Physics Unit 4 Revision Notes

Further Mechanics
Momentum
Momentum is a measure of how hard it is to stop something

In any collision total momentum is constant provided no external forces act. There are two types of collision; elastic and inelastic. In an elastic collision kinetic energy is conserved. In an inelastic collision kinetic energy is not conserved. Force is the rate of change of momentum.

The change in momentum is demonstrated as the area under a force-time graph.

Circular Motion
Linear velocity is the speed an object moves in a straight line and is given by: or Angular speed is the angle an object rotates through per second and is given by: or By combining the above equations we can see that linear speed and angular speed are linked by the equation For an object to move at a constant speed in a circular path there needs to be a centripetal force (The force which acts towards the centre of the circle). The centripetal force is given by the equation:

The body is also undergoing constant acceleration because velocity changes with direction and the body is constantly changing direction. Centripetal acceleration is given by the equations or

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is where an object oscillates to and fro on either side of a mid-point. Some examples of oscillators include a simple pendulum, a child on a swing, a bungee jumper and a vibrating springboard. Key terms: Amplitude, A, is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position. Period, T, is the time for one complete cycle of oscillations Frequency, f, is the number of complete oscillations per second

There are two criteria for simple harmonic motion: 1. The acceleration of the body is proportional to its displacement from the equilibrium position 2. The acceleration of the body is always directed towards the equilibrium position Or, written formulaically

A is the acceleration, f is the frequency of the oscillation, and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position. The negative sign ensures the acceleration is always directed towards the equilibrium position. The position of an object moving in simple harmonic motion at time, t, is given by:

The velocity of an object moving in SHM at any point is: The maximum acceleration of the body is given by:

The maximum speed is given by:

The graph below demonstrates how the energy of a simple harmonic system change with displacement

This shows that the kinetic energy of the system is at a maximum at the equilibrium position and the potential energy of the system is at a maximum at the maximum amplitude. In a simple pendulum the time period of each oscillation is affected only by the length of the string and the gravitational field strength (usually 9.81Nkg-1). It does not vary with amplitude. It is given by: The time period for a spring is dependent upon the mass attached to the spring and the spring constant. From this we get the equation

Free and Forced Vibrations

A free vibration is where a system is displaced and left to oscillate at its natural frequency. A forced vibration is where a system is driven at a frequency other that its natural frequency. Resonance occurs when a system is driven at its natural frequency (the driving frequency is 90 out of phase with the natural frequency) The graph below shows how amplitude if affected by frequency. It also shows the effects of damping on the system.

Damping absorbs the energy in an oscillating system to reduce the amplitude of the oscillations. In practice every system loses energy through damping forces such as air resistance. The degree of damping can vary from light damping (labelled on the graph as small damping) to heavy damping and overdamping. Critical damping reduces the amplitude and stops the system oscillating in the shortest possible time. Car suspension systems are critically damped to prevent them from oscillating. Overdamped systems take longer to return to equilibrium than critically damped systems.

Gravitation
Newtons Law
Newtons law of gravitation states that the attractive force between two point masses is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This is also written as:

Gravitational Field Strength

A field is a volume of space where a suitable test object experiences a force. Field strength is the force experienced by a unit test object. The test object for gravitation is a 1kg mass. Gravitational fields are demonstrated by field lines

The arrows point in the direction of the force that a unit test object would experience if placed into the field. The lines spread out the further you get from the earth as the force become weaker. The red lines are equipotentials which will be discussed under gravitational potential. All masses have their own gravitational fields. Gravitational field strength, g, is the force per unit mass.

The value of g at the earths surface is 9.81Nkg-1 or 9.81ms-2

The value of g is inversely proportional to r2 in a radial field. The value of g in a radial field is given by

Gravitational potential
Gravitational potential is the work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point. Gravitational potential is zero at infinity. In a radial field like the earths the equation for gravitational potential is:

Gravitational potential is negative on the surface of the mass (in this case the earth) and increases with distance from the mass. The above mass demonstrates how gravitational potential varies with distance. At any point on the curve the gradient gives the value of g.

When you move an object you do work against the force of gravity. The work done in moving a mass is given by

If you move the object around a line of equal gravitational potential then no work is done. This line of equal gravitational potential is known as an equipotential.

Orbits of planets and satellites

See circular motion for more information Planets and satellites are kept in orbit by the gravitational pull of the earth. This acts as a centripetal force. As planets and satellites have nearly circular orbits the equations of circular motion can be used. In a circular orbit a satellites speed and distance are constant so potential energy and kinetic energy are both constant. In an elliptical orbit the speed of the satellite increases as its height decreases and its speed decreases as its height increases. This means that the total energy remains constant. Geosynchronous satellites are always above the same place on earth. 1 orbit of a geosynchronous satellite takes 24 hours. They are useful for TV and telephone signals as the position of the receiver does not need to be altered.

Electric Fields
Coulombs Law
An electrostatic field is the volume of space where a suitable test object (+1C charge) experiences a force Coulombs law gives the force between two point charges in a vacuum.

If the charges are opposite then the force will be attractive and if the charges are the same then the force is repulsive.

Electric field strength

Electric field strength, E, is the force per unit charge. It is the force that a +1C charge would experience if it was placed in this field.

A point charge has a radial field.

The magnitude of E in a radial field is given by

A uniform field can be created by connecting opposite poles of a battery to two parallel plates.

The direction of the field is always from the positive plate to the negative plate. As the field is uniform the field lines are equal distances apart. The dotted lines are equipotentials, or lines of equal electric potential. The magnitude of E in a uniform field is given by

Electric potential
The electric potential, V, at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. The equation for electric potential at a point in a radial field is

The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the potential energy of a unit charge placed at that point. The electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from the point at the lower potential to the point at the higher potential.

Motion of charged particles in electric fields

The force on a charged particle in a uniform electric field is F=QE. The direction of the force is also constant. The particle will travel in a parabolic path. After the particle has left the electric field it will travel in a straight line as it is no longer acted upon by a force.

Comparison of electric and gravitational fields

Similarities Gravitational fields Gravitational field strength, g, is force per unit mass Newtons law of gravitation for the force between two point masses is an inverse square law Field lines for a point mass are radial Gravitational potential, V, is potential energy per unit mass and it is zero at infinity Always attractive Objects cannot be shielded from gravitational fields Electric fields Electric field strength, E, is the force per unit charge Coulombs law for the electrostatic force between two point charges is an inverse square law Field lines for a point charge are radial Electric potential, V, is potential energy per unit positive charge and it is zero at infinity Can be repulsive Objects can be shielded from electric fields

Capacitance
Capacitance
Capacitance is the charge stored in a capacitor per volt. It is given by the equation

It can also be written as Q=VC (the Queen gives the Victoria Cross)

Energy stored by a capacitor

Energy stored by a capacitor is given by the area under the graph of potential difference against time. Because the area of a triangle is *base * height the energy stored by the capacitor is given by the equation

The others equations for the energy stored by a capacitor are and

Charging a capacitor
Capacitor is connected to the battery Electrons flow around the circuit to the plate and the charge builds on that plate The negative charge on the plate repels electrons from the opposite plate, making a current flow around the circuit An equal and opposite charge builds on each plate, creating a potential difference between the two plates The capacitor is fully charged when the current is zero and the potential difference across the capacitor is equal to the potential difference across the battery

The current is high initially but as charge builds on the plate electrostatic repulsion makes it harder for current to flow

Discharging a capacitor
The battery is removed from the circuit with the capacitor The electrons from the negatively charged plate flow around the circuit to neutralise the positively charged plate. The current flows in the opposite direction to the charging current The capacitor is fully discharged when both the current and the potential difference are equal to zero.

The graph of a capacitor discharging is

A capacitor discharges exponentially. The equation for the discharge of a capacitor is

The same equation is true for current and voltage

Time constant
The time constant, , is the time it takes for the charge to fall to (roughly 37%) of its original value.

The time constant varies with the resistance of the circuit and with the capacitance. It is given by the equation

Magnetic Fields
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux density is the force per unit current per unit length acting on a current carrying conductor. This is shown by the equation

This equation is only true if the wire, the force and the magnetic field are all at right angles to each other. The unit of B is the tesla, T, equal to 1NA-1m-1 The force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field is given by

To find the direction of the force in either of the above situations you use Flemings left hand rule

A beam of charged particles going into a magnetic field is will go into circular motion because the force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion To find the direction of the magnetic field around a current carrying conductor you use the right hand grip rule where the right hand is put into a fist with the thumbs sticking up. The thumb then points in the direction of the current and the fingers curl round in the direction of the field.

Magnetic flux and flux linkage

Magnetic flux is given by the equation

The units of are Wieber, Wb. When you move a coil of wire in a magnetic field the size of the emf induced is dependent on the magnetic flux passing through the coil and the number of turns on the coil. This is the magnetic flux linkage, N. This can also be written as

In magnetic flux is not perpendicular to B then magnetic flux is given by

The same is true for magnetic flux linkage

Electromagnetic induction
When there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnet then there is an emf induced. Flux cutting always induces an emf but only induces a current when the circuit is complete. This is summed up by faradays law: the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage. This can also be written as

This is also dependant on Lenzs law: The induced emf is always in such a direction that it will oppose the change that caused it. An emf can also be induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field. This is given by the following equation where is the angular speed of the coil.

When the coil is parallel to the magnetic field the emf induced is zero and the emf induced is at its greatest when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Transformers
Transformers make use of electromagnetic induction to change the size of the voltage for an alternating current.

Transformers work by the alternating current in the primary coil inducing an alternating magnetic field in the iron core. This alternating field in the iron core then induces a current in the secondary coil. In a step-up transformer the secondary coil has more turns than the primary transformer, thus creating a higher voltage in the secondary coil. The opposite can be said for a step-down transformer. The equation for a perfectly efficient transformer is

Np Ns

Vp Vs

Transformers lose power due to heat in the coils (dealt with using high-grade copper) and eddy currents in the iron core (dealt with by laminating the iron core) The efficiency of a transformer is the ration of power out to power in so

Efficiency = IsVs/IpVp
Transformers are used by the national grid to control power loss whilst the electricity is travelling through the wires. Because power loss is proportional to I2 the electricity travels at the minimum possible current, meaning the voltages are very large. At the power station the voltage is stepped up to 400000 V for transmission and then it is stepped down to 230 V for domestic use.