellectual property are trademarks,
1970s. IM systems were used by patents, and copyright.
engineers and academics in the 1980s
and 1990s to communicate across the Intelsat [see International
Internet. IM became a popular form ­Telecommunications Satellite
of communication after mobile IM ­Organization]
devices, such as palm pilots, came
onto the market en masse. interactive any piece of software or
computer system that allows easy
instant replay playback of a video, communication between the user and
often in slow motion, to show a par- computer
ticular moment in a sports event on
television interactive advertising advertising
that is sensitive and thus adaptive to
institution in media studies, the input from the audience through the
social, cultural, and political sys- Internet
tems within which a media system
­operates interactive media media that allow
for two-way communication be-
institutional advertising the promo- tween the media and users (such as
tion of an organization rather than a viewers), enabling users to obtain
product responses in real time

integrated information response interactive multimedia multimedia

model claim that product acceptance system that allows users to control a
is not necessarily a result of advertis- program, or else to control the way a
ing’s effect on the way the product program works
is perceived, but rather that product
acceptance will tend to increase after interactive television [abbreviated as
the product has been tried ITV] system integrating television,
telephone, and Internet systems to
integrated marketing communica- deliver a wide range of choices to a
tions [abbreviated as IMC] market- viewing audience
ing campaign that integrates public
relations strategies, advertising, and interactivity ability to participate
other aspects together for greater ef- in, or control, media products, rather
fectiveness in product promotion than passively receive them

intellectual property original work intercultural communication com-

that was created, and thus belongs to, munication between people from dif-
an individual, institution, or compa- ferent social, linguistic, and cultural
ny. The main methods used to protect backgrounds

160
 internet

intercutting going back and forth in the late nineteenth century by the
between filmed scenes or shots of International Phonetic Association, to
actions occurring at different time make it possible to represent sounds
periods to give the impression that as accurately and consistently as pos-
they are simultaneous sible. For example, [k] stands for the
same sound represented alternatively
interdiction technology technology by the alphabet characters k, ch, and
that descrambles pay channel cable q in English: keen, school, quiet.
television signals
International Telecommunications
interface software that allows com- Satellite Organization [abbreviated
munication between a computer as Intelsat] world’s first commercial
and a user, including commands, satellite operator, established in 1965.
prompts, and other such devices. The Web site: www.intelsat.com
term is also used to refer to hardware
(cards, plugs, and other devices) internaut an Internet user, especially
that allows the computer to move a regular one
­information.
Internet the “network of networks”
interference unwanted signals from that connects millions (perhaps bil-
other sources, disrupting radio or lions) of computers around the world.
television reception Networks connected to the Internet
use a common protocol, TCP/IP
interjection sound or expression (Transmission Control Protocol/Inter-
conveying a strong emotion: Yikes! net Protocol), which allows them to
Wow! have unique addresses and to com-
municate easily with one another.
intermercials commercials that run The Internet grew out of a Defense
while users are waiting for a Web Department program called ARPA-
page to download NET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network), established in
International Business Machines 1969 with connections between
[abbreviated as IBM] computer man- computers at the University of
ufacturer, headquartered in Armonk, California at Los Angeles, Stanford
New York, incorporated in 1911 as Research Institute, the University of
the Computing-Tabulating-Recording California–Santa Barbara, and the
Co. It chose its present name in 1924. University of Utah. ARPANET was
Web site: www.ibm.com used by researchers and especially
to provide a secure communications
International Phonetic Alphabet system in case of war. As the network
[abbreviated as IPA] list of more than expanded, academics and researchers
80 phonetic symbols, first devised in other fields began to use it as well.

161
 Internet protocol

In 1971 the first program for send- air radio broadcasts over the World
ing e-mail over a distributed network Wide Web, or else creates its own
was developed. By 1973, the year programming
international connections to ARPA-
NET were made, e-mail represented Internet relay chat software that
most of the traffic on ARPANET. allows Internet users to join conver-
The 1970s also saw the develop- sations or chats organized in an infor-
ment of the TCP/IP communications mal way around particular subjects at
protocols, which were adopted as specific Web sites
standard protocols, leading to the
widespread use of the term Internet. Internet service provider [abbrevi-
In 1984 the domain name addressing ated as ISP] company that provides
system (.com, .net, and the like) was Internet connections and services.
introduced. In 1988 real-time com- ISPs provide computer users with a
munication over the Internet became connection to their site, as well as
possible with the development of In- a log-in name and password. They
ternet Relay Chat protocols. In 1989 may also provide software packages,
the World Wide Web was created, e-mail accounts, and a personal Web
leading to the proliferation of Web site. ISPs are all connected to each
sites and users by the mid-1990s. By other through network access points
1997 there were more than 10 million (public network facilities on the
hosts on the Internet and more than Internet backbone).
one million registered domain names.
Internet access can now be gained via Internet telephony system that al-
radio signals, cable-television lines, lows users to make phone calls using
satellites, and fiber-optic connections, the Internet. To make calls, users
in addition to the public telecommu- need to install a sound card, micro-
nications network. phone, and loudspeaker in their com-
puters, along with special software
Internet protocol standard that that manages the system
allows digital computers to com-
municate over long distances. On the Internet television online television
Internet, information is broken down station that either simulcasts versions
into small packets, sent individually of on-air television broadcasts over
over different routes at the same time, the World Wide Web, or else creates
and then reassembled at the receiving its own programming
end. Protocols collect and reassemble
the packets and then send them to the interpellation [term coined by
desired destination. Louis ­Althusser] in Marxist theory,
style or register in which people are
Internet radio online radio station addressed in conversation, which
that either simulcasts versions of on- relates to their position in society.

162
 intranet

interpersonal communication intertextuality interrelation of a text

exchange of information between (such as a novel) with other texts
individuals, using not only language, external to it (such as a religious text,
but also other modes, such as gesture, a scientific text, etc.). An external
body posture, and so on text can be cited directly (as in a
bibliographic reference in a scholarly
interpersonal framing signals that paper) or indirectly, as for example,
inform people who are talking to each Homer’s Odyssey in James Joyce’s
other whether or not the conversation Ulysses. In advertising, intertextual-
is serious and what purpose it has ity involves allusions to pop culture,
other ads, and the like.
interpersonal function of language
use of language to bond with others, intervention video fictional or
as opposed to its use for exchanging documentary video produced to raise
information awareness about a specific social or
political issue
interpretant [term coined by
Charles Peirce] the meaning that interview encounter during which
someone perceives from a sign a journalist or a radio or television
announcer asks someone relevant
interpretation 1. deciphering what questions about a topic
something means; 2. an individual’s
understanding and/or execution of intimization technique of making a
a work (of art, music, or theater) news story more appealing by adapt-
through acting, performing, etc. (for ing it to reflect widely held views or
example, a pianist’s interpretation of beliefs on the part of audiences
Bach’s preludes and fugues)
intonation melodic patterns built
interpretive community group of into utterances for specific effects or
people who interpret a text or media communicative purposes (to express
product homogeneously surprise, doubtfulness, etc.). In many
languages, intonation also serves a
interpretive journalism news report- grammatical function, distinguish-
ing that explains events in the light of ing one type of phrase or sentence
broader social or philosophical issues from another. Thus, You like it is an
assertion when spoken with a drop in
interstitial advertisement in cy- pitch at the end, but a question when
beradvertising (advertising online), spoken with a rise in pitch at the end.
use of images that seem to appear
and disappear mysteriously on the intranet private computer network,
screen as users click from one Web providing members with Internet and
page to the next World Wide Web features, such as

163
 intransient advertisement

e-mail and Web pages. By sealing the IP terminal special unit that allows
intranet off from the larger Internet, users to create and edit video before
people can protect information from transmitting it to the main page
unwanted and possibly criminal
sources. As security issues have IPA [see International Phonetic
arisen around the Internet, intranets Alphabet]
have gained in popularity, particu-
larly among businesses. iPod trade name for a portable device
designed and marketed by Apple
intransient advertisement adver- Computer onto which users can
tisement that the target audience can download music or programs;
keep; for example, the ads in news­ by extension, any such device
papers and magazines
irony amusing or subtly mocking
intrapersonal communication phrase or statement in which the
internal dialogue (talking to literal meaning stands in opposi-
oneself) tion to the intended meaning. For
example, if an opera singer goes
inverted-pyramid style reporting off key a few times, someone in the
style in which news stories are struc- audience might shout out ironically
tured and presented, starting with “You sure know the song well!” By
the most important items and ending extension, the term is used to refer
with a short background piece to any mocking or incongruous text
or performance. For example, when
investigative reporting type of a character knows something that
reporting in which a journalist does the other characters do not know, a
research to expose someone or sense of irony is evoked. In Oedipus
something for engaging in incorrect Rex by Sophocles, Oedipus kills a
behavior and to reveal who is trying man, not knowing that the man is his
to cover it up father Laius. Oedipus puts a curse on
Laius’s killer. The irony is that he has
invisibility underrepresentation unsuspectingly cursed himself.
of certain minority groups by the
­mainstream media, thus making ISP [see Internet service provider]
them “invisible” to the majority of
­audiences ITV [see interactive television]

164
 jung, carl gustav

J
Jakobson, Roman (1896– gam of several styles in
1982) Moscow-born Ameri- New Orleans at the start of
can linguist well-known for the 1900s, including West
his work on communication African music, black folk
theory, often quoted in me- music, and light classical
dia studies. Jakobson saw music popular in the late
language as an adaptive communica- nineteenth century. Most early jazz
tive instrument serving human needs was played by small marching bands
and whims, and influenced by the or by solo pianists. In 1917 a group
structure of cultural codes. A com- of white New Orleans musicians
prehensive collection of his writings called the Original Dixieland Jazz
can be found in Selected Writings Band recorded a jazz phonograph
(1971–1982). record, creating a sensation; the term
“Dixieland jazz” was immediately at-
Jameson, Frederic (1934–) promi- tached to it. In 1922 the New Orleans
nent Marxist theorist well-known Rhythm Kings, and in 1923 the Cre-
for his works on postmodernism. ole Jazz Band, led by cornetist King
Among his most influential books are Oliver, became popular throughout
Marxism and Form: Twentieth Cen- the United States. The term “cool
tury Dialectical Theories of Litera- jazz” surfaced 1948, when tenor
ture (1971) and Postmodernism, or saxophonist Stan Getz recorded a
the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism slow, romantic solo of Ralph Burns’s
(1991). composition Early Autumn with the
Woody Herman band. This style was
jargon specialized vocabulary used adopted by a group of young musi-
typically by members of a profession cians that included Miles Davis, Lee
or line of work (doctors, musicians, Konitz, Gerry Mulligan, and arranger
psychologists, etc.): for example, Gil Evans. Their recordings empha-
perorbital hematoma = black eye, in sized a lagging beat, soft instrumental
medicine; licorice stick = clarinet, sounds, and unusual orchestrations
among jazz musicians. By extension, that included the French horn and the
any form of pretentious or hollow tuba. The recordings, with Davis as
language. leader, were later released as Birth of
the Cool.
Java programming language used to
create tiny programs that give addi- jazz journalism lively form of popu-
tional versatility to Web page design lar tabloid journalism of the 1920s

jazz musical form, often improvisa- Jensen, Klaus Bruhn (1956–)

tional, developed by African Ameri- expert on the research methodolo-
cans. The specific origins of jazz are gies used in communication theory,
not known. It emerged as an amal- often quoted on matters regarding

165
 jingle

the use of such methodologies in the and related commentary through me-
field. His most cited book is Hand- dia. The term was originally applied
book of Qualitative Methodologies to the reportage of current events in
for Mass Communication Research printed form, specifically newspa-
(1991; coauthored with Nicholas W. pers, but it now includes electronic
Jankowski). forms as well (radio journalism, tele-
vision journalism, online journalism).
jingle brief and catchy piece of mu-
sic, composed to advertise a product journalist person whose job it is to
or to identify a station or a presenter write for a newspaper or magazine, or
to prepare news for radio, television,
jive jazz-based swing dance popular or Web broadcasting
in the 1930s and 1940s
joystick handheld control lever hav-
JOA [see joint operating ing an upright stick on a pivot, used
­agreement] to play computer games

joint operating agreement [abbrevi- jpeg [see Joint Photographic Ex-

ated as JOA] agreement that allows a perts Group]
failing newspaper to merge aspects of
its operations with a successful com- jukebox machine that plays records
petitor, as long as its editorial and when a coin is inserted, invented in
journalistic operations and perspec- 1906. The term jukebox referred to
tives remain unaltered the original kinds of places that main-
tained such machines, called “juke
Joint Photographic Experts Group joints.” By 1941 there were nearly
[abbreviated as jpeg] computer 400,000 jukeboxes in the United
format for images that allows users to States. The jukebox became an icon
compress data, albeit with some loss of the early rock culture of the 1950s,
of quality soon after the Seeburg Company
produced the first jukeboxes in 1950
journal magazine or periodical to play 45 rpm singles.
that deals with an area of special or
specialized interest, generally pub- jump cut cut from one shot in a film
lished by a professional body for its to another similar shot within the
­members same footage, giving the impression
that something has jumped, thus forc-
journalese type of communication ing the audience to reflect on what
style characteristic of journalists had occurred just before.

journalism writing, collection, jumpstation Web site that provides

preparation, and distribution of news links to other Web sites

166
 junk mail

Jung, Carl Gustav (1875–1961) is an archetype found in rituals,

Swiss psychiatrist whose concept of ­sculptures, and other representa-
the archetype has become widely tional forms throughout time
used in media and advertising stud- and across cultures, normally as
ies. Jung saw archetypes as uncon- a s­ ymbol of reproduction or of
scious thought patterns shared by ­masculinity.
all humanity, which gain expression
in the various symbols and forms junk mail unsolicited advertising
(myths, tales, fantasies, rituals, etc.) and promotional material that arrives
that embody them across cultures: through the mail and through the
for instance, the phallus figure Internet

167
 first item

K
Kant, Immanuel Kennedy went on to win the
(1724–1804) German election; a debate emerged
philosopher, famous for his in media studies shortly
theory of knowledge. In his thereafter on the effects of
Kritik der reinen Vernunft television on viewers.
(1781; Critique of Pure
Reason), for example, Kant discusses keyboarder person whose job it is to
the nature of knowledge in math- input data in a computer
ematics and physics, arguing that the
propositions of mathematics encode keyed advertisement advertisement
real experience, reflecting the mind’s that asks its viewers to write down a
unique ability to grasp reality and then specially coded address that will in-
formalize this grasp through formal dicate where they saw it, thus helping
categories (such as propositions). advertisers glean the effectiveness of
advertising in a particular newspaper
karaoke form of entertainment in or magazine
which people sing popular songs
accompanied by pre-recorded music, kidvid video aimed at children
played by a machine that may also
display the words on a screen kilobyte unit of computer memory
equivalent to 1,024 bytes
Katz, Elihu (1926–) eminent media
scholar who co-created the two- kinescope early television pic-
step flow theory model of media ture tube developed by Vladimir
processing. Among his most influen- Zworkyn for RCA
tial works are The Export of Meaning
(1990) and Media Events: The Live kinesics study of body language,
Broadcasting of History (1992). that is, postures, gestures, touch
patterns, and the like and the mes-
Kennedy-Nixon TV debate famous sages that they convey during human
television debate between Richard ­interaction. Kinesic communication
M. Nixon and John F. Kennedy that is partly based on innate signaling
turned the 1960 U.S. presidential systems, but in larger part on cultural
election in favor of Kennedy. People traditions (handshaking, touching,
who heard the debate on radio main- etc.).
tained that Nixon had won it, coming
across as the better candidate; those kinetoscope parlors early movie
who saw it on television claimed the parlors that used a motion picture
opposite. Nixon looked disheveled device called a kinetoscope, which
and worried; Kennedy looked confi- was encased in a wooden cabinet
dent and came across as a young and and which could be viewed through
handsome “president of the future.” a slit

168
 Kuleshov effect

KISS [full form: keep it short and Kristeva, Julia (1941–) Bulgarian-
simple] advertising philosophy that born French feminist scholar whose
the best type of advertising message work on intertextuality is widely
is one that is concise and clear quoted. Using psychoanalytic theory,
Kristeva has also been concerned
kitsch a form of entertainment or art with the representation of otherness,
that is considered to be in poor taste especially in horror films. One of her
or lacking aesthetic quality most quoted books is Language:
The Unknown (1989).
knowledge gap view that those who
already are knowledgeable (educated, Kuleshov effect theory, proposed
well-informed) receive more benefit by Russian film theorist Lev Kule-
from the media and new informa- shov, that a single shot or piece of
tion technologies than those who film can be given a different interpre-
are not—hence the formation of a tation when shown next to another
“knowledge gap” between the two one

169
 first item

L
label 1. the identifying ele- communicators or readers
ment of a product, package, to focus on specific items in
or other item; 2. trademark utterances without impair-
used by a record company: ing overall understanding;
for example, the RCA label, the latter, on the other hand,
the Naxos label cannot be broken down
and detached without impairing the
Lacan, Jacques (1901–1981) French meaning—one cannot focus on a note
psychoanalyst who claimed that the in a piece of music without destroy-
unconscious part of an individual’s ing its sense.
mind reflects the structure of the lan-
guage he or she speaks. Lacan also language [from Latin lingua, mean-
divided the psyche into three levels— ing “tongue”] as its etymology
the imaginary, the symbolic, and the suggests, language can be defined
real. His ideas have recently been as the “use of the tongue” to create
applied to the study of pop culture, meaning-bearing forms called words,
which is portrayed as a symbolic phrases, and sentences. Wherever
bridge between the imaginary and the there are humans, there is language.
real world. His major concepts are And all languages serve humans in
found in Écrits: The First Complete similar ways, such as naming (and
Edition in English (2006). thus classifying) the things of reality
that are relevant and meaningful to
lampoon satirical work designed to them. There are about 6,000 lan-
ridicule something or someone. One guages spoken in the world today,
of the best-known U.S. publications not including dialects (local forms
written in the style of a lampoon is of a language); of these, only around
Mad Magazine. 200 languages have a million or more
speakers. All languages share five
LAN [see local area network] basic characteristics: (1) distinctive
sounds, known as phonemes, which
landing page Web page where a user are used to signal differences in
arrives, normally via a hyperlink meaning; (2) meaning-bearing units
known as morphemes; (3) grammati-
Langer, Susanne (1895–1985) cal structure (rules for combining
American philosopher often quoted morphemes into larger forms called
in media studies because of the sentences and utterances); (4) strate-
important distinction she made gies for using language in various
between the discursive symbols used personal and social ways; and (5)
in language and the nondiscursive or resources for making new words and,
presentational ones used in various thus, new meanings. Most languages
forms of art. The former possess the use from 20 to 60 vocal sounds to
property of detachment, allowing make their words, indicating that

170
 late night

vocal sounds are not meaningful with an appropriate move, and so on.
elements in themselves, but rather Analogously, the ability to speak and
that they are building blocks in the understand a language is dependent
constitution of larger structures (such upon knowing the language game
as words). Words are units of sounds itself (langue); whereas the actual use
that have meaning, standing for of langue in specific social situations
objects, actions, or ideas. Grammati- depends upon psychological, social,
cal structure is the manner in which and communicative factors. He called
words are related to each other to the latter parole.
form larger units of meaning such as
sentences. The strategies for using a LAPS test [full form: literary,
language for various purposes, such artistic, political, scientific value
as communication and representation, test] a standard of obscenity estab-
are the result of traditions that are lished in Miller v. California (1973),
deemed important by a speech com- whereby a work is considered to be
munity. Finally, language provides obscene if it lacks serious literary,
the means through which people can artistic, political, or scientific value.
adapt creatively to new situations and In the late 1960s a California court
experiences. Every time we come up found Marvin Miller guilty of send-
with a new word, we are acknowl- ing obscene unsolicited advertising
edging that a small part of the world material through the mail. In 1973
has changed. the case reached the Supreme Court;
the Court ruled that states may censor
language pollution use of language material if they apply the LAPS test.
to confuse or mislead As a result, standards for obscenity
differ widely in different parts of the
langue [term coined by Ferdinand country.
de Saussure] native speakers’ un-
conscious knowledge of the structure Lasswell’s model of communica-
of the language they speak. Saussure tion a model of communication
compared langue to the rules of theory formulated in 1948 by Harold
chess. No matter how well or poorly Lasswell, which stipulates that the
someone plays, his or her ability to roles played by the communicants,
play chess in the first place is depen- the nature of the channels they are
dent on an unconscious knowledge using, what they are saying, to whom
of the chess game itself. Now, the they are saying it, and the effect it is
actual moves he or she makes dur- supposed to make are pivotal factors
ing a specific chess game depend in shaping the message that is com-
on factors that are external to this municated
knowledge, involving how best to
respond to an opponent’s moves, re- late night time period in radio and
lying on past experience to come up television scheduling after prime

171
 latency

time, and thus late at night, charac- pioneered the study of the effects
terized by programming with contro- of media on audiences. With Elihu
versial and/or bawdy content Katz, he created the two-step flow
model. His most important work is
latency period of dormancy in which The People’s Choice: How the Voter
a complex of thoughts, feelings, or Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential
mental images remain undeveloped Campaign (1944).
or unexpressed; 2. amount of time it
takes data to move across an Internet lead 1. main story on the front page
connection of a newspaper; 2. main role in a
play, movie, or program
Latin American music popular mu-
sic genres created by Latin American lead-in introductory piece before
artists, such as the tango, the rumba, a program or segment on radio or
the samba, the salsa, and others. Lat- television
in American music has always had
an important influence on the popular leak disclosure of confidential infor-
music of the United States. Since the mation to the media
1950s, a number of Latin American
rock music performers have injected leased channels in cable television,
a Latin American style into rock channels that allow customers to buy
music generally, gaining widespread time for producing their own programs
popularity. These include Ritchie Va- or for presenting their viewpoints
lens, Carlos Santana, Gloria Estefan,
and the group Los Lobos. leased line line hired from a telecom-
munications company providing a
laugh track pre-recorded laughter permanent link to an Internet service
that is added to a sitcom or comedy provider
program in appropriate spots
legend [see also urban legend] 1.
law of primacy theory that the initial story (often about a heroic figure)
argument that is presented to audi- popularly believed to have a histori-
ences will stand a better chance of cal basis, but which is not always
convincing them than will subsequent verifiable (for example, the legend of
ones King Arthur and the Knights of the
Round Table); 2. by extension, any
layout design of a printed page or a personage or celebrity whose fame
Web page, showing the position of has become enduring through media
text and graphics exposure

Lazarsfeld, Paul (1901–1976) legitimation process by which cer-

widely quoted media scholar who tain values, ideas, beliefs, or opinions

172
 lexicon

pass into the mainstream of public influential works are Anthropologie

opinion structurale (1958; Structural Anthro-
pology, 1963) and Le cru et le cuit
leitmotif 1. melody associated (1964; The Raw and the Cooked,
with a character, situation, or ele- 1969).
ment in a musical drama or opera;
2. any ­recurring theme in a poem, lexicography study and craft of
a novel, a TV sitcom, a movie, etc. dictionaries and dictionary making.
Even though the German composer Dictionaries are generally subdi-
Richard ­Wagner did not use this term, vided into general, specialized, and
it is ­often applied to the study of his thesauruses. A general dictionary
operas, in which specific melodic contains definitions and information
phrases are used to identify charac- on everyday language and selected
ters or themes. technical terms; a specialized diction-
ary provides technical information on
lemma heading or entry that indi- terms used in a particular field (math-
cates the topic of a work or passage ematics, physics, medicine, law, etc.);
(for example, a heading title on a a thesaurus contains, essentially, lists
book page indicating the title of the of synonyms and antonyms. The
book) information provided by a diction-
ary may include the history of words
letterhead 1. stationery with a (known as etymologies), associated
printed heading that a company, indi- idioms and expressions, dialectal
vidual, or institution uses for official variants, slang, and the like. Bilin-
letters and documents; 2. the printed gual dictionaries translate the words,
heading that appears at the top of a expressions, and phrases of one
letterhead language into another. Today, there
are various online dictionaries that
Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1908–) have the advantage (over print ones)
Belgian-born French anthropologist of providing updated information
whose notion of mythic opposition is daily. For this reason, many lexicog-
often quoted in the media literature. raphers are predicting the demise of
Lévi-Strauss saw innate oppositions both the print dictionary and the print
in human consciousness—such as encylopedia, which can only be
good vs. evil, mother vs. father—as updated by revisions and subsequent
the motivating forces in the cre- republication.
ation of early myths and thus of the
foundations of early cultures and lexicon 1. list of special terms used
languages. Such oppositions continue in a particular field (lexicon of math-
to surface in modern-day represen- ematics, lexicon of literary terms,
tational, linguistic, symbolic, and etc.); 2. total stock of words, phrases,
ritualistic activities. Among his most and expressions in a language

173
 libel

libel 1. false and malicious statement Liebes, Tamar (1943–) often-­quoted

that damages a person’s reputation; scholar on the effects of ­media on
2. published or broadcast statement audiences and on the processes
that unjustifiably exposes someone to involved in the decoding of media
ridicule or derision texts. Among her most influential
works are Media, Ritual, and Identity
libertarianism philosophy asserting (as editor, with James Curran, 1998)
that good and rational people can tell and The Export of Meaning (with
right from wrong if presented with all Elihu Katz, 1990).
the facts. For this reason any form of
censorship is seen to be unnecessary. lifestyle segmentation way of group-
Libertarians maintain that control ing audiences according to their hab-
of the media does not belong to the its, the kinds of music they like, etc.
government but to the people whom
the media serve. light viewer in media research
parlance, a person who watches very
libido in psychoanalysis, the energy little television
associated with the instincts that
motivate a large part of behavior. lighting equipment and techniques
The term was coined by Sigmund used for lighting a play, a movie set,
Freud, who posited that the libido or a television set. As such, it is part
develops in stages: in the oral stage, of the overall film text, being used to
the infant gets pleasure from activi- bring out various meanings, empha-
ties such as breast suckling; in the ses, nuances, etc., that the text is
anal phase, the child gets pleasure designed to produce.
from being able to control bowel
movements; in the genital phase, limited effects theory view that the
which starts at around puberty, effects of media on people are limited
sexual urges dominate the libido. by variables such as class, education,
This notion has been used occasion- cultural background, and age. Essen-
ally in advertising studies to explain tially, the theory argues that the mass
how some kinds of ads are designed media have relatively few effects on
to stimulate the libido. people.

library music music for films or line producer member of a film

television shows that is available for production team responsible for the
a fee from a specialized library daily operations, such as procur-
ing technical help and ensuring that
license 1. permission to engage in a maintenance is carried out
business or other regulated activity;
2. permission to operate a specific linear perspective art technique by
radio frequency which the perception of depth and

174
 linguistic relativity hypothesis

faculty that has genetic information

built into it about what languages
in general must be like; the latter,
known as parameters, are said to
constrain the universal principles to
produce the specific language gram-
mar to which the child is exposed.
Although Chomsky assigns some role
to cultural and experiential factors,
he maintains that the primary role of
Box in linear perspective linguistics must be to understand the
universal principles that make up the
distance on a surface is produced by speech faculty.
parallel lines that converge on the ho-
rizon. The technique simulates visual linguistic relativity hypothesis a
perception by showing images in the claim that language shapes world-
same perspective as we see them in view. The hypothesis has a long
the real world—in visual perception, history, going back to the ancient
distant objects appear smaller and world. It was in the eighteenth
less distinct than near objects. century, however, that it came to
be discussed and debated formally
lines speech or dialogue that an actor by language scientists and philoso-
has to deliver phers, such as Johann von Herder,
who claimed that there was an
linguistic competence abstract intrinsic link between language
knowledge of language. This term and ethnic character, and Wilhelm
was coined by the American linguist von Humboldt, who argued that
Noam Chomsky, who defined it as the grammar and vocabulary of a
the innate knowledge that people specific language shaped the thought
employ unconsciously to generate and behavior of the people born into
and comprehend sentences, most of it. In the first part of the twentieth
which they have never heard previ- century, anthropologist Edward
ously. Chomsky proposed a system Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee
of analysis, which he called transfor- Whorf researched native American
mational-generative grammar, that languages to test the validity of the
would allow the linguist to identify hypothesis, coming to the conclu-
and describe the general properties of sion that languages do indeed seem
linguistic competence, sifting them to guide how people think and act.
out from those that apply only to par- Given the importance of their work,
ticular languages. The former, called the hypothesis is now also known as
universal principles, are purported to Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The Sapir-
be part of a species-specific language Whorf version of linguistic relativ-

175
 linguistics

ity claims that the grammar and listening share share of total radio
vocabulary of a particular language audience that is faithful to a specific
provide the cognitive strategies radio station
for interpreting reality, since they
make available words and structures listings information on what a spec-
for certain specific events, while tacle or event will contain (venue of
ignoring others. This does not block performance, times, admission prices,
understanding among speakers of contact details)
different languages, as translation
and paraphrases demonstrate. But it listserv Internet discussion group
does show that there is diversity in whose members use e-mail or instant
human language that reflects diver- messaging to exchange messages
sity in cultural and psychological among themselves and/or with other
experiences. groups

linguistics the science of language. literacy 1. ability to read and write

Linguists study the formal aspects of a language proficiently; 2. by exten-
language (sound systems, grammar, sion, any ability to decipher texts
vocabulary, and so on), its uses in (media literacy, visual literacy).
communication, its relation to cogni- Those who cannot read and write are
tion, and its interrelation with culture called illiterate. It is believed broadly
and society. that without literacy, people’s ability
to function in society diminishes
links speech excerpts that introduce considerably. The worldwide literacy
the next item in radio and television rate has risen since 1900. By the
programming mid-1990s, 73 percent of the world’s
population was thought to be literate.
linotype older technology that was With the advent of the Internet, more
used to carry out the mechanical and more people are becoming liter-
­setting of print type (rather than ate than ever before in the history of
manual) humanity. Models and perception of
literacy are shaped by the medium in
lip-sync [full form: lip synchro- which the written word is expressed.
nization] technique of mouthing a The Internet and the many devices
recorded statement or a song without that it has permitted for recording and
actually speaking or singing, giving sending messages is reshaping how
the illusion that one is performing it the written word is being used and
live thus how literacy will eventually be
redefined in the near future. In effect,
listenership number and type of the World Wide Web is fast becoming
people who listen to a radio broad- the new platform upon which linguis-
cast or station tic and stylistic trends will emerge.

176
 lobbying

literal 1. following the exact words worth and aesthetic qualities. Litera-
of the original (for example, a literal ture has two main forms: fiction and
translation); 2. interpreting words nonfiction. The former is imaginary
concretely, without exaggeration or writing, even though authors may
imagination. A word such as square include facts about real persons or
has the literal meaning “plane figure events; the latter is factual writing
constructed with four equal lines about real-life situations, including
meeting at right angles.” But it can such genres as history, biography,
also be used with other meanings, as autobiography, and the diary.
in He’s a real square and We finally
squared our differences. litotes rhetorical technique of under-
statement, especially by employing a
literary criticism discipline con- negation of the contrary: for example,
cerned with the study of literature. I received not a few e-mails on that
Western literary criticism began with issue; This is no insignificant problem
Plato. Subsequently, Aristotle
developed a set of principles of liter- Little Three studios [in contrast
ary analysis that is still used today, to the Big Five] Columbia, United
including the distinction between the Artists, and Universal motion pic-
literal and the metaphorical. Since ture production studios, which had
the Renaissance, literary criticism smaller production operations than
has primarily focused on the value the Big Five
of literature as an imaginary frame
for viewing reality. In the twenti- live broadcasting of an event as it
eth century, a radical reappraisal of unfolds
traditional critical techniques crystal-
lized, leading to the development of live shot filmed event that is broadcast
deconstruction and poststruc- live without a presenter at the scene
turalism, among other approaches.
live voiceover commentary for a pre-
literary journalism style of journal- recorded video, often used in news
ism that presents stories by adapting reporting
fictional storytelling techniques to
nonfictional materials LiveJournal Web site that allows us-
ers to create and modify their social
literature 1. in its broadest sense, network sites and Web pages
everything that has ever been writ-
ten, including comic books and lobbying action taken by a group of
pamphlets, as well as the novels of supporters and representatives of a
Fyodor Dostoyevsky and the plays of particular cause or organization to
William Shakespeare; 2. in a narrow- gain the support of a political party, a
er sense, writing considered to have media organization, or an individual

177
 local access programming

local access programming televi-

sion programming selected and/or
­produced within communities and
aired on channels provided to the
community by the cable television
operator

local area network [abbreviated as

LAN] network connecting two or
more computers, usually within the
same building. Local area networks McDonald’s Golden Arches logo
now exist for the home, monitoring
control of heat, water, and vari-
ous a­ ppliances, as well as security logo [abbreviation of logotype]
systems. distinctive design or trademark
used by an organization or a com-
local media media outlets and orga- pany for itself or for its products so
nizations serving a small area of a that they can be easily recognized.
country (for example, neighborhood Logos are the pictorial counterparts
newspapers, local radio stations) of brand names. Well-known logos
in the United States include Ralph
localization method of making na- Lauren’s polo horseman, Lacoste’s
tional or international media products alligator, the “good hands” of the
more suitable or appropriate for a Allstate Insurance Company, the
smaller local media market “rock” of the Prudential Insurance
Company, the McDonald’s “golden
localized advertising strategy ad arches,” the Macintosh “apple,” and
campaign aimed specifically at a the “stagecoach” of the Wells Fargo
particular region (country, state, Company. Logos are often designed
province, or city) to evoke historical or cultural
themes or symbolism. For instance,
location filming filming that takes the logo of the apple suggests the
place in specific real-life locations, biblical story of Adam and Eve,
away from the studio or set even though the original fruit was
named simply a “forbidden fruit”—
log file record of how many users it was depicted as an apple by the
have visited a Web site and how they early religious painters. Its bibli-
navigated through it cal symbolism is encoded into the
Macintosh logo.
logging (on and off) to register or
terminate an action or activity with a logocentrism belief that language
computer as an authorized operator shapes worldview

178
 Lumière brothers

logograph symbol for a word with- loudspeaker device for making

out any cues as to its pronunciation: sounds louder, especially in a radio,
1 = one in English, uno in Italian; & record player, or public-address
= and in English, e in Italian. system

lógos [in contrast to mythos] 1. in low culture [see high culture vs.
philosophy, reasoning about reality low culture]
or the power of reasoning itself; 2. in
Christianity, the word of God, made low-budget films films that are
incarnate in Jesus Christ produced very cheaply, with minor
actors and simple production tech-
longitudinal studies in marketing niques, usually dealing with horror,
research, studies that are conducted crime, or prurient themes
over long periods of time
low-involvement hierarchy the idea
long-playing record record format that indifferent customers respond to
introduced by Columbia Records in an ad’s appeal only through repeated
1948 that could reproduce over 20 exposure
minutes of high-fidelity sound on
each of two sides of the record Lull, James (1950–) American
communications scholar whose work
look and feel the appeal of a Web site’s on audiences is widely quoted (his
design, layout, and user-friendliness work is found mainly in journals and
periodicals). His method of audience
lookism the claim that good-looking analysis stresses ethnographic analy-
people achieve greater success in life sis, rather than statistical analysis of
because others are influenced posi- audience behaviors and reactions to
tively by their looks media stimuli.

Lotman, Jurij M. (1922–1993) Lumière brothers two French broth-

Estonian semiotician well-known for ers, Auguste (1862–1954) and Louis
his study of the relation between bi- Jean (1864–1948), who are identified
ology and culture. His major contri- as having invented the technology
bution to culture study is the idea that behind motion pictures. The brothers
culture is a system of signs, called held a public screening of projected
the semiosphere, that provides the re- motion pictures on December 28,
sources for cognitive survival, in the 1895, in a Paris café. Thomas Edison,
same way that the biosphere provides adapting a projector developed previ-
the resources for physical survival. ously, presented the first public exhi-
His most important work in English bition of projected motion pictures in
is Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic the United States on April 23, 1896,
Theory of Culture (1990). in a New York City music hall.

179
 lurking

lurking act of reading newsgroup Rapport sur le savoir (1979; The

postings or chatroom conversations Postmodern Condition: A Report on
without participating Knowledge, 1984).

Lyotard, Jean-François (1924–1998) lyric 1. type of song-like poetry that

well-known and often-cited theorist of communicates subjective feelings;
postmodernism. His most important 2. [plural, lyrics] the verbal text of a
work is La condition postmoderne: popular song

180
 last item

M
macaronic any statement collection of articles or sto-
or text characterized by a ries (or both). Most popular
mixture of Latin words or magazines also include il-
words from another lan- lustrations and photographs.
guage, usually for comic The magazine concept
effect traces its roots to early
printed pamphlets and almanacs. One
MacBride Commission commission of the first was the German Erbauli-
set up by UNESCO in 1978 to assess che Monaths-Unterredungen (Edify-
the impact of Western technology and ing Monthly Discussions), published
media on developing countries from 1663 to 1668. Pamphlets ap-
peared in England and America in the
MacGuffin in a book, play, or movie, 1700s, primarily as literary publica-
an event that seemingly drives the tions. One of the first true magazines,
plot but which later turns out to be called The Gentleman’s Magazine,
unimportant. The term was popular- published from 1731 to 1914, started
ized by director Alfred Hitchcock, out as a collection of excerpts from
who explained it in a 1939 lecture various books and pamphlets. The
at Columbia University: “In crook first magazine published in America,
stories it is most always the necklace called the American Magazine,
and in spy stories it is most always came out in 1741 in Philadelphia
the papers.” and lasted only three months. (Ben-
jamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s
machinery of representation claim Almanack—though not considered a
that the mass media is a “machine” true magazine—was first published
that produces representations of reality in 1732.) Two other magazines, The
that audiences perceive as authentic Columbian (1786) and The American
Museum (1787) quickly followed.
macro-level effects purported large- In 1830, Godey’s Lady’s Book, the
scale effects of the media on cultures first American magazine for women,
and societies started publication. During the
American Civil War (1861–1865),
macrophotography close-up pho- Harper’s Weekly became popular for
tography producing images that are its drawings of the battlefront. The
life-size or larger than life late 1800s and early 1900s saw a
boom in the magazine industry, with
magalogue a designer catalogue Life, Time, Sports Illustrated, Van-
made up to look like a magazine ity Fair, and The New Yorker coming
onto the scene. Magazines have had
magazine newspaper-like publica- considerable impact on modern soci-
tion, but smaller in size, issued at ety. During the 1960s, for example,
regular intervals, and containing a magazines such as Cosmopolitan and

181
 magazine program

magic bullet theory view that the

media are powerful shapers of indi-
viduals. Like a “magic bullet,” media
products are said to be a “killing
force” to people’s minds.

magic realism style in art, literature,

or media that presents magical, oc-
cult, or mythic themes in a realistic
manner

magnetic tape thin plastic strip

coated with iron oxide on which
sounds, video, or other kinds of data
can be recorded

magnification process of enlarging a

photograph or other image
Time magazine
mail form Web page designed to be
Ms. conveyed new visions of women used as an online order page
outside their traditional portrayals as
homemakers. Today, many magazines mail server computer whose only
cater primarily to specialized inter- function is to distribute e-mails
ests. Called niche publications, they through the Internet
are designed to attract target audienc-
es and advertisers who want to reach mainframe computer large central
them. In the late 1980s, British-born computer to which users are con-
editor Tina Brown brought back the nected by terminals
more general magazine by reviving
Vanity Fair. With the computer age, mainstream media [synonym of
magazines called electronic maga- mass media] dominant, powerful
zines (e-zines) are now available media organizations, such as the
over the Internet. major newspapers and television
networks
magazine program television
program organized in a “magazine mainstreaming 1. in cultivation
style” with features such as reports theory, the ability of television to
or close-up interviews of celebrities. move people toward a common view
An example of such a program is of how things are by the way they
Entertainment Tonight on American represent or depict them; 2. efforts
television. by media outlets to include nonwhite

182
 manufacturing consent

and nonmale personnel among their Maletzke’s model of communica-

employees tion often-cited model created by
theorist Gerhard Maletzke in 1963
makeup cosmetics, preparations, of the contextual and psychosocial
and the like applied to the face or factors that influence communica-
body to modify one’s looks, and used tion activities and patterns, such as
for particular effects in theater, the the self-image of the interlocutors
movies, and television. Makeup is and the type of social environment in
especially important in establishing which the communication takes place
character onstage, and is thus used to
suggest age, occupation, personality, Malvern screen thin, flexible LCD
and so on. television screen that can be rolled up

makeup artist member of a film, managing editor editor of books

television, or theater production team or newspapers who is responsible
who is responsible for makeup and for the overall editorial process,
hairstyling ­including budgeting and scheduling
matters
male gaze in feminist ­theory,
the idea that men have traditionally manga [also called anime] Japa-
exercised psychological power over nese comic-book drawing technique
women by being the lookers, with distinguished by characters drawn
women functioning as those who with very large eyes and (sometimes)
were looked at. Although this a layout in which the panels run from
power relation has been changing right to left
radically, its remnants are still
found somewhat in media and manifest meaning the meaning in a
­advertising media text that is obvious, as opposed
to a latent or subtextual meaning.
male-as-norm in feminist theory, For example, the manifest meaning
idea that language referring to of some television sitcoms (such as
females, such as the suffix -ess (as Married with Children, which was
in actress), the use of man to mean popular in the 1980s and 1990s) may
“human,” and other such devices, be entertainment, but its latent mean-
strengthens the perception that the ing might be a critique of the tradi-
male category is the norm and that tional family.
the corresponding female category is
a derivation and thus less important. manufacturing consent [term
Sexist terms such as chairman, an- coined by Noam Chomsky] the
chorman, etc., are cited as examples camouflaged practice by govern-
of how the English language mirrors ments or institutions of gaining
social gender biases. the consent of common people by

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 manuscript

controlling or manipulating what the

media show and how they do so

manuscript any document written

by an author before it is edited and
published. Before the computer age,
the term referred to any handwrit-
ten document. Now, it refers to any
computer-generated document (in
a specific kind of file). In antiquity,
people living around the Mediter-
ranean Sea wrote manuscripts on
papyrus, leather, and wax tablets.
During the Middle Ages, manuscripts
were written on parchment and on
vellum (a refined form of parchment).
Since the 1400s, paper has been used
to prepare manuscripts. Scholars
Guglielmo Marconi
known as philologists study ancient
(and medieval) manuscripts in order
to reconstruct the cultures and social Marcuse argued that the media help
systems of the era from which they indoctrinate and manipulate common
emanate. people, promoting a false conscious-
ness that plays into the hands of the
Marconi, Guglielmo (1874–1937) system of power that oversees the
Italian inventor who popularized social order. His most quoted book is
wireless telegraphy, known shortly An Essay on Liberation (1969).
thereafter as radio. Marconi shared
the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with marginality pushing minority groups
Karl Ferdinand Braun of Germany, to the periphery in media coverage
who had developed ways of increas-
ing the range of radio transmissions. markedness way of classifying
In 1900 Marconi established the words or grammatical categories
American Marconi Company, which as being general, or unmarked, or
made it easy and practical to send specific and thus marked. In English,
signals across the Atlantic for the first the word man is unmarked for gender
time. because it is the general form stand-
ing for males and females together:
Marcuse, Herbert (1898–1979) Man does not live by bread alone. On
Frankfurt School philosopher the other hand, woman is the marked
and a leading figure in the New Left form because it is constrained to
movement that emerged in the 1960s. signifying females alone. This creates

184
 marketing

the impression, by extension, that 2. study of the probable users of a

masculinity is the norm, and that product. Many marketing firms use
femininity is a special case in point. surveys to determine what kinds of
people make up a market; others
market area geographical area that observe what customers actually buy
represents a particular market of buy- to learn about their habits; others
ers for a specific product analyze the effect that the public im-
age of a company or its products has
market forces mathematical re- on consumers.
lationship that exists between the
supply and demand for a product or market segmentation process of di-
service, which ultimately dictates viding a market strategically, so as to
what it will cost be able to develop advertising materi-
als for the segment or segments that
market liberalism ideology claim- are believed to be favorably respon-
ing that market forces should be sive to them
allowed to develop on their own
momentum without any outside market share that part of an audi-
interferences or impositions (by ence that can be linked to a particular
governments, controlling agencies, medium or program
interest groups, etc.)
market test any technique evaluating
market power influence that results reactions to promotional and adver-
when a large share of sales is con- tising campaigns. Marketing agencies
trolled by a major company. Market determine potential markets for a
power enables large companies to product or service before it is adver-
limit competition and to raise prices tised. A research team then tests draft
above competitive levels. Such com- advertisements in the potential mar-
panies often put up obstacles called kets. On the basis of this market test,
entry barriers that are designed to the manufacturer will decide whether
thwart new firms from getting started an ad campaign is worthwhile.
in an industry. The most extreme
form of market power is called a marketing process of promoting
monopoly. In a monopoly, a single products and services through tech-
firm or a group of firms controls the niques such as segmentation, testing,
supply of a product or service for etc. Since the early 1990s, businesses
which no substitute exists. have used the Internet to carry out
many of their marketing activities.
market research 1. information- Marketing over the Internet generates
gathering activities carried out in more detailed information about cus-
order to improve marketing and tomer interests and buying behavior
advertising strategies for a product; than was ever possible before.

185
 marketing communications

marketing communications skillful system determines the intellectual

deployment of media outlets (radio, and cultural history of a society.
television, online communications, He proposed a system, called com-
print advertising) to promote a prod- munism, in which all citizens give
uct or service according to their means and take
according to their needs. His theo-
marketing firm business that pro- ries have influenced the policies of
vides advice on the distribution and governments in many countries, as
sales of goods and services, including well as numerous academics, even in
recommendations on pricing, packag- capitalist nations.
ing, advertising, merchandising, and
distribution Marxism socioeconomic theory
developed by Karl Marx and
marketing intelligence information Friedrich Engels. It constitutes the
collected about a market that can be blueprint behind communism, hold-
used to shape a marketing or adver- ing that all people are entitled to
tising campaign enjoy the fruits of their labor, but are
prevented from doing so in capitalist
marketing model model of the systems, which divide society into
marketing process, usually gener- two classes—nonowning workers
ated by specially designed computer and nonworking owners. Marx called
software, that allows marketers to the resulting situation “alienation,”
assess how to best utilize advertising and he theorized that when the work-
resources ers repossessed the fruits of their
labor, alienation would be overcome
marquee 1. sign over the entrance of and class divisions would cease to
a theater or other venue that displays exist. The collapse of the Soviet
the name of the featured event and/ Union and China’s adoption of ele-
or performers; 2. piece of text that ments of a free-market economy in
scrolls across a screen in a highlight- the 1990s marked the end of Marx-
ed band ism as a practicable theory of society,
though it retains interest as a critique
martial arts movie film genre in of market capitalism and a theory of
which the martial arts play a domi- media effects.
nant role, especially in the action
sequences Marxist theories of the media
theories that espouse Marxist phi-
Marx, Karl (1818–1883) German losophy in explaining the modern
social theorist who predicted that mass media. Essentially, Marxist
capitalism would eventually collapse critics maintain that the media rein-
under pressure from working people. force the values of those in power by
For Marx, the prevailing economic representing them as the norm. The

186
 mass culture

best-known Marxist theories of the clude those of Ludwig van Beethoven

media come under the rubric of the and Napoleon. Finally, festival masks
Frankfurt School. are used in such festivals as Carnival
and Mardi Gras.
masala style of Hindi filmmaking
that combines various genres (action, mass a large group, the collective
romance, comedy, adventure) aggregate (one of the most frequently
used words in media and communica-
mask 1. covering of the eyes, the tions). Its meaning is most often pe-
mouth, or the entire face, sometimes jorative. It is claimed that the people
used by fictional heroes (for example, living in a mass culture, for instance,
Zorro and the Lone Ranger wore tend to lose their individual identity
eye masks, while early Hollywood and assume a group or collective
bandits wore a mouth mask to cover identity. As such, they are likely to
their identities); 2. covering of the do things as a group that they would
entire face worn by a Greek or Ro- never do alone (for example, engage
man actor in ancient drama to portray in riots or illegal activity).
a character and magnify the voice; 3.
any ritualistic covering over the face. mass communication 1. communi-
Masks are divided into four types. cation system that reaches massive
First, ceremonial masks were used in numbers of people; 2. actual process
many tribal societies to influence or of designing and delivering media
appeal to the gods. These masks rep- texts to mass audiences
resented the gods and were worn dur-
ing ceremonies, suggesting that the mass communication theory any
gods were present in spirit. Second, theory that aims to explain or predict
theatrical masks, such as those used cultural and social phenomena as in-
by the ancient Greeks in their dra- terrelated with mass communication
mas, allowed the audience to follow and mass media systems
the play and to grasp the characters
portrayed by the actors. The Chinese mass culture type of culture found
and Japanese also used masks in in urban societies, where various
this manner. Third, burial and death cultures, subcultures, countercul-
masks have been used since antiq- tures, and parallel cultures exist
uity in ceremonies relating to death. in constant competition with each
Typically, in many tribes the masks other. The mass culture dominates
represent dead persons, and it is the other cultures at the same time
thought that their spirits return during that it is composed of them. So, for
the ceremony. In Western countries, instance, American pop culture is
death masks are sometimes used to a mass culture. But within it there
preserve the memory of an important are subcultures and parallel cultures
personage. Famous death masks in- (goth culture, Hispanic culture, etc.)

187
 mass manipulation model of media communication

popular in Europe and the United

States in the 1800s. Many were
cheaply made, inexpensive editions
of novels.

mass marketing marketing that is

directed at large numbers of people

mass media media (radio, televi-

sion, newspapers, periodicals, Web
sites) that reach large audiences.
Attached to the meaning of this term,
however, is the erroneous view that
large agglomerations of people are
one-dimensional or homogeneous.
As research on media audiences
has shown, this is hardly the case.
Denis McQuail’s characterization
of the mass media, in his 1969 book
Towards a Sociology of Mass Com-
munications, is used commonly today
as a general framework for the study
English mass market paperback novel
(1952) of mass media. He identifies the
main features of the mass media as
follows:
that nevertheless are part of its social
fabric. • They usually require complex for-
mal organization.
mass manipulation model of media • They are directed toward large
communication model claiming that audiences.
consumers and audiences take in me- • They are public and their content is
dia texts and advertising campaigns open to everyone.
passively and that they are being • Audiences are heterogeneous.
constantly influenced surreptitiously • The mass media establish simulta-
by them neous contact with a large number
of people who live at a distance
mass market paperback paper- from each other.
back book intended for a mass • The relationship between media
market, typically found on racks personalities and audience mem-
in d­ rugstores, in supermarkets, at bers is mediated (nondirect).
airports, and in bookstores. Mass • The audience is part of a mass
market paperbacks first became culture.

188
 McDonaldization

mass society in culture theory, a MATV [see master antenna

society consisting of very large num- ­television]
bers of people, who (it is believed)
are easily manipulated by the mass maxim concise statement or saying,
media and government bureaucra- perceived as expressing some inher-
cies. One of the most frightening and ent truth: for example, Look before
evocative images of mass society can you leap; Two heads are better than
be found in George Orwell’s novel one
1984 (1949).
maximal awareness point at which
master antenna television an advertising campaign convinces
[­abbreviated as MATV] televi- consumers to buy an advertised
sion transmission whereby a single product
(master) antenna delivers television
signals to hotels, apartment build- McCombs and Shaw’s agenda-
ings, mobile home parks, and other ­setting model of media effects mod-
locations where it is impractical for el created by Maxwell E. ­McCombs
individual viewers to have a separate and Donald L. Shaw in 1976, which
antenna claims that the way in which the
media present events determines how
master brand [also called parent they will be perceived and thus how
brand] dominant brand in a business, important they will become in public
such as Sony audio video equipment, awareness
to which subbrands can be added
(Sony movies) McDonaldization [term coined by
George Ritzer in The McDonaldiza-
master shot wide camera shot that tion of Society (1993) and later
allows viewers to see all the ongoing expanded upon by the American
action in a scene sociologist Alan Bryman in The
Disneyization of Society (2004)]. As
materialism 1. philosophical theory Bryman states, McDonaldization as
claiming that consciousness is a the process “by which the principles
purely physical phenomenon; 2. in of the fast-food restaurant are coming
culture theory, idea that culture is to dominate more and more sectors
expressed through material products of American society as well as the
and that this is ultimately destructive rest of the world.” Bryman compares
of true culture this process to “Disneyization,”
which he defines as the correlative
matinée theater performance or process “by which the principles of
movie showing that is held in the af- the Disney theme parks are coming to
ternoon, often with cheaper seats than dominate more and more sectors of
evening performances or showings American society as well as the rest

189
 McLuhan, Marshall

of the world.” The term is now used

to characterize the process by which
large corporations are taking over
more and more sections of society.

McLuhan, Marshall (1911–1980)

Canadian communications theorist
whose ideas on technology, cul-
ture, and the media have been the
source of considerable debates in
media studies. McLuhan argued that
technological changes in the ways in
which we encode information lead
to radical changes in society. Thus,
each major historical epoch is shaped
by the communication medium that
it uses most widely. For example, he
called the epoch spanning the early Marshall McLuhan
1700s to the mid-1900s the age of
print, because print was the chief
medium by which people gained Man (1964), The Medium Is the Mas-
and exchanged knowledge. The sage: An Inventory of Effects (1967),
age of print encouraged the growth and War and Peace in the Global
of individualism, democracy, and Village (1968).
the separation of work and leisure,
among many other things. The elec- McLurg’s Law claim that news
tronic age replaced the age of print in about events farther away have less
the early twentieth century. Because value than news about similar events
it can reach so many people in many from the place where they are be-
parts of the world, electronic media ing reported. For example, the law
have since “shrunk” the world into a predicts that news about a single
“global village” where everyone (no casualty in one’s local area will have
matter where they live in the world) much higher newsworthiness than
can become involved in the lives of news about hundreds or thousands
everyone else, leading to the growth of similar casualties in some remote
of international virtual communities. area of the world (with respect to
McLuhan’s fascinating works where one lives). The term refers to
include The Mechanical Bride: the name of a British news editor
Folklore of Industrial Man (1951), who claimed that news events dimin-
The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making ish in importance relative to their
of Typographic Man (1962), Under- distance from London. Today, it has a
standing Media: The Extensions of more generic meaning.

190
 meaning theories

McNelly’s model of news flow mod- Among her best-known works are
el defined by J.T. NcNelly in 1959, Coming of Age in Samoa (1928),
showing how the stages through Growing Up in New Guinea (1930),
which a news event passes, before Sex and Temperament in Three
it is published or broadcast, influ- Primitive Societies (1935), Male
ence the way in which it is ultimately and Female (1949), and Culture and
perceived Commitment (1970).

McQuail, Denis (1938–) well-known mean world syndrome view hold-

media analyst who has written ex- ing that audiences get the impression
tensively on theories of mass media from the media that violent crimes
and on Uses and Gratifications occur more frequently than they
models. Among his books are Com- actually do. From this impression,
munication Models for the Study of audiences develop the view that it is a
Mass Communications (1981) and “mean world” out there.
Mass Communication Theory (1983).
He proposed several theoretical mod- meaning what is understood when
els, including the accountability of something is presented or communi-
media model (concerning the respon- cated. The technique of opposition
sibilities of the media) and the model is often used in media studies to flesh
of audience fragmentation (which out what something means. This
results from wider choice among approach assumes that the meaning
television audiences). is something that cannot be deter-
mined in the absolute, but only in
Mead, George Herbert (1863–1931) relation to other forms and meanings;
American philosopher often cited in for example, good vs. evil, hero vs.
media studies because of his analysis villain, etc. In media representations
of how social structures influence in- the poles of an opposition take on
dividual experiences. He is probably specific form. Thus, for example, the
the source of the concept of “con- evil villain in a movie might wear
struction of the Self,” which claims black and the hero a lighter color of
that selfhood is not inherited, but clothing, or vice versa (as was the
constructed by the individual through case with Zorro).
contact with others.
meaning theories theories about
Mead, Margaret (1901–1978) meaning and how it unfolds. The
American anthropologist, known mainstream view of meaning is that
especially for her studies of adoles- there are two levels, a literal and
cence as a construction of modern a figurative level, with the former
societies. Mead maintained that the consisting of the basic meaning of
child-rearing practices of a culture something and the other a derivative
influence how someone matures. form of meaning. The terms refer-

191
 media

ence, sense, and definition are often the Gutenberg Galaxy, after the
used in discussions of meaning. German printer Johannes Gutenberg,
Reference is the process of identify- who is traditionally considered the
ing something; sense is what the inventor of movable type in the West.
identification elicits psychologically,
historically, and socially; and defini- media analysis analysis of all
tion is a statement about what that aspects of the media; for example,
identification means by convention. how they evolved and how they affect
The terms denotation and connota- individuals and society
tion are preferred to reference and
sense in contemporary theories of media broker business that offers
meaning. Consider the word cat. organizations media-buying, media-
The word identifies a “creature with planning, and other such services
four legs, whiskers, retractile claws.”
This is its denotative meaning, which media buyer individual working for
allows us to determine if something an ad agency who has the responsi-
real or imaginary is a “cat.” All other bility of buying space or time in a
senses of the word are connotative; media outlet (a slot in a magazine,
for example, He let the cat out of radio time) for an advertisement or ad
the bag; My friend is a real cool cat. campaign
Such senses are historically acquired
meanings and can only be understood media center 1. department of an
in reference to particular cultural uses organization responsible for releas-
of that word. ing information to the media; 2. a
computer that, in addition to its usual
media [plural of medium] 1. any computing functions, also provides
means of transmitting information; access to digital media such as digital
2. the various forms, devices, and radio and digital television
systems that make up mass com-
munications considered as a whole, media circus profuse media cover-
including newspapers, magazines, age that a particular event attracts,
radio stations, television channels, distorting the significance of the
and Web sites. Before alphabetic event in the process
writing, the media for communicat-
ing information were oral-auditory media concentration 1. process of
and pictographic. Writing facilitated buying space in only one medium
the creation and storage of printed for advertising or publicity, rather
texts. Later print technology made than in various media, thus develop-
such texts available to masses of ing strength through concentration;
people. Marshall McLuhan called 2. domination of media markets by a
the social world in which the use small number (or even just one) large
of printed texts became widespread media corporations

192
 media plan

media control any mechanism set up media event an event that attracts
by governments to regulate the media a great deal of attention from the
­media, often organized or manu-
media convergence [also called factured deliberately to gain such
­convergence] process whereby old attention
and new media technologies are
available either separately or together media images impressions and views
through digitization of people or events generated by the
media
media councils groups of people
from the media and the public who media institution organization
investigate complaints against the involved in producing media forms
media (cinema, television)

media dependency theory [see media literacy [also called ­mediacy]

also dependency theory] claim that in-depth knowledge of how the
people can easily become dependent media work and how they might
upon mass media in ways that paral- influence audiences—similar to lit-
lel substance dependency. Supporters eracy and the ways in which literacy
of this theory claim that people can permits people to better understand
easily become habituated to televi- written texts in all their dimensions
sion or online navigation, but might (psychological, social, etc.)
be unaware of their dependency, or
may not care that they have become media messaging sending text, im-
dependent. ages, and sound from one mobile
phone or device to another
media dominance technique of buy-
ing a large amount of space or time in media objectives overall aims that
one medium for an advertisement or a company has in placing advertise-
program, and then shifting to another ments or ad campaigns in specific
medium after achieving optimum media outlets
coverage and frequency. The strategy
is to “dominate” media space and media organizations organizations
time as much as possible. providing information to their cus-
tomers, either directly with their own
media effects model any model that media communications or else by
sees media as influencing individu- offering marketers a way of reaching
als and/or societies in a negative audiences through advertising
way. The best-known models of this
type are the magic bullet theory media plan plan designed to place
and the hypodermic needle strategically an ad campaign in vari-
theory. ous media outlets so as to reach as

193
 media reception

many potential customers as possible mediasphere [term coined in analo-

with the least amount of expenditure gy with biosphere and semiosphere]
world in which the media interrelate
media reception [also called recep- with social processes, influencing
tion] act of reading, interpreting, etc., these processes directly, including
media texts within specific locations dialogue, rituals, and the like
and cultural contexts. Reception
theory generally claims that interpre- mediation view that media literally
tation is not homogeneous or passive, mediate reality, rather than present
but involves background assump- it in a straightforward manner. For
tions, audience dynamics, and other example, the 1950s American TV sit-
factors. com called I Love Lucy portrayed the
female gender through the character
media research studies that of Lucy as a strong-willed, indepen-
­investigate the media, including dent female, in charge of her own
how they influence people, how they life. On the other hand, the 1980s–
shape social processes, how they 1990s sitcom Married with Children
present news, and how they structure depicted the same gender mockingly
events through the character of Betty as
a boorish, sex-starved female who
media selection process of choosing lived out her existence mindlessly
the appropriate media for an adver- day after dreary day. The two pro-
tising campaign so as to make it as grams thus mediated the meaning of
effective as possible “female gender” through differences
in character portrayal.
media strategy plan of action by an
advertiser for bringing advertising medium [see media]
messages to the attention of consum-
ers through the use of appropriate medium is the message Marshall
media McLuhan’s famous maxim refer-
ring to his belief that each medium
media text any media product or cre- shapes the nature of the message
ation, such as a television program, a it is designed to deliver. In Under-
radio show, a newspaper column, or standing Media (1964), McLuhan
an advertisement. Like any written stated: “The medium is the message.
text (a novel, a poem), a media text This is merely to say that the per-
has the property of cohesion and sonal and social consequences of any
predictability that allows interpreters medium—that is, of any extension of
to identify it as such and experience ourselves—result from the new scale
it as a whole. that is introduced into our affairs by
each extension of ourselves, or by
mediacy [see media literacy] any new technology.”

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 message

mega-agencies in the advertising memoir biographical genre com-

business, large ad companies that are posed from personal observation and
formed through the merger of smaller experience. A memoir differs from
ad agencies autobiography chiefly in the degree
of interpretation of the events in
megabyte unit of computer memory one’s life. Memoirs tend to be more
equal to one million bytes interpretive than factual. A diary is an
example of a memoir.
megaplex large movie theater
­complex, often with the same movie memory stick small flash drive
playing on several screens in the ­device that can store data for use
complex in electronic devices such as
­computers, digital cameras, and
Méliès, Georges (1861–1938) one of ­mobile phones
the first filmmakers who introduced
the basic camera techniques of slow merchandising creation of brand
motion, dissolve, and fade-out. He nonmedia products, such as food
was also the first to create film fiction and toys, which are designed to take
narratives, from 1899 to 1912, pro- advantage of the success of a media
ducing more than 400 films, which event or product, such as a block-
combined pantomime and fantasy, buster movie
including Le voyage dans la lune
(1902; A Trip to the Moon). mesmerism [term coined after Franz
Mesmer (1734–1815), Austrian
melodrama narrative work (of- physician] power to captivate and
ten in serial form) characterized enthrall someone. Mesmer thought
by ­emotional conflicts among the that he could cure patients by having
characters. The melodrama traces them put their feet in magnetized
its origins to Greek theater, becom- water while holding cables. Mesmer
ing popular in the West only in the believed that people possessed a
eighteenth century. Also known as mysterious quality that allowed them
“tearjerkers,” melodramas today in- to have a powerful, “magnetic” influ-
clude romantic comedies and televi- ence over others. Mesmer created a
sion soap operas. sensation in his day, but the medical
profession saw him as a fraud. The
meme [term coined by Richard term mesmerism is sometimes used in
Dawkins (1941–)] any idea, fash- reference to the ways in which media
ion, musical tune, etc., that spreads influence people.
through society, which inherits it
unwittingly in the same way that message 1. any form of communica-
individuals get their personality auto- tion (information, feelings, ideas)
matically through genetic inheritance passed on or transmitted in some

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 messageboard

way; 2. meaning or lesson built into a nature of language itself or of some

text, spectacle, or performance aspect of language; grammatical
statements and categories (nouns,
messageboard Web page or group of verbs, etc.) are part of the grammar-
Web pages on the Internet that allows ian’s metalanguage
visitors to read and respond to mes-
sages posted there metalingual function in Roman
Jakobson’s communication model,
messaging sending short instant any language about language: for
messages by mobile phone or some example, A verb is a word expressing
instant messaging device some action; Is green a descriptive or
demonstrative adjective?
metacommunication 1. abstract
principles of communication in all its metamessage the “real” message
forms; 2. level of analysis designed to implicit (or hidden) in a communica-
examine the nature of communication tion, often delivered through the tone
of voice or something similar, that
metadata information contained on might be different from the apparent
a Web page (publication date, author, content of the message
keywords, title) that can be used by
search engines to find relevant Web metanarrative [often used as a syn-
sites through hyperlinks onym for metafiction] narrative that
examines or explores the narrative
metafiction fiction that explores the form itself, or else includes other nar-
nature of fiction itself, especially its ratives within it
traditional forms, genres, and styles
metaphor word or phrase used to
metal music [synonym for heavy designate something by association
metal] type of rock music charac- or implication. In the professor is a
terized by highly amplified electric snake, the word snake is used meta-
guitars, a hard beat, a thumping bass, phorically to imply, not the reptile
and often dark lyrics. It came onto known as a snake, but the qualities of
the scene in the late 1960s and 1970s “danger,” “slipperiness,” etc., that it
with bands such as Steppenwolf, Led represents. These qualities are then
Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, Kiss, projected onto the professor by asso-
AC/DC, and Aerosmith. In the 1980s, ciation. Metaphor was first identified
metal was revived by bands such as by Aristotle, who saw it as a way
Def Leppard, Iron Maiden, Mötley for people to understand abstract con-
Crüe, Black Sabbath, and Van Halen. cepts (such as human personality).
However, Aristotle later claimed that
metalanguage theory or statement the primary function of metaphor was
about language, concerning the figurative or symbolic, rather than

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 micropayment

cognitive. Today, Aristotle’s original symbol of Hollywood’s golden age.

conception of metaphor as a cogni- Web site: www.mgm.com
tive strategy is the definition accepted
by most linguists. Metz, Christian (1931–1993)
French cinema analyst who argued
metatext theory or statement about essentially that a movie can be stud-
texts, whose purpose it is to exam- ied in the ways that a linguist studies
ine the nature, function, and overall language, hence introducing the
structure of texts themselves concept of “film language” into the
field. His best-known work is Essais
metatheory theory or statement sur la signification au cinema (1968;
about theories, whose purpose it is to Film Language: A Semiotics of the
examine the nature, form, and func- Cinema, 1974).
tion of theories themselves
microcassette small audiotape
methodology system of procedures ­cassette that fits into a pocket-
used in any field, such as media sized tape recorder or dictation
analysis, for conducting research, or ­machine
for gathering data
microcomputer [also called per­
metonymy figure of speech standing sonal computer] small computer
for something of which it is a part: that uses a microprocessor to
for example, the press for journalists ­process information
and newspapers; wheels for automo-
bile. In the world of shopping and microfiche tiny sheet of microfilm,
commerce, certain brands become on which images are arranged in a
metonyms: for example, the Scotch grid pattern. A single microfiche may
brand of adhesive tape is used com- contain images of up to 400 regular
monly to name all brands of adhesive paper pages.
tape; the Kleenex brand of facial
tissue is commonly used to refer to microfilm photographic film on
all brands of facial tissue; and so on. which reduced images are recorded.
Generally, this happens when a brand Microfilm can store large amounts of
name is either the first to reach the information in a small space. People
marketplace or else is a dominant read microfilm with a reader that en-
brand within it. larges the images and projects them
onto a built-in screen.
Metro-Goldwyn-Meyer [abbrevi-
ated as MGM] major Hollywood stu- micropayment small charge to Inter-
dio founded in 1924, which became net users for downloading something,
a leading film production enterprise usually on Web sites that have no
in the 1930s and 1940s and thus a sponsors

197
 microphone

microphone device that changes including pleasure and gratification,

sound into electrical current, which in terms of their utility value
instantly travels over wires or through
the air to a loudspeaker or some Milton’s paradox often-cited para-
other device that changes it back dox, which states that theory and
into sound. The first microphone was practice may not correspond, as exem-
the telephone transmitter, invented plified by seventeenth-century English
by Alexander Graham Bell in poet John Milton’s own work as a cen-
1876. Today, microphones are used in sor during Oliver Cromwell’s reign,
public-address systems and in radio despite the fact that he paradoxically
and television broadcasting. They are supported freedom of the press
also used in recording the sound for
motion pictures, in making compact mime 1. play (usually comical in na-
discs, and in webcasting. ture) in which people are impersonat-
ed and events mimicked (originating
microphotography process of mak- in Greek and Roman comedy); 2.
ing microfilm acronym for multipurpose Internet
mail extension, a system used to
microprocessor device that does the handle attachments in e-mails and
actual work in a computer. A micro- newsgroup postings
processor consists of transistors and
other parts built into a chip (usually mimesis imitation or simulation of
made of silicon). sensible reality in art and literature

Microsoft large software corporation, mimetic theory of art theory elabo-

based in Washington State, founded rated by Aristotle, which claims
in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul G. that art is basically an imitation of the
Allen, by simply adapting BASIC for real world
use on personal computers. Microsoft
became a publicly owned corporation mimicry art of imitating other
in 1986, after having issued the first people’s voices, gestures, and appear-
version of Microsoft Word, a popular ance, often for comical effect
word-processing program, in 1983,
and Microsoft Windows, a graphi- minimal effects model any model
cal user interface, in 1985. claiming that the media have lim-
ited effects on audiences, reinforc-
Mill’s principle of utility often-cited ing existing attitudes, values, and
principle enunciated by nineteenth- worldview rather than influencing or
century British philosopher and econ- changing them
omist John Stuart Mill, who claimed
that there exists a universal tendency minimalism arts movement originat-
in human beings to assess everything, ing in the 1960s, in which only the

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 mixing

simplest forms are used, often over or image for commercial purposes,
and over again. The musical works without the person’s permission
of American composer Philip Glass
are examples of minimalist style, mise-en-abyme technique consisting
emphasizing simple classic melodic of bottomless reduplication, as when
and harmonic forms that are repeated an image contains a smaller version
over and over in a specific piece: of itself, which in turn contains an
for example, Einstein on the Beach even smaller version within itself,
(1976), Satyagraha (1980), Akhnaten and so on ad infinitum
(1984), The Voyage (1992), and La
Belle et la Bête (1994). The term mise-en-scène 1. actual positioning
also applies to the field of art. For of scenery, actors, etc., on a stage or
example, American painter Ellsworth movie set for a particular scene or
Kelly typically uses a single color sequence; 2. overall look of a filmed
and very linear drawing techniques to scene
emphasize simplicity and its beauty.
misinformed society view that
miniseries serialized television society is not better informed,
drama, usually broadcast on consecu- despite globally accessible systems
tive nights or weeks. One of the most of i­nformation, because these often
popular miniseries in the history of disseminate false or inaccurate
American television was Roots, an ­information
eight-part 1970s drama tracing the
history of an African American fam- misprint error in the printed or pub-
ily from slavery to freedom in early lished version of a text
America.
mixdown process of putting together
Miramax major Hollywood studio various audio feeds that have been re-
founded by brothers Bob and Harvey corded previously to create a finished
Weinstein in 1979, producing such recording
highly touted and popular films as
Pulp Fiction (1994), The Talented Mr. mixed media 1. use of different
Ripley (1999), and Sin City (2005). artistic media to create a single com-
Web site: www.miramax.com position or work; 2. in advertising,
use of different media (print, radio,
mirror site copy of a Web site main- television, Internet) in tandem for an
tained on a different file server in ad campaign
order to spread the distribution load
or to provide data backup mixing putting together different
excerpts of audio, such as vocal com-
misappropriation invasion of priva- mentary and music, to create a final
cy by appropriating someone’s name piece for broadcasting

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 mms

MMS [see multimedia messaging forms of social organization, without

service] guidance from religious or political
leaders. Societies that are modern,
mobile phone portable phone that therefore, also tend to value freedom
operates by means of a series of lo- of speech and of association, demo-
cally based cellular radio networks cratic forms of government, knowl-
edge, and diversity.
mobilization ability of the media to
stir up people to take action modulation system designed to in-
crease the frequency of signals.
moblogging use of a mobile phone, The two main types of modulation
or other handheld device, to post text are called amplitude modulation
in a weblog (AM) and frequency modulation
(FM).
mode of address way that a media
text “speaks” to its audience and, in mogul an important or powerful
so doing, helps to shape how it will owner of media
be interpreted
monochrome painting, drawing, or
modem [abbreviation of modulator- print in a single color or shades of a
demodulator] device that enables single color
computers to transmit and receive in-
formation over a telephone network. monologue 1. dramatic speech made
Modems can send and receive not by a single speaker, such as a stage
only text information, but also sound, actor; 2. jokes or funny stories deliv-
video, and other types of data. ered by a comedian on stage

modernism 1. early twentieth- monopoly exclusive control of a

­century architectural style, also commodity or service
known as the Bauhaus School, em-
phasizing simplicity and conformity monster movie movie in which the
in design (as used in the building of main character is a monster or in
early skyscrapers); 2. artistic trends which monsters play a primary role.
that ran roughly from the 1920s to Many early monster movies were
the 1970s and that generally empha- based on the “Frankenstein myth.”
sized formal elements rather than the Frankenstein was originally a horror
naturalistic depiction of subjects novel written by the English author
Mary Shelley in 1818, which tells the
modernity type of society in which story of Victor Frankenstein, a scien-
individuals are deemed to be fun- tist who tries to create a living being
damentally rational and therefore for the good of humanity but instead
capable of determining their own produces a monster.

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 motion picture

montage 1. composite visual image morphing in filmic language,

made by bringing together ­different changing something or someone
pictures or parts of pictures and into something or someone else in
superimposing them on each other, one continuous movement, achieved
so that they form a blended whole mainly by computer software. One of
while remaining distinct; 2. in the first uses of morphing can be seen
­cinema, rapid succession of scenes in the shape-changing Terminator
or ­images to create some effect character in Terminator 2 (1991).
(such as a dream sequence or a
flashback) Morse code system for representing
letters, numerals, and punctuation
moral panic 1. media-induced fear marks by a sequence of dots, dashes,
that an aspect of modern culture is and spaces transmitted as electrical
leading people—especially children pulses. The original system was in-
and youth—astray, into deviance, vented by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1838
delinquency, or criminality; 2. sudden for his telegraph. The International
increase in public anxiety over a me- Morse Code, a simpler version, was
dia product or event that is perceived devised in 1851. The Morse code has
as encouraging violence, sexism, or been rendered obsolete by modern
racism. The term was introduced by technologies.
Stanley Cohen in his book Folk Dev-
ils and Moral Panics (1972). motion picture [synonym for movie
or film] a series of still photographs
mores traditional rules and customs on film, projected in rapid succession
of a group of people or a society onto a screen, giving the impression
about what is acceptable social of continuous motion. The principal
behavior inventors of motion picture machines
were Thomas Alva Edison in the
Morley, David (1949–) well-known United States and the Lumière
analyst of media audiences and critic brothers in France. Motion picture
of cultural imperialism. His best- production was centered in France in
known work is Home Territories: the first two decades of the twenti-
Media, Mobility and Identity (2000). eth century. By 1920, movie stu-
dios expanded in the United States,
morpheme minimal form in lan- reaching their pinnacle in the 1930s
guage that has meaning. The word and 1940s, making the United States
impossible, for instance, contains two the center of filmmaking worldwide.
morphemes: the prefix im-, which The 1950s and 1960s brought a
conveys the meaning “opposite of,” new internationalism to filmmak-
and possible, also called the lexical ing. The same period also saw the
morpheme (or morpheme with lexi- rise of the independent filmmaker
cal meaning). (the indie). Today, movies remain

201
 mpaa

highly popular as forms of art and Motown [contraction of Motor

entertainment, and the American film Town, in reference to Detroit’s auto-
industry (based in Hollywood), with motive industry] recording company
its immense resources, continues to founded in Detroit in 1957 by song-
dominate the world film market. writer Berry Gordy, Jr., becoming
known nationwide shortly thereafter
Motion Picture Association of with the two hits Shop Around (1960)
America [abbreviated as MPAA] by the Miracles and Please Mr.
American trade association founded Postman (1961) by the Marvelettes.
in 1922, responsible for protecting The “Motown sound,” which fea-
the interests of the major Hollywood tured lyrical ballads sung to a catchy
studios. It is also responsible for rhythmic accompaniment, was made
the movie rating system in use famous by the Temptations, the Four
in the United States. Web site: Tops, the Supremes, Marvin Gaye,
www.mpaa.org the Isley Brothers, Gladys Knight and
the Pips, the Jackson 5, and Stevie
Motion Picture Experts Group Wonder. Gordy moved the company
Audio Layer 3 [abbreviated as MP3] headquarters to Los Angeles in 1971,
format for compressing music (and eventually selling the label to MCA
other) files into very small computer in 1988. Motown is considered to be
files, while losing virtually no quality one of the most successful black-
in the process. For example, sound owned businesses and one of the
data from a compact disc can be most influential independent record
compressed to one-twelfth the origi- companies in American pop music
nal size without sacrificing sound history.
quality. The MP3 format is very
popular for transmitting music files mouse hand-controlled device for
over the Internet. interacting with a digital computer
that has a graphical user interface. It
motivated shot camera shot that fol- is called mouse because its shape is
lows a particular action or sequence similar to that of the common rodent
of actions that is prompted by an with the same name. The mouse can
event in the action or sequence be moved to control the movement
of a cursor on the computer screen.
motivational research investigation It can also be used to select text, acti-
of the psychological reasons why vate programs, or move items around
individuals buy specific types of mer- the screen.
chandise, why they respond to certain
advertising appeals, why they watch mouseover feature on a Web page,
particular kinds of television pro- such as a pop-up menu, that is acti-
grams, or why they listen to certain vated when a user moves the cursor
radio stations over a contact point on the page. This

202
 multimedia

feature is designed to get the user to programming such as the animated

select it. Beavis and Butthead show and the
reality series Real World, separate
movie ratings system of classify- international networks (MTV Europe,
ing movies indicating for whom the MTV Latin America, and MTV
movie is suitable, according to age Russia), and the MTV Video Music
Awards.
G (General Audience): “All
Ages Admitted” muckraking journalism that aims to
PG (Parental Guidance Sug- uncover crime, corruption, or scandal
gested): “Some Material
May Not Be Suitable for MUD [see Multi User Dungeon]
Children”
PG-13 (Parents Strongly Cau- multi-actuality existence of many
tioned): “Some Material meanings, some of which may even
May Be Inappropriate for be contradictory, attached to a given
Children Under 13” sign or symbol
R (Restricted): “Under 17 Re-
quires Accompanying Parent multiculturalism 1. sociopolitical
or Adult Guardian” philosophy that promotes cultural
NC-17: “No One 17 and Under Ad- diversity, supported by many educa-
mitted” tors in the United States who favor
the teaching of different cultures for
movie trailers brief films showing a the purpose of understanding and
few scenes from an upcoming movie appreciating them; 2. society that in-
or television program in order to tegrates other cultural systems within
advertise it itself

movies [see motion picture] multimedia computer system that

allows the user to manipulate and use
MP3 [see Motion Picture Experts different types of media, such as text,
Group Audio Layer 3] sound, video, graphics, and anima-
tion. The most common multimedia
MTV [abbreviation of music televi- system consists of a personal com-
sion] 24-hour cable music video puter with a sound card, modem,
channel that debuted in 1981 with digital speaker unit, CD-ROM, and
Video Killed the Radio Star, by the portals for various devices. Com-
Buggles. MTV quickly won a wide mercial interactive multimedia
following among pop music fans systems include: cable television
worldwide, greatly influencing the services with computer interfaces
pop music business. The network that allow viewers to interact with
later expanded to include original TV programs, high-speed interactive

203
 mms

audiovisual systems, such as video Multi User Dungeon [abbreviated as

game consoles, and virtual reality MUD] text-based game that can be
systems that create artificial sensory played by multiple users across the
environments. Internet

multimedia messaging service Murdoch effect [after Rupert Mur-

[­abbreviated as MMS] system that al- doch] idea that journalism is becom-
lows for the transmission of audio, im- ing more and more obsessed with
ages, and animation in text ­messages corporate gain

multimodality 1. use of several chan- Murdoch, Rupert (1931–) Aus-

nels to access the same information; tralian-born publisher who owns
for example, accessing cinema listings many media outlets in Australia, the
through the press, by phone, and on United Kingdom, the United States,
the Internet; 2. the mixing of media and other countries. His ownership
forms; for example, the mixing of of print businesses ranges from The
sound, image and graphics on televi- Times of London to the New York
sion news programs or on Web sites Post. Murdoch is known especially
for making financially struggling
multiplex large cinema complex with media operations profitable.
many screens
Murray, Janet (1946–) media
multiplexing method of transmitting analyst, whose book Hamlet on the
multiple signals simultaneously over Holodeck: The Future of Narrative
a single wire or channel, in order in Cyberspace (1998), has become
to squeeze as much capacity into a a reference point for discussing the
network as possible metamorphosis of traditional genres
as they are increasingly transferred
multistep flow theory theory assert- to cyberspace
ing that media impacts are indirect
and are mediated by group leaders. Murrow, Edward R. (1908–1965)
The theory maintains that people prominent American broadcaster who
within different social classes have foreshadowed embedded j­ ournalism
very different interpretations of media when he broadcast eyewitness reports
products, thus forming interpretive of World War II events such as the
communities, which coincide with real German occupation of Austria. In the
communities such as families, unions, 1950s he was an influential force for
neighborhoods, and churches. the free dissemination of information,
producing a notable exposé of the
multitrack device or system capable tactics of Senator Joseph McCarthy
of using different tracks in sound that contributed to the demise of
recording or reproduction ­McCarthyism, the fanatical move-

204
 MySpace

ment investigating various govern- Gershwin, Cole Porter, Richard

ment departments and questioning Rodgers, and Oscar Hammerstein
witnesses about their suspected turned the musical into a form with
communist affiliations. In 1954 broad appeal. The genre flourished in
Murrow used footage of McCarthy’s the 1950s with works by composers
own press conferences on his CBS such as Leonard Bernstein. In the late
See It Now documentary program to 1960s, musicals began diversifying,
expose the excesses of McCarthy’s incorporating elements from rock
anticommunist campaign. The Senate music and other styles. Perhaps the
subsequently reprimanded McCarthy. most famous of all contemporary
composers of the genre is Andrew
music hall popular form of entertain- Lloyd Webber, whose musicals Cats
ment emerging in the late nineteenth (1981), The Phantom of the Opera
century that featured acts by singers, (1986), and Evita (1996) continue to
comedians, dancers, and actors. Con- be popular.
sidered to cater primarily to vulgar
tastes, music halls evolved in the must-carry rules regulations estab-
early twentieth century into larger, lished by the FCC (Federal Com-
more respectable variety theaters, munications Commission) requiring
which combined music, comedy acts, all cable operators to carry local
and one-act plays. broadcasts on their systems, thereby
ensuring that local media outlets and
music television [see MTV] public television channels can benefit
from cable technology
music video short film showcas-
ing a particular song or artist. It is MySpace online social networking
claimed by many pop music analysts site founded in 2003 where personal
that some artists, such as Madonna, profiles can be posted. MySpace
Michael Jackson, and the Euryth- is one of various Web sites where
mics, owe much of their success to people can post profiles and blogs,
the popularity of their videos. leave messages, or connect with
friends. It also features an internal
musical theatrical production that search engine and e-mail system. It
revolves around the music com- is headquartered in Santa Monica,
posed for it. Its roots can be traced to California, but its parent company is
eighteenth- and nineteenth-century headquartered in New York City. As
genres such as opéra comique. The of 2006, MySpace posted over 100
Black Crook (1866), considered to million profiles, with several hundred
be the first musical comedy, attracted thousand new members every day.
lovers of both opera and burlesque MySpace prohibits the posting of any
shows. In the 1920s and 1930s com- potentially dangerous information,
posers such as Jerome Kern, George such as phone numbers and ad-

205
 mystery ingredient technique

dresses. MySpace (and other online the modern imagination—Superman

networking sites) now allows for comes from another planet, the an-
the posting of other kinds of items, cient hero from the heavens; Super-
including profiles for companies man’s weakness (or tragic flaw) is
and various artists (e.g., musicians, exposure to kryptonite (a substance
filmmakers), who upload songs, short from his original planet), while the
films, and other work directly onto ancient hero may have a weak heel
their profiles. Web site: www (Achilles) or other flaw. The Super-
.MySpace.com man story is not a real myth, serving
the important cognitive functions that
mystery ingredient technique ad- myths served in the ancient world;
vertising technique whereby a mys- it is a recasting of myth to serve mod-
tery ingredient in a drink, detergent, ern psychic needs.
or other product is claimed to be the
source behind the product’s appeal or mythology 1. group of myths con-
quality nected to each other in some way;
2. the study of myths. There are four
myth 1. ancient story about gods, main types of myths found through-
heroes, and supernatural events; 2. out the world: cosmogonic myths aim
by extension, any story that aims to to explain how the world came into
explain something in nonliteral or being; eschatological myths foretell
nonscientific ways the end of the world; birth and re-
birth myths indicate how life can be
mythologie [French for mythology] renewed or tell about the coming of
as defined by Roland Barthes, any an ideal world or savior; and culture
modern-day spectacle or text that hero myths tell about heroes who
has mythic structure built into it. For have changed the course of history.
example, superhero comics or movies
are examples of mythologies, since mythos [in contrast to lógos] the
they recast the mythic hero concept form of thinking that generates
in modern form. For instance, Super- myths and many symbols to help
man comes from another world, has explain the world. For example, the
a fatal weakness, brings about justice ancient Greeks symbolized the sun
in human affairs, and so on, as did as the god Helios driving a flaming
many ancient mythic heroes. The chariot across the sky. The Egyptians,
difference is that Superman’s persona on the other hand, represented the
and story have been updated to reflect sun as a boat.

206
 last item

N
naming identifying a were applied to the person
person (in relation to a kin- who actually practiced the
ship group or a particular occupation, who may have
society), a brand product, belonged to a family with
or some other thing to which the occupation was
which people wish to refer associated, or who was
in human terms by analogy (hur- perceived as looking or behaving
ricanes, pets). In Anglo-American like someone practicing the occupa-
culture, given (or first) names can tion. Naming trends are remarkably
stand for such things as a month or stable in most societies because
object (May, June, Ruby, Daisy), names link people to families and
pop culture icons (Elvis, Marilyn), or cultural traditions. However, in some
classical mythic personages (Diana, modern cultures, fashion trends
Jason), among many others. Tradi- sometimes influence name-giving.
tionally, the names of ancestors or Nevertheless, according to the U.S.
religious personages (Mary, John) Social Security Administration, one-
are used everywhere in the world. fourth of the top twenty names given
Until the late Middle Ages, the given in 2004 were the same as those given
name was generally sufficient. Dupli- in 1880.
cations, however, led to the coinage
of surnames (literally, “names on top nanotechnology technology permit-
of names”), indicating such things ting the manipulation of atoms and
as the individual’s place of origin or molecules to form larger structures.
parentage, personality, occupation, In the computer world, nanotechnol-
or some other recognizable trait. For ogy refers to any technology that al-
example, a person living near a brook lows for compression of data so that
would have been called by that name it can be stored and used by increas-
Brook. Surnames such as Woods, ingly smaller devices.
Moore, Church, or Hill were also
coined in this way. Surnames such as Napster trade name for software that
Black, Short, Long, etc., were coined allows users to share files over the
instead to highlight traits perceived in Internet. Napster is the first to have
individuals. Descendant surnames— had legal challenges to its operations,
for example, those created with Mac- with resulting legal measures being
or Mc- in Scottish or Irish surnames taken. Its name now is associated
(MacAdam, “son or daughter of more with its legal battles than with
Adam”) or -son in English surnames its original technology.
(Johnson, “son of John”) were used
to specify the family to which some- narcotizing dysfunction accord-
one belonged. Surnames describ- ing to one theory, the overloading of
ing an occupation—Smith, Farmer, audiences with mediated information,
Carpenter, Tailor, Weaver, etc.— which results in apathy

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 narrative

narrative any account (story, myth, tendency to tell stories and to under-
tale, fable, etc.) that connects a se- stand the world in terms of narrative
quence of events involving characters structures and forms
in certain situations that are usually
resolved by the end. The narrative narratology formal study of narra-
may be fact-based, as in a TV docu- tives and narrative codes
mentary, or fictional, as in a novel
or movie. Narratives are constructed narrowcasting broadcasting di-
(normally) with four basic elements: rected at a limited target audience. In
the plot, which is what the narrative broadcasting theory, most audiences
is all about; characters, the partici- are divisible into segments defined
pants in the plot; the setting, which by specific demographic and lifestyle
is where the plot takes place and the characteristics. The contemporary
time frame within which it occurs; specialty radio stations and TV chan-
and the narrator, who is the teller of nels, for example, are aimed at audi-
the story (a character of the narrative, ences with specific kinds of interests
the author, or some other person). tied to age, gender, class, and other
Fictional narratives became popular kinds of social variables.
worldwide after the Italian Giovanni
Boccaccio wrote the Decameron National Broadcasting Com-
(1351–1353), a collection of 100 pany [abbreviated as NBC] major
fictional tales set against the back- American commercial broadcast-
ground of the Black Death in Flor- ing company founded in 1926 by
ence. The Decameron is the first true RCA Corporation, General Electric
work of fiction in the modern sense Company, and Westinghouse as the
of the word—the telling of stories first company to operate a broadcast
simply for the sake of the telling. network. Directed by RCA’s presi-
dent David Sarnoff, it became wholly
narrative code recurring element owned by RCA in 1930. In the 1990s
within a narrative (prototypical NBC expanded its cable television
characters such as heroes and vil- programming, creating MSNBC (an
lains, themes such as the journey into alliance with Microsoft) and CNBC
an unknown territory, and so on). (an alliance with Dow Jones). Web
The serious study of narrative codes site: www.nbc.com
was initiated by the Russian literary
scholar Vladimir Propp, who also national media media outlets and/
argued persuasively in 1928 that or- or products that receive nationwide
dinary discourse was built upon this distribution and attention
very kind of code.
national newspaper newspaper that
narrative paradigm theory that achieves national popularity and is
defines humans in terms of their available in every part of a country.

208
 needs theory

The most well-known national news- NC-17 rating censorship classifica-

paper in the United States is The New tion in the United States indicating
York Times, established in 1851. that a film cannot be seen by any-
one under the age of 17 because of
National Public Radio [abbreviated its adult-directed content (such as
as NPR] public (noncommercial) sexuality, excessive violence, foul
radio network established in 1967 language, nudity)
in the United States by Congress to
provide an alternative public radio needle time agreed-upon maximum
system. Public radio stations are amount of time that a radio station
financed in much the same way as can spend playing recorded music
public television stations, through
public and private donations and gov- needs theory in advertising, the theo-
ernment support. NPR offers a wider ry that advertising should be based
variety of news, documentary, educa- on linking a product to basic human
tional, and information programming needs and how it helps to fulfill them
than commercial radio stations. Web in some way. The most commonly
site: www.npr.org identified needs are:

naturalism 1. method of filmmaking Achievement: the need to achieve

whereby characters and locations are meaningful objectives
shot as they actually are, as opposed in life or to fulfill
to creating artificial ones; 2. more personal dreams
generally, any form of representation Popularity: the need to win the
that attempts to reproduce real-world attention of others
features as accurately as possible or to be accepted by
peer groups
naturalistic illusion of television the Dominance: the need to exert in-
impression that people receive from fluence in relations or
certain kinds of television programs to get the upper hand
that what they are watching is a rep- in them
resentation of real life when, in fact, Diversion: the need to enjoy
it is not oneself and to attain
pleasure in life
navigation activity of going from Understanding: the need to learn and
Web site to Web site on the Internet, instruct
either to search for something spe- Nurturing: the need to care for
cific or else simply to find out what is others and to be cared
on the Internet for by others
Sexuality: the need to express
NBC [see National Broadcasting sexual feelings and
Company] urges

209
 negative

Security: the need to be free as the use of so as an emphatic form

from harm and threat in expressions such as That’s so
Independence: the need to be self- yesterday
reliant
Recognition: the need to be recog- neomania [term coined by Roland
nized or acclaimed in Barthes] the maniacal craving for
some way new things, whether they are needed
Stimulation: the need to be excited or not, prompted by consumerism
or aroused and supportive media spectacles and
Novelty: the need to have new advertising
things
Affiliation: the need to win neo-Marxist theory any media
­acceptance theory that espouses basic
Support: the need to receive Marxist ideas, but coming after
emotional support the mainstream form of Marxist
Consistency: the need to achieve criticism known as the Frankfurt
order through consis- School
tency in lifestyle
neorealism Italian literary and cine-
negative in older photographic tech- matic movement that flourished after
nology, type of film copy in which World War II, focusing on social re-
the tones are the opposite of those in alities as they are in actual everyday
the original existence. Neorealist writers included
Italo Calvino, Alberto Moravia, and
negotiated reading interpretation of Cesare Pavese. Neorealism in film
a text that is a compromise reached embraced a ­documentary-like objec-
between the maker’s preferred read- tivity in style. The actors were often
ing of it and the reader’s own reading amateurs, and the action revolved
around everyday situations. Two
Negroponte, Nicholas (1943–) in- notable examples of neorealist films
fluential author on digital media and, are Roberto Rossellini’s Open City
especially, on how convergence (1945) and Vittorio De Sica’s The
unfolds in cyberspace. His book Be- Bicycle Thief (1948).
ing Digital (1995) has been widely
cited in the media and communica- Net [see Internet]
tions literature.
net audience total number of people
neologism 1. newly coined word reached by an advertising campaign.
or phrase that has not been gener- An individual is counted once in this
ally a­ ccepted yet, such as digiform method, regardless of whether she or
(a blend of digital and form); 2. use he has seen the campaign more than
of a word with a new meaning, such once.

210
 networking

Net imperative the idea that it is network 1. chain of radio or televi-

crucial for organizations to use the sion stations linked technologically;
Internet if they are to gain success in 2. company that produces program-
today’s digital universe ming for such stations; 3. in com-
puter science, system of computers
netiquette informal set of rules regard- interconnected to each other
ing use of the Internet, including the
type of language that is a­ ppropriate network era period of television
programming, from the early 1950s
netlingo [also called netspeak] forms to the 1990s, when the big three net-
of language used in chat rooms, text works (CBS, NBC, and ABC) were
messages, social networking sites, the dominant broadcasters, with little
and the like. Netlingo is marked by or no competition from other sources.
efficiency of structure, which mani- The era went into decline with the
fests itself in such phenomena as ab- advent of cable technology and
breviations, acronyms, and the use of Internet-based or Internet-connected
numbers, all of which are designed to broadcasting
make the delivery of linguistic mes-
sages rapid and highly economical. Network News Transfer Protocol
Some of these are listed below. [abbreviated as NNTP] protocol for
transferring newsgroup data across
b4 = before the Internet
bf/gf = boyfriend/girlfriend
f2f = face-to-face network programming scheduling
gr8 = great television programs over an entire
h2cus = hope to see you soon network, in order to take into account
idk = I don’t know time and regional differences
j4f = just for fun
lol = laughing out loud network society increasing tendency
cm = call me of society to use global computer
2dA = today networks for the purposes of commu-
wan2 = want to nication, work, shopping, and most
ruok = Are you OK? of the other things that previously
2moro = tomorrow were done in person in the so-called
g2g = gotta go offline world

netphone phone that makes connec- networking 1. building up an infor-

tions via the Internet mal group of people to contact as a
way to learn about job opportunities,
netspeak [see netlingo] especially by means of Internet com-
munications; 2. inexpensive way of
netsurfing [see navigation] sending information quickly among

211
 new economy

computers connected together in a site. The early years of television

single room or building offered little news coverage. In 1956
the NBC network introduced The
new economy information-based Huntley-Brinkley Report, a half-hour
(digital) economic systems, in national telecast presented in the
contrast to the traditional industrial early evening and featuring filmed
economic systems reports of the day’s events. The other
networks soon followed with similar
new journalism type of journal- news programming formats. In media
ism similar to gonzo journalism, studies, news is now seen as a media
in which the emotional content of a genre, with as much entertainment
story is emphasized over its informa- value as any other genre.
tion value
news agency [also called news
new wave 1. group of individual- service or wire service] organization
istic French filmmakers who called that compiles, writes, and distributes
for films to give more leeway to the news to media outlets. The largest
director’s own personal vision; news agencies are United Press Inter-
2. type of punk rock style popular in national, Associated Press, Reuters,
the mid- and late 1970s, which began and Agence France-Presse.
partly as a backlash against the per-
ceived superficial disco style; news anchor radio or television an-
3. style of science-fiction writing, nouncer who leads a news broadcast,
which emerged in the 1960s, charac- usually by commenting and introduc-
terized by a pessimistic view of the ing reports from correspondents in
world and revolving around antihe- several different cities, countries, or
roes, rather than superheroes other areas

newbie an inexperienced user of the news blackout withholding of a

Internet particular news broadcast, for some
specific social, political, or other kind
Newcomb’s ABX model of com- of reason
munication early (1953), but still
often-cited, tripartite communication news flash short news report that
model consisting of the sender (A), interrupts scheduled programming
the receiver (B), and the social situ- because it is deemed to be worthy of
ation in which the communication instant broadcasting to the viewing or
takes place (X) listening audience

news report of a current happen- news magazine 1. print magazine

ing or happenings in a newspaper, published regularly, containing com-
on television, on radio, or on a Web mentary on the news, investigative

212
 newspaper

reporting features, and the like; 2. by sion newscast began in 1948 with
extension, any radio, television, or 15-minute programs that resembled
online program formatted like a print movie newsreels.
news magazine. News magazines
have gained wide popularity because newsgroup a news discussion group
they summarize and analyze the big- on the Internet. Newsgroups are
gest news stories of the moment. organized into “interest categories”
(for example, automobiles). A person
news peg aspect of a story that starts a discussion by posting (up-
makes it newsworthy, important, or loading) an article and the follow-up
interesting replies form the discussion. Most
newsgroups are connected via
news server computer system that Usenet, a worldwide network that
collects and distributes newsgroup uses the Network News Transfer
postings Protocol.

news service [see news agency] newspaper print publication issued

daily, weekly, or at regular times that
news television channel that broad- provides news, features, informa-
casts only news and documentaries. tion of interest to the public, and
The most widely known of these is advertising. In 1690 Benjamin Harris
CNN (The Cable News Network) of Boston founded Publick Occur-
founded by Ted Turner in 1980 to rences Both Forreign and Domestick,
present 24-hour live news broadcasts, the first newspaper in the American
using satellites to transmit reports Colonies. The colonial government
from news bureaus around the world. ordered it stopped after just one is-
sue. In 1704 John Campbell put out
news values criteria applied by The Boston News-Letter, the first
journalists to evaluating which news regularly published newspaper in
stories are worthy of printing or America. Newspapers developed
broadcasting, and in which order of rapidly in the 1800s, owing to wider
importance they should appear literacy rates and advances in print
technology. Newspaper publishing
newsbreak short news bulletin expanded greatly in the twentieth
inserted in a radio or television century. Today, newspapers undergo
program because it is deemed to be consolidation driven by media con-
worthy of immediate attention glomerates or through the acquisition
of smaller papers by larger ones.
newscast broadcast of the news. In 1980 The Columbus Dispatch
Newscasting began on radio in the became the first electronic newspaper
mid-1930s and increased significant- in the United States. In addition to
ly during World War II. The televi- printing a regular paper edition, the

213
 newspeak

Dispatch started transmitting some niche marketing marketing to small,

of its content to computers in homes, but potentially lucrative, specialized
businesses, and libraries. Today, most markets
papers offer online versions.
nickelodeon type of movie theater
newspeak imaginary form of speech popular around 1905, which opened
in George Orwell’s novel 1984 mostly in commercial areas and in
(1949) employed by people living in poorer neighborhoods. Because admis-
a bleak totalitarian society. In new- sion was only 5 cents, the nickelodeons
speak, words are twisted to mean the attracted large audiences for movies,
opposite of their real meaning so that laying the foundations for the expan-
they can be used ideologically by so- sion of the fledgling movie industry.
ciety’s rulers. Language is simplified
to impede original thinking and to Nielsen ratings national ratings of
make revolutionary thoughts impos- the popularity of television shows,
sible to express. developed by AC Nielsen in 1950.
The method now samples televi-
newsreader software that allows us- sion viewing in homes, by attaching
ers to participate in newsgroups a meter to television sets, which
records the channels being watched
newsreel news report shown on film and sends the data to a computer
in a movie theater, often before the center for statistical analysis. Televi-
main feature, popular from the 1920s sion networks use the ratings to set
to the 1950s advertising rates for each program as
well as to determine which programs
newsweekly newspaper or magazine to produce and which ones to cancel.
that is published weekly. The most Web site: www.nielsenmedia.com/
famous of these is Time, founded in ratings101.htm
1923 by Henry R. Luce and Briton
Hadden. nihilism philosophy rejecting any
belief system claiming that life has a
newsworthy stories that are be- purpose. The term was first used to
lieved to be interesting enough to be describe Christian heretics during the
reported in the media Middle Ages. It reemerged in Russia
in the 1850s and 1860s in reference
N-Gen [abbreviation of Net Genera- to young intellectuals who repudi-
tion] people who have grown up with ated Christianity, considered Russian
the Internet from an early age society backward, or advocated revo-
lutionary change. The best-known
niche audience small target audience fictional nihilist is Bazarov in Ivan
that is predisposed toward some par- Turgenev’s 1862 novel Ottsy i deti
ticular type of broadcasting or product (Fathers and Sons).

214
 nostalgia

Nipkow, Paul (1860–1940) German munication through grooming habits,

inventor who, as early as 1884, had hair and clothing styles, and such
developed a scanning device that sent practices as tattooing and body pierc-
pictures over short distances. His sys- ing. Nonverbal communication plays
tem worked mechanically, rather than an essential role in social interaction.
electronically, but is still considered The scientific study of nonverbal
to be a forerunner of television. communication is called kinesics,
which was established as a separate
NNTP [see Network News Transfer field of inquiry and research by the
Protocol] twentieth-century American anthro-
pologist Ray L. Birdwhistell, who
noise in communication theory,
recorded and analyzed body move-
anything that interferes with the
ments, facial expressions, gestures,
transmission or reception of signals. In
and the like during social interaction.
electronic transmissions, noise is static.
Birdwhistell claimed that it is pos-
By extension, in human communica-
sible to write a “kinesic grammar” in
tion, noise refers to any physical noise
the same way that linguists wrote a
(sneezing, chatter, etc.) or to lapses of
verbal grammar by analyzing words
memory (psychological noise).
and sentences. The main areas of
nominalism view of some medieval nonverbal communication study are:
philosophers that reality is constructed • eye contact (looking patterns)
by humans through their words and • facial expressions
thus cannot exist apart from them. • posture, body orientation, sitting
Nominalism was a reaction to realism, patterns
according to which reality has an in- • gesture
dependent existence prior to and apart • interpersonal zones (zones people
from human knowledge of it. The maintain between each other)
most widely cited nominalist is the • sensory signals
fourteenth-century English Scholastic • hair and hairstyle
philosopher William of Ockham, from • clothing
whose name we derive the concept of • food
Ockham’s (or Occam’s) razor, which • spaces and buildings
asserts that the simplest of two or • architecture and cities
more theories is to be preferred and
that it should explain what is unknown Northcliffe revolution shift in the
in terms of what is known. economic basis of newspaper pub-
lishing in the late nineteenth century
nonverbal communication com- when newspapers became dependent
munication by means of facial upon advertising revenues
expressions, gestures, postures, and
other wordless signals. The term also nostalgia yearning for anything
includes indirect or implicit com- removed in space or time

215
 nostalgia technique

nostalgia technique advertising novella brief prose story, ­considered

technique that uses images from to be the precursor of the short story
previous times when, purportedly, and the novel. The first and still
life was more serene, less dangerous, most widely read compilation of
and idyllic novellas is Giovanni Boccaccio’s
Decameron (1348–1353), ­consisting
novel fictional prose narrative, longer of 100 stories, told by a group of
than a novella. Literary critic friends who had escaped the plague
Edmund Gosse traced the novel as in Florence in order to entertain
far back as Aristides’s sixth-century each another over a period of ten
b.c.e. story about Miletus, called the days.
Milesiaka. Unlike modern fiction,
the story had many historically ac- NPR [see National Public Radio]
curate elements, and thus often reads
as history rather than as fiction. In nudity the exposure of parts of the
eleventh century Japan, the Baroness body that are considered unaccept-
Murasaki Shikibu wrote what many able to expose in a public spectacle,
regard as the first fictional novel, The performance, and the like. The
Tale of Genji. The modern concept criteria for such exposure will vary
of fiction starts with the fabliau widely from place to place, and from
in the medieval period, culminat- age to age. The ancient Greek and
ing in the fourteenth century with Roman nude statues, Michelangelo’s
Giovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron sculpture David (1501–1504), and
(1348–1353). Miguel de Cervantes’s Rodin’s The Thinker (c. 1886) are
Don Quixote de la Mancha (Part I, considered works of art, rather than
1605; Part II, 1615) is considered erotic or obscene representations;
to be the first novel of true artistic on the other hand, nude poses such
merit, setting the stage for the novel as those found in contemporary
as an important literary genre. Novels magazines are interpreted in vastly
became dominant in the eighteenth different ways. In sum, nudity has
and nineteenth centuries. They meaning; it is perceived to have
continue to be extremely popular, ­cultural (moral, aesthetic, etc.)
although they have been competing value, rather than just biological
for dominance with movies through- meaning.
out the twentieth and early twenty-
first centuries. Many novels have nursery rhyme poem written in
formed the basis of movie scripts; catchy rhyme for children. An
today some movies are produced first example is London bridge is falling
and the novels written afterward. down, derived probably from an old
The movie is, essentially, a “visual dance tune. Collections of nursery
novel,” with the camera taking over rhymes in print started appearing in
the role of the narrator. the eighteenth century.

216
 last item

O
O&O’s [full form: owned obsolescence view that
and operated by net- things should be constantly
works] television stations replaced by new things
that are owned and operated
by networks OCR [see optical charac-
ter recognition]
object 1. in grammar, a noun or noun
off the record comments made
phrase that directly or indirectly re-
spontaneously and not intended to be
ceives the action of a verb, or follows
published or broadcast
a preposition; 2. in philosophy, any-
thing that is knowable, as opposed to off-air events or dialogue taking
subject (any knower); 3. in semiotics, place in a broadcasting studio but not
whatever a sign stands for put on the air

object language meanings and sym- off-camera actions that are taking
bolic values attached to objects place out of the range of a movie or
television camera
objective journalism journalism
that aims to present the news without offline 1. a computer that is not con-
opinion or bias nected to the Internet; 2. by exten-
sion, anything that exists outside of
objective theory of art theory argu- cyberspace (traditional media are
ing that art is a projection of reality now called offline media, in contrast
as seen by the artist. This contrasts to those media that are online)
with mimetic theory of art, which
sees art as a mirror of reality. offline newsreader software that al-
lows users to read newsgroup articles
obscenity any act, writing, depic- without being online at the same time
tion, or representation that is deemed
to be deeply offensive or to violate off-network syndication process
community standards of morality whereby older television programs
and decency. The Supreme Court that no longer run on prime time are
of the United States has ruled that made available to local stations, cable
materials are obscene if they appeal operators, online services, or foreign
predominantly to a prurient interest markets for reruns
in sexual conduct, depict or describe
sexual conduct in a patently offensive Ogden, C.K. (1889–1957) Brit-
way, and lack serious literary, artistic, ish psychologist who is often cited
political, or scientific value. Material in media studies for his works on
deemed obscene under this definition ­meaning, especially the book he
is not protected by the free speech coauthored with I.A. Richards, titled
guarantee of the First Amendment. The Meaning of Meaning (1923).

217
 oligopoly

oligopoly situation whereby a media online database [also called online

industry is monopolized by a small resources] database stored on a com-
number of producers puter at a different location. Users
gain access to these databases using
omnibus radio or television program a modem or other device that enables
that combines all the episodes of a them to communicate with each other
serial or soap opera that have already over a network. Databases can usu-
been broadcast ally be downloaded.

omnimax system of film projec- online medium any medium (print,

tion that surrounds the audience in a radio, television) that is delivered
semicircle, thus engaging a viewer’s online instead of through more tradi-
entire field of vision tional transmission systems

on-camera actions taking place online service provider [abbreviated

within the range of a movie or televi- as OSP] any provider of access to
sion camera the Internet, such as America Online
(AOL) and CompuServe
on demand any cable or satellite ser-
vice that allows the customer to select onomatopoeia use or creation of
the start time of a particular program words imitating the sounds to which
(rather than viewing or listening to it they refer: for example, buzz, swoosh,
at regularly scheduled times) drip, bang

on the record any comment made op art art style characterized by geo-
that may be published or broadcast metric shapes and luminous colors,
freely often to create optical illusions

online a computer that is connected op ed article expressing a personal

to the Internet. Online services pro- view, published opposite an editorial,
vide e-mail and access to the World that is, on the facing page to that on
Wide Web. which the editorial appears

online advertising advertising that is open source creed policy of making

created for viewing on Web sites technology, information, or data freely
available without charging any fees
online auction consumer online ser-
vice at which sellers present items for open text [term coined by Umberto
examination by Web users who bid Eco] any text that is interpreted as
against one another for the right to having a limitless range of meanings.
purchase them. The largest and most The open text requires the reader
popular online auction site is eBay. to have a certain erudition, whereas

218
 opposition

cal styles of the late Renaissance.

Jacopo Peri composed Camerata’s
first opera, Dafne, in 1597.

operating system software program

designed to control the hardware of
a computer so that users can employ
it easily

opinion leader someone who influ-

ences the values, beliefs, and opin-
ions of others in two-step flow
theory, emphasizing the fact that a
few people dictate lifestyle, fashion,
and opinion, while most others are
generally content to imitate and fol-
Opera singer low them

opinion piece article in which a jour-

closed text does not. For instance, nalist expresses an opinion on a topic,
Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot rather than simply reporting the facts
(1952), which is an open text, re-
quires readers who can make up their opinion poll survey designed to iden-
own minds as to what it means; on tify the attitudes, beliefs, opinions,
the other hand, a typical detective or or views of people. The target group
crime scene story does not. may include millions of individu-
als. However, only a small number
open-source software noncommer- of them are actually polled (called a
cial software developed and shared sample) because, if they have been
freely on the Internet properly chosen, their opinions are
considered to usually reflect those of
opera theatrical play with all or most the entire group.
of its text, known as the libretto, set
to music and choreographed in some opposition feature of forms (words,
way. Opera was created in Italy in the texts, etc.) that keeps them differenti-
late sixteenth and early seventeenth ated and distinct. The two words sip
centuries by a group of musicians and zip show a sound opposition that
who called themselves the Camerata is sufficient to differentiate them for
(Italian for “salon”). The Camerata a speaker of English. The theory of
had two chief goals: to revive the opposition has been extended to in-
ancient Greek melodrama and to de- clude cultural ideas such as good vs.
velop an alternative to the rigid musi- evil, male vs. female, etc., which are

219
 oppositional reading

purported to reveal an unconscious orality use of the spoken word as the

mode of keeping things distinct and primary means to transmit informa-
meaningful. Such oppositions are tion, in contrast to literacy
characteristically binary and hierar-
chical, involving a pair of concepts organizational communication
in which one member of the pair is system of communications set up
assumed to be primary or fundamen- among organizations (banks, govern-
tal, the other secondary or derivative. ment agencies, and the like) that is
In deconstruction, the idea is to not (generally) open to the public
displace the opposition by showing
that neither concept is primary. orientalism in cultural theory, the
misrepresentation of non-Western
oppositional reading interpretation cultures and peoples by the media.
of a text that is in opposition to what The term originated in the widely
the maker of the text had intended, acclaimed book Orientalism (1978)
which is known as the preferred by Palestinian-born American liter-
reading ary critic Edward Said, in which he
examined Western stereotypes of the
optical character recognition Islamic world, arguing that oriental-
[­abbreviated as OCR] device that can ist scholarship itself was based on
recognize text characters and save Western ideological thinking.
them as a text document
Orkut online social networking site
optimization in advertising parlance, run by Google and founded in 2004
computer package that automatically that allows people to communicate
devises a media schedule for an ad and form interest groups. Web site:
campaign www.orkut.com

oral culture culture in which in- orthography 1. any system of spell-

formation and traditions are passed ing; 2. the art and study of spelling
on from one generation to the next
by storytellers. The forms of oral Oscar common name for an Acad-
culture include poetry, folktales, and emy of Motion Picture Arts
proverbs as well as magical spells, and Sciences award recognizing
religious incantations, and stories excellence in acting, directing,
of the past. The prevalence of radio, screenwriting, and other activities
television, and newspapers in West- related to film production. The term
ern culture has led to the decline of is derived from the name given to
oral traditions, though some survive, the golden statuette that is handed
especially during childhood, when out at the awards.
rhymes, stories, and songs are re-
counted orally. OSP [see online service provider]

220
 oxymoron

otherness [synonym of alterity]

view emphasizing diversity in rep-
resentational practices. This concept
became widely known after ­Michel
Foucault’s accusation in the 1980s
that the “Other”—any person or
group of different race, ethnicity,
or sexual orientation—had been
traditionally excluded from Western
society’s representational activities.

output hardware computer hard-

ware that transfers information to
the user, such as video displays and
printers

outtake scene or sequence that is re-

moved from the final edit of a movie
or radio or television program

oxymoron figure of speech that com-

The Oscar statue, 80th Annual
Academy Awards, Hollywood, bines contradictory ideas: for example,
February 24, 2008 deafening silence, pleasing pain, etc.

221
 first item

P
P2P [see peer-to-peer page impression mea-
networking] sure indicating how many
times a Web page has been
package 1. audio text ready displayed to a visitor of a
for broadcasting; 2. series Web site
of interview clips put to-
gether by an announcer or reporter page reader device that converts
written text to a form that a computer
package unit system system of can process
Hollywood film production, initiated
in the 1950s, in which each movie page requests [also called page
is treated as a separate project with views] measure of the number of
different actors and production team; times a Web page has been visited
it replaced the older studio system, daily, thus providing an indication of
allowing independent filmmakers its popularity
easier access to the industry
pager small, portable electronic
packaging 1. creating a polished device that can receive and send
image for a media product through messages through various wireless
advertising; 2. designing the pack- networks
age, box, wrapping, or container of a
product in order to enhance its look pagination sequence of numbers
and appeal given to pages in a document (such
as a book)
Packard, Vance social critic, whose
books The Hidden Persuaders painting 1. picture drawn or
(1957) and The Waste Makers (1960) made using paint (or some other
brought to light the persuasive tech- substance) on a two-dimensional
niques used by advertisers to increase surface; 2. art of creating pictures or
the use of products drawings. Painting dates back to pre-
historic images found on the walls
packet unit of data sent over the of caves, such as those at Lascaux
Internet in France. Early societies controlled
the subject matter of painting and
Packet Internet Groper [abbrevi- determined its function (ritualistic,
ated as PING] message that tests the devotional, decorative). Painters
connection between computers were considered artisans rather than
artists; eventually, in East Asia and
Page, Larry (1973–) American Renaissance Europe, the “painter-as-
cofounder of Google, along with artist” emerged as a distinct indi-
Russian-born American Sergey vidual. In the early twentieth century
Brin painters began to experiment with

222
 pamphlet

Petroglyphs on a rock in Canyonlands National Park, Utah (circa 1150 c.e.)

art in which formal qualities such as PalmPilot a personal digital as-

line, color, and form were explored sistant (PDA) manufactured origi-
rather than subject matter. In the late nally by Palm Computing in 1996.
part of the century some critics fore- The first two generations of PDAs
cast the “death of painting” in the from Palm were called PalmPilots.
face of new media such as video and The term quickly entered the ver-
computer art, yet artists continue to nacular as a general word for PDAs,
paint and fill the galleries with new regardless of the brand.
works. Many of these use words
and images, combining them in Palme d’Or highest honor awarded
surprising ways, forcing the viewer at the Cannes Film Festival, for best
to search for possible meanings and film of the year
connections among the painting’s
visual elements. pamphlet folded booklet that is often
produced to promote a social cause or
palindrome a word, phrase, sen- political issue. Pamphlets were widely
tence, or numeral that reads the same used in sixteenth-century England,
in either direction (front to back, France, and Germany for religious
back to front): for example, pop; race or political causes. Foremost among
car; Madam I’m Adam the American writers of political

223
 pan and scan

pamphlets was Thomas Paine, whose pantomime 1. in ancient Rome, an

55-page pamphlet Common Sense actor who used gestures and body
(1776) became widely known for language rather than words; 2. any
advocating independence. With more play or skit based on gestures and
than 500,000 copies sold, the pamphlet body language (without speech).
is considered to be a factor in strength- Pantomime began in ancient theater,
ening the early American colonists’ re- but was developed as part of spoken
solve to gain autonomy from England. theater by the commedia dell’arte,
By the twentieth century, pamphlets an improvised comedy style that was
came to be used more for information popular in sixteenth- and seven-
than for polemical reasons, retaining teenth-century Italy. Actors in silent
this function to the present day. motion pictures necessarily relied on
pantomime.
pan and scan technique for project-
ing widescreen movies on standard paparazzi freelance photographers
television screens who pursue celebrities aggres-
sively and persistently in order to
panel 1. brief text separated from the
take candid photos of them. The
body of the main text by lines above
term comes from Federico Fellini’s
and below, usually highlighting some
movie La dolce vita (1960), which
aspect of the main text; 2. poster
includes a group of roving reporters
for advertising purposes; 3. group
who stalk famous people, seeking to
of individuals selected to perform a
get a sensational story about them.
service, such as an investigation, or
Fellini called one of the journalists
to discuss a topic
Paparazzo.
panopticism idea proposed by
Michel Foucault that surveil- Paper Tiger TV alternative media
lance methods are used by those organization founded in 1981 and
in power to maintain control. The based in New York, devoted to pro-
term comes from Jeremy Bentham’s moting free access and distribution
eighteenth-century design of prisons for independent producers. Web site:
in which a large number of prison- www.papertiger.org
ers are kept under surveillance by a
small number of guards located in a paperback book with a soft flex-
central viewing tower. Panopticism ible cover. Paperback books became
often refers to the modern-day use popular in Europe and the United
of video surveillance as an attempt States during the 1800s, after the
to control human interaction. German publisher Tauchnitz began
to issue paperback editions of classic
panorama shot in film or television, literary works in 1841. By 1885, one-
a camera shot that provides a wide third of the books published in the
view of a scene or action sequence United States were paperback, called

224
 parallel broadcast

dime novels because they originally time, deductive logic was seen as the
cost 10 cents. ideal form of logic for gaining truth
about the world. Zeno challenged this
papyrus paper-like material made with a series of clever arguments,
from a pith of reeds, formed into a which came to be known as para-
continuous strip and rolled around doxes (meaning literally, “conflict-
a stick, associated primarily with ing with expectation”). In one of his
ancient Egyptian writing. Given the paradoxes, Zeno argued cleverly that
greater availability and affordability a runner would never be able to reach
of papyrus, compared to the previous a race’s finish line if deductive logic
use of tablets, literacy came to be val- were used. He argued as follows.
ued highly among common people. The runner must first reach half the
distance to the finish line. Then (and
parable 1. in ancient Greece, a logically) from the mid-position, the
literary illustration; 2. in the New runner would face a new, but simi-
Testament, a story used by Jesus to lar, task—he must cover half of the
illustrate a spiritual truth remaining distance between himself
and the finish line. But after doing
paradigm 1. set of assumptions, so, the runner would face a new, but
principles, or practices that are char- again similar, task—he must once
acteristic of a science or philosophi- more cover half of the new remain-
cal system; 2. in semiotics, feature ing distance between himself and
or pattern that keeps signs distinct the finish line. Although the succes-
and differentiated. In pairs such as sive half-distances between himself
cat-rat and sip-zip, the first consonant and the finish line would become
is the paradigmatic feature that keeps increasingly (indeed infinitesimally)
the words distinct and differentiated. small, Zeno concluded that the run-
ner would come very close to the
paradox 1. statement or event that finish line, but would never cross it.
appears to be contradictory, but Clearly, by experience we know that
that somehow may actually be true; the runner will cross the finish line;
2. any circular statement (Which but by logical argument, we have just
came first, the chicken or the egg?). shown that he can never do so—
Paradoxes constitute their own genre, hence the term paradox.
having become famous for how they
have provided insights into the nature paralanguage any aspect of lan-
of logic and mathematics. The most guage, such as tone of voice, that is
famous paradoxes are those of the used along with words
fifth century b.c.e. Greek philoso-
pher Zeno of Elea, who is the likely parallel broadcast broadcast that is
inventor of the paradox as a distinct transmitted by radio and/or television
form of language and logic. In Zeno’s and/or the Internet at the same time

225
 parallelism

parallelism any statement made up of work) in an indirect fashion. Typi-

parts that parallel or mirror each other cally, a parody distorts the theme and
semantically: for example, I am the characters of a work or style. Geof-
president, the country’s leader am I frey Chaucer’s “The Nun’s Priest’s
Tale” (from The Canterbury Tales),
Paramount major Hollywood film for example, is a parody of the
studio founded in 1914. In 1966 solemn language and style of ancient
Paramount was acquired by Gulf & myth, since the clamor caused by
Western, and the new company later Master Reynard the fox is suggestive
changed its name to Paramount Com- of the fall of Troy. Sitcoms such as
munications. In 1994 it was acquired Family Guy and The Simpsons are
by Viacom, which in 2000 merged examples of parodies of American
with CBS. Web site: www society.
.paramount.com
parole [see also langue] as de-
paraphrase any rewording or sum- fined by Ferdinand de Saussure,
mary of something, usually to explain speech, or the use of language for
it: for example, going on a wild purposes such as communication
goose chase can be paraphrased as
pursuing something foolish participant observation in anthro-
pology, research method whereby the
parasocial interaction 1. imagi- researcher becomes a trusted member
nary relationship that often develops of the culture that she or he is study-
between a viewer and an on-screen ing, in order to observe the culture
character; 2. social relationship at a firsthand and thus to gain an inside
distance. encouraged by the media perspective

parchment ancient durable writ- partisan press press associated with

ing material made from the skins of a political party or ideology, gener-
sheep, goats, or calves. Parchment ally showing a bias or allegiance to
scrolls have survived from as far back that party or ideology
as 1500 b.c.e.
passivity theory view that a typical
parent brand [also called master audience accepts media representa-
brand] main brand in a brand family; tions passively and unreflectively
for example, the Coca-Cola soft drink
is the parent brand of all the other pastiche 1. media product that is
brands of soft drinks manufactured created in imitation of another similar
by the Coca-Cola Company one; 2. text that is constructed with
cluttered or mixed forms, associated
parody work making fun of someone primarily with postmodernism,
or something (especially a famous which stresses collective or shared

226
 PDA

expression through a blend of bor- cultural theories, in which males are

rowed styles said to be conditioned by the culture
in which they are reared.
patent governmental grant to an in-
ventor of the exclusive right to make, pattern advertising campaign that is
use, or sell an invention or media designed to have a broad appeal
product. The first recorded patent for
an industrial invention was granted in pay services [see pay-per-view]
1421 in Florence to the artist Filippo
Brunelleschi. Generally, in the United pay-for-play interactive game Web
States a patent term of twenty years site that charges a fee for usage
is given from the date an application
is filed. pay-per-view service provided by
cable and satellite operators that al-
pathetic fallacy the attribution of hu- lows viewers to select and purchase
man feelings to inanimate things: for movies or special programming on a
example, the angry skies, a stubborn per-feature basis
computer, etc.
Payne Fund Studies series of studies
pathos a quality in a literary or artis- of controversial media effects, con-
tic work or a media text that evokes ducted between 1929 and 1933, pub-
sympathy or pity lished subsequently in eight volumes,
that purported to show a link between
patriarchy social system in which movies and such social aberrations as
familial, social, economic, religious, crime and violence
and political authority is wielded by
men. In feminist theories of media, payola characterization of the bribes
the term is often used to refer to the that were given to popular radio DJs,
ways in which some societies are especially during the 1950s, who
structured to favor male domination were in a position to influence public
over women. In this usage, patri- tastes, by record companies or artists.
archy implies that the men control The term is used today more gener-
the material and symbolic resources ally to refer to any type of bribery
of a society and that these are often ­designed to promote artists and
used to oppress women. Explana- works in some medium.
tions for the emergence of this form
of oppression vary from evolutionary PBS [see public broadcasting
theories, in which males are said to service]
be the more “aggressive” and thus
“dominant” of the two sexes because PC [see personal computer]
of evolutionary processes that have
conditioned males to be this way, to PDA [see personal digital assistant]

227
 P2P

peer-to-peer networking [abbrevi- ers adopted masculine pen names

ated as P2P] system that intercon- because of sexual discrimination. The
nects users of the Internet to each British novelist Mary Ann Evans, for
other. The P2P architecture allows example, concealed her femininity
individual users to share files among with the pen name George Eliot. Two
themselves without recourse to a famous pen names are Lewis Carroll,
central server. adopted by the English writer and
mathematician Charles Dodgson; and
Peirce, Charles Sanders Mark Twain, adopted by the Ameri-
(1839–1914) American philosopher can author Samuel Clemens.
who, along with Ferdinand de
Saussure, is considered a founder People meter device invented by
of modern-day semiotics. Peirce the AC Nielsen Media Research
characterized semiotics as the “doc- Company that is installed in a remote
trine” of signs, meaning a “system control unit to electronically record
of principles.” Contrary to Saussure, the selection of television channels.
Peirce saw the relation between signs The device is thus used to determine
and sign users not as an arbitrary television viewing behavior.
one, but rather as an interpretive one;
essentially, every time a sign (such perception discernment of objects
as a word) is used, it is subject to or qualities of objects by means
variant interpretations according to of the senses. According to classic
context and other external factors. ­psychological theory, most percepts
Peirce is also known as a founder (= units of perception) result from the
of philosophical pragmatism, which association of sensory cues with past
maintains that the value of a theory experience.
lies mainly in its applications.
performance 1. formal exhibition or
penetrated market market in which presentation before an audience of a
more of a company’s products are play, a musical program, and the like;
sold, compared to all potential 2. representation and communication
­markets of a text, put on display for an audi-
ence; 3. in linguistics, the actual use
penetration strategy in advertising, of language in concrete situations
a plan for promoting a company’s
products in a particular part of the performative in discourse theory
potential market and pragmatic linguistics a word or
phrase that indicates the performance
pen name [also called pseudonym] of something, or at least the will to
fictitious name used by an author do something. When someone says
instead of his or her real name. Dur- “I am cutting grass,” that person is
ing the 1800s, some women writ- performing what the utterance says

228
 perspective

he is doing. The term comes from

John Austin’s 1962 book, How to Do
Things with Words.

performing rights permission to per-

form a piece of music to which the
performer does not hold copyright

periodical publication that is is-

sued at regular intervals, including
newspapers, magazines, journals, and
the like

persona 1. character in a work,

­especially in theater parlance;
2. in psychoanalysis, the role one
plays in social contexts, as sepa-
Typical PDA
rate from the inner self. In ancient
Greece, the word persona signified
a “mask” worn by an actor on stage. personal digital assistant [abbrevi-
Subsequently, it came to have the ated as PDA] handheld or pocket-
meaning of “the character of the sized computer, offering a wide range
mask-wearer.” This meaning can still of features, including calculation,
be found in the theater term dramatis time-keeping, computer games,
personae, or “cast of characters.” ­access to the Internet, e-mail service,
Eventually, the word came to be re- radio, video, etc.
fashioned as person in English, with
its present meaning, perhaps indicat- personification portrayal or char-
ing the historical importance of the acterization of inanimate objects,
theater as a medium of portraying animals, or ideas as if they were
human character. people or possessed human charac-
teristics: for example, My computer
personal computer [abbreviated as is sick today
PC] microcomputer so named be-
cause it is smaller than a mainframe perspective technique of represent-
computer. Early mainframes and their ing images (of people, objects) as
peripheral devices often took up the they would appear to visual percep-
floor space of a house, making them tion in reality. Although there is evi-
impracticable for personal use. The dence that the ancient Greeks already
PC, which was developed in the early knew how to create an illusion of
1970s, fits on an individual user’s depth or length in two-dimensional
desk. surface drawings, the Italian Renais-

229
 persuasion techniques

• Endorsements of products by celeb-

rities make them appear reliable.
• Appeals to parents induce parents
to believe that giving their children
certain products will secure for
them a better life and future.
• Implicit appeals that are designed
Cube
to convince parents that they should
get their children some product.
sance artist Filippo Brunelleschi
• Scare copy techniques are designed
rediscovered and then entrenched this
to promote such goods and services
technique in painting. For example,
as insurance, fire alarms, cosmetics,
the figure above is perceived as a
and vitamin capsules by evoking
three-dimensional box, rather than a
the fear of poverty, sickness, loss of
two-dimensional drawing, because of
social standing, and/or impending
the principles of perspective, which
disaster.
trick the eye into seeing depth.

persuasion techniques in advertis- PG rating [full form: parental guid-

ing, techniques designed to persuade ance] film classification indicating
consumers to buy or endorse a prod- that a movie may be seen by any-
uct. These include the following: one, but that parents should exercise
discretion regarding its suitability for
• Repetition is the technique whereby their children
the content of radio and television
commercials is reiterated in the PG-13 rating [full form: parental
print media (newspapers, maga- guidance–under thirteen] film clas-
zines, posters, displays) in order sification indicating that a movie may
to capture the attention of a large be seen by anyone, but that parents
segment of potential customers. should exercise discretion regarding
• The something-for-nothing lure its suitability for their own children if
is designed to grab the attention they are under the age of 13
of potential consumers: Buy one
and get a second one free; Send phallocentrism in feminist theory,
for free sample; Trial offer at half the idea that the male perspective
price; Finish this sentence and win is the dominant one in a patriarchal
$1,000,000 in cash, an automobile, society, such as traditional Western
or a trip to Florida for two; No society, and thus is expressed in rep-
money down; etc. resentations and media
• Humorously contrived ads and
commercials convey friendliness phatic function as defined by Ro-
and thus help to portray a product man Jakobson, the social purpose
as agreeable. of certain forms of discourse, for-

230
 photographic truth

mulaic forms of speech that are used troduced a system of precise notation
for social contact rather than for the for writing down speech sounds.
communication of ideas: for exam-
ple, Hey, how are you? What’s up? phonograph [also called ­record
player] device for reproduc-
phenomenology twentieth-century ing sounds. A phonograph record
movement in philosophy and the ­produces sound when a stylus is
arts emphasizing the role of sensory placed on its rotating surface. Its
stimulation and the emotions. The invention is generally credited to
founder was the German philosopher Thomas Alva Edison. Before radio
Edmund Husserl. German philoso- and motion pictures, the phonograph
pher Martin Heidegger claimed reigned for several decades as the
that phenomenology was particularly great modern innovation in pop cul-
useful for explaining the structure of ture and entertainment.
everyday experience.
phonology study of the sounds in
phish in netlingo, to trick someone a language and how they are used
into providing personal details by in the formation of words and other
sending an e-mail that presents itself structures
fraudulently as emanating from a
bank or Internet provider photo opportunity occasion when
celebrities, politicians, or other public
phone-in radio or television program figures pose for photographers, usu-
that receives phone calls from audi- ally to get exposure or for some form
ence members, who are encouraged to of publicity
ask the host or guest questions, make
comments, or take part in a discussion photocopy copy of a document or
image, printed directly on paper by
phoneme sound unit in language that the action of light in a machine built
signals differences in meaning. For for this purpose
example, the /p/ can replace other
consonants, such as /w/ and /b/, to photodigital memory computer
make English words—pin vs. win memory system that employs a laser
vs. bin. It is thus a phoneme in that to transfer data to a piece of film,
language, because it has the ability to which can be read again many times
signal differences in the meaning of
these words. photograph image recorded by a
camera and reproduced on a photo-
phonetics study and classification sensitive surface
of speech sounds. Modern phonetics
began with Alexander Melville Bell, photographic truth former belief
whose book Visible Speech (1867) in- that photographs do not lie. With

231
 photography

the advent of digital technology this example. The growth and popularity
belief is no longer held, given that of the realistic novel led to its decline.
images can now be easily and readily
manipulated. pictography use of pictures or
visual symbols for writing purposes.
photography art, craft, or science Pictographs are drawn to stand for an
of taking and developing photo- object or idea directly. The “smiley”
graphs. Photography originated in (J), for example, is a modern-day
the early nineteenth century when the pictograph. A pictograph that stands
combined discoveries of Frenchmen for an idea rather than something
Joseph Nicéphore Niépce and Louis concrete is called an ideogram
Jacques Mandé Daguerre led to the (such as the Nike “swoosh” logo,
invention of the first commercially representing speed).
successful photographic process,
called the daguerreotype (1839). In pictorial newspaper or magazine that
the 1860s the Englishman Henry has many visual images, often more
Peach Robinson pioneered a method than it has written text
of creating one print from several
different negatives. At the turn of the picture library photography store,
twenty-first century, photographers device, or Web site from which pho-
started using digital technology, tographs may be borrowed or repro-
expanding the uses of photography duced for use in books, magazines, or
considerably and to a large extent other print materials
replacing previous photographic
technologies. picture messaging sending images
and photographs from one mobile
photojournalism news reporting phone to another
in which photography plays a more
important role than the accompany- pilot radio or television program made
ing text as an experiment or trial so as to glean
the audience’s reaction to it as the first
photomontage art of combining episode in a potential new series
different photographic images to
compose a single image pilot study preliminary study in-
tended to identify the suitability of
picaresque novel novel revolving conducting a full study
around the episodic adventures of a
rogue or adventurer who is portrayed PING [see Packet Internet Groper]
as drifting from place to place in order
to survive. The genre originated in piracy unauthorized duplication,
Spain with Mateo Alemán’s Guzmán distribution, or broadcasting of copy-
de Alfarache (1599) being an early righted material for profit

232
 podcasting

pirate radio radio station that broad- play theory of mass communication
casts illegally without a license, often idea that the mass media do not pro-
attracting large numbers of listeners duce harmful effects because people
use them, by and large, for entertain-
plain-folks pitch advertising strategy ment, rather than for information
whereby a product is associated with
common people using it for practical playlist list of musical recordings
purposes that are scheduled to be aired by a
radio station
planned obsolescence claim by
some social critics that certain manu- pleasure principle [see also id]
facturers design their products to last desire for the fulfillment of natural
a short time so that customers will be urges, such as sexual ones, regard-
forced to buy them over and over less of social or moral sanctions. Its
operation is unconscious in adults,
planted news propaganda disguised playing an especially important role
as news in modes of expression that have a
nonrational motivation, such as the
plasma screen flat display screen for
making of art.
computers and television sets, which
gives clearer images than other forms
plot 1. events that take place in a nar-
of screen technology
rative; 2. main action in a story
Plato (c. 428–347 b.c.e.) ancient
Greek philosopher who coined the plug-in tiny add-on program to a
term philosophy (“love of knowl- browser that allows a user to play
edge”). His Doctrine of Forms, by animations, videos, or sound files
which he proposed that objects re-
semble the perfect forms with which pluralism 1. notion that all cultural
all humans are born, is the basis (or and value systems are equal and
stimulus) of several modern-day should be allowed to coexist in the
ideas, including that of the arche- same social situation or system; 2.
type. His writings include the Re- view that the media should reflect
public, the Apology (which portrays social diversity
Socrates’ self-defense of the charges
against him), Phaedo (which portrays POD [abbreviation of Print on
the death of Socrates and in which he Demand]
discusses the Doctrine of Forms), and
the Symposium. podcasting activity of providing
immediate audio and/or video files
play story acted out on a stage (or over the Internet to subscribers, for
some other place or through another playback on mobile devices and/or
medium); a dramatization personal computers

233
 POem

Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886) by Georges Seurat

poem piece of writing, usually in pointillism painting style in

verse form, that is more songlike, us- which color “points” are used to
ing more emotionally suggestive lan- cover a ground (background and/or
guage than ordinary speech or prose. foreground), appearing to blend to-
The oldest surviving Greek poems, gether when viewed from a distance,
and still the most referenced ones in producing a glowing effect. The
all kinds of texts, are the great epics works of Georges Seurat and
the Iliad and the Odyssey, which are his followers in late nineteenth-
attributed to Homer and were prob- century France best exemplify this
ably written during the eighth century style.
b.c.e. They were composed from
excerpts of Greek oral poetry, such political advertising advertising
as folktales and songs. After Homer’s used for political purposes, such as
time, people recited the two works, political campaigning
often from memory, before audiences
at festivals. political correctness language or
conduct that deliberately avoids
point of presence [abbreviated as giving offense, especially regard-
POP] phone number that a computer ing sensitive topics such as gender,
dials via the modem religion, and race

234
 pop language

pop culture [full form: popular cul-

ture] culture that can be defined as
the “culture of the marketplace,” and
thus produced by the people, rather
than commissioned and sponsored
by an aristocrat, institution, or the
like (as in the past). Pop culture is
thus subject to the same economic
laws connected to the making and
consumption of material goods. Pop
culture includes television programs,
advertising, comic books, popular
music (rock ’n’ roll, hip-hop), fash-
ion, sports, shopping, etc. It rejects
Andy Warhol’s silkscreen painting both the supremacy of the “high cul-
Orange Marilyn (1964) ture” of the past and the pretensions
of avant-garde intellectual trends of
the present. It is highly appealing for
polysemy 1. multiple meanings that this very reason. It bestows on com-
some words have; for example, the mon people the assurance that “cul-
word play means “drama” and “to ture” is mass consumption, not just
take part in a game”; 2. by extension, for an elite class of cognoscenti. It
the different ways in which media is thus populist, popular, and public.
texts are interpreted by different The spread of pop culture as a kind of
­audiences mainstream culture has been brought
about by developments in technol-
POP [see point of presence] ogy. The rise of music as a mass art,
for instance, was made possible by
pop art [full form: popular art], art the advent of recording and radio
movement surfacing in the late 1940s broadcasting technologies at the start
that emphasized the representation of the twentieth century. Records and
and/or incorporation of the objects radio made music available to large
of mass culture. The movement was audiences, converting it from an art
initially a reaction against abstract for the elite to a commodity for one
expressionism, with brand products, and all. The spread and appeal of pop
comic strips, and the like forming culture throughout the globe today is
the subject matter of the artists in the due to the advent of satellite technol-
movement. Perhaps the best-known ogy and the Internet.
pop artist was Andy Warhol, who
produced paintings and silk-screen pop language term coined by writer
prints of commonplace objects and Leslie Savan in her 2005 book titled
celebrities. Slam Dunks and No-Brainers: Lan-

235
 pop music

guage in Your Life, the Media, Busi- becoming a symbol of a trend or

ness, Politics, and, Like, Whatever, lifestyle
referring to language used in media
but picked up by the population at populism political philosophy that
large: That is so last year; I hate it champions the common person,
when that happens; Don’t go there; combining elements of the political
Get a life; and so on. Savan compares left and right, opposing large busi-
Disney’s 1953 cartoon Peter Pan ness and financial interests, but also
with the 2002 sequel Return to Never frequently showing an open hostility
Land. The former was free of pack- to established labor organizations
aged phrases and slang. The sequel,
on the other hand, is scripted on the pop-under ad Internet ad that ap-
basis of pop language, including such pears in a separate browser window
phrases as: In your dreams, Hook;
Put a cork in it; Tell me about it; pop-up ad advertisement that is
You’ve got that right; and Don’t even activated, popping up on the screen,
think about it. when a user visits a particular Web
site
pop music [full form: popular
music] music intended to be appre- pornography depiction of erotic
ciated by ordinary people, usually behavior intended to cause sexual
intended to provide entertainment and excitement, primarily in movies. The
pleasure, and including such genres word originally signified any work
as jazz, swing, rhythm and blues, depicting the life of prostitutes. The
rock, and rap. Pop music surfaced development of photography and
at the start of the twentieth century, motion pictures in the nineteenth
spreading in the 1920s with the rise and twentieth centuries contributed
of jazz music. In 1923 the Broadway greatly to the proliferation of por-
musical Running Wild helped turn the nography, as has the advent of the
Charleston into what most historians Internet in the late twentieth century.
of pop culture consider to be the first During the twentieth century, restric-
dance craze. By the late 1920s, the tions on pornography were relaxed
cheapness and availability of mass- throughout much of Europe and
produced records entrenched pop mu- North America, though regulations
sic as mainstream music. In the 1950s remained strict in Asia, the Middle
rock music came onto the scene as East, and Africa. Child pornography
mainstream pop music. Many styles is universally prohibited. According
have emerged since, from punk and to some media analysts, pornography
disco to rap and metal. is central to understanding pop cul-
ture. When the pornographic movie
pop star individual in media who has Deep Throat premiered in 1972, it
become an icon in his or her field, was perceived not just as a new form

236
 post-broadcast media

of blatant sexual depiction, but was perfume is positioned in magazines

also described by some critics as a dealing with women’s issues or in
serious threat to the political and so- fashion magazines; men’s deodor-
cial order. Pornography continues to ants, on the other hand, are typically
be a form of social criticism against positioned in corresponding maga-
authoritarianism, albeit much less so zines for men.
today since it has become virtually
mainstream. Some media analysts positive appeal advertising intended
distinguish between the erotic and to demonstrate why a product is at-
the pornographic. The former term is tractive or important to possess
used to describe the sexual activities
that have been represented in the art positivism philosophical system that
of most cultures since antiquity. In confines itself to empirical facts,
Greek pottery and Indian temples, for emphasizing the achievements of
example, sex in its different forms science
appears as just one feature among
many. It is only in modern secular post 1. to send a message to a news-
cultures that a distinction has come group or bulletin board on Internet;
to be made between the two sup- 2. to update a database; 3. to show
posedly different kinds of sexual text online at a Web site
­representation.
Postal Act of 1879 legislation that
portal entry point to the Internet, allowed magazines to be mailed at
such as a search engine low cost, leading to the growth of the
magazine industry
portrait 1. painting, photograph, or
drawing of a person, focusing on the post-broadcast media the shift that
face, extended to mean the depiction has occurred in the way that me-
of someone’s personality in some dia texts are delivered, due to the
way; 2. by extension, any penetrating advent of the Internet and digital
depiction of someone or something. ­technologies:
Portraits can be traced as far back
as 3100 b.c.e. in Egypt. They serve Broadcast Post-broadcast
various social functions, ranging public private
from the exaltation of rulers and
passive active
important cultural figures to sketches
of common people. analogue digital
one-to-many many-to-many
positioning advertising products mass interactive
in appropriate market segments
through appropriate media. For television computer
example, advertising for women’s standardized customized

237
 postcolonialism

postcolonialism the period after a post-Fordism [in contrast to Ford-

colonizing country has departed from ism] trend of moving away from
the area it once controlled traditional industries toward service
and technology-based work involving
poster appealing print announce- digital media
ment or advertisement that is
displayed publicly to promote a post-humanism secular philosophy
product, event, or idea. Posters were that aims to reassign humanity to its
popular in the nineteenth century, place among natural species, bringing
following the invention of lithogra- it down from its privileged position.
phy, which allowed color to be used According to this claim, humans have
in the making of posters. Henri de no inherent right to destroy nature
Toulouse-Lautrec was noted for his or set themselves above it. Post‑­
poster art, which was often used humanism has also been enlisted to
to advertise cabaret shows. The suggest that human bodies can be ame-
early twentieth century gave rise to liorated through technological inter-
­advertising posters for every con- vention such as genetic ­engineering.
ceivable product; the poster remains
a primary advertising tool to this posting message sent to a newsgroup
day.
Postman, Neil (1931–2003) well-
post-feminism approach to culture known critic of media technologies,
and media that still holds to basic entertainments, and their effects on
feminist criticism, expanding the people and cultures. Among his best-
original paradigm in order to reevalu- known works are Amusing Ourselves
ate some of the original assumptions to Death (1985) and The End of
of feminism, especially the role of Education (1995).
sexual representations of women in
the media. Post-feminism emerged as postmodernism movement in phi-
a backlash to Eurocentric and elitist losophy and art rejecting traditional
strands of feminism, and especially narrative and aesthetic structures. The
ideas such as those put forward by term was coined by architects in the
radical anti-male feminists such as early 1970s to designate a building
Andrea Dworkin, arguing that it is a style that was adopted at the time
delicate balance to differentiate be- to contrast with modernist Bauhaus
tween sexual explicitness and sexual style (characterized by boxlike
exploitation and sexism. Perhaps skyscrapers and tall apartment build-
inspired by artists such as Madonna ings). Postmodern architects empha-
in the 1980s, post-feminism cel- sized eclecticism and eccentricity in
ebrates previously taboo areas among design, putting, for example, a trian-
feminists such as sexual attractive- gular roof structure on skyscrapers.
ness and fashion. The term caught on more broadly,

238
 PRESS

becoming the moniker for a more latter is typical of the language used
general trend in art and philosophy. among friends.

postmodernity generally a synonym pragmatism philosophical move-

for postmodernism, but sometimes ment developed by Charles S.
used to refer to the state of the world, Peirce and William James, claiming
rather than to the artistic or philo- that the validity of anything (an idea,
sophical aspects of the postmodern a theory, etc.) lies in its practical uses
movement or effects

post-production final stage in the precision journalism type of jour-

making of a recording, film, or televi- nalism that attempts to make news
sion program, involving editing, dub- reporting a scientific enterprise with
bing, and other special effects rigorous methods such as surveys and
questionnaires
poststructuralism movement in
semiotics that challenges basic preferred reading interpretation of
structuralist theories, such as that of a media text that is the one intended
binary opposition, initiated by the by its maker or that is shaped by the
psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and ideology of the society in which it is
the philosopher Jacques Derrida. made
In structuralism, signs are implicitly
assumed to be the bearers of mean- prejudice unfair opinion formed
ings, independently of their users; by an individual or group, who may
in poststructuralism, signs bear no twist or even ignore facts that conflict
meaning, apart from the meanings we with that opinion
give them in specific situations.
pre-production work to be done
post-testing evaluation of an adver- before the filming or recording stage
tising campaign in order to determine of a text or program, such as script
its effectiveness reading and budgeting

PR [see public relations] prequel story set at a time before the

action of an existing work, especially
pragmatics study of how language one that has achieved success
is used in social contexts. Pragmatics
deals with who says what to whom press 1. those involved in journalism;
in specific situations. For example, 2. company that publishes books. The
saying good-bye can unfold with the term was originally applied to print
expression Good-bye or with the ex- journalism, specifically newspaper
pression I’m outta here. The former journalism, but in the late twentieth
is used in formal situations and the century it started being applied to

239
 PRESS CONFERENCE

electronic forms of journalism as primacy effect theory notion that

well. the information most likely to be re-
membered is the one that occurs first
press conference meeting where the in a text, film, or program
press and other media reporters are
invited to hear announcements of an primary text media text created be-
important nature fore it is transmitted or made known

press gallery location in a courtroom prime time period in a radio or tele-

or legislature where the press can sit vision schedule when the ­potential
and take notes or record the ongoing audience is the largest, generally
proceedings weekday evenings from around
7 p.m. to 10 p.m.
press kit package of background
material for a product or campaign
priming process of organizing news
distributed to the press by an agency
items in order of their perceived
or publicity department
importance
press release announcement, usually
in a print form, providing facts to the print 1. medium of communication
media so that they can be reported or utilizing written text, rather than
broadcast visual or audio images; 2. edition of a
book, newspaper, or magazine, made
pressure group group of people at a specific time; 3. photograph
who work together in order to make produced from a negative or by a
their common concerns known to the digital process. The invention of the
printing press is widely thought to
media or government in the hope of
influencing them be the origin point of mass communi-
cations. Some historians suggest that
prestige advertising advertising in print was instrumental in bringing
high-quality magazines or media about all the major shifts in science,
programs, with the aim of enhancing religion, politics, and the modes of
the company’s reputation thought that are associated with mod-
ern societies.
pre-testing the testing of an adver-
tisement or ad campaign before it is Print on Demand [abbreviated as
launched POD] printing technology by which
books and other print materials are
preview text (poster, short film, printed only after they have been
etc.) describing or showcasing an requested. Such technology has been
upcoming media event (a movie, TV made possible because of the advent
program, etc.) of digital printing. POD is used, for

240
 PROGRAM

instance, by presses to reprint older product placement marketing strat-

titles for which there is a moderate egy whereby a brand product is fea-
demand. tured in a prominent venue or event,
such as a film or television program.
printing press machine used for This strategy goes back to the 1950s
printing materials from movable when TV programs such as Texaco
metallic characters, perfected by Theater, General Electric Theater,
Johannes Gutenberg during the mid- and Kraft Theater became associated
1400s exclusively with one sponsor continu-
ing a previous radio tradition. In 1982
privacy 1. right to be let alone, to be the extraterrestrial creature in Stephen
free from surveillance by the state, Spielberg’s E.T. was seen snacking on
official institutions, or one’s fellow Reese’s Pieces—increasing sales for
citizens; 2. right to control the disclo- the product enormously. That event
sure of personal information started a trend in Hollywood. In 1983
Tom Cruise donned a pair of Wayfar-
privatization process of transfer- ers (Rayburn sunglasses) in Risky
ring ownership of a media outlet or Business, and sales for that product
institution from the public sector to shot up. The placement of brands in
the private one the scripts of TV programs and mov-
ies is now so common that it goes
process model theoretical model of largely unnoticed. Its main objective
communication in which the mean- is to amalgamate brand identity with
ing of a message is assumed to be the pop culture.
one intended by the sender, with no
input on the part of the receiver production work of putting together
a media text (a film, a television
producer member of a film team, program)
a television program, or radio show profile in netlingo, the pages that
responsible for general supervision users of a Web site set up to share
and financing information, including photos,
residence address, interests in music,
product character fictional person movies, TV, books, etc. A typical
or cartoon animal used in adver- profile has the name of the user,
tisements over a long period. The sometimes written with mismatched
character becomes highly familiar letters (for example, JohNnY), a list
to people and thus provides endur- of personal details (sex, age, marital
ing identification with a company’s status, zodiac sign), interests (music,
products. Well-known product char- sports), and commentaries.
acters include Tony the Tiger, Betty
Crocker, Mr. Clean, and Ronald program 1. any radio or television
McDonald. text or spectacle; 2. set of commands

241
 PROGRAM DIRECTOR

that allow users to operate a com- ent in all kinds of stories, including
puter the hero (or anti-hero), the villain, the
object of the quest, the hero’s helper
program director person responsible or companion, etc.
for the selection and scheduling of
programs for broadcasting or pod- props small objects on a movie or
casting television set that are used as part of
a scene or a sequence
progressive rock rock music style
that emerged in the late 1960s, prose ordinary language (as opposed
emphasizing creative freedom, often to poetry); for example, novels, es-
drawing on blues and jazz styles in says, reviews, critiques, and the like
combination are all written in prose; on the other
hand, cards (such as those given on
projection television television sys- Valentine’s Day) are typically written
tem in which an amplified picture is in poetic style
projected onto a screen
prosody 1. poetic versification;
promo advertisement for another 2. tones, pitches, and stress patterns
program or movie that accompany the pronunciation
of words, phrases, and sentences
propaganda materials, strategies,
etc. (overt or covert), used to spread protocol software that controls con-
particular ideologies or opinions in nections between computers on the
order to convince or persuade people Internet
of their validity
prototype theory psychological
propaganda model media and mass theory claiming that the concept
communication model, associated that most people generate in their
primarily with Noam Chomsky, minds when a word is used is the
which claims that those who control most common, basic, or prototypical
the funding and ownership of the me- exemplar of a category. For example,
dia determine how the media select when the word cat is used, people
and present their news and events, typically generate an image of the
making the media nothing more than common cat. They do not normally
a propaganda arm of governments think of a cat as a feline, as is a lion
and business institutions or a tiger. If asked what kind of cat,
people might refer to it as a Siamese
Propp, Vladimir (1895–1970) Rus- cat, a Persian cat, and the like. The
sian literary critic who developed a word feline reflects a superordinate
list of basic character roles and plot concept (a concept with a general
settings that, he claimed, were pres- classificatory function); cat a basic

242
 PBS

or prototypical concept; and Siamese delic poetry, etc. The term is from
a subordinate concept. Aldous Huxley’s book on mescaline,
The Doors of Perception (1954).
proverb traditional saying that
expresses an intrinsic truth or else psychoanalysis psychological meth-
gives practical advice: for example, od, developed by Sigmund Freud,
Don’t count your chickens before based in part on the assumption that
they’re hatched (= exercise caution). unconscious instinctual drives (the
Every culture has proverbs; they are libido) are primary motivators of
part of what anthropologists call folk behavior. Freud introduced the tech-
wisdom. niques of free association and dream
interpretation to explore unconscious
proxemics study of the kind of zones drives and anxieties. Freud’s tripartite
that people maintain while interact- model of personality—including the
ing, introduced into anthropology id, the ego, and the superego—has
by Edward T. Hall, who measured been used by various media and ad-
such zones, finding that they varied vertising analysts to explain how we
from culture to culture (allowing for relate to texts unconsciously.
predictable statistical variation). In
North American culture, for instance, psychographics study of the psycho-
Hall found that a zone of 6 inches logical profiles of different people for
was perceived as an intimate one; advertising and marketing purposes.
while one from 1.5 to 4 feet was ex- Psychographics differs from demo-
perienced as a safe zone. A stranger graphics, which studies lifestyle
intruding upon the limits set by patterns and other social characteris-
such boundaries causes discomfort tics of subjects.
and anxiety. If the safe distance is
breached by an acquaintance, on the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
other hand, it would be felt to signal U.S. legislative act that established
a sexual or aggressive advance. the Corporation for Public Broad-
casting, which oversees the Public
pseudoevent a staged event for the Broadcasting Service (PBS) and
media, planned for the sole purpose National Public Radio (NPR)
of playing to huge audiences
Public Broadcasting Service
pseudonym [see pen name] [­abbreviated as PBS] nonprofit
organization that oversees public
psychedelic hallucinogenic drug radio and television programming in
that distorts perception. The term the United States, made possible by
was used in various phrases in the the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967.
counterculture era of the 1960s: for PBS stations operate on contribu-
example, psychedelic rock, psyche- tions from viewers, corporate gifts,

243
 PUBLIC DOMAIN

foundation grants, and support from 2. in advertising, an ad that borders

the Corporation for Public Broadcast- on exaggeration
ing. Similar services exist in other
countries. Web site: www.pbs.org Pulitzer Prize set of prizes awarded
by Columbia University for outstand-
public domain realm of works that ing public service and achievement
are free from copyright or patent and in American journalism, letters, and
that can be used or released without music, named after editor and jour-
the payment of royalties nalist Joseph Pulitzer
public relations [abbreviated as
PR] activities and techniques used pulp fiction magazines and novels
by organizations and individuals (originally produced on cheap paper)
to establish favorable attitudes and that deal with popular and titillat-
responses by the general public or ing themes, such as crime, sex, and
special groups horror

public service announcement an- pun play on the different senses of

nouncement carried free by a media the same word or else on the senses
outlet promoting a program or project or sounds of different words: for
(usually sponsored by a government example, Dee Light is a delight; The
or educational institution) that is analyst is called Anna List
deemed to be of interest to the gen-
eral public punk rock aggressive style of rock
music starting in the mid-1970s,
publicity any favorable information developed from counterculture rock
about something or someone in order of artists such as the Velvet Un-
to stimulate public interest or to raise derground and Iggy (Pop) and the
awareness Stooges and represented by American
rockers such as Patti Smith and the
publisher company that produces
Ramones. The style soon took root
books, journals, or other print
in London—where distinctly “punk”
­materials
fashions, including spiked hair and
publishing trade, profession, or ripped clothing, were adopted by
activity of producing material in print punk bands such as the Sex Pistols
or electronic form for distribution to and the Clash. The fashion items
the public introduced into pop culture by the
punk movement include: chains, dog
puff piece 1. an article that gives un- collars, army boots, and “Mohawk”
critical support for a person or cause; hairdos.

244
 last item

Q
Q & A [full form: ques- questionnaire method of
tions and answers] style of conducting research on me-
radio or television reporting dia and advertising based
in which an announcer asks on the use of specifically
a correspondent questions designed questions. These
about a story can be of two general types:
closed and open. The former asks
quadraphonic four-channel (four- respondents to select their answers
speaker) sound system from various choices; the latter asks
them to give their opinions in their
qualified privilege legal right allow- own words.
ing reporters and journalists to report
judicial or legislative proceedings quiz show [also called game show]
even though statements made in the radio or television show designed
proceedings may be libelous to test the knowledge, luck, or skill
of contestants or experts. Two of
qualitative research method of the most popular quiz shows on
media and advertising research that American television are the Wheel of
is based on observational techniques Fortune and Jeopardy.
such as in-depth interviews and focus
groups quiz show scandals the fraudulent
practices by quiz shows of the mid-
quantitative research method of me- 1950s, when some producers began
dia and advertising research that em- feeding answers to contestants who
phasizes the measurement of trends had been chosen to win. Government
and their statistical implications investigations led to a demise of the
big-money quiz shows. These re-
queer theory in culture studies, gained popularity only in the 1970s.
idea that sexuality cannot be defined
­rigidly, and that non-heterosexual quota restriction on the amount of
forms of representation (in the me- time a particular media product may
dia) are as legitimate as heterosexual be given airtime
ones
quotation piece of writing or oral
quest in a narrative, the journey speech used, for example, in a book
that a protagonist undertakes in and enlisted for some purpose (to
order to achieve or find something support an idea, to embellish a pre-
­important sentation)

245
 first item

R
R rating film classification radio broadcasting broad-
in the United States indicat- casting through radio tech-
ing that a movie cannot be nology. Evidence of a plan
viewed by anyone under the for radio broadcasting to the
age of 17 unless accompa- general public is found in a
nied by a parent or guardian 1916 memorandum writ-
ten by David Sarnoff, an employee
racism any action or practice based of American Marconi, which would
on the erroneous belief that some eventually become the Radio Cor-
group(s) of humans is (are) superior poration of America (RCA). Sarnoff
or inferior to others recommended that radio be made
into a “household utility.” The memo
radical reading one of three was given little if any consideration
­supposed readings or interpretations at first. After World War I ended in
applied to a media text (the other 1918, however, several companies
two being dominant and sub­ took up Sarnoff’s idea for the mass
ordinate), in which the audience marketing of home radio receivers
rejects the meanings, values, and very seriously. In an effort to boost
viewpoints built into the text by radio sales, the Westinghouse Electric
its makers Corporation of Pittsburgh established
what many historians consider to be
radio transmission of sounds con- the first commercially owned radio
verted into electromagnetic waves station to offer a schedule of pro-
directly through space to a receiving gramming to the general public. It
device, which converts them back was called KDKA, after it received
into sounds its license from the Department of
Commerce (which held regulatory
Radio Act of 1912 first radio legisla- power following the end of the war)
tion passed by the U.S. Congress, in October 1920. KDKA aired mainly
which addressed the problem of entertainment programs, including
amateur radio operators jamming the recorded music, using a phonograph
airwaves by regulating the licensing placed within the range of a micro-
of transmitters phone. The station did not charge
user fees, nor did it carry advertise-
Radio Act of 1927 radio legislation ments. Westinghouse used KDKA
passed by the U.S. Congress creating simply as an enticement for people
a Federal Radio Commission, stating to purchase home radio receivers.
that radio operators could own their Radio broadcasting reached the pin-
channels if they operated them to nacle of its popularity and influence
serve the public interest, defining the during World War II, when American
broadcast band, and standardizing commentator Edward R. Murrow
frequency designations changed the nature of news report-

246
 Radway, Janice

ing permanently with his eyewitness to vaudeville to garner and adapt

descriptions of street scenes dur- material for its comedy-variety
ing the German bombing raids of programming. And it modeled its
London, delivered from the rooftop news coverage on the format of daily
of the CBS news bureau there. U.S. newspapers—announcers would, in
president Franklin D. Roosevelt fact, often simply read articles from
was among the first politicians to the local newspaper over the air.
understand the power of radio as a Because of its capacity to reach large
propaganda tool. He used the radio numbers of people, from the 1920s
to bypass the press and directly ad- to the early 1950s radio broadcast-
dress the American people with his ing evolved into society’s primary
so-called fireside chats during the medium of information, arts ap-
Great Depression. Roosevelt clearly preciation, and entertainment. Only
understood that the emotional power after the advent of television in the
of the voice would be much more late 1940s did radio’s hegemony in
persuasive than would any logical this domain begin to erode, as its
argument he might put into print. audiences split into smaller, distinct
The chats continue to this day as segments. Today, radio is primarily a
part and parcel of the American medium for specialized purposes (for
presidency. example, automobile and office use).
People listen to it in their cars as they
Radio Corporation of America drive from location to location, or in
[abbreviated as RCA] company their offices (or other places) as they
established during World War I to do something else. Aware of this,
pool radio patents, giving the United radio stations typically present traffic
States control over the new mass information in a regular interspersed
medium of radio broadcasting. Web fashion throughout their broadcasts,
site: www.rca.com or else present uninterrupted stretch-
es of music during certain periods of
radio frequency spectrum portion the working day. Radio stations are,
of the electromagnetic spectrum that typically, specialized according to
is used for all radio, wireless commu- music genre (classical music station,
nication, and television channels country music station) or service (all
day news station, religious station,
radio genres programming genres etc.).
associated with radio broadcasting,
either currently or in the past. At Radway, Janice (1949–) leader of
first, radio simply adapted various post-feminist thought, who has
genres of traditional stage drama, studied women’s representational
transforming them into radio dramas, and social issues and the power of
action serials, situation comedies, women-centered texts. Her most
and so-called soap operas. It looked influential work is Reading the

247
 ragtime

Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and used interchangeably. But the former,

Popular Literature (1991). which derives from Sugarhill Gang’s
Rapper’s Delight (1979), refers to the
ragtime popular music of the late musical style itself, whereas the latter
nineteenth and early twentieth cen- refers to the attendant lifestyle that
turies characterized by syncopated those who listen to rap tend to adopt.
rhythms—the term, in fact, probably Rap’s lyric themes can be broadly
derives from “ragged time,” allud- categorized under three headings:
ing to its basis in syncopation. The those that are blatantly sexual, those
most celebrated ragtime composer that chronicle and often embrace the
of the early period was Scott Joplin. so-called gangsta lifestyle of youths
Ragtime is considered an important who live in inner cities, and those
influence on the development of pop that address contemporary political
music. and philosophical issues related to
the black experience and its history.
random probability testing tech- By the mid-1990s, rap developed
nique of carrying out a survey on a into a more eclectic musical form,
representative test group, without as rap artists borrowed from folk
any restrictions as to type of person music, jazz, and other music styles.
surveyed Consequently, it became more me-
lodious and traditional in its use of
random sample sample taken from ­instrumentation.
any given population, in which each
person maintains equal chances of rapport talk style of speech aimed
being selected at establishing harmony among
­individuals
rap musical style in which lyrics are
rapped (chanted) to rhythmic musi- rating point one percentage of all
cal accompaniment, associated in its TV households who are viewing a
origin with African American youth. particular station at a given time, or
The first rap records were made in one percentage of all listeners who
the late 1970s by small, independent are listening to a particular radio
record companies. Although rap- ­station at a given time
per groups such as Sugarhill Gang
had national hits during that period, ratings estimated size of a radio or
the musical style did not enter the TV audience for a program, broad-
pop culture mainstream until 1986, cast, series, etc. Ratings are used
when rappers Run-D.M.C. and the to help broadcasters determine the
hard-rock band Aerosmith collabo- popularity of a radio or TV program
rated on the song Walk This Way, and to allow sponsors to determine
creating a broader audience for rap. how many people they are reaching
The terms rap and hip-hop are often with their advertising. This system

248
 REALISm

has no use on broadcasting Web sites, author of a work intended. In recent

where visitors to the sites can simply critical approaches, however, the
be tracked and recorded. meaning of a work is described as
a system of meanings to which a
rational appeal technique of design- reader responds, according to his
ing advertising to appeal to custom- or her personal experiences and the
ers by using logical arguments that particular context (social, historical,
demonstrate how the product might psychological) in which the reading
fulfill some need occurs.

rationalism philosophy stress- reader response theory [see

ing the role of reason in obtaining ­reception theory]
knowledge. Rationalism has its roots
in ancient Greek philosophy, espe- reading in media studies, a wide
cially in the works of Aristotle, range of processes such as reception,
but it has come to be associated with interpretation, and understanding of
seventeenth-century French phi- texts
losopher and mathematician René
Descartes, who expressed the essence Read-Only Memory (abbreviated
of his view with the widely known as ROM) form of computer memory
expression Cogito ergo sum (“I think, that remains, keeping its content even
therefore I am”). when the power supply is cut off; the
content cannot be altered once it is
rave venue for electronic dance manufactured.
music, also called techno, that first
appeared in the United States in the realism 1. view positing that uni-
1980s. Raves took place primarily in versals in human cognition and/
the form of all-night dance parties, or culture exist and can be identi-
often involving use of the hallucino- fied with logical analysis; 2. view
genic drug ecstasy. that objects exist independently of
human perception and identifica-
RCA [see Radio Corporation of tion; 3. in media theory, the degree
America] to which a text accurately reflects
things as they really are, and not as
reach estimated number of individu- we wish them to be. In literature it
als who are tuned into a radio station refers to works that depict everyday
or a television program life. Realist writers include French
writers Gustave Flaubert and Guy de
reader person decoding or inter- Maupassant, Russian author Anton
preting a text. Traditional literary Chekhov, English novelist George
analysis has focused on how a Eliot, and American writers Mark
reader tries to figure out what the Twain and Henry James.

249
 reality television

reality television [also called real-time 1. any event that is trans-

reality show] genre of television mitted or broadcast as it is occurring;
programming that presents purport- 2. any film, program, etc., whose plot
edly unscripted situations, featuring lasts the same period of time that it
ordinary people instead of profes- would take if it occurred in the
sional actors. Reality television real world; an example is the TV
covers a wide range of programming, series 24
from quiz shows to those showing
a group of people trying to survive recall test [see recognition test]
(in a particular situation, such as on
a faraway island) and those in which receiver 1. person or device capable
people compete for a prize by having of receiving particular kinds of
to go through a difficult trial or test. signals; 2. entity or device to which/
The television show Candid Camera whom a message is directed
was one of the first reality shows on
television, debuting in 1948. An actor reception theory any media theory
pulled pranks on ordinary people and attempting to explain how audiences
the “candid camera” showed their re- interpret texts. Reception theory
actions. Another early prototype was was at its most influential during the
the 1973 PBS series An American 1970s and early 1980s, especially
Family, which dealt with a modern through the work of Stuart Hall,
family going through a divorce. Real- one of its main proponents. The
ity television as it is currently under- approach focuses on the kinds of “ne-
stood can be traced directly to several gotiation” or “opposition” strategies
television shows that began in the late employed by the audience. Recep-
1980s, such as: ABC’s Cops, which tion research has found that audience
started in 1989, showing police of- readings of texts are based on cultural
ficers on real duty apprehending real background and life experiences. In
criminals; MTV’s The Real World, essence, the meaning of a text is not
which began in 1992, putting strang- present within the text itself, but is
ers together for an extended period created in the dynamic between the
of time and recording the situations text and its reader.
that ensued; and Temptation Island
(2001), which achieved notoriety by recital 1. repeating or reading some-
placing several couples on an island thing out loud; 2. musical or dance
surrounded by unmarried people in performance
order to test the couples’ commit-
ment to each other. Today there are recognition test [also called ­recall
reality shows in all kinds of genres, test] research tool designed to
from talk shows, such as The Jerry check how well someone can recall
Springer Show, to shows in which an ­advertisement, with or without
people compete for a job. prompting

250
 REGGAE

record 1. an account or history; referential code code guiding the

2. disc, cylinder, or other device that interpretation of references found in
contains sounds that can be played a narrative, especially scientific and
with the appropriate equipment specialized ones

recording permanent copy of music referential framework narrative

on a disc, CD, DVD, or other device technique of portraying a story as
representing real life, by relating
reductionism view that complex it to the lives and experiences of
structures or concepts are reducible ­audiences
to simple physical or psychological
principles referential function as defined by
Roman ­Jakobson, any utterance
redundancy any feature that counter- that is designed, simply, to refer to
acts noise. In language, for example, something real: “Main Street is two
redundancy can be seen in the high blocks away.” This utterance has the
predictability of certain words in par- specific referential function of indi-
ticular utterances and the repetition cating where a street can be found. It
of elements. conveys, in other words, information
about some real phenomenon.
reference 1. note directing a reader’s
attention to a source of information; reflection theory view that language
2. source of information quoted in a mirrors the things it represents in
text; 3. process of pointing out or iden- some way (through imitation of its
tifying something. Reference is to be sound properties, through allusion to
distinguished from sense. For example, its appearance, etc.)
the words rabbit and hare make refer-
ence to the same kind of animal. But reflexivity way in which modern so-
the sense of each term is different— cieties constantly examine their own
hare is the more appropriate term for cultural practices critically, resulting
describing the mammal if it is larger, in their alteration
has longer ears and legs, and does not
burrow; rabbit is the animal that people reformer in advertising jargon,
would normally think of as a “pet.” person who wants products that will
improve the quality of his or her life,
reference work dictionary, ency- rather than products that appeal to a
clopedia, atlas, or other written or sense of lifestyle
electronic work containing special-
ized information reggae type of popular music com-
bining elements of calypso, rock,
referent the thing or idea that a word and soul. Reggae originated in the
or a symbol stands for mid-1960s in Jamaica, as a means

251
 reGISTER

of expressing social discontent. It remote control device that operates

was popularized by the movie The a system from a distance. Remote
Harder They Come (1972), starring controlled systems include television
the singer Jimmy Cliff, and by Bob sets, garage door openers, robots,
Marley, its greatest and best-known and spacecraft. The first machines
exponent. operated by remote control were
motorboats. The German navy
register type of language that fits developed them during World War I
into a particular social situation: (1914–1918). Automatic garage door
Would you be so kind as to tell me openers were introduced in the late
where you live? (= high/formal regis- 1940s and TV remote controls in the
ter); Hey, where do you live? (= low/ mid-1950s. Today, using applications
informal register) on the World Wide Web, people can
control such devices as robots and
regulation activity of controlling cameras remotely.
what occurs in media
repertoire list of works that a com-
reification 1. rendering an idea real pany, an actor, a musician, and the
by expressing or representing it in like can perform at any time
some way; 2. in Marxist theory, the
tendency of people to associate with repetition and difference combi-
the commodities they produce nation of expected and unexpected
elements in a media text that are de-
reinforcement effect theory that signed to create interest in audiences
exposure to specific kinds of acts in
the media, especially violent ones, repetition in advertising technique
may reinforce tendencies in some consisting of the use of different
people (toward violence) that they media to repeat the same message,
may already have adapting it to the properties of the
different media
relativism 1. theory that culture
shapes an individual’s worldview; replay an event or occurrence re-
2. philosophical view that there is no corded (on tape, video) and played
moral system that applies to all people again (as in a sports program) to
highlight the event (such as a goal
remake new version of an old film or that was scored)
program
replicability view in the social sci-
reminder advertising technique ences that research findings based on
designed to make consumers recall the testing of sample populations are
an advertisement they have already valid if they can be obtained again by
viewed different researchers at different times

252
 RERELEASE

report account of news presented others depict it as a dysfunctional one

by a journalist in print, broadcast, or (as was evident in All in the Family in
Internet form the 1970s and Married with Children
in the 1990s).
reportage 1. use of a medium (print,
broadcast, Internet) to present the representation and reality view that
news; 2. corpus of news; 3. a style of the ways in which media represent
reporting news events, situations, and people are
construed to either mirror or con-
reporter someone who presents the struct reality. Research has shown
news in print, broadcast, or Internet that events that are showcased on TV
form or on Internet are felt as being more
significant and historically meaning-
report-talk speech style in which the ful to society than those that are not.
exchange of information and content Events such as the John Kennedy
of a message are emphasized over and Lee Harvey Oswald assassina-
any emotional factor tions, the Vietnam War, the Watergate
hearings, the Rodney King beating,
repositioning marketing strategy of the O.J. Simpson trial, the death of
changing a product’s image either by Lady Diana, and the 9/11 attack are
shifting its positioning (the target perceived as portentous and pro-
audience to whom advertisements of phetic historical events through the
the product are aimed), by changing filter of media coverage. The horrific
its design, or by changing the style of images of the Vietnam War that were
advertising used to promote it transmitted into people’s homes daily
in the late 1960s and early 1970s are
representation way in which considered to have brought about an
someone or something is portrayed end to the war by mobilizing social
or depicted in media. For example, protest. Significantly, an MTV flag
in news reporting, a specific crime was hoisted by East German youths
event can be represented either as a over the Berlin Wall as they tore it
common everyday occurrence or else down in 1989. The images of the two
as something much more sinister, planes smashing into the World Trade
such as a symptom of society’s loose Center buildings on September 11,
moral standards. Representations 2001, brought about an international
generally possess an underlying reaction, whose consequences are
view. For example, some television still being felt.
sitcoms depict (or have depicted) the
family as an ideal social structure rerelease music recording, movie,
for resolving emotional problems (as or other media product that has been
was evident in the 1950s American released again to the public in order
sitcom Father Knows Best), while to gain a new audience

253
 RERUN

rerun repeat broadcast of recorded individuals, involving the use of a

entertainment, especially a television smaller vocabulary, simpler grammar,
series and the like

resistive reading act of reading a retention preservation of brand

media text by consciously opposing loyalty by means of appropriate ad
its apparent meaning or function campaigns and marketing strategies

resolution optical quality of images reterritorialization any media strat-

on a screen (television, computer) or egy of reclaiming cultural “territory”
photograph by representing cultural meanings
and artifacts in new ways
resonance positive reaction that a
viewer has to a television broad- retrospective article or program that
cast or other media event because looks back at an earlier occurrence,
it corresponds closely to his or her such as a news event or a musical
experiences or expectations, thus trend
reinforcing them
Reuters trade name for a London
response function measure of the news agency, founded in 1851 by
effect that a particular amount of German journalist Paul Reuter, that
advertising has on a person provides international news. Web
site: www.reuters.com
response mechanism method of
showing people’s responses to Inter- review critical assessment of a
net advertising by measuring the way movie, television series, book, or
that people respond to it through such other media product in a newspaper,
means as direct clicking and “fax- in a magazine, on a radio or televi-
back” sheets sion program, or on a blog

responsive chord theory concept put rhetoric 1. effective speaking or

forward by sound archivist Anthony writing; 2. discipline studying how
Schwartz, which holds that media language is used effectively in vari-
activates ideas that are already ­present ous domains (from poetry to adver-
in people, Media do not transport tising). Rhetorical analysis explains
information to audiences. Rather, they how figures of speech create power-
strike a responsive chord with infor- ful meanings. The use of rhetorical
mation that people already ­possess. language is particularly evident in
advertising.
restricted codes discourse patterns
that are thought to be characteris- rhetoric of the image in media
tic of less-educated working-class theory, the way in which images are

254
 RITUAL

used in advertising and filmmaking metaphor is about), the vehicle (what

so as to persuade the viewer to accept is used to characterize the tenor), and
a message or to reinforce it the ground (the meaning of the meta-
phor). For instance, in My grandson
rhetorical question a question asked is a sly fox: My grandson is the tenor,
for effect, in order to emphasize fox the vehicle, and the ground is
something, rather than to obtain an something like “My grandson is a
answer shrewd, crafty person.”

rhyme feature of verse in which riddle linguistic puzzle playing on

words that have corresponding word meanings. The oldest riddle
sounds and word stress are used, par- known is the so-called Riddle of the
ticularly in various linguistic genres Sphinx: What is it that has four feet
(especially poetry), especially at the in the morning, two at noon, and
ends of lines: for example, some and three at night? The answer is human
come; win and sin beings, who crawl on four limbs as
infants (in the morning of life), then
rhythm regular recurrence of similar walk upright (at the noon hour of
beats in language forms (such as life), and finally walk with the aid of
poetry) and music, in alternation with a cane in old age (at the twilight of
each other and combined into some life). As this riddle shows, there is a
pattern play on the metaphorical meanings
of the words standing for the times
rhythm and blues style of music of day.
developed by African American
blues musicians, after they left the right of reply the right of an individ-
rural South and moved to Chicago ual or group represented in the media
and other northern cities in the late to answer back if dissatisfied with the
1940s. There, they developed a style representation
of music combining elements of both
blues and jazz. risk society any group or community
that is preoccupied with the risks
rich e-mail e-mail that has a voice posed by modernization
message attached to it
ritual any meaningful activity
Richards, I.A. (1893–1979) English intended to symbolize an event; for
literary critic who emphasized the example, the use of ritual dances
role of metaphor in literature and to exorcise spirits. By extension,
ordinary language. In The Philosophy the term is now used to refer to any
of Rhetoric (1936), he provided a still symbolic activity that is performed
widely used terminology for describ- recurrently or systematically—for ex-
ing metaphor—the tenor (what the ample, ritual media interaction such

255
 road blocking

as ritual TV watching, ritual Web

navigating, etc.

road blocking [see repetition in

advertising]

road movie film genre that depicts

the adventures of an individual and/or
group who leave their residence and
travel from place to place, often to
escape from their current lives

roadshow live open-air radio or

television broadcast that travels from Elvis Presley (1935–1977) during his
place to place and usually centers on second appearance on the Ed Sullivan
a theme (for example, life across the Show, October 28, 1956
American Midwest, life in the city)
Clock in 1955, the music genre was
rock [abbreviation of rock and roll appropriated by the teenagers of the
or rock ’n’ roll] musical style that era. Throughout the 1960s, 1970s,
arose in the mid-1950s, becoming a 1980s, and 1990s, rock developed
dominant form of popular music until various genres, from disco and punk
the 1990s. The first rock songs reflect to grunge and techno. Rock musi-
a blend of the blues, gospel, doo cians and bands that have became
wop, boogie woogie, and honky tonk. icons include Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee
They were recorded and released by Lewis, Little Richard, the Beatles,
small, independent record companies the Rolling Stones, Madonna, and
and promoted by controversial radio Nirvana, among many others. In
disc jockeys such as Alan Freed, who 1995 the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
helped spread the term rock and roll, opened in Cleveland, Ohio. Also in
first used by the Boswell Sisters in the 1990s, several major television
1934 in their song titled Rock and documentaries were produced on the
Roll, although their term referred to history of rock and roll, and histori-
the back-and-forth movement of a cal box-set recordings were reissued
rocking chair, not to the meanings de- featuring rock artists from the past.
veloped later. By the time Elvis Pres-
ley recorded Good Rockin’ Tonight in rockabilly musical style emerging
1954 (a remake of Wynonie Harris’s in the 1950s in Memphis, Tennessee,
1948 rendition of the song), rock had which combined elements of coun-
established itself as a new trend in try music with rock and roll and
pop culture. After Bill Haley and the rhythm and blues. Elvis Presley,
Comets recorded Rock Around the Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, and
256
 rule of thirds

Johnny Cash began their careers as Romanticism literary, artistic, musi-

rockabilly performers. Some country cal, and philosophical movement that
performers of the 1990s, includ- began in Europe in the eighteenth
ing the Mavericks and Mark Collie, century and lasted until the end of
revived the rockabilly style. the nineteenth century. Romanticism
emphasized subjective and emotional
rockumentary filmed or televised art forms, as well as exotic, occult,
documentary about rock music or a and monstrous themes. In literature,
rock musician or band the Romantic hero was often a rebel
or outlaw. Romantic composers, such
role character or part played by an as Frédéric Chopin and Robert Schu-
actor or performer in a movie, televi- mann, wrote highly emotional works
sion series, etc. that broke with existing traditions.
In the visual arts, Romantic painters
role fulfillment [also called role depicted faraway exotic subjects and
reversal] in a narrative, the way in dramatic scenes of nature, suggesting
which characters subvert the expecta- a mysterious, otherworldly quality
tions that people attach to the tradi- that went beyond nature itself.
tional roles they typically play, such
as a hero playing the role of villain, rotary press press that prints on
and the effect this role reversal has on paper passing between a supporting
audiences cylinder and a cylinder that contains
the printing plates. It is used mainly
ROM (abbreviation of Read-Only
today in high-speed, Web-fed opera-
Memory)
tions in which the press takes paper
romance 1. originally, a medieval from a roll.
narrative (in verse or prose), written
in a Romance language (a language rough cut 1. first stage of editing
derived from Latin), revolving a movie or program in which all
around the amorous exploits of parts are put in order; 2. preliminary
knights and other chivalric person- version of a movie, with only basic
ages; 2. by extension, any media editing performed on it
text (novel, movie) revolving around
love and romance. In Reading the royalties 1. fees paid for the right to
Romance (1991), Janice Radway play commercially produced mu-
argues that romances are popular sic on radio; 2. money payable to a
among women because they provide writer or artist, according to copy-
an escape from domestic life. right for sales of his or her material
(book, recording, etc.)
romantic comedy humorous comedy
genre involving a love story that usu- rule of thirds technique of dividing
ally ends happily a scene or frame into three sections

257
 run of network

(horizontally and vertically), in order run on text that continues on the next
to create a balanced composition line or column

run of network banner advertising running head heading printed on

that runs across a network of Web every page, or every other page, of a
sites book, indicating its title or a chapter
or section title
run of site banner advertising that running story news story that is
runs on a specific Web site followed in a series of articles over
different editions of the same news-
run of station television advertising paper or program
to which no particular time slot has
been assigned Russian formalism school of
semiotics and literary criticism,
run of week advertising space prominent from 1916 to around 1930,
bought at the basic rate, but not which stressed the role of figurative
­assigned to any specific media language in all kinds of representa-
outlet tions and discourses, not just poetry

258
 last item

s
safe harbor broadcast salutation displays cues,
times, usually from 10 p.m. such as gestures and facial
to 6 a.m., when children are expressions, which betray if
not likely to be a listening someone is inclined or not
or viewing audience and to enter into a conversation
thus when adult program-
ming can be safely aired sample 1. representative group
of people chosen for research;
saga 1. narrative genre dealing with 2. music snippets taken from an
prominent figures and events of the existing recording and used as a part
heroic age in Norway and Iceland, of a new recording. Early rap is the
that is, during the late twelfth and best-known pop music genre to use
thirteenth centuries; 2. by extension, samples from prerecorded material.
any narrative about heroic figures or
events sample survey statistical survey
targeting a specific group of individu-
Said, Edward (1935–2003) impor- als, aiming to collect information on
tant commentator on the cultural particular subjects, such as buying
politics of the Middle East and the habits and program preferences
originator of the theory of orien-
talism, which claims that Western Sapir-Whorf Linguistic Relativity
­representations of Middle Eastern Hypothesis [also called Whorfian
peoples and cultures have been con- Hypothesis] theory, associated pri-
structed in accordance with Western marily with linguists Edward Sapir
views and are thus often inaccurate and Benjamin Lee Whorf, which
or misleading maintains that the categories of a spe-
cific language tend to condition the
sales house company that sells ways in which its speakers think
­advertising space in the media
sarcasm mocking or satirical lan-
sales literature leaflets, brochures, guage: for example, How slim you
and other printed information about look these days! (uttered to someone
a product that can be used by sales- who has put on weight)
people to promote it
satellite [full form: communica-
salience meanings in a text that are tions satellite] earth-orbiting system
relevant to specific audiences, but capable of receiving a signal and
not to others. For example, the relaying it back to the ground. Satel-
Star Trek series of television series lites have played a significant role in
and movies has great salience for the development and use of com-
“­trekkies” (fans) but not necessarily munications technologies since the
for others. 1970s

259
 satellite dish

satellite dish dish-shaped aerial sur le système primitif des voyelles

­capable of receiving broadcast sig- dans les langues indo-européennes
nals via satellite (Memoir on the Original Vowel
System in the Indo-European Lan-
satellite footprint surface area guages, 1879), on the vowel system
­covered by a satellite signal of Proto-Indo-European. Although he
never published another book, after
satellite phone wireless phone that his death, two of his assistants com-
connects callers via satellite piled notes from his lectures into the
seminal work Cours de linguistique
satellite radio radio stations, such générale (1916; Course in General
as Sirius and XM, that broadcast Linguistics). The book became the
via satellite and usually operate on a basis for both semiotic and linguistic
­pay-per-service basis theories and methods.

satellite television television scenario 1. plot summary of a

­broadcasting received via satellite dramatic or literary work; 2. actual
that offers a large number of chan- screenplay for a movie
nels to its subscribers. Millions of
homes in many countries receive scene 1. subdivision of a play, a
signals from direct broadcast movie, or other work; 2. particular
by s­ atellite (DBS). Most DBS situation in a play, a movie, or other
programming is provided by the work (for example, a love scene); 3.
same services that supply programs motion picture or television episode
to cable television. or sequence; 4. main picture or view
in a painting
satire literary, dramatic, or cinematic
work that ridicules someone or some- scenery set or decorations providing
thing, for example, the TV sitcom the background for a play, movie, or
The Simpsons is considered a satire other work
of American culture.
scenography art of making and/or
saturation advertising strategy of using scenery
flooding the various media outlets
(print, television, etc.) with the same schedule order of programs on a
ads or ad campaign so as to garner a broadcasting system (channel, sta-
broad audience tion) for a day, week, month, or year,
devised in such a way as to reach
Saussure, Ferdinand de (1857– target audiences
1913) Swiss founder of modern
linguistics and semiotics, born in Ge- schedule evaluation assessment of
neva. As a student he wrote Mémoire how a particular media plan or strat-

260
 science fiction

egy has performed with respect to its studies because of its simplicity and
target audience applicability to all types of media.

schema 1. any diagram that repre- sci-fi [see science fiction]

sents something in outline form;
2. pattern representing something in science fiction [abbreviated as
its essential features ­sci-fi] literary and cinematic genre
in which the science of the future is
Schramm, Wilbur (1907–1987) portrayed as having impacts of vari-
leading researcher on the effects of ous kinds (psychological, social) on
mass communications on people and human beings. The predecessors of
society. His most famous work is the genre are Lucian of Samosata’s
Process and Effects of Mass Com- True History (160 c.e.), in which he
munication (as editor, with Donald describes an imaginary trip to the
F. Roberts, 1954). Schramm’s model moon; Utopia (1516), by Thomas
of communication expanded on the More, which depicts a futuristic
bull’s-eye model. Schramm broke world; and Micromegas (1752) by
down the communication process French satirist Voltaire, in which he
into four major components: a source tells of visitors from other planets.
(S) of the communication; a message As we understand the genre today,
(M); a channel (C) for transmitting however, science fiction originates
it from one place to another; and a with the novel Frankenstein (1818)
receiver (R) at whom the message by Mary Shelley. The first writer
is aimed. It is also known as the to specialize in the new genre was
Source-Message-Channel-Receiver Jules Verne. His hugely popular
(SMCR) model. Schramm also works include Journey to the Center
refined the notions of feedback and of the Earth (1864) and Around the
noise, viewing the former as any World in Eighty Days (1873). H.G.
mechanism between the source and Wells followed Verne with Time
the receiver that regulates the flow Machine (1895), The Island of Dr.
of the communication, and the latter Moreau (1896), and The War of the
as any distortion or errors that are Worlds (1898). Mass-distribution
introduced in an exchange. S ­ chramm magazines, called pulp fiction,
completed his model a little later also published many science fiction
with two other components: the stories, including those of Edgar
encoder, which converts the message Rice Burroughs, beginning in the
into a form that can be transmitted 1890s. (The first pulp fiction maga-
through an appropriate channel; and a zine is thought to be Frank Mun-
decoder, which reverses the encod- sey’s revamped Argosy Magazine of
ing process so that the message can 1896.) In the twentieth century the
be received successfully. The SMCR popularity of science fiction grew
has been used extensively in media with the publication of Brave New

261
 scoop

World by Aldous Huxley in 1932 screen 1. flat surface on which im-

and 1984 by George Orwell in 1949. ages are projected; 2. general term
In the 1950s and 1960s a New Wave for the film industry, known more
subgenre emerged, which focused specifically as the silver screen
on the loss of human values in a
world of increasing technology. New screen test audition for a film or
Wave science fiction writers include television role in which various ac-
Robert Heinlein, Isaac Asimov, Ray tors are asked to play the role briefly
Bradbury, Philip K. Dick, and Ursu- in order to assess which one is best
la K. Le Guin. In the 1980s another suited for it
subgenre, called cyberpunk, began
to focus on the dangers of computer screen violence general fear that
technologies; an example is Neuro- exposure of children to violence on
mancer (1984) by William Gibson. the screen (movie, television, video
Numerous science fiction television game, Internet) will produce a nega-
shows have become part of pop tive effect. But research has rarely
culture lore, including The Twilight found any correlation between expo-
Zone, Lost in Space, Star Trek, and sure to screen violence and nega-
The X-Files, among others. tive effects such as a propensity to
commit violent acts. Media effects
scoop story appearing initially in models, on the other hand, have al-
only one newspaper, on only one ra- ways sustained a correlation between
dio or television news program, or on the two. But such models have been
only one blog. A scoop is, essentially, criticized for:
a story published by one media outlet
ahead of the competition. • focusing on the mass media rather
than on the perpetrators of violence
scopophilia (from a Greek word themselves
meaning “pleasure of looking”) in • viewing children as passive mallea-
Freudian psychology, the desire ble creatures, incapable of making
in people to see the unseeable. In distinctions between fantasy and
feminist theory it refers to the male reality
gaze as it seeks pleasure in looking at • being motivated by political con-
women on the screen. servative ideologies
• defining their study focus inad-
score music composed expressly for equately, often selecting media
a movie, play, or other work samples in order to verify biases in
the models themselves
scrambler electronic device that • portraying mass audiences as
garbles telecommunications or broad- ­intellectually inferior and thus
cast signals, so that they can only be incapable of making up their own
unscrambled by a special device minds

262
 secondary viewing

screenplay script and shooting direc- a substance (clay, stone, etc.) into a
tions for a movie figure. Sculpture has been found in
virtually every culture throughout
screenwriter [also called script­ history. Early sculpture was primarily
writer] person who writes the representational, but in the twentieth
screenplay for a movie century sculpture became largely
abstract or conceptual in nature,
screwball comedy genre of com- often incorporating found objects and
edy, originating in the cinema of the nontraditional materials. For ex-
1930s, featuring the humorous ad- ample, Judy Chicago’s Dinner Party
ventures of appealing characters and (1974–1979) integrates traditional
showcasing a world of sophisticated women’s crafts such as weaving and
glamour and audacity embroidery with ceramics on a large
triangular table, paying tribute to the
scribes persons in the medieval era, key role of women in social history.
mainly monks and nuns, who copied
manuscripts so that they could be search directory Web site that or-
distributed. Scribes made important ganizes links to information sources
contributions to the development of alphabetically and thematically
the modern book, separating words
with spaces, using capital and small search engine computer system that
letters, and establishing a system of allows users to enter key words or
punctuation to make reading easier. queries in order to locate sites on the
World Wide Web. Search engines
script written text of a play, screen- consist of three components: a pro-
play, or broadcast, used in production gram (or programs), called a spider,
or performance crawler, or bot, which “crawls”
through the Internet gathering infor-
script doctor writer who is asked to mation; a database, which stores the
improve a script written by someone gathered information; and a search
else, to make it conform to produc- tool, which users employ to search
tion expectations through the database by typing in
keywords describing the information
script theory language theory desired.
positing that conversations are often
structured in a scriptlike manner, season package or set of episodes of
unfolding in terms of so-called a television program, scripted to form
­vocabulary frames that are adapted a coherent sequence
by speakers to fit a situation
secondary viewing act of watching
sculpture a three-dimensional work television while doing something else,
of art, often executed by modeling such as reading or doing housework

263
 second-generation

second-generation digital wireless segmentation 1. the division of

technology, as opposed to earlier television schedules in terms of genre
technology or channel; 2. division of audiences
according to demographics for adver-
secretive statement technique ad- tising purposes
vertising technique designed to create
the effect that a secret is being com- seditious libel act of defaming a
municated, thus capturing people’s ­public official or other individual
attention by stimulating curiosity: in print
Don’t tell your friends about . . . ; Do
you know what she’s wearing? selective attention tendency to avoid
messages, texts, and representations
Section 315 section of the Commu- that conflict with our beliefs and
nications Act of 1934 that stipulates values
the “equal time” rule in election
campaigns, whereby the broadcast selective exposure tendency of audi-
media must make equal air time ences to view media products that
available to all qualified candidates; correspond to their preexisting beliefs
if one candidate is accorded free air and values
time, opposing candidates must be
accorded equivalent free air time selective perception refers to the ini-
tial reading of a media text and what
secularism philosophy that is based the audience or individual gets from
on indifference to, or rejection of, the information
religion or religious ideas. One of the
most famous of all early secularists selective retention tendency of
was the Florentine politician Niccolò people to select from media texts
Machiavelli, who argued in favor only those meanings that reinforce
of separating the political sphere of their preexisting beliefs and values.
society from religion. His ideas were Anti-pornography individuals who
pursued further by English philoso- watch a TV debate on freedom of
pher Thomas Hobbes. expression have been shown to take
away from the debate only the views
secure server Internet server that that are consistent with their particu-
allows for encryption and is therefore lar beliefs; libertarian individuals,
appropriate for e-commerce on the other hand, tend to take away
from it a sense of triumph by virtue
secure Web site Web site that en- of the fact that the debate occurred in
crypts messages to prevent the unau- the first place (thus legitimizing the
thorized retrieval of information that topic). This view suggests that media
was utilized or exchanged between may have limited impacts on most
previous visitors and the Web site individuals, and that the communities

264
 sender

in which they are reared have more of noying thing for the Japanese, who
an influence on their worldview than rate it typically at the ends of the
do the media. scales, whereas it is a fairly neutral
concept for Americans, who rate
self-censorship act on the part of it typically in the mid-range of the
journalists to censor themselves be- scales.
cause they are under pressure not to
raise sensitive questions from either semantics study of meaning in lan-
governments or the institutions that guage in all its dimensions, includ-
employ them ing word meaning, phrase meaning,
sentence meaning, utterance mean-
self-regulation practice of some ing, etc.
industries to set up their own regula-
tory agencies semiology [term coined by Ferdi-
nand de Saussure] the study of
semantic code one of five codes signs. Although still used, semiotics
(the others being action, enigma, has become the more common
­referential, symbolic) used in term.
the interpretation of texts, whereby
the interpreter focuses on the mean- semiosphere sphere of life gov-
ings conveyed by “human voice” erned by signs and their meanings,
and the semantic features of the ­including words, texts, and codes
text itself (sign systems) that humans have
­created to understand the world
semantic differential technique
developed by C.E. Osgood, G.J.
semiotic power ability of an audi-
Suci, and P.H. Tannenbaum in The
ence to assign meanings to media
Measurement of Meaning (1957)
representations, even if these were
for assessing the social and/or
not intended
emotional meanings associated
with certain words or concepts. The
technique consists of posing ques- semiotics the study of signs and
tions about things or concepts—Is their uses in human life. Semiot-
it good or bad? Weak or strong?— ics has become an important part of
to subjects, who respond by using media analysis, used especially to
seven-point scales. The answers are ­decode the meanings of ads, pro-
then analyzed statistically. Research grams, and the like. The first defini-
has shown that people’s assess- tion of sign as a physical symptom
ments form culture-specific pat- came from Hippocrates.
terns. In other words, meanings are
constrained by culture; for example, sender person or device who/which
noise turns out to be a highly an- initiates and transmits a message

265
 sensationalism

sensationalism lurid, superficial sensorium as defined by Marshall

coverage of news, events, celebrities, McLuhan, the environment in which
or public figures in any medium the senses are stimulated. In media
studies, it refers to the total sensory
sense [in contrast to reference] any experience that is evoked by a text.
accrued meaning that a word or text
takes on in cultural context. The ref- sequel film, series, or novel that
erent is the object named, whereas continues a story started in a previous
the sense is a mode of understanding film, series, or novel
it. So, the word cat has a mammal
referent, but it has various senses sequelitis [colloquial] the tendency
attached to it that have accrued over of some authors and/or filmmakers to
time (a pet, an animal with supersti- write or produce a story in anticipa-
tious effects if its color is black, and tion of producing sequels
so on).
sequence section of a movie show-
sense ratio according to Marshall ing a single incident or set of related
McLuhan, the degree to which incidents
each of the physical senses are used
in communication and in under­ serial 1. novel, popular in the 1830s
tanding. The sense ratios are equally and 1840s, that was divided into
calibrated at birth, but depending on a number of consecutive episodes
culture, one or the other will become that were published in installments;
dominant. In an oral culture, the 2. movie presented in a series of
auditory sense ratio dominates; in episodes over several days, weeks,
an alphabetic one, the visual sense or months. The first widely popular
ratio dominates. Sense ratios are not serial movie, called The Perils of
preclusive. The raising or lowering Pauline (1914), was followed by The
of the ratios depends on the type of Hazards of Helen, which ran for 119
information being processed. episodes from 1914 to 1917. A serial
episode typically had a “cliff-hanger”
sensitization as used in media ending, enticing viewers to anticipate
­studies, way or ways in which media its resolution in the subsequent epi-
­coverage can influence a­ udiences sode. Serials remained popular with
to react to the events covered movie audiences, especially children,
(­sympathetically, empathically, etc.). well into the 1940s. A revival of the
An example of a television program serial concept can be found in the
designed to sensitize audiences is one 1981 movie Raiders of the Lost Ark
that deals with social issues such as and its sequels.
poverty or abuse, presenting them
in a way that emphasizes “human series popular form of broadcast
­suffering.” drama unfolding in episodes; for

266
 Shannon, Claude

example, TV police dramas, private- from cable providers, satellites, or the

eye series, Westerns, science-fiction Internet. An STB can be a separate
series, and series that follow the ex- device from the television set or can
ploits of lawyers, doctors, or families be built into it.

server storage system that controls sets in use [abbreviated as SIUs]

network services available on other number of television sets that are
computers. On the World Wide Web, tuned into a particular broadcast dur-
for example, a server is a computer ing a specific period of time
that uses the HTTP protocol to send
Web pages to someone’s computer setting place and conditions in which
when the user requests them. Essen- a narrative, play, or poem takes place
tially, servers are host centers run by
universities, corporations, govern- seventy-eights [also called 78 rpm
ment agencies, and other organiza- records] previous record type made
tions, all of which are connected to of shellac that played sound on a
the Internet. turntable at 78 revolutions per minute
(rpm). Seventy-eights were the only
service area geographical area over kinds of records produced until the
which a broadcasting station can 1950s, when technological advances
transmit signals made the production of other types
possible.
service provider company that
provides people with access to the sex symbol any celebrity who is
Internet, usually charging a regular known primarily for his or her sexu-
fee. Service providers may also offer ality and attractive appearance
browsers, e-mail accounts, and a
personal Web page. sexism 1. practice of some media
products of emphasizing purported
set location (along with appropriate sexual differences in a stereotypical
scenery) where a film or television fashion; 2. generally, any unequal
show is being shot treatment of the sexes

set designer person responsible for sexploitation [blend of sex and

designing scenery and props for a exploitation] deliberate use of sexual
movie set, television program, or material or themes to make a product,
stage production such as an advertisement or a movie,
commercially successful
set top box [abbreviated as STB,
also called converter] device that Shannon, Claude (1916–2001)
provides an interface between a American engineer who was a pio-
television set and incoming signals neer in communications, information

267
 Shannon and Weaver’s model of communication

science, and artificial intelligence (a share-of-audience [abbreviated as

branch of computer science that aims share] percentage of people who are
to design computer systems capable tuned to a particular program at a giv-
of processing information in a man- en time; for example, the number of
ner that resembles human cognition). people watching television between
During the 1950s and 1960s, Shan- the hours of 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.
non developed early computers that
played chess against human oppo- shareware software that can be
nents. downloaded from the Internet and
used free of charge for a trial period
Shannon and Weaver’s model of
communication one of the first sheet music print publication of
models of communication (1949) musical compositions. The publica-
put forward by Claude Shannon tion of nonreligious music in the
and Warren Weaver, also known as United States started in the 1790s in
the bull’s-eye model. The model New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and
depicts information transfer between Baltimore, where the major music
two humans as a process dependent publishers were located. These pub-
on probability factors, that is, on lishers produced sheet music, mostly
the degree to which a message is to for solo voice with piano accompa-
be expected or not in a given situ- niment, of popular melodies. Many
ation. The model also introduced historians trace the origins of pop
several key terms into the general culture to the rise of the sheet music
study of communication: channel, industry, because it was among the
noise, ­redundancy, and feedback. first industries to make music avail-
The channel is the physical system able to large audiences.
carrying the transmitted signal.
Noise refers to an interfering ele- shield law legislation that protects a
ment (physical or psychological) in journalist from having to reveal his or
the channel that distorts or partially her sources of information for a story.
effaces a message. Redundancy In the United States, shield laws are
features are built into communica- enacted at the state level; more than
tion systems for counteracting noise. 30 states have passed some form of
These allow for a message to be such legislation.
decoded even if noise is present.
Finally, feedback refers to the fact shock jock any disc jockey or radio
that senders have the capacity to host who uses vulgar language or
monitor the messages they transmit expresses extreme views, in order to
and to modify them to enhance their provoke, offend, or shock listeners
decodability.
shock site Web site designed to
share [see share-of-audience] shock or offend viewers

268
 sidebar

shooting actual filming of a movie; short subject [see short]

may also refer to television programs
and to still photography shortfall signal gesture or facial
expression that conveys insincerity or
shopping channel television channel suggests some hidden emotion
offering items for sale, usually with
several presenters who demonstrate short-wave radio radio that trans-
and talk about them. Products can be mits waves that have lengths shorter
purchased by dialing a phone number than those of waves used in ampli-
or visiting a Web site shown on the tude modulation (AM) transmissions.
screen. Short waves carry frequency modu-
lation (FM) radio broadcasts and
short film running for a short television signals.
period of time, usually 30 minutes
or less shoshkeles [also called floating ads]
online advertising technique in which
short message service [abbreviated animated objects, such as a car, are
as SMS] communications protocol projected across the screen
for text messages, sent in real time
among computer or cellular phone shot 1. actual piece of film; 2. single
users photographic exposure; 3. single
sequence of a movie or television
short ordering network practice of program captured by a camera with-
ordering only a couple of episodes of out interruption
a new television series
show public performance of a media
short story short prose fiction. Early text (a play, a musical, a movie, a
short stories include such diverse concert)
works as tales told in ancient Egypt,
the fables of the Greek slave Aesop show business the entertainment
(sixth century b.c.e.), the stories of world, including movies, radio, tele-
Ovid (43 b.c.e.–17 c.e.) and Lucius vision, and records
Apuleius (second century c.e.), the
Indian Panchatantra (fourth century show reel compilation of a movie
c.e.), and many others. Such nar- director’s work, usually intended to
ratives became popular in Europe bring out his or her particular skills
after Giovanni Boccaccio published
the Decameron (1348–1353). The showtime time when a performance
modern short story traces its roots to or show is scheduled to take place
nineteenth-century writers such as
Edgar Allan Poe and Anton sidebar short accompanying piece
Chekhov. for a larger story, often with a human

269
 sign

interest angle, usually separated from the letter V, the sign for victory, the
the main text in some way symbol for peace, and so on.

sign anything that stands for some- signifier physical structure of a sign.
thing other than itself in some capac- For example, the sounds t-r-e-e are
ity, such as a word standing for an not perceived to be random physical
object, or a visual sign such as the sounds, but sounds that are structured
cross standing for Christianity. The to refer to something in particular. In
physical structure of a sign is called Ferdinand de Saussure’s original
the signifier or representamen; the theory, the connection between the
“something other than itself” for which signifier and the signified, once
it stands is known as its referent, signi- established, is binary—that is, one
fied, or object. Its overall meaning is implies the other. For example,
called signification or interpretation. the word tree is a word signifier in
English because it has a recognizable
signal emission or movement that phonetic structure that generates a
naturally or conventionally triggers mental concept of something else (an
a reaction on the part of a receiver arboreal plant):

signature in electronic communica-

tion, a piece of text that is pasted signified

automatically onto an e-mail or signifier tree

newsgroup posting

signature tune [also called theme Today, the signifier is interpreted

song] musical theme used to intro- more broadly as any recurrent verbal
duce a television program, radio or nonverbal structure that produces
show, or serial a mental image of something other
than itself.
significant symbolizer sign that
is used in communal settings; for silence not speaking, which conveys
example, clapping the hands, along something in communicative settings
with other audience members, to
indicate praise silent film early film made without
sound. In most large theaters, silent
signification 1. overall meaning or films were accompanied by music,
use of a sign; 2. actual concept that recorded or played separately, often
is evoked when a sign and a refer- prepared specifically for the film.
ent are linked Most silent films had subtitles. The
1927 film The Jazz Singer brought
signified what a sign refers to. The about the end of the silent film era.
signified of the visual V-sign can be: Although the movie was silent for
270
 situation comedy

much of its length, the American in the United States and Canada,
entertainer Al Jolson sang and spoke providing music, sports, news, enter-
in four of its scenes. The film was not tainment, and other types of program-
the first talking motion picture, but ming. Sirius was previously known
it was the first to succeed at the box as CD Radio, changing its name in
office. 1999. It is distinguished from most
other radio systems by the fact that
silver screen movies or the cinema it hires or involves celebrities in its
industry in general programming, making it highly at-
tractive to listeners. Web site: www
simile comparing ideas using the .sirius.com
words like or as: for example, She
smells like a rose; He is as strong as sitcom [see situation comedy]
an ox
situated audience view that audienc-
simulacrum theory [adopted from es tend to perceive media representa-
Jean Baudrillard] view claiming tions in terms of their own everyday
that the media simulate reality and in situations
so doing impart the sense that they
are indistinguishable from reality. In situation analysis gathering and
effect, audiences end up not being evaluation of information to identify
able to distinguish between reality the target group and strategic direc-
and media simulations (called simu- tion of an advertising campaign
lacra).
situation comedy [abbreviated as
simulation 1. process by which a sitcom] genre based on social situa-
sign represents something by resem- tions with which audiences can easily
blance or imitation: for example, identify, broadcast on a recurring ba-
the word drop simulates the audio sis. The sitcom has proven to be the
properties perceived when something most durable and popular of Ameri-
falls to the ground; 2. creation of can broadcasting genres. It uses stock
electronic representations of objects characters and recurring situations to
or ideas that respond to changing fac- explore life in the home, the work-
tors on a computer place, and other common locations
in a funny, often satirical way. I Love
simulcast simultaneous broadcast of Lucy (1951–1957), which starred
a program by radio and television, Lucille Ball, was the first hit sitcom.
or by any of these together with an The longest-running sitcom is The
Internet site Simpsons, an animated series cre-
ated by Matt Groening, an American
Sirius Satellite Radio satellite pay- cartoonist. It originated in 1987 as a
per-service radio system operating short feature on the weekly Tracey

271
 sius

Ullman television show, premiering slapstick comedy revolving around

as a continuing series in 1990. crude practical jokes. The word is
traced to a slapping device used in
SIUs [see sets in use] vaudeville shows, made of two flat
pieces of wood fastened at one end,
sketch comedy comedic skit with a and used for slapping onstage.
vaudeville structure, that is, with
segments consisting of singing, sleeper effect response to a message
acrobatic acts, and other types of contained in a media text that is not
performance immediately apparent, but which
surfaces later
skin flick colloquial name for porno-
graphic movie slogan catchy expression used
in ­advertising and publicity: for
skit 1. short comic sketch; 2. comic ­example, I’m lovin’ it! (McDon-
work that satirizes something or ald’s slogan); You’re in good hands
someone with Allstate! Slogans help create
a ­favorable image of a company,
skyscraper in netlingo, online a brand product, a politician, or a
billboard placed down the side of a cause.
Web page
slow motion method of filming
slander any untrue or misleading scenes or sequences so that they
statement that damages someone’s appear slower than normal on the
reputation screen, for a desired effect

slang 1. any language used by smart card small plastic card that
certain groups (such as adolescents) has a built-in microprocessor to store
for purposes of group identity; 2. and process data and records
informal speech in general. In the
twentieth century, the mass media SMCR model [abbreviation of
have been instrumental in spread- Source-Message-Channel-Receiver
ing slang broadly. The Internet has model; see Schramm, Wilbur]
recently brought a great deal of slang
created and used by computer users SMS [see short message service]
into common usage: snail mail (let-
ters delivered by the postal service), snail mail in netlingo, mail sent
hacker (an expert computer program- through the postal service, as distinct
mer often involved in illegal activi- from e-mail
ties), flaming (a hostile response from
a user), and spamming (unsolicited sneak preview public screening of a
messages). film before its general release

272
 soft-core

snob-appeal technique advertis- experience of others living in their

ing technique that aims to convince own social context. The theory
consumers that using a product will has been applied to explain the
elevate their social status ways in which people read media
texts.
soap opera serial drama genre,
aimed originally at a female radio social responsibility model view
audience. Soap operas began in that journalists should monitor what
the early 1930s as 15-minute radio they are reporting to make sure that it
episodes and continued on television is ethical, fair, principled, and just, so
from the early 1950s as 30-minute that people can make wise decisions
and later hour-long episodes. The regarding social and political issues
genre was named soap opera because
the original sponsors were detergent socialism political philosophy in
companies. Soap operas typically which private property and income are
revolve around romance, infidelity, deemed to be subject to social control.
loyalty, and intrigue. The term was first used to describe the
doctrines of Charles Fourier and other
social cognitive theory view that Romantic social theorists who saw
people learn through observation. spiritual and p­ hysical benefits ema-
The theory has been used to support nating from socialist communities.
media effects models. ­Marxists see socialism as a transi-
tional stage ­between capitalism and
social constructivism [also called ­communism.
social constructionism] 1. belief that
identity is not inherent in an indi- sociometrics study of social rela-
vidual or group but, rather, is a result tions and power structures among the
of cultural, political, and historical members of small groups
forces; 2. view that cultures construct
realities through signs and symbols Socrates (c. 470–399 b.c.e.) Greek
and thus that people come to view the philosopher who believed that knowl-
world through them edge is gained primarily through oral
discussion. He emphasized reason in
social controls ideas, beliefs, values, the quest for knowledge.
and mores that people pick up from
the societies in which they are reared Socratic irony feigning ignorance of
and that condition how they behave something in order to make a point
and communicate more forcefully

social learning theory a theory that soft-core any representation that is

attempts to explain how people learn sexually suggestive or provocative,
through experience and through the but not explicit

273
 soft news

soft news news reported in an infor- soul music style of popular music
mal, often chatty, style emerging in the 1960s, sung and per-
formed primarily by African Ameri-
soft sell method of advertising can musicians such as James Brown,
products and services that uses subtle Ray Charles, Sam Cooke, and Aretha
forms of persuasion, rather than Franklin, having its roots in gospel
blatant ones and rhythm and blues

software detailed instructions used sound bite short extract from an in-
to operate a computer for a specific terview or a speech used to support a
purpose. The term was coined around statement or viewpoint in a broadcast
1960 to differentiate the programs or a print publication
that run on the computer from the
equipment, or hardware, that makes sound card expansion card that can
up the machine. Most early software convert analog sound (as from a
was developed to meet a specific microphone or audio tape) to digital
need. Often, it was included with form, or convert digitized audio sig-
a computer manufacturer’s hard- nals (as from an audio file) to analog
ware. Later, it was sold separately. signals that can be played on
Software is divided into a number a computer’s speakers
of categories: operating or system
software, which allows the computer sound effects imitations of natural
to operate commands; application and other kinds of sounds to accom-
software, which allows people to use pany the action and to suggest real-
computers in specific ways; network ism in a movie, play, or program
software, which links computers to
the Internet; and language software, sound image any sound that is per-
which provides the tools for writing ceived or interpreted in the same way
programs. as a picture

soliloquy monologue presenting a soundtrack 1. narrow band recorded

series of reflections. Soliloquy allows on the side of the film image; 2. gen-
stage characters to confide in the eral term for the dialogue, music and
audience. sound effects in a film or video

something-for-nothing lure adver- source person, organization, book,

tising technique that offers a potential or document that a journalist uses for
buyer a “something-for-nothing” information or evidence
deal: for example, Buy one and get
the second one free! Finish this sen- spaghetti Western film genre in the
tence and win a trip to the Caribbean style of Hollywood Westerns, but
for two! actually filmed in Italy during the

274
 spin doctor

1960s and 1970s. The most famous animals paraded in front of the audi-
of all spaghetti Western directors was ence. The circus spectacle generally
Sergio Leone, who won a wide audi- ended with a long mount, in which
ence with A Fistful of Dollars (1964), some elephants rested their front legs
the first Italian-made spaghetti West- on the backs of the elephants directly
ern, starring Clint Eastwood, who in front of them.
also acted in Leone’s equally popular
For a Few Dollars More (1965) and speech the use of language in face-
The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly to-face conversations, in writing,
(1966). These films initially received etc. By extension, it is used in media
poor critical reviews, but Leone was studies to refer to any special kind
eventually recognized for his sense of of language (newspaper speech, Web
historical accuracy and his realistic speech, etc.).
use of scenery.
speech act utterance intended to bring
spam unsolicited e-mails sent to a about an actual physical act or desire
large number of electronic addresses for some action; for example, Stop! Go!

special television program that is not speech therapy [also called speech-
part of the normal schedule language pathology] the science of
speech disorders. Speech therapists
special effects artificial effects work with people whose speech
introduced into a movie or television interferes with communication, calls
show. The earliest special effects attention to itself, and frustrates both
were created with special camera speaker and listener.
lenses. The growing use of computer
animation and imagery has made speech-recognition technology
it possible to create elaborate and hardware and software that enable a
highly realistic effects. Some ani- computer to recognize spoken words
mated movies are now made solely and convert them into commands,
with computer animation, which has thus eliminating the need to input
moved special effects artistry to a information manually
new level.
spin the presentation of news or ideas
spectacle any performance that according to a particular point of
has enormous appeal because of its view (usually political)
“extravaganza” style. The term was
used originally to describe the lavish spin doctor person working in public
productions of circus performances. relations whose job is to put a spin
Typically, a spectacle unfolded as the on an item of news in order to protect
band played, the ringmaster sang, and someone’s public image or reputation
performers in elaborate costumes and (usually that of a politician)

275
 spiral of silence

spiral of silence theory developed spread story or advertisement in a

by Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann, print publication or on a Web page that
which holds that people who have occupies more than a column or page
views that they think are not widely
held (whether true or not) tend to spy genre literary and cinematic
acquiesce, while those who believe genre that deals with espionage,
that their views are widespread tend mystery, or intrigue revolving around
to express them strongly, leading an intelligence agent or spy, who is
to a spiral in which some views are the hero of the narrative. The best-
expressed and others are not known are the James Bond movies,
originally cinematic adaptations of
splash page Web page that is dis- novels by British writer Ian Fleming,
played to visitors before they reach including Dr. No (1962), From Russia
the home page with Love (1963), Goldfinger (1964),
Thunderball (1965), and Casino Roy-
split run 1. printing of the same issue ale (1967), all featuring James Bond,
of a newspaper or magazine at sepa- the high-living secret agent 007, one
rate times so that different ads may of the most successful characters of
be included in the different printings, twentieth-century cinema.
allowing the effects of the ads to be
assessed and compared; 2. special spyware software that can secretly
versions of a given print publication gain access to a computer user’s hard
with different content to suit specific drive through an Internet connection,
demographic and regional groups capable of extracting information
from the hard drive without the user’s
spoiler print publication (newspaper knowledge
or magazine) that is released at the
same time as a rival publication in stage 1. the theater or plays in
order to divert interest from it general; 2. actual appearance of a
play as created by lighting, scenery,
sponsor company that pays for radio costumes, and sound effects
or television programming by pur-
chasing advertising time stand-in any actor replacing another
actor in a film or program, usually
sportscast radio or television broad- when the action is dangerous and
cast of a sports event or of news the stand-in is trained specifically to
related to sports participate in it

spot announcements commercial star [synonym for celebrity] person

or public service announcements who is in the public eye because of
that are placed on television or radio his or her achievements in cinema,
programs sports, or some other field

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 story

star system publicity strategy de- stereoscopy process of making pho-

veloped by Hollywood in its heyday, tographs appear to have three dimen-
emphasizing movie stars, rather than sions, using a special camera with
the movies themselves, as a way to two lenses set a small distance apart
attract audiences to movie theaters.
A movie starring John Wayne, for stereotype biased assessment of
example, would be promoted in such a person, group, or idea. The term
a way to attract the many fans of the is applied typically to describe the
star, rather than to focus attention on expectations that people have of
the movie itself. others according to their age, gender,
physical appearance, ethnic group,
station [full form: radio station] race, or occupation. Stereotypes are
place from which a radio broadcast oversimplified assessments applied as
originates. There are two main types generalizations, constituting a form
of radio stations: commercial and of biased prejudgment.
public. The former are owned by pri-
vate companies, making profits from still static photograph, usually of ac-
advertisements; the latter are funded tors or scenes in a motion picture for
by the government. Some countries publicity or documentary purposes
also have nonprofit stations, operated
mainly by educational institutions. stimulation model a model of media
Although the term station is often violence, which claims that exposure
applied to the place where television to media violence can increase ag-
broadcasting originates, the more ac- gressive behavior in viewers
curate term in this case is studio.
stimulus-response model a model
station break interruption of a radio describing the relation between an
or television program, often to pro- advertisement and the particular
vide information on the program it- type of audience reaction it tends
self or on the sponsor of the program to receive. The model is based on
the school of psychology called
status conferral gaining social status behaviorism, which dominated the
simply by being portrayed in the field from 1913 to around 1970. The
media stimulus-response model investigated
complex forms of behavior by mea-
STB [see set top box] suring and analyzing the responses of
human subjects to various stimuli.
stereo [full form: stereophonic] any
electronic audio playback system that story 1. fictional narrative shorter
is capable of reproducing high-­quality than a novel; 2. general term used to
sound that comes from various direc- describe any news report or docu-
tions (usually through speakers) mentary program

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 storyboard

storyboard 1. blueprint for a film Ferdinand de ­Saussure. Both lin-

sequence or TV commercial, which is guistics and semiotics are sometimes
drawn to portray copy, dialogue, and called structuralist ­sciences.
action, with caption notes regard-
ing filming, audio components, and studio 1. place from which a televi-
script; 2. in advertising, roughly sion broadcast originates; 2. commer-
drawn version of a proposed adver- cial film production company
tisement
studio system the Hollywood studios
strategic marketing method that that dominated film production from
assesses a specific market and then the 1930s to the 1950s, an era when
provides input on how to design independent filmmakers had few
advertising for that market opportunities to break into the movie
market. The studios controlled all
stream of consciousness literary those who worked for them by con-
device in which the reader is exposed tract, including actors and directors.
to the thoughts and feelings of a char-
acter as they unfold. The term was stunt double person who takes the
coined by William James in his book place of a screen actor in scenes that
The Principles of Psychology (1890). involve danger or require special
Notable exponents of this genre are physical skills
James Joyce, William Faulkner, and
Virginia Woolf. style 1. patterned variation in
language, according to its social
streaming in netlingo, broadcast- functions; 2. the specialized use of
ing material (audio, video) via Inter- language in works of literature;
net in real time. Streaming is made 3. type of clothing that is in fashion;
possible by browsers with “player” 4. particular mode of representing
software, which allows a user to play or performing something (adventure
audio or video files as they are being style, jazz style, Hitchcock style,
downloaded. Seinfeld style)

stripping the showing of programs subbrand secondary brand that

five days a week that are either reruns builds on the associations of a
or programs made for syndication ­master brand

structuralism mode of inquiry based subconscious [alternative of

on the notion that signs and texts beget ­unconscious] in psychology, mental
their meanings through oppositions. processes that occur without people
For example, left is understood in being aware of them. These were first
opposition to right, night to day, and studied scientifically by the French
so on. Structuralism originated with neurologist Jean Martin Charcot in

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 suggestion

the 1800s by means of hypnosis. applied to a media text (the other

Soon after, doctors realized that two being dominant and radical),
many mentally ill people, such as whereby the audience accepts, by
those with hysteria, were influenced and large, the meanings, values, and
by unconscious thoughts and feel- worldview built into the text by its
ings. It was, however, Sigmund makers
Freud who developed the first theory
of the unconscious, which claimed, subplot plot that is subordinate to
essentially, that unconscious thoughts the main plot of a work; for example,
seek expression in various forms and the subplot can be introduced to hide
modes, such as in dreams and routine the resolution (in a mystery story), to
conversations. provide comic relief (in a tragedy), or
to shed light on the actions or person-
subculture any variation within a ality of a character
specific form of culture, developed
by a group in order to set itself apart subscription money paid to a media
from the larger society. Subcultures outlet (newspaper, magazine, Web
may develop in ethnic groups, occu- site, satellite television service) to re-
pational groups, age groups (espe- ceive its media products on a regular
cially adolescents), and other groups basis
within a larger culture. Subcultures
differentiate themselves typically subtext text (and its message)
through language (slang), clothing, ­implicit within the main text; for
musical preferences, and the like, ­example, a mythic story embedded
providing members with a sense of into an ad by means of suggestive
being a single collectivity. ­images (snake figures, dark tones,
etc.)
subject 1. topic or main theme of a
work; 2. what a sentence or proposi- subtitle 1. dialogue appearing be-
tion is about tween the scenes of a silent motion
picture; 2. dialogue appearing as a
subliminal advertising technique translation at the bottom of the screen
based on hiding a meaning or form in in a motion picture or television show
an ad. The theory is that the uncon- in a foreign language
scious mind will pick up the image,
which will create a need for the prod- succeeder in advertising parlance,
uct. However, no evidence has ever person who wants products that will
emerged to show the effectiveness of enhance his or her quality of life or
such advertising. social position

subordinate reading one of three suggestion in advertising, process by

supposed readings or interpretations which someone’s views are influ-

279
 Sundance Film Festival

enced by the message or subtext in embody lofty human ideals for all
an ad to admire—truth, honesty, justice,
fairness, moral strength, and so on.
Sundance Film Festival an- Modern-day audiences feel this
nual m­ otion picture festival of intuitively, as did the ancient Greek
­independent filmmaking, founded audiences who watched stage perfor-
in 1976, giving awards in various mances of Aeschylus’s Prometheus
categories, from best film to best Bound, Prometheus Unbound, and
sound effects. Web site: www.festival Prometheus the Fire-Bringer. Rather
.sundance.org than being sent by the gods from
the spiritual world to help human-
superego in psychoanalysis, one of ity (something that would hardly be
the three basic constituents of hu- appropriate in a secular society), Su-
man character, the others being the perman came to Earth instead from
ego and the id. The superego con- a planet in another galaxy; he leads
trols ­behavior and develops through a “double life,” as superhero and
­parental and social conditioning. as Clarke Kent, a “mild-mannered”
reporter for a daily newspaper; he is
superhero fictional character who adored by Lois Lane, a reporter for
has the characteristics of the ancient the same newspaper who suspects
mythic heroes. For example, the (from time to time) that Clark Kent
comic book figure of Superman, may be Superman.
who was introduced in 1938 by Ac-
tion Comics, and published separate- superstation local independent
ly a little later in Superman Comic ­television station whose signals
Books, represents a fictional super- are distributed nationally via
hero, who, like the ancient heroes, is ­satellite to cable and other
indestructible, morally upright, and television systems
devoted to saving humanity from
itself. Moreover, like some mythic
superstitial animated ad that pops
heroes, he has a “tragic flaw”: ex-
up between Web page views on the
posure to “kryptonite,” a substance
Internet
that is found on the planet where he
was born, renders him devoid of his
awesome powers. In mythology and support advertising promotion
legend, a hero is an individual, often designed to back up a campaign
of divine ancestry, who is endowed (­political, social)
with great courage and strength, cel-
ebrated for his or her bold exploits, surfing to go on the Internet in
and sent by the gods to Earth to search of various Web sites, for infor-
play a crucial role in human af- mation, recreation, or some
fairs. Heroes are character roles that other motive
280
 synesthesia

Surrealism twentieth-century symbol something that stands for

­movement in literature and the arts something else in a conventional
founded by André Breton in Paris way. A flag, for example, stands for a
in 1924, revolving around dream country. White is a symbol of mourn-
images and other fantastic imagery. ing for Chinese people, while black
Members of the movement include is the color of mourning in Western
Max Ernst, René Magritte, and Sal- societies. Almost anything can be a
vador Dalí. symbol. For example, the alphabet
character A can stand for the best
surround sound [also called am- (such as a grade in school) or the
bisonics] recording and playback musical scale or key that has A as its
system that uses three or more chan- keynote.
nels or speakers in order to create
the effect of sound surrounding the symbolic code one of the five codes
listener used in the construction of media
texts, based on the interpretation of
surveillance society view that texts with high symbolic content and
people today can be easily tracked how they generate meaning through
down and spied upon because of the use of symbols. The other
sophisticated satellite and other codes are called action, enigma,
­technologies ­referential, and semantic.

survey study that measures attitudes, synchrony use, meaning, and/or

beliefs, and views by asking people function of signs, codes, and texts at
directly about them. Surveys are a specific point in time (usually the
used often in audience studies present)
­because they provide valuable
­information that can be assessed syndicated program television
to identify trends, among other or radio program that is distributed
things. in more than one market by an
organization other than a
suspension of disbelief acceptance network
of unlikely situations in a plot so that
the story can be enjoyed synecdoche rhetorical technique
whereby a part is used to represent
swashbuckler story about a swords- the whole, or vice versa: for
man or adventurer: for example, The example, Scotch tape for adhesives;
Three Musketeers (1844) by Alexan- the White House for the American
dre Dumas, père government

sweeps survey of television ratings synergy strategy of actively forging

used to determine advertising prices linkages between related areas of

281
 synesthesia

entertainment. For example, merg- syntagm pattern resulting from a

ers, such as that of Time Warner with combination of elements; for example,
AOL, allow for content developed in word construction, the order of
in one medium, say television, to be sounds is subject to rules of combina-
reused and recycled in other media tion (pfing is not a legitimate word in
(movies, Internet). English because pf cannot be used at
the beginning of words)
synesthesia fusion of sensory reac-
tions to words and texts created by syntax 1. organization of words
juxtaposition: for example, hot pink to form sentences; 2. study of how
(= feeling + sight); smooth melody words are combined to create larger
(= touch + hearing) structures

282
 last item

T
tabloid small format of a movie that makes a
newspaper that is roughly commentary or captures
half the size of a standard attention
newspaper, usually contain-
ing sensational coverage take 1. in filmic language,
of crime, scandal, gossip, repetition of the same
violence, or news about celebrities. shot because the previous one was
Tabloids also typically include lurid not satisfactory; 2. single session in
photographs, cartoons, and other which a piece of music is recorded in
graphic features. a recording studio

tabloid TV television news pro- talk show genre of radio or televi-

gram that is styled after newspaper sion program in which people discuss
­tabloids aspects of their lives or current issues
with a host. Late-night talk shows
tachistoscope testing in advertis- emphasize entertainment; others may
ing research, the measurement of a focus on politics, controversial social
person’s recognition and perception issues, or sensational topics. Some
of various elements within an ad by talk shows allow listeners or viewers
using the different lighting and ex- to take part in the program by tele-
posure techniques of a tachistoscope, phoning the station to ask questions
a device that projects an image at a or give their opinions.
fraction of a second
talkie movie with a soundtrack. The
tag 1. piece of data that can be used term was coined in 1927 to character-
to facilitate retrieval of text; 2. the ize the new technology that allowed
html codes that create hypertext soundtracks to be integrated with
pictures in films.
tag question a word or phrase added
to the end of a sentence or utterance talking head shot of a person on
that is intended to seek confirmation, television that focuses on his or her
agreement, or some similar response, head and shoulders as he or she is
rather than information: for example, seen talking
You like this a lot, don’t you? This is
a good movie, isn’t it? tango sensual ballroom dance style
originating in Argentina, made popu-
tagline 1. slogan or phrase that lar in the United States by Vernon
conveys the most important attribute and Irene Castle, a famous ballroom
or benefit that an advertiser wishes to dancing team. By 1915 it was being
convey about a product (for example, danced throughout Europe, becoming
Taco Bell’s Think outside the bun!); a craze after Rudolph Valentino and
2. short phrase attached to the title his partner featured the tango in the

283
 tap dance

motion picture Four Horsemen of the t-commerce business conducted

Apocalypse (1921). The dance form by means of interactive television
communicates passion through alter- technology
nate long slow steps and short quick
ones, with sudden turns and sexually TCP/IP [see Transmission Control
suggestive poses. Protocol/Internet Protocol]

tap dance a style of dance using teaser 1. preview of a broadcast or

precise rhythmical foot movements publication intended to elicit inter-
and audible foot tapping. The form is est; 2. advertisement that gives little
derived from the traditional jigs and information about a product, thus
reels of Ireland and Scotland. It was a making consumers curious to know
popular staple of nineteenth-century more
minstrel shows. By 1925 the dance
had become popular in variety shows technical director member of a
and early musicals. film or television crew responsible
for overseeing technical operations,
tape plastic thin layer used for such as camera equipment and sound
recording and playing back sound. equipment
Tape recording was, until recently,
widely used by the recording industry Technicolor process for making
and in radio and television broadcast- motion pictures in color, developed
ing. Though it still has many uses, it in the early 1900s, resulting in color
is being replaced by DVD and other reproduction of high quality. The first
technologies. full-length film made in Technicolor
was The Gulf Between, appearing in
target audience group at whom a theaters in 1917. Many Technicolor
specific media product or advertis- films were made in the 1930s and
ing strategy is directed. Advertis- 1940s. Today, Technicolor has largely
ers gather data on people (through been replaced by simpler and less
discussions, interviews, etc.) to find expensive color film processes.
out all they can about them—for
example, age, class, gender, lifestyle techno music [also called elec-
preferences—and then use the infor- tronica] dance music that first
mation to determine the best way to appeared in the 1980s and became
advertise to them. globally ­popular in the 1990s, us-
ing ­synthesizer melodies with rapid
target market group of individuals electronic rhythms. Techno was
who are the intended audience of adopted by the ravers, young people
an advertiser’s message and prospec- who organized all-night dance parties
tive purchasers of its products or that often featured the hallucinogenic
services drug ecstasy.

284
 telegram

technological determinism idea the same time to a wave of media

that technology shapes the course of consolidation. The act also requires
human evolution. Many historians of broadcasters to add captions to an
science argue that technology has not increasing number of programs.
only become an essential condition Under the act, all programs must be
of advanced, industrial civilization, captioned in English by 2008 and in
but also that the rate of techno- Spanish by 2012.
logical change has developed its own
momentum. Innovations appear at telecommuting work performed
a rate that increases geometrically, at home by means of telecommu-
unhindered by geographical limits nication networks, rather than at a
or social systems. These innovations conventional place of work such as
tend to transform traditional cultural an office
systems, frequently with unexpected
social consequences. Some social teleculture concept suggesting that
critics therefore define technology television is a dominant influence
as both a creative and a destructive in society, helping both mirror and
process. shape cultural institutions, replac-
ing books, families, and educators
technophobia fear of technology. as primary influences in cultural
Technophobia is usually associated transmission
with fear of rapid innovations
in science, such as genetic teledemocracy view that democracy
­engineering, Internet technology, will spread because of telecommu-
and the like. nications, which help disseminate
information freely across the globe,
telecast short for “television broad- thus encouraging large groups of
cast” people to make up their own minds
about issues and thus develop a sense
telecommunications general term of democracy
for all electronic communications
and transmission at a distance, over teledrama drama filmed expressly
cables, wireless radio relay systems, for television audiences
or via satellite links. Modern tele-
communication systems can transmit telefilm film made expressly for
large volumes of information over television audiences
long distances.
telegenic the quality of appearing
Telecommunications Act of 1996 attractive on television
legislative act that opened up the
United States telecommunications telegram printed message sent by
industry to competition, leading at telegraphy

285
 telegraphy

telegraphy electrical system that can telematics technology that allows

send and receive electrical signals for the exchange of computer data
over long-distance wires. The first through a telephone line
commercial telegraph systems were
developed in Great Britain in the early telenovela melodramatic genre
nineteenth century. In the 1840s the of soap opera popular in South
American inventor Samuel F.B. Morse America
developed a code that came to be
adopted internationally. The code— telephone device designed for simul-
known as the Morse Code—utilized taneous transmission and reception of
“on” and “off” signals to represent the human voice. In 1876 the Scottish-
individual letters of the alphabet. born American inventor Alexander
The telegrapher at one end of the line Graham Bell patented the first
would tap on an electrical key, and telephone. Bell believed his invention
the telegrapher at the other end would would be used to transmit musical
decode the tapping as it came in, write concerts, lectures, and sermons. But
down the message, and send it to the after founding his own company, he
recipient by messenger. Telegraph quickly discovered that the appeal of
cable was laid under the Atlantic the phone lay much more in allowing
Ocean in 1858, and regular transat- ordinary people to talk to each other.
lantic service began in 1866. It was So, in 1878 the Bell Telephone Com-
the first interconnected global com- pany established the first telephone
munications system. Telegraphy was exchange—a switchboard connecting
gradually replaced by telex systems any member of a group of subscrib-
in the early twentieth century. These ers to any other member. By 1894,
gradually eliminated the need to use roughly 260,000 Bell telephones were
a code. Users could type in a mes- in use in the United States, about one
sage, and the identical message would for every 250 people. By the 1960s
appear at the recipient’s end, carried the telephone had become an es-
over telegraph and telephone lines to sential service. Near the end of the
telex machines anywhere in the world. twentieth century, the telephone was
As early as the 1930s these lines were used to provide access to the Internet
also used to transmit pictures, an by means of devices called modems
event that introduced Wirephoto ser- (modulator-demodulators). Advances
vice in international communications. in electronics have introduced a num-
Today, telegraphy has been largely ber of “smart” features in telephone
abandoned, being replaced by e-mail manufacturing, such as automatic
and other digital technologies. redialing, caller identification, call
waiting, and call ­forwarding.
telemarketing use of the telephone
as a medium to sell, promote, or teleplay play written expressly for
solicit goods and services television audiences

286
 test screening

teletext service providing television United States. Television programs

viewers with written text containing opened up Web sites in the 1990s to
news stories, stock market listings, complement their mode of delivering
and other kinds of information programming.

telethon lengthy television program television culture view that since

produced to collect money for a char- the 1950s, the history of television
ity or cause has become the history of Western
society. TV has showcased racial
teletype instrument that was used protests, riots, and other significant
for much of the twentieth century to social events, thus influencing social
transmit and receive printed mes- change. Some critics claim that with-
sages via telephone cables or radio out television, there would have been
relay systems. Today teletype has no civil rights legislation, no Viet-
given way to e-mail and fax commu- nam War protests, and diminished or
nications. different public reactions to politics
after Watergate. Moreover, many TV
televangelism evangelism carried out programs have been pivotal in bring-
primarily via television, featuring a ing about a change in social mindset
charismatic preacher, a large audi- and mirroring changes in mores.
ence, and emotional sermons, often For example, in 1977 the miniseries
accompanied by healing events Roots was the first to deal forcefully
with the enduring problem of racism;
television [abbreviated as TV] in 1968 Star Trek featured the first
broadcasting by means of electroni- interracial kiss in an episode titled
cally transmitted visual signals. In Plato’s Stepchildren; in 1991 the first
1884 engineer Paul Nipkow built a scene of women kissing each other
scanning disc that created television was aired on an episode of L.A. Law.
images. In 1926 John Logie Baird, With the advent of satellite technolo-
perfected Nipkow’s device, and in gies, television has also become a
1931 Vladimir Zworykin built the source of influence across the globe.
prototype of the TV camera. The
first home television set was put on test market smaller market that is
display in Schenectady, New York, thought to be representative of a
in 1928, by Ernst F.W. Alexander- larger one and on which an advertis-
son. By the late 1930s, television ing strategy is tried out in order to
service had begun in several Western determine its effectiveness, before
countries. The Radio Corporation of introducing it to the larger market
America (RCA) showcased television
sets at the 1939 New York World’s test screening showing of a provi-
Fair. Right after World War II, sional version of a movie to assess
network broadcasting started in the an audience’s reaction to it

287
 testimonial technique

testimonial technique advertising and presentationally. Discursive texts

method that incorporates statements have “detachment,” which simply
from famous people or satisfied means that their constituent elements
customers, who endorse a product. can be considered separately—for
Under U.S. government regulations, example, one can focus on a digit in
endorsers must use the advertised a number or on a single word in a
product if they claim they do so. novel, detaching it from its location
in the text, without impairing the
text anything constructed to express, overall understanding of the text. In
represent, or communicate some- contrast, the elements in presenta-
thing—speeches, poems, television tional texts cannot be detached from
programs, scientific theories, musical them without impairing the overall
compositions. Work on texts in recent meaning—for example, one can-
years has produced a convenient not detach a note or phrase from a
typology. A paratext, for example, is melody without destroying the sense
defined as the physical and conven- of the melody. The relation between
tional characteristics associated with the structure of a text and its inter-
certain kinds of texts; paratextual pretation has become a primary area
features include such things as titles, of research within media studies. Es-
headings, footnotes, dust jackets, and pecially interesting is the “location”
so on; an architext is the prototype of a text’s meaning. Does it lie in the
from which other texts are derived intentions of the makers of texts?
(for example, the Iliad is the architext And, consequently, is successful
on which many stories are based); a interpretation of the text on the part
metatext is a text that makes an ex- of the reader a straightforward matter
plicit or implicit critical commentary of trying to determine the maker’s
on another text; a hypotext is a text intentions? Or does the meaning of
based on another text that it alters in the text reside instead in the reader,
some way; a hypertext is a text within regardless of the maker’s intentions?
a main text that is linked to it in some Both the nature of the text itself and
way. the author’s intentions constrain the
range of interpretations. When a
text message short written message given interpretation goes beyond this
sent from one mobile phone or device range, people tend to evaluate it as
to another erroneous, extreme, far-fetched, or
implausible.
text theory any theory aiming to
explain how we create and interpret textuality style and pattern of tech-
texts. The twentieth-century Ameri- niques used to create texts
can philosopher Susanne Langer
claimed that there were two ways theater 1. building or outdoor area for
in which we read texts, discursively dramatic performances or other forms

288
 theater testing

of entertainment; 2. dramatic or co- locale. In the Romantic nineteenth

medic literature performed by actors century, theater took another turn,
for an audience. Scholars trace the concentrating on a search for the spiri-
origin of theater to ancient ceremonial tual nature of humankind. One of the
practices. In ancient Greece the first best examples of Romantic drama is
dramas revolved around myth and leg- Faust (Part I, 1808; Part II, 1832), by
end. The actors wore masks, a practice the German playwright Johann Wolf-
that also had a ritualistic source. gang von Goethe. Based on the classic
Comedy was developed in ancient legend of a man who sells his soul
Greece alongside tragedy for criticiz- to the devil, the play depicts human-
ing and satirizing both individuals kind’s attempt to m­ aster knowledge
and society in general. After the fall and power. As plays a­ ttracted larger
of the Roman Empire in 476 c.e., the and larger audiences, playwrights
Christian church discouraged comedy became more and more involved in
for more than 500 years, promoting writing about everyday life, focusing
instead a liturgical form of theater on psychological r­ ealism and social
based on biblical stories. By the fif- problems. This new realistic trend in
teenth century, the latter had evolved theater led to the notion of the director
into the morality play, performed by as the one who interprets the text, de-
professional actors, which dealt with termines acting style, suggests scenery
religious themes. Interest in comedic and costumes, and gives the produc-
theater was revived by the movement tion its overall quality—a tradition
known as the commedia dell’arte. that continues on to this day. By the
Commedia actors developed comic first decades of the twentieth century,
routines, called iazzi, which they a reaction against realism erupted
could execute on demand, especially in the world of theater. Paralleling
when it was felt that a sudden laugh contemporaneous radical visual art
was needed. For instance, a performer and musical movements, a movement
might pretend to trip and tumble into a known as absurdist theater emerged.
pail of water during the exit sequence. The emphasis of this new form of
Many of the routines and ideas of the theater was on the absurdity of the
commedia live on in contemporary human condition. The subtext in all
forms such as vaudeville, burlesque, absurdist drama is that of humanity as
and even television sitcoms. By the lost in an unknown and unknowable
mid-sixteenth century, a new, dynamic world, where all human actions are
secular theater had developed. The senseless. Absurdism reached its peak
most important concept in its design in the 1950s, but continues to influ-
was verisimilitude—the appearance ence drama to this day.
of truth. Characters were common
individuals. The plays had a single theater testing in advertising, a
plot, which took place within a 24- method used to test viewer responses
hour period, and occurred only in one to an ad in a theater-like setting

289
 third generation

third generation latest version of by anonymous composers working

telecommunications devices or sys- for low wages. Tin Pan Alley songs
tems (such as mobile phones) were important elements in the
sheet-music and popular-recording
third person effect personal belief industries of the day, as well as in
that one is not influenced by media radio, vaudeville, and film. Tin Pan
messages, but that others are Alley is most closely associated with
popular ballads, show tunes, and love
thirty-threes [full form: 33 1/3 rpm songs. Notable Tin Pan Alley com-
record, also called LP for long play- posers include Irving Berlin, Hoagy
ing record] vinyl record popular in Carmichael, Dorothy Fields, Johnny
the 1950s through 1970s that allowed Mercer, Cole Porter, Richard Rod-
recorded sound to run for many more gers, and Jerome Kern.
minutes than s­ eventy-eights
title 1. name given to a book, movie,
three-dimensional [abbreviated as or program, usually by its author; 2.
3-D] any medium or text (such as a heading, including credits, that ap-
movie or a computer game) that cre- pears at the beginning and/or end of a
ates the illusion of experiencing it in film or television program
three-dimensional space
title role main part or leading role in
thriller genre of novel or movie a film, play, or television program
designed to hold audience interest by
the use of intrigue, adventure, and/or title track song in a multi-song
suspense recording whose name is used as the
title of the recording
tie-in product that accompanies and
helps publicize a major film release, TiVo digital box attached to a televi-
such as, for example, a novel based sion set allowing viewers to control
on the movie script incoming broadcasts. The device
automatically records broadcasts
time-lapse photography technique according to the viewer’s preferences
of shooting something so that, when and also allows viewers to control
projected, a slow action (such as programs in the same manner that
the opening of a flower bud) can be they can control videotapes (pause,
shown in a sped-up fashion rewind).

Tin Pan Alley name given to West Tomlinson, John (1949–) well-
28th Street between Broadway and known critic of globalization and the
Sixth Avenue in Manhattan where, evolution of media in new techno-
from the 1880s to the 1950s, most logical forms. Among his best-known
popular music was composed, often works are Media and Modernity

290
 tracking study

(1995) and Globalization and Culture total audience package advertising

(1999). strategy of scheduling advertisements
across time segments on radio and
tonality 1. organization of music television, so as to reach a wide range
around a tone; 2. in painting, the of listeners or viewers
relationship and effect of the colors
and/or shades of light and dark totemism belief in an animal, plant,
or natural object as the emblem of
tone 1. in music, sound made by the a clan or family, often revered as its
vibration of a musical instrument or founder, ancestor, or guardian
of the human voice; 2. in language,
variation in the pitch of the voice touch mode of communication with
while speaking, usually signaling the hands. In most cultures, a basic
a meaning difference; for example, form of greeting involves handshak-
in Mandarin Chinese the word man ing, which may have started as a
may mean either “trick” or “slow,” way to show that neither person
depending on its pitch; 3. in painting, was holding a weapon. Other forms
any variation in color or shades of include patting someone on the arm,
light and dark shoulder, or back to indicate agree-
ment or to compliment; linking arms
Top 10 the best 10 in any pop culture to indicate companionship; putting
sector: “top 10 records,” “top 10 one’s arm around the shoulder to
singers,” etc. indicate friendship or intimacy; hold-
ing hands with family members or a
Top 40 radio format that plays the lover to express intimacy; hugging to
most popular single recordings—the convey happiness at seeing a friend
top 40 on record sales charts. This or a family member; and so on.
was a dominant radio format from
the 1950s to the 1970s, uniting musi- touchscreen a computer screen that
cal tastes across audiences, promot- responds to touch so that it can be op-
ing mainly rock and roll. By the erated without a keyboard or mouse
1980s, audiences became highly
fragmented, leading to a reduction in town meeting on television, a pro-
the importance of Top 40 radio in the gram in which people from a region
promotion of recordings. or walk of life debate a certain issue
moderated by a host
Toronto International Film Festival
prestigious film festival, founded track [see soundtrack]
in 1976, held annually in Toronto
in September. Many consider it to tracking study type of research study
be second only to the Cannes film that follows the same group of sub-
festival in importance. jects over an extended period of time

291
 trade advertising

trade advertising promotions that transaction journalism in cyberad-

are directed at dealers and profes- vertising, the direct linkage of edito-
sionals through appropriate trade rial content to sales
publications and media
transactional analysis study of the
trademark legally protected sign motives behind the discourse used
(name, design, picture, sound) that during interpersonal communication
distinguishes the products of one
company from those of another. Most transborder data flow transmis-
trademarks appear on the product, sion of information across national
on its container, or in advertisements borders so that it can be received,
for it. stored, or used outside the originating
jurisdiction
traditional transmission passing on
information by means of language transcription recording of a broad-
from one generation to another cast or other event to be shown or
reviewed at a later time
traffic in netlingo, number of visi-
tors to a Web site transformational appeal advertising
technique designed to link the ­product
tragedy [see theater] traditional to meaningful emotional ­experiences
theater genre, dating to ancient
(love, understanding, etc.)
Greece, typically with an unhappy or transgressivity in feminist theory,
disastrous ending brought on by fate defiance of social norms. This notion
or a flaw in the main character has been used to explain the power
of such forms of representation as
tragicomedy genre combining ele- pornography and cross-dressing.
ments of tragedy and comedy. The
third-century b.c.e. Roman play- transient advertisement promo-
wright Plautus coined the word to tion that is placed in specific locales,
denote a play in which gods and mor- such as in movie theaters before the
tals or masters and slaves reversed feature is shown
their traditional roles. Today, the term
suggests a text in which laughter transistor small device that can
is seen as the only response left to amplify, control, and generate electri-
characters faced with an empty or cal signals, invented by Bell Labs in
problematic life. 1947, displacing the vacuum tube.
Single transistors were superseded
trailer [also called preview] brief in the 1960s by integrated circuits.
film showing snatches from an up- Today, transistors have different
coming motion picture so as to entice functions in every type of electronic
people to see the movie equipment.

292
 two-step flow theory

transmission sending messages to a tunesmith composer of popular songs

receiver
turnover number of times something
Transmission Control Protocol/ is sold during a particular period
Internet Protocol [abbreviated as
TCP/IP] set of rules that define how turntable [also called record player
computers on the Internet (and on or phonograph] instrument that
other computer networks) transmit rotates a phonograph record; a stylus
and exchange information is placed on the record and sound is
reproduced through loudspeakers.
transmissional perspective view Turntables were largely replaced by
that media transmit information for cassette tape recorders and compact
the purpose of controlling cultural disc systems in the 1980s.
and social trends
TV [see television]
transparency realistic mode of
constructing media representations, TV newsmagazine television news
making their construction undetect- program format, pioneered by CBS’s
able to readers or viewers 60 Minutes in the 1960s, that features
interviews and investigative report-
trial by media term used figuratively ing, with a general focus on contro-
in reference to the belief that media versial issues
coverage often provides and/or influ-
ences judgments about a public figure Twentieth Century Fox major Hol-
by creating a widespread perception lywood film studio founded in 1935,
of guilt regardless of any verdict in known especially for its blockbuster
an actual trial. films, including the Star Wars anthol-
ogy of films. Web site: www.foxmov-
tribalism 1. early form of human ies.com
group life marked by individual al-
legiance to and identification with two-step flow theory model of the
a tribe; 2. in the contemporary era, mass media claiming that media
loyalty shown by individuals to products are shaped and modified by
specific groups (teen tribalism, gang interactions with social groups, espe-
tribalism) cially opinion leaders. The theory as-
serts that media impacts are indirect
trope figure of speech. Since the and are mediated by opinion leaders
1980s the term metaphor has been and thus that audiences tend to view
used increasingly in place of trope. media products as interpretive com-
munities. The name of the theory
tune 1. a melody; 2. a catchy popular derives from the fact that its primary
song proponents, Paul Lazarsfeld and

293
 typification schemes

Elihu Katz, viewed the reception of typification schemes in cultural

a mass media message as a two-step theory, meanings that people assign
flow, in contrast to the hypodermic typically to certain texts, which, in
needle theory, which saw it as a turn, are incorporated by media and
one-step flow that reaches an audi- advertising to bring about a pre-
ence directly. In two-step flow theory, ferred reading
the first step is through an opinion
leader(s) of a group, who takes in typography art, practice, or process
media content, interprets it, and then of printing with type. Typography
passes it on to group members, who originated after the invention of
have less frequent contact with the ­movable type in the mid-fifteenth
media. century.

294
 last item

U
UHF [see ultrahigh contains three elements:
­frequency] the type of protocol used to
access the file (for example,
ultrahigh frequency HTTP for a Web page), the
[­abbreviated as UHF] type domain name of the server
of short radio wave widely where the file resides, and,
used in television broadcasting. UHF optionally, the pathname to the file
waves also are used in aircraft and (description of the file’s location).
ship navigation, in emergency com- For example, the URL www
munications systems, and cellular .­utoronto.ca/libraries instructs the
telephone networks. browser to use the HTTP protocol, go
to the www.utoronto.ca Web server,
umbrella advertising promotion of and access the file named libraries.
an organization rather than of a single
product United Press International
[­abbreviated as UPI] international
unbalanced flow the unequal flow of news agency founded in 1907, pro-
news reportage between countries viding news in English, Spanish, and
Arabic. Web site: www.upi.com
uncensored any publication, movie,
or program that has been released or Universal Copyright Convention
broadcast without prior censorship agreement among the member states
of UNESCO, first adopted in 1952,
unconscious [see subconscious] revised in 1971, “to provide for the
adequate and effective protection
uncut [see uncensored] of the rights of authors and other
copyright proprietors in literary,
underground a movement or group scientific and artistic works, includ-
that has separated itself from the ing writings, musical, dramatic and
prevailing social environment, often cinematographic works, and paint-
exerting a subversive or transgressive ings, ­engravings and sculpture.” Web
influence on that environment site: www.unesco.org/culture/laws/
copyright
underground press any pub-
lishing organization that is anti- Universal Pictures major Hollywood
­establishment and thus likely to film studio, founded in 1912, pro-
attract controversy and/or censorship. ducing blockbuster movies such as
The term surfaced in the 1960s. Spartacus (1960) and E.T. (1982)

uniform resource locator [abbrevi- unmetered Internet service that is

ated as URL] Internet address of available at a flat rate, rather than by
a resource or service. The address connection time

295
 upi

UPI [see United Press template for subsequent texts

­International] usage-based segmentation in ad-
vertising, classification of consumers
uploading [opposite of download- according to how much they consume
ing] copying files from a computer to a certain product
another on the Internet
Usenet [abbreviation of Users Net-
urban legend story often thought to work; also called network news]
be factual by those who circulate it, internationally distributed bulletin
generally through the Internet, but board system on the Internet. Usenet
which turns out to be not exactly as predates the World Wide Web, consti-
recounted. It may be entirely un- tuting the original discussion forum
true or, in some cases, partly true. covering thousands of topics.
Often, the events it describes may
be explained in different ways. A uses and gratifications theory view,
story may be started by someone in a associated primarily with Elihu
chatroom, through e-mails, based on Katz in the 1970s, that audiences use
events that the originator had actually the mass media for their own purpos-
witnessed. When it starts to circulate es, especially to fulfill needs such as
and is retold by different people, gaining information or being enter-
the story gathers momentum and a tained. According to this theory, the
logic of its own, becoming an urban audience views the media in a self-
legend. confirmatory way. Thus, certain items
in a representation are selected either
urban music pop music genres that because they provide entertainment
appeal to an urban audience, including or because they satisfy some need.
rhythm and blues and hip-hop. Urban The theory maintains that media do
is one of radio’s more popular formats. not do things to people but rather that
people do things with media.
URL [see uniform resource locator]
utterance word or words (written or
Ur-text original text that becomes a spoken) used in a specific social com-
municative situation

296
 last item

V
validity effect theory that vaudeville principal form
people tend to accept an of popular entertainment in
idea, statement, or opin- North America before the
ion as valid or true if it is advent of cinema in the late
repeated enough times in nineteenth and early twen-
the media tieth centuries. Vaudeville
was also called burlesque, variety,
VALS [see values and lifestyles or music hall. It consisted of a series
research] of unrelated acts (singer, juggler,
magician, dancer, dog act) presented
value 1. as defined by Ferdinand de in a theater (the vaudeville house or
Saussure, what something means venue) to a paying audience. With the
in practical terms; for example, the advent of film, radio, and television,
value of a letter such as A assigned vaudeville effectively died as a form
to an essay in university is perceived of entertainment, although its main
as different from that of a B; 2. in features were incorporated into the
cultural theory, any assumption that Hollywood musical and the radio or
something is important and crucial; 3. television variety show.
in the visual arts, the degree of light-
ness or darkness of a hue or shade V-chip electronic chip in a television
set that allows parents to block out
values and lifestyles research programming with sexual and violent
[abbreviated as VALS] advertising content. It is often assumed that the V
research method based on grouping stands for “violence,” when in fact it
consumers according to their values stands for “viewer choice.”
and lifestyles. VALS measures psy-
chological factors, such as how con- VCR [see video cassette recorder]
sumers feel about products and how
they represent lifestyle aspirations. vehicle specific channel or publi-
cation for carrying an advertising
Van Dijk, Jan [see Dijk, Jan message to a target audience. For ex-
A.G.M. van] ample, in the medium of magazines,
a vehicle would be Time magazine.
vanity press a publisher that prints
books for authors who pay all or Venice Film Festival annual film
most of the costs of publication and festival, founded in 1932, held in
distribution Venice every year in late August–
early September; one of three major
variety show live or televised show European film festivals (the other two
made up of various kinds of perfor- are the Cannes and Berlin festivals).
mances: musical, comedic, acrobatic, Web site: www.labiennale.org/en/
magical cinema

297
 verbal communication

verbal communication exchange of is a message designed to refer to the

information by means of language. code being used.
Among the various models of verbal
communication, the model devised vernacular everyday form of lan-
by the linguist and semiotician Ro- guage, in contrast to official, reli-
man Jakobson is one of the most gious, or bureaucratic forms
widely used in media and commu-
nication studies. Jakobson posited vertical integration acquisition of
six constituents undergirding all the different sectors involved in the
instances of verbal communication: production of media; for example,
an addresser who initiates a com- vertical integration occurs when a
munication; a message that she or he single newspaper company acquires
recognizes must refer to something the printing company that produces
other than itself; an addressee who is its newspapers or the agency that
the intended receiver of the message; distributes them
a context that permits the addressee
to recognize that the message is refer- very high frequency [abbreviated as
ring to something other than itself; a VHF] electromagnetic waves that the
mode of contact by which a message Federal Communications Commis-
is delivered (the physical channel) sion has assigned to television and
and the primary social and psycho- frequency modulation (FM) radio sta-
logical connections that exist or are tions and to amateur radio operators
established between the addresser
and addressee; and a code provid- VHF [see very high frequency]
ing the signs and structural patterns
for constructing and deciphering VHS most common type of video-
messages. Jakobson then pointed tape used in home video recorders,
out that each of these constituents being replaced by DVD and other
determines a different communicative advanced technologies
function: emotive is the influence of
the addresser’s emotions, attitudes, vicarious reinforcement in cultural
and social status in the making of theory, the view that the observation
the message; conative is the effect— of something in the media operates as
physical, psychological, social—that if it were actual reinforcement. This
the message has or is expected to framework is used to explain why
have on the addressee; referential an individual does not expect actual
is a message constructed to convey rewards or punishments from observ-
information unambiguously; poetic ing something, but anticipates them
is a message constructed to deliver to happen.
meanings effectively, like poetry;
phatic is a message designed to video 1. general term for anything
establish social contact; metalingual recorded on a visual device (a video-

298
 videodisc

tape, a DVD); 2. a videotape, video game [also called electronic

DVD, or other image-carrying game] game played by an electronic
device device and displayed on a televi-
sion screen or other monitor. Most
video blog blog that uses video video games are controlled by a tiny
­material as its primary means of computer. Video games deal with a
communication range of subjects, such as war, space,
adventure, horror, mystery, sports,
video cassette flat rectangular plastic playing cards, backgammon, chess,
box that contains videotape and so on. Some are educational,
helping players learn to spell or
video cassette recorder [abbrevi- count. Overall, video games are now
ated as VCR] device that records and seen to constitute texts within the
plays images and sound back on a larger pop culture environment.
TV set. The first commercial VCRs
were marketed by Sony Corpora- video insert prerecorded film footage
tion in 1969. The first commercially played at an appropriate point in a
successful VCR for home use was the TV show
Sony Betamax, launched in 1975. It
was joined in the marketplace by the video jockey person who plays videos,
incompatible VHS format, launched especially music videos, on television
by JVC in 1976, which grew to domi-
nate the market. The heyday of the video nasty a video containing
VCR was the 1980s. Its market share explicitly violent or pornographic
has dwindled in the face of competi- material
tion from digital recorders and the
DVD player. video news release [abbreviated as
VNR] video segments released to
video clip short video sequence, gen- accompany a news story
erally created to promote something
such as a new song video on demand [abbreviated as
VOD] pay-per-view cable service,
video conference conference in allowing viewers to instantly order
which participants are located in dif- programming to be delivered digi-
ferent places but are linked by audio tally to their television sets
and video technology
video vérité use of video to create
video feed recorded video sent from documentaries of people and events
one location to another
videodisc general term for a disc that
video frequency frequency used to contains both video and audio. It can
carry television broadcast signals be played on a machine attached to

299
 videography

a conventional television receiver. vignette 1. brief scene from a movie;

The most common type of videodisc 2. in the visual arts, a drawing with-
today is the DVD. out a border that gradually fades at
the edges
videography making of movies or tele-
vision programs with video cameras villain [opposite of hero] in a narra-
tive, a character who represents the
videophile someone who enjoys “bad” person whom the hero has to
watching video texts and making defeat
video recordings
viral advertising promotion that
videophone device that can transmit attempts to capture consumers’ atten-
and receive audio and video, composed tion by encouraging them to “pass it
of a camera, receiver, and screen on” (like a virus) to others

videotape magnetic tape on which viral marketing technique whereby

audio and video can be recorded and communicative networks are used
played back to spread messages, such as affili-
ate programs, co-branding, e-mails,
videotext [also written as videotex] word-of-mouth techniques, and so on
obsolete type of delivery of textual
information via telephone networks. virtual community group of people
Videotext was used mainly by librar- who interact on the Internet, for
ies to offer various services in homes. example in chatrooms, because they
share interests or business
viewer person who watches television
virtual reality [abbreviated as VR]
viewfinder 1. device on a camera technology that lets people engage
showing the area that will be includ- in three-dimensional (3-D) environ-
ed in the photograph; 2. miniature ments created by computers. VR
television screen with a magnifying devices enable users to manipulate
lens mounted on a video camera, virtual objects as if they were real.
which allows the user to select a The user wears a head-mounted
scene to record by viewing it through display (HMD) with screens for each
the eyepiece on the lens eye.

viewing act of watching television and virus computer program designed to

the psychological processes this entails copy itself into other programs, with
the intention of altering or damag-
viewscreen screen on a digital cam- ing them. The corrupted programs
era showing the image that has just may continue to operate according to
been recorded their intended functions while also

300
 vr

executing the virus’s instructions, voicemail oral message left on a

thus further propagating it. The virus phone’s answering machine or re-
may transfer itself to other comput- cording system
ers through storage devices, com-
puter networks, and online systems. voiceover technique of using the
Antivirus software is used to detect voice of an unseen speaker in films
and remove viruses from a computer,
but it must be updated frequently for Voice-over-Internet-Protocol
protection against new viruses. [­abbreviated as VoIP] technology
that allows voice messages to be sent
visual culture culture that gets a via the Internet
large part of its information through
visual electronic media such as tele- voice-pitch analysis advertising
vision and the Internet technique in which a subject’s voice
is analyzed during his or her respons-
vlog blog that incorporates a large es, in order to assess the subject’s
amount of visual material emotional reaction to an ad

VNR [see video news release] VoIP [see Voice-over-Internet-

Protocol]
VOA [see Voice of America]
volumetrics study of the influence
vocable word constructed with no of the relation between the overall
apparent meaning: for example, number of people exposed to an
krunt, jint advertising campaign and the number
of those who buy the product
VOD [see video on demand]
vortal Web portal that enables
voice 1. sound made by human vocal e-commerce transactions among
cords; 2. characterization of the right ­various businesses
to express oneself as an individual
or as part of a group: for example, vox pop the replies given to a re-
­women’s voices, the voices of porter’s questions by people on the
­African Americans, etc. street

Voice of America [abbreviated as voyeurism obtaining gratification

VOA] U.S. government-funded from secretly viewing sexual acts.
broadcasting system, launched in As a cinematic technique, it has been
1942, that provides radio, televi- used effectively in movies such as
sion, and Internet services, especially Eyes Wide Shut (1999).
news, in over 40 languages. Web site:
www.voanews.com VR [see virtual reality]

301
 first item

W
W3 [see World Wide Web] novel about interplanetary
invasion, delivered in the
W3C consortium of experts style of an actual news
in various areas seeking to broadcast, causing many to
guide the development of believe that the reports
the World Wide Web were real

walk-on actor who has a small part Warhol, Andy (1928–1987) Ameri-
in a play, movie, or program can pop artist who is considered one
of the initiators of the postmodern era
walkie-talkie two-way radio en- in the visual arts. Many of his works
abling voice communication over depict commonplace objects, such as
short distances. Unlike many other soup cans, and include photographs
two-way communication devices, of celebrities. In 1994 the Andy
a walkie-talkie cannot transmit and Warhol Museum was established in
receive signals at the same time. Pittsburgh.

walled garden in netlingo, a Warner Brothers major Hollywood

controlled-access area that attempts film studio, founded in 1918, re-
to keep users within its confines; for sponsible for producing such highly
example, AOL is a walled garden in popular features as the Looney Tunes
that it attempts to provide users with cartoon series and the Superman and
everything they may need within its Harry Potter films
own services
watchdog individual or organization
WAN [see wide area network] on the lookout for unacceptable or
offensive practices by the media
want ad classified advertisement in
a newspaper, magazine, or Web site
weather forecast radio or television
requesting or offering something for
broadcast of weather conditions
acquisition

WAP [see Wireless Application web [see World Wide Web]

Protocol]
Web browser computer program
war film cinematic genre dealing allowing users to gain access to pages
with war, usually featuring a mili- on the World Wide Web
tary hero; for example, the series of
Rambo movies Web hosting business providing
server space for storage on a Web site
War of the Worlds radio broadcast
1938 radio adaptation of H.G. Wells’s Web marketing online marketing
302
 webcast

Typical Web page

Web page a computer file displayed Web site [also written as website]
as a “page” on a computer screen, interconnected set of Web pages
accessible through the World Wide
Web by means of a Web browser. Web TV [full form: web television]
Web pages are multimedial, contain- high-definition television programming
ing some or all of text, graphics, delivered to homes via the Internet
files, sound, video, and hyperlinks.
The first Web page, created by Tim Webby annual international award
Berners-Lee, went online in 1991. made by the International Academy
of Digital Arts for an outstanding
Web phone service allows users to Web site
make phone calls over the Internet
with other software users webcam digital camera connected to
the Internet, capable of transmitting
Web portal Web page on a particu- images live
lar topic that provides links to other
Web pages webcast 1. video filmed with a
webcam that can be viewed on the
Web radio radio programming Internet or downloaded from the In-
delivered to homes equipped with a ternet; 2. any broadcast on the World
special receiver via the Internet Wide Web

303
 webcrawler

webcrawler computer program that weekly newspaper or magazine pub-

allows users to search through Web lished once a week
pages for documents containing a
specific word, phrase, or sequence of Western literary and cinematic genre
symbols set in the American West, during
1850–1900, involving cowboys, fea-
web-enabled any mobile phone or turing lawlessness and gun violence.
handheld device capable of accessing Owen Wister’s The Virginian (1902)
the World Wide Web is regarded as the founding novel of
the genre, whose popularity peaked
webform electronic document simi- in the middle decades of the twen-
lar to a printed form that is used to tieth century, declining thereafter.
collect information from a visitor to a Movie versions of the Western played
Web site an important role in establishing a
plot formula—the conflict between
webhead frequent visitor of the outlaws and the defenders of law
World Wide Web and order. One of the first important
movies, The Great Train Robbery
webisode episode, trailer, television (1903), was a Western. From the
program, or music video on a Web site 1920s through the 1950s, hundreds of
Westerns made celebrities of cow-
weblish form of English used online, boy actors Gene Autry, Tom Mix,
characterized by abbreviated words, Roy Rogers, Gary Cooper, and John
lack of appropriate punctuation, and Wayne. In the 1990s some films por-
various ungrammatical forms trayed cowboys in less heroic terms,
as in Clint Eastwood’s Unforgiven
weblog [see blog] (1992); the film Dances with Wolves
(1990) revisited the role of Native
webmaster person responsible for Americans (called “Indians” in previ-
creating, organizing, and updating a ous Westerns) in the history of the
Web site West, restoring dignity to that role.
Network television contributed to the
webzine [full form: web magazine] popularity of Westerns in the 1950s
magazine that publishes on the World and 1960s with long-running series
Wide Web such as Gunsmoke (1955–1975),
Maverick (1957–1962), Have Gun
Wedom and Theydom characteriza- Will Travel (1957–1963), Wagon
tion of the tendency of some media Train (1957–1965), and Bonanza
of representing the world in terms (1959–1973).
of “us” and “them” in order to make
a news report more forceful and Western culture general designa-
attention-grabbing tion of the cultures originating with

304
 Williams, Raymond

people of European origin. The term wider than it is tall; 2. a television set
is often used in opposition to ori- whose screen is larger than tradi-
entalism, often understood as “any tional screens
culture” other than the Western one
on an “east-west” geographic plane. Wiener, Norbert (1894–1964) math-
It is opposed to “southern cultures” ematician who pioneered cybernetics.
on a “north-south” geographic plane. His ideas contributed to the building
These are, however, artificial dichoto- of modern-day computers.
mies, since they assume homogeneity
in culture and inevitable opposition Wi-Fi [see wireless fidelity]
among cultures.
wiki name given to a Web site that
Westerstähl and Johansson’s model allows the visitors themselves to edit
of news factors model devised and change its content, sometimes
by Jorgen Westerstähl and Folke without the need for registration.
Johansson in 1994, which claims that The first software to be called a wiki
proximity to the ideological mindset was WikiWikiWeb, so named by its
of the country reporting a news item maker Ward Cunningham, a comput-
and the perceived importance of that er programmer who took it from the
country in an international context name of a Hawaiian airport shuttle.
are keys to how it is perceived in
other countries Wikipedia the most popular of
the Internet wikis, Wikipedia is a
whistleblower person who divulges multilingual online free encyclo-
information to the media about a pedia launched on March 1, 2002.
­secret event, a scandal, or an issue The name is a blend of the words
that is of interest to the public wiki and encyclopedia. It is written
collaboratively by volunteers. Most
white noise radio noise spread over a of its articles can be edited by almost
wide range of frequencies anyone with access to the Web site,
and for this reason there is controver-
Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1897–1941)
sy over Wikipedia’s accuracy, being
American linguist who kindled
perceived as susceptible to vandal-
widespread interest in the view that
ism and trendiness. Web site: www
language affects worldview
.wikipedia,org
wide area network [abbreviated as
WAN] computer network covering Williams, Raymond (1921–1988)
a broad geographical region or area, British media critic who drew atten-
the largest being the Internet tion to the various forms of culture
involved in a mediated society. He
widescreen 1. type of movie projec- distinguished between residual,
tion whereby the picture shown is dominant and emerging cultural

305
 wipo

forms: residual forms are those that WLAN [see wireless local area
have historical significance and thus network]
are still around; dominant forms are
those that have current salience; and women’s liberation movement
emerging forms are those that are social movement seeking equal
fomenting and that will soon become rights for women, dating back to
dominant. the Enlightenment. The first
important expression of the move-
WIPO [see World Intellectual ment was Mary Wollstonecraft’s A
Property Organization] Vindication of the Rights of Woman
(1792). American women gained
wire service news story sent by com- the right to vote in 1919, but their
puter from a national or international participation in the larger social
news agency system outside the home remained
limited. Landmarks in the rise of
Wireless Application Protocol [ab- modern feminism include Simone
breviated as WAP] protocol for trans- de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex
mitting data between mobile phones (1949), Betty Friedan’s The Feminine
and other such devices Mystique (1963), and the founding
of the National Organization for
wireless fidelity [abbreviated as Women (1966). Efforts in the 1970s
Wi-Fi] marketing term for wireless to pass the Equal Rights Amendment
networking technologies based on failed, but its aims had been largely
the Institute of Electrical and Elec- achieved by other means by the end
tronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11b of the twentieth century.
and 802.11a specifications. Wi-Fi
networks are used to wirelessly con- word magic belief that words evoke
nect computers to each other, or to magical events or can cause things
connect computers to the Internet or to happen by simply uttering them.
other networks, including Ethernet Word magic is a common theme in
networks. literature. A well-known example is
the “Open Sesame” phrase used by
wireless Internet capacity to access Ali Baba in the Arabian Nights to
the Internet without having to con- open the door of a cave. Another is
nect to a phone line abracadabra, which is made from
the letters in an inverted pyramid
wireless local area network [ab- design of an amulet that was popular
breviated as WLAN] local area several centuries ago. Each letter
network that allows laptops with ap- was supposed to vanish until only
propriate technology to connect with the A remained. As the letters disap-
other computers without the need for peared, so did the problems of its
cables wearer.

306
 www

word painting technique used in each other by means of hypertext

the radio broadcast industry that or hyperlinks. Users may access
uses highly descriptive words during any page by typing in the appropriate
dramatizations to evoke images in address on a search engine.
reading material as an attempt to
place the listener into the scene worm in Internet parlance, self-
­replicating computer program
World Intellectual Property Or- capable of sending copies of itself
ganization [abbreviated as WIPO] without any user intervention. Unlike
specialized agency of the United a virus, it does not need to attach
Nations, established in 1970, which itself to an existing program. Worms
administers and develops policy on harm the network, whereas viruses
intellectual property. Web site: www corrupt files on a targeted computer.
.wipo.org. The name derives from a science
fiction novel, The Shockwave Rider
World Wide Web [abbreviated as (1975), by John Brunner. John F.
W3 or WWW] system of computer Shoch and John A. Hupp used the
files linked together on the Internet, term in a technical paper they pub-
created in 1989 by Tim Berners- lished in 1982.
Lee and his colleagues at CERN
(Conseil Européen pour la Recherche writing 1. speech executed on some
Nucléaire), a nuclear physics labora- surface with symbols and signs;
tory near Geneva in Switzerland. The 2. literature in general.
Web provides access to a vast array
of documents that are connected to WWW [see World Wide Web]

307
 first item

X
xerography copy-making ration, a satellite service
process that is the basis of in the United States and
the most widely used doc- Canada providing pay-for-
ument-copying machines, service radio programming,
or photocopiers. Xerog- with music, news, sports,
raphy was invented in the talk, entertainment, and
1930s by American physicist Chester weather channels. Most of the chan-
F. Carlson and was developed in nels are available via the Internet.
the 1940s and 1950s by the Haloid XM also offers music downloads.
Corporation, later renamed Xerox. Web site: www.xmradio.com
The first commercially successful
xerographic copier was introduced in X-rated previous movie classifica-
1959. tion, replaced by NC-17, indicating
that a film should not be viewed by
XM satellite radio founded in 1992 anyone under the age of 17 because
as American Mobile Radio Corpo- of its adult content

308
 last item

Y
Yahoo! American Internet youth culture various
service providing a full forms of music, cloth-
range of Web services, ing, language, and general
founded by Jerry Yang and lifestyle that are adopted by
David Filo in 1994. It was young people. These forms
originally called “Jerry’s have become powerful
Guide to the World Wide Web,” but forces in modern-day urban society
was renamed “Yahoo!” The term where a dividing line between youth
was derived from Jonathan Swift’s and adult forms of culture are no
Gulliver’s Travels, where it was longer clear-cut. Indeed, trends in the
defined as someone “rude, unsophis- adolescent world quickly become the
ticated, uncouth.” Web site: www cultural norm, dictating look, taste in
.yahoo.com music, and fashion for many. Before
the 1950s, there were few media
yellow journalism use of lurid and outlets aiming their products (mov-
sensationalized reporting to attract ies, radio programs) at young audi-
readers and increase circulation. ences. By the mid-1950s, however,
The term was coined in the 1890s the courtship of such audiences by
to describe the rivalry between two the media and various entertainment
New York papers, the World and industries (especially the music and
the Journal. Some of the t­ echniques movie ones) began in earnest. Songs
used by the two newspapers and movies became progressively
have actually become permanent juvenilized in content. By the 1960s,
­features of journalistic presentation, youth culture came to constitute a
­including banner headlines, true community in the ethnographic
colored comics, and numerous il- sense, a self-contained system within
lustrations. the larger societal framework.

309
 first item

Z
zapping 1. flicking be- utterances unambiguously
tween television channels and with least effort. Zipf
with a remote control; 2. in demonstrated that there
postmodern theory, the view exists an intrinsic inter-
that by offering so much dependence between the
programming today, televi- length of a specific word
sion has led to zero consciousness, (in number of sounds or letters) and
the art of watching nothing its rank order in the language (its
position in order of its frequency of
zeugma figure of speech in which occurrence in texts of all kinds). The
a single word, especially a verb or higher the rank order of a word (the
an adjective, is applied to two or more frequent it is in actual usage),
more nouns, even though its sense is the more it tends to be “shorter”
actually appropriate to only one of (made up with fewer phonemes). For
them, or to both in different ways: for example, articles (a, the), conjunc-
example, The room was not light, but tions (and, or), and other function
his fingers were words (to, it), which have a high
rank order in English (and in any
zine [abbreviation of magazine] other language for that matter), are
self-published magazine, especially typically monosyllabic, consisting of
on the Internet, released at irregular one to three phonemes. What is even
intervals and, generally, with charac- more intriguing is that this “minia-
teristic content turization” force does not stop at the
level of function words, as Zipf and
Zipf’s Law [also called Principle others subsequently found. It can be
of Least Effort] principle defined seen to manifest itself, above all else,
in the 1930s by the Harvard linguist in the tendency for phrases that come
George Kingsley Zipf, who found into popular use to become abbrevi-
that many phenomena in language ated (FYO, UNESCO, Hi, Bye, ad,
could be explained as the result photo, Mr., Mrs., Dr., 24/7, etc.) or
of an inborn tendency in the hu- changed into acronyms (aka, VCR,
man species to make the most of its DNA, laser, GNP, IQ, VIP, etc.).
communicative resources with the It can also be seen in the creation
least expenditure of effort (physical, of tables, technical and scientific
cognitive, and social). This tendency notation systems, indexes, footnotes,
was independent of individual and bibliographic traditions, and so on
culture. It explains, Zipf claimed, and so forth. In effect, the general
why speakers minimize articulatory version of Zipf’s Law proclaims
effort by shortening the length of that the more frequent or necessary
words and utterances. At the same a form for communicative purposes,
time, people want to be able to the more likely it is to be rendered
interpret the meaning of words and “compressed” or “economical” in

310
 last item
Zworykin, Vladimir

physical structure. And the reason for control zombie programs remotely.
this seems to be an inherent tendency These have become a significant part
in the human species to expend the of the Internet.
least effort possible in representation
and communication. zooming filmic technique of making
something appear larger or closer to
zone culturally specific space that the camera than it is
people keep between themselves
when interacting zoosemiotics study of communica-
tion in animals
zombie in Internet parlance, any
worm transmitted from one infected Zworykin, Vladimir (1889–1982)
computer to another. Networks of Russian-born American electronic
such computers are often referred to engineer who invented the icono-
as botnets and are very commonly scope (a TV transmission tube)
used by spammers for sending junk in 1923 and the kinescope (a TV
e-mail or to cloak their Web site’s receiver) in 1924, which together
address. A botnet’s originator can constituted the first true TV system

311
 chronology

Chronology

The following timelines include selected events that indicate only some of the
major “signposts” in the development of the major media.

Books and Magazines

2400 b.c.e. Papyrus made from plant reeds found along the Nile River is
used for writing.
350 c.e. The codex is produced by the Romans with parchment pages
bound together.
600 Illuminated manuscripts featuring decorative designs on each
page are created by scribes (primarily monks and nuns).
700 Arab traders introduce paper to the West.
1000 Movable clay typesetting invented in China.
1234 Movable metal typesetting invented in Korea.
1453 Johannes Gutenberg turns a wine press into a printing press that
uses movable type for the mass production of books.
1455 The Gutenberg Bible is one of the first books published with the
new print technology.
1602 The first lending library, the Bodlian is established.
1640 The first book published in the American colonies, The Bay
Psalm Book, is printed in Boston.
1731 One of the first magazines, The Gentleman’s Magazine, is
published in England.
1732 Poor Richard’s Almanack by Benjamin Franklin is published.
1741 Colonial magazines appear in Boston and Philadelphia.
1751 The first encyclopedia is produced by French scholars.

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 chronology

1790 First U.S. copyright law passed. Publishing houses start

proliferating.
1821 The Saturday Evening Post is launched, becoming the first
magazine to appeal directly to women.
1830 Sarah Josepha Hales becomes the first editor of Godey’s Lady’s
Book, creating the first modern women’s magazine.
1846 The rotary press is invented in the United States. Harper’s
Weekly begins publication.
1860s The dime novel (pulp fiction) becomes a mass culture device.
1879 The Postal Act of 1879 lowers the postal rate for magazines,
allowing magazine distribution to thrive.
1880s Linotype and offset lithography lower the cost of book
production.
1900 Magazine muckraking reporting becomes highly popular.
1909 The Copyright Act of 1909 is passed.
1922 Reader’s Digest is launched.
1923 Time magazine, founded by Henry Luce, starts publication.
1936 Life magazine starts publication.
1939 Robert de Graaf introduces Pocket Books, America’s first
paperbacks.
1953 TV Guide is launched, indicating that various media were starting
to converge.
1954 Sports Illustrated begins publication.
1960s Computer-based composition (typesetting) begins.
1967 Rock and roll gets its own magazine with the launching of
Rolling Stone.
1969 The Saturday Evening Post succumbs to specialized competition.
1971 Borders opens its first store in Ann Arbor. Chain bookstores and
superstores start springing up across America shortly thereafter.
1974 People magazine starts publication.
1980s Desktop publishing gets under way.
1995 Amazon.com is established, but it will only turn its first profit in
2002.
1998 The Digital Millennium Copyright Term Extension Act is passed.
2000s Microsoft and Adobe start making online books (e-books)
available. E-zines, e-toons, and other magazine genres also start
proliferating in online versions.

Newspapers

1600s Corantos, the first newssheets, are published in northern Europe.

1640s Diurnals, the first daily newspapers, are published in England.

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 chronology

1644 English poet John Milton calls for freedom of speech in his
pamphlet titled Areopagitica.
1690 Boston printer Benjamin Harris publishes the first American
newspaper, Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick.
1721 The New England Courant begins publication.
1735 Freedom of the press is defended as a legitimate mode of
expression after a jury rules in favor printer Peter John Zenger,
who had criticized the government in print and who had been
charged with libel.
1776 American Declaration of Independence disseminated throughout
the nation by newspapers.
1783 The first daily, the Pennsylvania Evening Post and Daily
Advertiser, published in America.
1789 Freedom of the press is enshrined in the American Constitution
by enactment of the First Amendment.
1790 The Copyright Act is passed.
1798–1800 The Alien and Sedition Acts attempt to curtail press criticism of
the government.
1827 The first African American newspaper, Freedom’s Journal,
makes its appearance.
1828 The first Native American newspaper, The Cherokee, makes its
debut.
1833 The penny press era is ushered in after the New York Sun is
published, costing only one cent and thus starting the trend of
making newspapers affordable.
1848 Six newspapers form the Associated Press, relaying news stories
around the country via telegraphy.
1860 New York Morning reaches a circulation of 80,000, highlighting
the fact that newspapers have become an integral part of mass
communications.
1878 Joseph Pulitzer starts the new journalism movement. The
movement had great appeal with afternoon editions, and
featuring entertainment, crime and scandal, and devoted more
space to advertising and illustrations.
1883 Pulitzer buys the New York World, ushering in the era of yellow
journalism.
1895 William Randolph Hearst enters newspaper publishing with
sensationalistic techniques, further promoting yellow journalism.
1896 Adolph Ochs buys the New York Times, making achievement of
the goals of responsible journalism its primary objective.
1914 First Spanish-language paper in the United States, El Diario–
La Prensa, is founded in New York.

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 chronology

1917 The Pulitzer Prize is established at Columbia University,

rewarding achievement in journalism and other areas.
1920s Newspaper chains spring up, marking a decline in the number of
daily metropolitan newspapers.
1930–1934 Hundreds of syndicated columns start up between 1930 and
1934.
1955 The Village Voice is launched as the first underground newspaper
in Greenwich Village.
1972 Watergate scandal stimulates a new era of investigative
journalism.
1980 Ohio’s Columbus Dispatch is the first newspaper to go online.
1982 USA Today is launched, the first paper modeled after television.
1998 The Dallas Morning News is the first newspaper to break a
major story on its Web site instead of its front page. Increasing
use of the Internet leads to the development of blogs, discussion
groups, and the like, which take on many functions of traditional
newspapers.
2000s By 2003, thousands of newspapers offer some kind of online
news service.

Advertising

1625 The first true ad appears in an English newspaper.

1735 Benjamin Franklin sells ad space in the Pennsylvania Gazette.
1792 The first propaganda ministry is established in France.
1804 The first classified ads in Colonial America run in the Boston
News-Letter, featuring land deals and ship cargoes.
1830s The penny press becomes the first advertising-supported media
outlet.
1841 The first ad agency is established in Boston by Volney Palmer to
represent newspaper publishers.
1860s Advertising is incorporated into magazines.
1869 The first true modern ad agency working for advertisers and
companies is established by N.W. Ayer in Philadelphia.
1871 P.T. Barnum establishes his Greatest Show on earth, creating a
wave of publicity stunts, posters, etc., which bring the advertising
age into being.
1880s Brands (products with names) appear.
1887 Ladies Home Journal is designed to be a medium for consumer
advertising.
1914 The Federal Trade Commission is established to help monitor
advertising practices.

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 chronology

1920s Newspapers and magazines start depending heavily on

advertising revenues for their survival.
1922 Newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann publishes a controversial
book, Public Opinion, in which he illustrates how slogans and
other such devices shape public perception. The first radio
commercial is aired.
1942 The systematic study of propaganda and advertising effects is
begun by the U.S. military.
1950s–1960s 30-second and 60-second TV commercials become routine.
1957 Vance Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders is published, warning
people of the dangers of persuasive advertising.
1971 Tobacco ads are banned from television.
1984 Apple’s Macintosh commercial at halftime of the Super Bowl
changes the nature of advertising.
mid-1980s Brand placement and a general partnership between advertising
and pop culture solidifies.
1994 Internet banner advertising begins.
1995 The Internet advertising agency DoubleClick is founded.
1998 Tobacco ads are banned from billboards.
2000s The Internet and the World Wide Web become increasingly
attractive as sites for advertising. New forms of advertising, such
as pop-ups, appear online.

Radio and Sound Recording

1877 The wax cylinder phonograph is invented by Thomas Edison,

which allows for sound to be recorded and played back.
1887–1888 Emile Berliner develops the gramophone, which can play the
music on mass-produced discs.
1896 Guglielmo Marconi develops the first radio transmitter.
1906–1907 Lee De Forest invents the vacuum tube, called the Audion tube,
improving radio reception, and Reginald Fessenden makes the
first radio broadcast from the Metropolitan Opera House in New
York City.
1910 Congress passes the Wireless Ship Act requiring ships to be
equipped with wireless radio.
1912 Congress passes the Radio Act, constituting the first piece of
government regulation for licensing radio transmitters.
1916 David Sarnoff, the commercial manager of American Marconi,
writes his famous “Radio Box Memo,” in which he proposes to
his boss to make radio a “household utility.”
1916–1920 Frank Conrad founds KDKA in Pittsburgh as the first

317
 chronology

experimental radio station in 1916. The station’s broadcast of

the 1920 presidential election results on November 2, 1920, is
generally considered the beginning of professional broadcasting.
1922 The first uses of radio for commercial purposes begin with the
airing of the first advertisements by AT&T on station WEAF.
This causes an uproar, as people challenge the right of the public
airwaves to be used for commercial messages.
1926 The first radio broadcasting network, NBC, is created by RCA.
AT&T abandons radio broadcasting.
1927 Congress’s new Radio Act creates the Federal Radio
Commission.
1933 FM radio is developed.
1934 Congress passes the Federal Communications Act, creating
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and allowing
commercial interests to control the airwaves. AM stations are
allocated.
1938 Mercury Theater of the Air broadcasts War of the Worlds,
demonstrating how quickly a mass medium can cause public
panic.
1941 Chain broadcasting rules are developed.
1948 Radio starts to lose audiences to television. Magnetic audiotape
is developed by 3M. Wynonie Harris records Good Rockin’
Tonight, the first true rock and roll song.
1948 33 1/3 records are introduced by Columbia Records and 45-rpm
records are introduced by RCA Victor. The DJ radio era takes off.
1949 Red Hot ’n Blue becomes one of the first radio rock and roll
shows.
1955 Top 40 radio becomes the most popular type of radio format,
indicating that radio is becoming more and more a marketing
arm of the recording industry. Rock and roll enters the scene in
the mid-1950s, dominating pop music radio and the recording
industry until the early 1990s.
1956 Stereo recordings are introduced.
1962 Cassette tapes are introduced.
1960s Rock music is linked with social protest, spearheading the
counterculture movement.
1967 The Beatles release Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, the
first true concept album.
1970s FM radio stations gain popularity, transforming radio into a more
specialized medium.
1971 National Public Radio starts broadcasting with All Things
Considered.

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 chronology

1979 Sony engineer Akio Morita invents the portable Walkman.

1979–1980 Rap emerges out of hip-hop clubs in New York City.
1981 Music Television (MTV) is born, becoming a new arm of the
recording industry.
1982 Compact discs are introduced. Rock fragments into many genres,
from disco to punk, grunge, and techno. Rap and hip-hop start
dominating pop music recordings until the early 2000s.
1987 WFAN is launched as the first all-sports radio station.
1990s Talk radio becomes popular. Old and new musical genres,
from country to gospel and opera, become popular with target
audiences, creating niche recording and radio markets.
1996 Congress passes the Telecommunications Act of 1996, allowing
for consolidation in radio ownership across the United States.
1997 DVDs make their debut, offering more storage space than CDs
and making music videos popular.
1998 Music download sites proliferate on the Internet.
2000 MP3 technology shakes up the music industry, as Internet users
share music files on Napster. Napster is eventually ordered to
stop unauthorized file sharing.
2000s Satellite and Web-based radio programs emerge in 2002. File-
sharing, online radio programs, etc., become highly popular. Rap
and hip-hop remain popular, but lose their market domination.
2001 Peer-to-peer Internet services make music file sharing popular.
2003 Apple Computer’s iTunes music store makes its debut, making it
possible to buy music on the Internet.

Film and Video

1877 Eadweard Muybridge captures motion on film for the first time.
1888 Thomas Edison develops the first motion picture camera.
1889 Hannibal Goodwin develops film technology that allows movies
to be created.
1894 Thomas Edison opens up the first kinetoscope parlors with coin-
operated projectors.
1895 The Lumière brothers show the first short films in Paris.
1896 Thomas Edison invents the Vitascope, which is capable of large-
screen projection.
1903 Edwin S. Porter’s The Great Train Robbery, an early Western,
gains popularity, indicating that the era of cinema is just around
the corner. The movie is the first violent film story.
1907 Storefront movie parlors, called nickelodeons, with a five-cent
admission, begin to flourish.

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 chronology

1910s Silent films become popular. The first movie celebrities emerge
in the late 1910s and early 1920s.
1914 Movie palaces start opening up in New York City.
1915 The first racist film, D.W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation, is also the
first true feature film, gaining commercial success.
1920s The Big Five studios (Paramount, MGM, Warner Brothers, 20th
Century Fox, RKO) and the Little Three studios (Columbia,
Universal, United Artists) are established in the late 1920s.
1922 The American movie industry institutes voluntary censorship.
1927 Soundtrack technology turns silent films into talkies. The first
talkie is The Jazz Singer (1927) starring Al Jolson.
1930s The era of the “golden age” of cinema.
1946 Cinema becomes a major influence in society, as over 90 million
attend movies weekly.
1947 The House Un-American Activities Committee starts holding
hearings on communism in Hollywood.
1957 In Roth v. United States, the Supreme Court sets community
standards as the criteria for defining obscenity.
1968 Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) movie ratings
introduced.
1976 VCRs are introduced, creating a new movie rental and purchase
industry.
1977 Star Wars initiates a new era of big-budget blockbusters.
1990s Independent films become popular and successful, becoming also
a source for identifying new talent.
1995 The first megaplex movie theater is built in Dallas, leading to a
wave of megaplexes. Toy Story is the first completely computer-
generated movie, starting a new trend in movie production.
1997 DVDs come onto the scene in 1997, displacing videotapes.
2000s Movies integrate with the Internet, where trailers are shown and
even full features can be seen.

Television

Late 1800s
The invention of the cathode ray tube makes television
technology possible.
1884 Paul Nipkow patents the electrical telescope in Germany, which
becomes the basis for TV technology.
1927 Philo T. Farnsworth (barely 21 years of age) transmits the first
TV picture electronically. Farnsworth applies for a TV patent.
1935 Farnsworth conducts the first public demonstration of television
in Philadelphia.

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 chronology

1936 First television service debuts in Britain.

1939 NBC starts regular television broadcasts from New York City.
1941 The FCC sets standards for television broadcasting.
1948 Milton Berle and Ed Sullivan go on the air with the first TV
variety shows, ushering in the “golden age” of television. The
first community antenna television (CATV) is established.
1950 The AC Nielsen Market Research Company starts tracking
TV audience behaviors. The first swear words are heard on the
Arthur Godfrey Show.
1950s Television becomes a dominant medium, with previous radio
genres and radio personalities moving to TV. Sitcoms like I Love
Lucy (starting in 1951), the Today and Tonight Shows (1952),
and later The Beverly Hillbillies (1964) establish the standards
for TV broadcasting, bringing out the entertainment function of
television to the viewing public.
1954 Color television technology is introduced, but does not become
a marketable technology until the 1970s. The U.S. Senate begins
hearings on the purported effects of television violence on
juvenile delinquency.
1960 The first satellite system, called Telstar, is established. The
Kennedy-Nixon presidential debates reveal the power of
television to influence public opinion, as Kennedy, the
underdog, appeals to viewers as a young, handsome,
dynamic candidate.
1961 A second round of Senate hearings begins on television violence.
The first exposure of a navel occurs on the Dr. Kildare series.
1966 Prime time programs are broadcast in color.
1967 Congress creates the Corporation for Public Broadcasting,
leading to the establishment of public television.
1968 60 Minutes starts broadcasting, showing the power of television
to influence public opinion. The National Commission on the
Causes of Violence concludes that TV violence encourages
violent behavior. The first interracial kiss is seen on a Star Trek
episode.
1971 All in the Family changes the character of sitcoms, introducing
controversial social issues into the content of prime time
programming.
1972 FCC makes cable available to cities. The U.S. Surgeon General
releases a research report on the relation between television and
social behavior.
1975 HBO (Home Box Office) begins broadcasting via satellite.
VCRs are introduced. Under FCC pressure, broadcasters adopt a

321
 chronology

“family hour” format to provide wholesome early evening family

programming.
1976 Cable comes onto the scene, with Ted Turner’s WTBS in Atlanta,
which uplinks to satellite technology, becoming the first true
“superstation.”
1977 The eight-part miniseries Roots sets new standards for television
broadcasting with its probe of the African American experience.
The miniseries also shows the first bare female breasts on
television.
1980s The popularity of programs such as M*A*S*H (1983) and the
Cosby Show (1985) prompt some media critics to define this
decade as the “era of the sitcom.”
1980 CNN premieres as a 24-hour cable news network, owned
originally by Ted Turner, revolutionizing newscasting and
television formats.
1981 Cable also brings MTV onto the scene in 1981.
1987 Rupert Murdoch’s Fox television makes its debut.
mid-
1980s–1990s New channels and networks open up, such as UPN (United
Paramount Network) and WB (Warner Brothers). Specialty
cable channels emerge, from A&E and Discovery to the Movie
Channel and the Disney Channel. Programs such as The X-Files
and other such series become staples of prime time, as they
co-opt themes in pop culture so as to appeal to a large audience.
Quiz shows such as The Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy, and Who
Wants to Be a Millionaire rate highly as well.
1990 The Children’s Television Act mandates children’s programming.
1991 The first homosexual kiss on American television is seen on an
episode of L.A. Law.
1994 The direct broadcast satellite (DBS) industry debuts.
1996 The Telecommunications Act abolishes most TV ownership
restrictions.
1997 Parental advisories are mandated for TV programs.
1998 The V-chip is introduced. HDTV broadcastings start.
2000s Narrowcasting becomes a reality, with all the specialty channels
available along with network programming: TBS, Spike,
ESPN, Discovery Channel, Weather Channel, A&E, TLC, USA
Network, etc. Television and the Internet merge to create a co-
broadcasting system, whereby television channels and Internet
Web sites deliver the same or complementary content. Sitcoms
such as Everybody Loves Raymond (2000) and Will & Grace
(2000) continue to be popular.

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 chronology

2002 The FCC rules to end antenna-based broadcasting by 2009,

transforming the TV medium gradually into a digital one.
2003 VOD (video on demand) is introduced.

The Internet, World Wide Web, and Data Transmission

1822 Charles Babbage develops a computer prototype.

1830s The introduction of telegraphy constitutes a data network
forerunner.
1866 Transoceanic telegraph service begins.
1876 The telephone is introduced.
1915 The first transcontinental phone call is made.
1939 John Vincent Atanasoff of Iowa State University is credited with
designing the first modern computer.
1945 ENIAC, the first general-purpose computer, is invented by
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, mainly for military purposes.
1951 Eckert and Mauchly introduce UNIVAC as the first civilian
computer.
1962 The first communications satellite, the first digital phone
networks, and the first pagers are introduced.
1964 The first local area network (LAN) is put into service to support
nuclear weapons research.
1965 A highly usable computer language, BASIC, is developed.
1969 Arpanet is the first communication network established by the
U.S. Department of Defense.
1971 Microprocessors are developed, leading shortly thereafter to PC
technology.
1972 The first video game, Pong, is introduced. Urban cable is allowed
to proliferate. E-mail is developed for communications on
Arpanet.
1975 The first personal computer, Altair, is introduced.
1977 First fiber optic network is created.
1978 Cellular phone service begins. Nicholas Negroponte of MIT
introduces the term convergence to describe the intersection of
media.
1980s Fiber-optic cable is developed in the 1980s, making it possible to
transmit digital messages. Hypertext is developed in the mid-
1980s, leading eventually to the creation of the World Wide Web.
1982 The National Science Foundation sponsors a high-speed com­
munications network, leading to the establishment of the Internet.
1983 Arpanet starts using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP), essentially launching the Internet.

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 chronology

1984 Apple Macintosh is the first PC with graphics.

1989 Tim Berners-Lee develops concepts and techniques that a
few years later are converted into the World Wide Web. A
new company called AOL (America Online) is formed, later
becoming the first successful Internet service provider.
1990 The first Internet search engine, Archie, is developed.
1991 The Internet opens to commercial uses, HTML is developed, and
the World Wide Web is finally launched by Berners-Lee.
1993 The first point-and-click Web browser, Mosaic, is introduced.
1994 The first Internet cafés open. Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com.
1995 Digital cellular phones are introduced to the market. The first
online auction house, eBay, is launched.
1996 The Telecommunications Act and the Communications Decency
Act are passed. Google is launched.
2000 Cookies technology allows for information profiles to be created,
enabling data-mining practices to burgeon.
2001 Instant messaging services appear.
2002 Broadband technology is developed by South Korea.
mid–
late 2000s The Internet converges with previous media (radio, television,
etc.) to produce online versions of previous broadcasting. It also
becomes a source of new forms of communication, with Web
sites such as MySpace and YouTube.

324
 bibliography

Bibliography

General Works

Baran, Stanley J. Introduction to Mass Communication, Media Literacy, and Culture. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.
Berger, Arthur A. Manufacturing Desire: Media, Popular Culture, and Everyday Life. New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996.
————. Making Sense of Media: Key Texts in Media and Cultural Studies. Oxford:
Blackwell, 2005.
Biagi, Shirley. Media/Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/
Thomson Learning, 2001.
Branston, Gill, and Roy Stafford. The Media Student’s Book. London: Routledge, 1999.
Briggs, Asa, and Peter Burke. A Social History of the Media. London: Polity, 2002.
Briggs, Asa, and Paul Cobley, eds. The Media: An Introduction. Essex: Addison Wesley
Longman, 1998.
Campbell, Richard, Christopher R. Martin, and Bettina G. Fabos. Media & Culture: An
Introduction to Mass Communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.
Carey, James W. Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society. Boston: Unwin
Hyman, 1989.
Danesi, Marcel. Understanding Media Semiotics. London: Arnold, 2002.
Dizard, Wilson P. Old Media, New Media. New York: Longman, 1997.
Genosko, Gary. McLuhan and Baudrillard. London: Routledge, 1999.
Hanson, Ralph E. Mass Communication: Living in a Media World. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 2005.
Newbold, Chris, Oliver Boyd-Barrett, and Hilde Van Den Bulck, eds. The Media Book.
London: Arnold, 2002.
O’Sullivan, Tim, Brian Dutton, and Philip Rayner. Studying the Media. London: Arnold,
2003.
Straubhaar, Joseph, and Robert LaRose. Media Now: Communications Media in the In-
formation Age. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002.

325
 bibliography

Media Effects

Berger, Arthur A. Media and Communication Research Methods. London: Sage, 2000.
Gunter, B. Media Research Methods. London: Sage, 2000.
Liebert, Robert M., and Joyce N. Sprafkin. The Early Window: Effects of Television on
Children and Youth. New York: Pergamon, 1988.
McQuail, Denis. Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: Sage, 2000.
Staiger, Janet. Media Reception Studies. New York: New York University Press, 2005.
Van Zoonen, Liesbet. Feminist Media Studies. London: Sage, 1994.

Print (Books, Newspapers, Magazines)

Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and

Cultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1979.
Epstein, Jason. Book Business: Publishing Past, Present, and Future. New York: Norton,
2001.
GoughYates, Anna. Understanding Women’s Magazines. London: Routledge, 2003.
Harris, Michael, and Tom O’Malley. Studies in Newspaper and Periodical History. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997.
Innis, Harold A. Empire and Communication. Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1972.
Janello, Amy, and Brennon Jones. The American Magazine. New York: Abrams, 1991.
Winship, Janice. Inside Women’s Magazines. London: Pandora, 1987.
Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
2000.

Radio, Sound Recordings, Television

Abercrombie, Nicholas. Television and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996.

Dovey, Jon. Freakshow: First Person Media and Factual Television. London: Pluto,
2000.
Fiske, John. Television Culture. London: Methuen, 1987.
Holland, Patricia. The Television Handbook. London: Routledge, 2000.
Kubey, Robert, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Television and the Quality of Life. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990.
McQueen, David. Television: A Media Student’s Guide. London: Arnold, 1998.
Miller, Mark Crispin. Boxed In: The Culture of TV. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University
Press, 1988.
Neer, Richard. FM: The Rise and Fall of Rock Radio. New York: Villard, 2001.
Newcomb, H. Television: The Critical View. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Film and Video

Abrams, Nathan, Ian Bell, and Jan Udris. Studying Film. London: Arnold, 2001.
Balio, Tino. The American Film Industry. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,
1979.

326
 bibliography

Ellis, John. Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Video. London: Routledge, 1992.
Sklar, Robert. Movie-Made America: A Cultural History of American Movies. New York:
Vintage, 1994.

Internet and the World Wide Web

Hafner, Katie, and Matthew Lyon. Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet.
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
Herman, Andrew, and Thomas Swiss, eds. The World Wide Web and Contemporary Cultural
Theory. London: Routledge, 2000.
Slevin, James. The Internet and Society. London: Polity, 2000.
Van Dijk, Jan. The Network Society. London: Sage, 1999.
Wise, Richard. Multimedia: A Critical Introduction. London: Routledge, 2000.

Advertising

Berger, Arthur A. Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American
Character and Society. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.
Danesi, Marcel. Brands. London: Routledge, 2006.
Goldman, Robert, and Stephen Papson. Sign Wars: The Cluttered Landscape of Advertis-
ing. New York: Guilford, 1996.
Key, Wilson B. Subliminal Seduction. New York: Signet, 1972.
————. The Age of Manipulation. New York: Holt, 1989.
Kilbourne, Jean. Can’t Buy My Love: How Advertising Changes the Way I Feel. New York:
Simon & Schuster, 1999.
Leiss, William, Stephen Kline, Sut Jhally, and Jackie Botterill. Social Communication in
Advertising: Consumption in the Mediated Marketplace. London: Routledge, 2005.
Twitchell, James B. Twenty Ads That Shook the World. New York: Crown, 2000.
Williamson, Judith. Consuming Passions. London: Marion Boyars, 1985.

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328
 Resources on the World Wide Web

Resources on the World Wide Web

General
Action Coalition for Media Education: www.acmecoalition.org
Broadcasting & Cable News: www.broadcastingcable.com
Corporation for Public Broadcasting: www.cpb.org
Images (Journal of Media Criticism): www.imagesjournal.com
Media Education Foundation: www.mediaed.org
Media History Project: www.mediahistory.umn.edu
National Public Radio: www.npr.org
Paper Tiger TV: www.papertiger.org
Public Radio Information: www.pri.org
Web Journal of Mass Communication Research: www.scripps.ohiou.edu/wjmcc/

Advertising
Ad Council: www.adcouncil.org
Ad Forum: www.adforum.com
Adbusters: www.adbusters.org
Advertising Age: www.adage.com/datacenter.cms
Advertising World: www.advertising.utexas.edu/world
Adweek: www.adweek.com
American Association of Advertising Agencies: www.aaaa.org
Cannes International Advertising Festival: www.canneslions.com
Clio Awards: www.clioawards.com

Cultural Aspects
Alt Culture: www.altculture.com
Critical Communication Theory: www.theory.org.uk
329
 Resources on the World Wide Web

Marshall McLuhan Studies: www.mcluhan.utoronto.ca

Pop Culture: www.popcultures.com
Urban Dictionary: www.urbandictionary.com

Film and Video

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences: www.oscars.org

Cannes Film Festival: www.festival-cannes.fr
DreamWorks SKG: www.dreamworks.com
Hollywood Movies: www.hollywood.com
Internet Movie Database: www.us.imdb.com
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer: www.mgm.com
Motion Picture Association of America: www.mpaa.org
Movieweb: www.movieweb.com
New Line Cinema: www.newline.com
Sony Pictures: www.sonypictures.com
Sundance Film Festival: www.sundance.org
Toronto International Film Festival: www.e.bell.ca/filmfest
Touchstone Pictures: http://touchstone.movies.go.com
20th Century Fox: www.foxmovies.com
Universal Studios: www.universalstudios.com
Walt Disney Pictures: http://disney.go.com/disneypictures
Warner Bros.: www.warnerbros.com

Internet and the World Wide Web

Center for Democracy and Technology: www.cdt.org

Internet2: www.internet2.edu
Internet History: www.isoc/internet/history.org
Internet Information: www.netvalley.com
Internet News: www.zdnet.com
Internet Society: www.isoc.org/internet/
Netlore: www.urbanlegends.about.com

Media Law, Watchdogs, Regulatory Agencies, and Media Expression

Center for Media and Democracy: www.prwatch.org

Electronic Frontier Foundation: www.eff.org
Federal Communications Commission: www.fcc.gov
Freedom Forum: www.freedomforum.org
Mediawatch: www.mediawatch.org
World Intellectual Property Organization: www.wipo.int
World Press Freedom Committee: www.wpfc.org

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 Resources on the World Wide Web

Print Media, Press Organizations, and News Agencies

All Headline News: www.allheadlinenews.com

Associated Press: www.ap.org
Bookwire: www.bookwire.com
E-Reads: www.ereads.com
Gutenberg Bible: www.gutenberg.de/english/bibel.htm
International Federation of Journalists: www.ifj.org
Magazine Publishers of America: www.magazine.org
New York Times: www.nytimes.com
Newseum: www.newseum.org
Online Newspaper: www.onlinenewspapers.com
Project Gutenberg: www.gutenberg.net
Reporters Sans Frontières: www.rsg.org
Reuters: www.reuters.com
United Press International: www.upi.com
USA Today: www.usatoday.com
Washington Post: www.washingtonpost.com
World Association of Newspapers: www.wan-press.org

Radio and Sound Recordings

All Music Guide: www.allmusic.com

Billboard Magazine: www.billboard.com
Freenet: www.freenetproject.org
Internet Radio: www.radio-locator.com
Radio History: www.radiohistory.org
Recording Industry Association of America: www.riaa.com
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: www.rockhall.com
Web Radio: www.radio-directory.com

Television

ABC: www.abc.com
CBS: www.cbs.com
Classic Television: www.classic-tv.com
CNN: www.cnn.com
Fox: www.fox.com
MTV: www.mtv.com
NBC: www.nbc.com
TiVo: www.tivo.com
Ultimate TV: www.ultimatetv.com

331
Resources on the World Wide Web

332
 foreword

About the Author

Marcel Danesi is Professor of Semiotics and Anthropology at the University

of Toronto. He has published extensively in the fields of media and popular
­culture. Among his recent publications are Brands (2006), Popular Culture: In-
troductory Perspectives (2007), and The Quest for Meaning: A Guide to Semiot-
ic Theory and Practice (2007). He is currently the editor-in-chief of Semiotica.
He is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

333