Manual for A Multi-machine Small-signal Stability Programme

(Version 1.0)

Prepared by Dr. K.N. Shubhanga Mr. Yadi Anantholla

Department of Electrical Engineering NITK, Surathkal Srinivasnagar, Mangalore - 575025 KARNATAKA, INDIA

Version-1.0

Contents
List of Figures List of Tables 1 Introduction 1.1 Power System Oscillations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Classication of Power System Oscillation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Swing Mode Oscillations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Control Mode Oscillations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Torsional Mode Oscillations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods of Analysis of Small Signal Stability: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 Eigenvalue Analysis: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synchronizing and Damping Torque Analysis: . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Response- and Residue- Based Analysis: . . . . . . . . . iv vi 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 7 9

1.3

1.3.4 Time-Domain Solution: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Advantages of Eigenvalue or Modal Analysis: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4.1 Computation of Eigenvalues: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4.1.1 QR Techniques: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4.1.2 Arnoldi Method: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.5

Modelling of Power System: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.5.1 Linearization of DAEs: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.5.1.1 Load Flow Jacobian-based Approach: . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.5.1.2 Current Injection-based Approach: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Modal Analysis of Linear Systems: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.6.1 Eigenvalue Sensitivity - Participation Matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Spring-Mass System Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 41

1.6 1.7

2 4-machine Power System Example 2.1 2.2

Four Machine System Details: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Base Case: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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Version-1.0 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 Format of Data Files: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Component Selectors: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Load Modelling: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 A Sample Run: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Exciters on Manual Control: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Eect of Load Model with Exciters on Manual Control: . . . . . . . 59 61

3 Design of Slip-signal PSS 3.1 3.2

Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Types of Power System Stabilizers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.2.1 Slip-single Input PSS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.2.1.1 Washout Circuit: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.2.1.2 Lead-Lag Compensator: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.2.1.3 3.2.1.4 Torsional Filter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Stabilizer Gain: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.3

3.2.1.5 Stabilizer Limits: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Tuning of PSS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.3.1 Computation of GEP S (s): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.3.2 3.3.3 Design of Compensator GC (s): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Determination of Compensator Gain: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.3.3.1 Interfacing PSS to the System Matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3.3.2 Eigenvalues with Slip-input PSS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Time-domain Verication: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.3.4 3.4

e (s) 3.3.5 Frequency response of VT : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 ref (s) Placement of Power System Stabilizers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4 Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS 81 4.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2 Design of Delta-P-Omega PSS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.2.1 Design of the Compensator Gc (s): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.2.2 Interfacing of PSS to the System Matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 4.2.2.1 Eigenvalues with Delta-P-Omega PSS: . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5 Design of Power-signal PSS 91 5.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.2 5.3 Interfacing of Power-input PSS to the State Matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4-machine Power System Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.3.1 5.3.2 Eigenvalues with Power-input PSS: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Performance of the PSS for Power Ramping: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 ii Electrical Dept.

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Version-1.0 6 10-machine Power System Example 97 6.1 Ten Machine System Details: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 A Names of State Variables 103

B Derivation of P-matrix and Construction of PG , PL and Reduced State Matrices 105 B.1 Derivation of P matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 B.2 Construction of [PG ] and [PL ] Matrices: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 B.3 Derivation of Reduced-State Matrix: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 C Generator Modelling 111

C.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 C.2 Rotor Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 C.2.1 d-axis Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 C.2.2 q-axis Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 C.3 Stator Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 C.4 Derivation of IDg and IQg : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 C.5 Swing Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 C.6 Modication of Dierential Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 C.7 Simplication of Machine Model: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 D Exciter Modelling 121 D.1 Single Time Constant Static Exciter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 D.2 IEEE-type DC1A Exciter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 D.3 IEEE-type AC4A Exciter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 E Turbine and Speed-governor Modelling 127 E.1 Hydro Turbine and its Speed Governor Model: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 E.2 Reheat Type Steam Turbine and its Speed-governor Model: . . . . . . . . . 130 F Network Modelling 133 F.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 F.2 Transmission Lines: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 F.3 Transformers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 G Static Loads H Initial Condition Calculations Bibliography NITK Surathkal iii 135 139 143 Electrical Dept.

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List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 Phasor representation of sinusoidally varying angle, speed and torque deviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Multi-mass multi-spring system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Equivalent circuit for multi-mass multi-spring system. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Modied multi-mass multi-spring system with damping. . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Numerical solution for Case-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Numerical solution for Case-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Numerical solution for Case-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Four machine power system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Plot of slip-right eigenvector for machines 1 and 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Slip COI plots for perturbation of Vref of m/c-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Variation of the magnitude of the load bus voltages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Location of PSS in a power system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Block diagram of a single input PSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Phase angle of GEP S (j ), for machine-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Phase angle of compensator GC (j ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Phase angle of GEP S (j ), GP SS (j ) and P (j ) for machine-1. . . . . . . 71 Plot of amplitude of GEP S (s) for machine-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Variation of rotor angles with respect to COI reference without PSS. . . . 74 Variation of rotor angles with PSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Frequency response plot with and without PSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Block schematic to generate integral of Tm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Delta-P-Omega PSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Plot of compensated GEPS(j ) with all blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Delta-P-Omega PSS modied block schematic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Block schematic of power-input PSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Phase angle of the compensated GEPS with power input PSS. . . . . . . . 93 Electrical Dept.

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Version-1.0 5.3 5.4 Variation of Ef d for power PSS gain of 0.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 variation of rotor angle and the terminal voltage for machine-1 for power ramping case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 10-machine 39-bus power system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Plot of slip-right eigenvector for machine groups 1 and 2. . . . . . . . . . . 100 Plot of slip-right eigenvector for machine groups 1 and 2. . . . . . . . . . . 100

6.1 6.2 6.3

C.1 2.2 model of a Synchronous Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 D.1 Single time constant static excitation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

D.2 IEEE-type DC1A excitation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 D.3 TGR block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 D.4 ESS block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 D.5 IEEE-type AC4A excitation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 D.6 TGR block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 E.1 Hydraulic turbine model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 E.2 Modied hydraulic turbine model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 E.3 Model of speed-governor for hydro turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 E.4 Modied model of speed-governor for hydro turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 E.5 Tandem compounded, single-reheat-type steam turbine model. . . . . . . . 130 E.6 Model for speed-governor for steam turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 E.7 Modied model for speed-governor for steam turbines. . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 F.1 Nominal Model of transmission lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 F.2 Transformer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

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List of Tables
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Eigenvalues for four machine system -base case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Oscillatory modes - 4 machine system (Base case). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Swing modes with all exciters on manual control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Eect of constant power type load model for P & Q load components with manual exciter control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.1 4.1 5.1 Oscillatory modes for the base case with PSS on m/c-1. . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Oscillatory modes with Delta-P-Omega PSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Swing modes with power-input PSS for the base case. . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

A.1 System state variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 A.2 Machine state variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 A.3 DC1A-exciter state variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 A.4 AC4A-exciter state variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 A.5 Reheat steam turbine state variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 A.6 Hydraulic turbine state variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 C.1 Simplications in 2.2 model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

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Chapter 1 Introduction
Small-signal rotor angle stability analysis mainly deals with a study of electromechanical oscillations-related performance of the system about an operating point when the system is subjected to suciently small magnitude of disturbance that will not trigger non-linear behaviour of the system. Thus, this study is mainly concerned with the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under small disturbances. The disturbances are considered to be suciently small that linearization of system equations is possible for analysis purposes. This permits linear system theory to be applied for system analysis even though the system is inherently non-linear. A power system at a given operating condition may be large disturbance unstable, still such a system can be operated, though unsecurely. However, if the system is small-signal unstable at a given operating condition, it cannot be operated. Therefore, small-signal stability is a fundamental requirement for the satisfactory operation of power systems. Such a study mainly involves the verication of suciency of damping of all modes associated with a system so that power transfer is not constrained. It is known that when a dynamic system such as power system is perturbed from its steady state condition, the system variables trace out a ow, referred to as trajectories. These trajectories may exhibit oscillatory or monotonic behaviour. For the system to be stable, these trajectories must remain bounded and converge to an acceptable operating point.

1.1

Power System Oscillations:

A study of power system oscillations is of interest in a system where more than one generator is working in parallel to deliver a common load. In small systems, there may be only tens of generators and in large systems there may be thousands of generators working in parallel. In such a situation synchronous machines produce torques that depend on the relative angular displacement of their rotors. These torques act to keep the generators in NITK Surathkal 1 Electrical Dept.

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synchronism (synchronizing torque), thus, if the angular displacement between generators increases, an electrical torque is produced that tries to reduce that angular displacement. It is as though the generators were connected by torsional spring, and just as in spring mass system where a restraining force due to spring action against moment of mass, results in oscillations, the moment of inertia of rotors and synchronizing torques cause the angular displacement of the generators to oscillate following the occurrence of a disturbance when it is operating under steady state. Under these conditions, the generators behave as rigid bodies and oscillate with respect to one another using the electrical transmission path between them to exchange energy. If a system is small-signal unstable, oscillations can grow in magnitude over the span of many seconds and, can eventually result in outages of major portions of the power system. Further, a power system is continuously subjected to random disturbances in the form of load or generation changes/changes in controller settings. Hence it never settles to a steady state at any given point of time. Therefore having adequate damping of all system oscillations is critical to system stability and therefore, to system security and reliability. In a well designed and operated system, these oscillations of the rotor angle displacement decay and settle to a value that will not constraint power ow through the transmission network. Such a system is said to be small-signal stable. In the following circumstances, the system may be small-signal unstable [1, 2, 3] 1. Use of high gain fast-acting exciters. 2. Heavy power transfer over long transmission lines from remote generating plants 3. Power transfer over weak ties between systems which may result due to line outages. 4. Inadequate tuning of controls of equipment such as generator excitation systems, HVDC converters, static var compensators. 5. Adverse interaction of electrical and mechanical systems causing instabilities of torsional mode oscillations. In an over stressed system, a relatively low inherent damping and a small magnitude of synchronous torque coecient may constrain the system operation by limiting power transfer. Further, in such cases, predicting oscillation boundaries and therefore to manage them, becomes increasingly dicult.

1.2

Classication of Power System Oscillation:

The power system oscillations are mainly concerned with small excursions of the system conditions about a steady state operating point following a small disturbance. For a NITK Surathkal 2 Electrical Dept.

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convenience of analysis, the oscillations associated with a power system is classied as follows [1, 2]. 1. Swing mode oscillations. 2. Control mode oscillations. 3. Torsional mode oscillations.

1.2.1

Swing Mode Oscillations:

This mode is also referred to as electromechanical oscillations. For an n generator system, there are (n 1) swing (oscillatory) modes associated with the generator rotors. A swing mode oscillation is characterised by a high association of the generator rotor in that mode, where generator(s) in two coherent groups swinging against each other with an approximate phase dierence of 180 among the groups. It is shown later that in the eigenvalue analysis, a high association is denoted by participation factors and formation the of coherent groups is identied by right eigenvectors associated with rotor slip. In addition, there will be a mode referred to as a rigid body mode or zero mode, in which all generator rotor take part as a single rigid rotor. This mode is generally associated with the movement of the center of inertia which corresponds to the dynamics of the average frequency. Not all generators are involved in all modes. Typically, each mode is associated with a group of generators swinging against another group. The location of generators in the system determines the type of swing mode. Swing mode oscillations can be further grouped into four broad categories: 1. Local machine-system oscillations. 2. Interunit (Intra-plant) mode oscillations. 3. Local mode oscillations. 4. Inter-area mode oscillations. 1. Local Machine-system oscillations: These oscillations generally involve one or more synchronous machines at a power station swinging together against a comparatively large power system or load center at a frequency in the range of 0.7 Hz to 2 Hz. These oscillations become particularly troublesome when the plant is at high load with a high reactance transmission system. The term local is used because the oscillations are localized at one station or a small part of the power system. 2. Interunit (Intra-plant) mode oscillations: These oscillations typically involve two or more synchronous machines at a power plant swing against each other, usually at a frequency of between 1.5 Hz to 3 Hz. NITK Surathkal 3 Electrical Dept.

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3. Local mode oscillations: These oscillations generally involve nearby power plants in which coherent groups of machines within an area swing against each other. The frequency of oscillations are in the range of 0.8 to 1.8 Hz. 4. Inter-area mode oscillations: These oscillations usually involve combinations of many synchronous machines on one part of a power system swinging against machines on another part of the system. Inter-area oscillations are normally of a much lower frequency than local machine system oscillations in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 Hz. These modes normally have wide spread eects and are dicult to control.

1.2.2

Control Mode Oscillations:

Control modes are associated with generating units and other controls. Poorly tuned exciters, speed governors, HVDC converters and static var compensators are the usual causes of instability of these modes.

1.2.3

Torsional Mode Oscillations:

These oscillations involve relative angular motion between the rotating elements (synchronous machine, turbine, and exciter) of a unit, with frequencies ranging from 4Hz and above. This mechanical system has very little inherent natural damping. The source of torque for inducing torsional oscillations with the excitation system comes from a combination of modulation of excitation system output power, and modulation of synchronous machine power due to changes in generator eld voltage. Beside the excitation systems, there are other mechanisms that can excite torsional oscillations such as dc lines, static converters, series-capacitor-compensated lines and other devices. A wide bandwidth excitation system may have the capability to provide enough negative damping at any of these torsional natural frequencies to destabilize one or more of these torsional modes, particularly with the application of a power system stabilizer. Of these oscillations, local machine-system mode, local mode, intra-plant mode, control mode and torsional mode are generally categorized as local problems as it involves a small part of the system. Further, inter-area mode oscillations are categorized as global small-signal stability problems and are caused by interactions among large groups of generators and have widespread eects.

1.3

Methods of Analysis of Small Signal Stability:

1. Eigenvalue analysis [4]. 2. Synchronizing and damping torque analysis [1, 5]. NITK Surathkal 4 Electrical Dept.

Introduction 3. Frequency response- and residue-based analysis [6, 7]. 4. Time-domain solution analysis [2, 1, 8, 10]

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1.3.1

Eigenvalue Analysis:

Eigenvalues: The eigenvalue of a matrix is given by the value of the scalar parameter for which there exist non-trivial solution (i.e. other than u = 0) to the equation Au = u (1.1)

is an (n 1) vector referred to as eigenvector. To nd the eigenvalue, (1.1) may be written in the form (A I ) u = 0 where I is an identity matrix of dimension (n n). For a non-trivial solution, det (A I ) = 0

where A is an (n n) matrix (real for a physical system such as a power system) and u

(1.2)

(1.3) The n solutions of

Expansion of the determinant gives the characteristic equation.

= 1 , 2 , , n are referred to as the eigenvalues of the matrix A. The eigenvalues may be real or complex, and a complex eigenvalue always occur in conjugate pair. In general, i = i + ji , where i is referred to as neper frequency (neper/s), and i is referred to as radian frequency (rad/s). Eigenvectors: For any eigenvalue i, the n element column vector ui , which satises (1.1) is called the right eigenvector of A associated with eigenvalue i , Therefore we have Aui = i ui The eigenvector ui has the form u1i u2i . . . uni Electrical Dept. i = 1, 2, , n (1.4)

ui = NITK Surathkal

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Since (1.4) is homogeneous, k ui (where k is a scalar) is also a solution. Thus, the eigenvectors are determined only to within a scalar multiplier. Similarly, the n element row vector w j which satises w j A = j w j j = 1, 2, , n (1.5)

is called the left eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue j , and has the form wj = wj 1 wj 2 wjn

The left and right eigenvector corresponding to dierent eigenvalues are orthogonal. In other words, if i is not equal to j , we have, w j ui = 0 However, in case of eigenvectors corresponding to the same eigenvalue i , we have, w i ui = C i (1.7) (1.6)

where Ci is a non-zero constant. Since, as noted above, the eigenvectors are determined only to within a scalar multiplier, it is common practice to normalize these vectors so that wi ui = 1 (1.8)

Eigenvalues and Stability: The time-dependent characteristic of a mode corresponding to an eigenvalue i is given by ei t . Therefore, the stability of the system is determined by the eigenvalues as follows: 1. A real eigenvalue corresponds to a non-oscillatory mode. A negative real eigenvalue represents a decaying mode. The larger its magnitude, the faster the decay. A positive real eigenvalue represents aperiodic monotonic instability. 2. Complex eigenvalues occur in conjugate pairs and each pair corresponds to an oscillatory mode. The real component of the eigenvalues gives the damping, and the imaginary component gives the frequency of oscillations. A negative real part represents a damped oscillations where as a positive real part represents oscillation of increasing amplitude. Thus, for a complex pair of eigenvalues given by, = j (1.9)

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Introduction The frequency of oscillation in Hz is given by f= The damping ratio is given by = The time constant of amplitude decay is
1 e

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2 + 2

(1.10)

(1.11)

The damping ratio determines the rate of decay of the amplitude of the oscillation.
1 | |

or 37% of the initial amplitude in

f | |

In other words, the amplitude decays to 1 2 1 seconds or in 2 cycles of oscillations.

| | (cycles) f

1 . | |

This also corresponds to

cycles. For example, a damping ratio of 5% means that = e0.31463

in 3 oscillation periods the amplitude is damped to about e||t = e

= 0.3892 of its initial value. The small-signal stability analysis program determines the dynamic performance of the system by computing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the state matrix of the linearized power system model. In a power system, it is required that all modes, i.e., all eigenvalues are stable. Moreover, it is desired that all electromechanical oscillations are damped out as quickly as possible.

1.3.2

Synchronizing and Damping Torque Analysis:

With electric power system, the change in electrical torque of a synchronous machine following a perturbation can be resolved into two components as follows: Te = TS + TD Sm where TS is the component of torque change in phase with the rotor angle perturbation and is referred to as the synchronizing torque component; TS is the synchronizing torque coecient. TD Sm is the component of torque in phase with the speed deviation and is referred to as the damping torque component; TD is the damping torque coecient. System stability depends on the existence of both components of torque for each of the synchronous machine. This analysis assumes that the rotor angle and the speed deviations oscillate sinusoidally. Hence, the phasor notations can be used to analyse the stability performance of power systems. Figure (1.1) is drawn based on the observation that d = S m B dt NITK Surathkal 7 (1.13) Electrical Dept. (1.12)

Introduction and

Version-1.0

d = Sm B dt

(1.14)

For sinusoidal oscillations j (j ) = Sm (j )B

S m (j )

TeD

Te

L
TeS

(j )

Figure 1.1: Phasor representation of sinusoidally varying angle, speed and torque deviations. From the gure the damping torque component can be written as TeD = Te cos L and the synchronizing torque component can be written as TeS = Te sin L (1.16) (1.15)

If either or both damping and synchronizing torques are negative, i.e., if TeD < 0 and/or TeS < 0, then the system is unstable. A negative damping torque implies that the response will be in the form of growing oscillations, and a negative synchronizing torque implies monotonic instability. NOTE: The phase angle L can be related to the compensated phase angle obtained in the design of power system stabilizers -see section 3.3.2. In this analysis, the angle L is measured taking Sm (j ) phasor as reference and is treated as positive for lagging angle.

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Introduction

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1.3.3

Frequency Response- and Residue- Based Analysis:

Frequency response is just another characterisation of a systems transfer function between a given input and output. Frequency response methods allow a deeper insight into small-signal dynamics and have widespread use in the design of power system controllers. Frequency response can also be measured directly, even in a power system. It is thus an excellent method to validate mathematical models that are to be used in control design and stability analysis [6, 7]. Residues give the contribution of a mode to a transfer function. They also give the sensitivity of the corresponding eigenvalue to a positive feedback between the output of the transfer function and its input [5]. Thus, residues are useful to get an idea of which modes will be aected most by feedback. This concept has been used in [11] to determine the suitable location of power system stabilizers. An advantage of using residues in such analysis is that it takes into account the transfer function structure of the excitation system unlike participation factors. However, evaluation of residues dependent on the specic input/output combinations and may be computationally intensive for large systems.

1.3.4

Time-Domain Solution:

Conventional method solves the non-linear dierential-algebraic system of equations numerically, employing numerical techniques to provide solution to each variable at rectangular intervals of time and thus, they basically provide time domain solutions. Timedomain techniques provide an exact determination of stability of non-linear systems both for small and large disturbances. However, the use of time response alone to look at small disturbance damping can be misleading. The choice of disturbance and selection of variables to be observed in time response are critical. The input, if not chosen properly, may not provide substantial excitation of the important modes. The observed response may contain many modes and the poorly damped modes may not be dominant. Number of modes depends on modeling details employed for dierent dynamic components. Larger systems may have a number of inter-area modes of similar frequencies, and it is quite dicult to separate them from a response in which more than one is excited. Therefore, for a large power system it is not possible to identify any desired mode and study their characteristics. Of all these methods, eigenvalue or modal analysis is widely used for analysing the small-signal stability of power system [7, 12, 14].

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Introduction

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1.4

Advantages of Eigenvalue or Modal Analysis:

With eigenvalue techniques, oscillations can be characterized easily, quickly and accurately. Dierent modes, which are mixed with each other in curves of time-domain simulation, are identied separately. Root loci plotted with variations in system parameters or operating conditions provide valuable insight into the dynamic characteristics of the system. Using eigenvectors coherent groups of generators which participate in a given swing mode can be identied. In addition, linear models can be used to design controllers that damp oscillations. Further, information regarding the most eective site of controller, tuning of existing one, installation of new controller can be decided. From the eigenvalue-based analysis, time responses to any chosen small disturbance can be generated for comparison with eld test results. In addition, frequency response characteristics of the model can be generated. This is useful for comparison with system models developed from frequency response measurements. Eigenvalue or modal analysis describes the small-signal behavior of the system about an operating point, and does not take into account the nonlinear behavior of components such as controllers limits at large system perturbations. Further, design and analysis carried out using various indices such as participation factors, residues, etc. may lead to many alternate options. These options need to be veried for their eectiveness using system responses for small/large disturbances. In such cases, time-domain simulations are very essential. In this context, time-domain simulation, and modal analysis in the frequency domain should be used in a complement manner in analyzing small-signal stability of power systems [2, 15].

1.4.1

Computation of Eigenvalues:

Following are the important algorithms used in the literature [16, 17] to compute eigenvalues numerically. 1.4.1.1 QR Techniques:

The QR method is one of the most widely used decomposition methods for calculating eigenvalues of matrices. It uses a sequence of orthogonal similarity transformations. Similar to the LU factorization, the matrix A can also be factored into two matrices such that A = QR (1.17)

where Q is a unitary matrix, i.e., Q1 = Q , and R is an upper triangular matrix, denotes complex conjugate transpose. The following algorithm may be used for nding the eigenvalues [16]: NITK Surathkal 10

Electrical Dept.

Introduction

Version-1.0

1. Perform QR factorization of A0 (= A). The QR factors are denoted as Q0 and R0 . 2. Compute A1 = R0 Q0 . 3. Perform QR factorization of A1 . The QR factors are denoted as Q1 and R1 4. Repeat the above steps till convergence. In the k th iteration, the matrix Ak converges to an upper triangular matrix with eigenvalues of A as its diagonal elements. It is numerically stable, robust, and converges rapidly. The QR method with the support of inverse iteration scheme [6], has been used in many standard packages [12] to determine all eigenvalues to check interaction among various modes. 1.4.1.2 Arnoldi Method:

In large interconnected systems, it is either impractical or intractable to nd all of the eigenvalues of the system state matrix due to restrictions on computer memory and computational speed. Thee Arnoldi method has been developed as an algorithm that iteratively computes k eigenvalues of an n n matrix A, where k is typically much smaller than n. This method therefore bypasses many of the constraints imposed by large matrix manipulation required by methods such as QR decomposition. If the k eigenvalues are chosen selectively, they can yield rich information about the system under consideration, even without the full set of eigenvalues. The basic approach of the Arnoldi method [17] is to iteratively update a low order matrix H whose eigenvalues successively approximate the selected eigenvalues of the larger A matrix, such that AV = V H ; V V = I (1.18)

where V is an n k matrix and H is a k k Hessenberg matrix. As the method progresses, the eigenvalues of A are approximated by the diagonal entries of H yielding HVi = Vi D

(1.19)

where Vi is a k k matrix whose columns are the eigenvalues of H (approximating the eigenvectors of A) and D is a k k matrix whose diagonal entries are the eigenvalues of

H (approximating the eigenvalues of A). In the original form, the Arnoldi method had poor numerical properties, the main problems being loss of orthogonality and slow convergence if several dominant eigenvalues are needed. These problems are solved by using complete re-orthogonalization and an iterative process in the modied Arnoldi method (MAM) [12].

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Introduction

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NOTE: The following functions in MATLAB [13] are used in the programme to compute eigenvalues numerically: eig: It nds all eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors. It uses Hessenberg/QZ factorization techniques. eigs : It uses modied Arnoldi method and is used to obtain the eigenvalues se-

lectively and it can handle sparse matrices. It employs an algorithm based on ARPACK.

1.5

Modelling of Power System:

The behaviour of a power system is described by a set of n rst order nonlinear ordinary dierential equations of the following form x = F (x, u, t) where x1 x2 . . . xn u1 u2 . . . ur f1 f2 . . . fn (1.20)

x=

u=

F =

The column vector x is referred to as the state vector, and its entries xi as state variables. The column vector u is the vector of inputs to the system. These are the external signals that inuence the performance of the system. Time is denoted by t, If the derivatives of the state variables are not explicit functions of time, the system is said to be autonomous. In this case,(1.20) simplies to x = F (x, u) (1.21) We are often interested in output variables which can be observed on the system. These may be expressed in terms of the state variables and the input variables in the following form: y = g (x, u) (1.22)

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Introduction where y1 y2 . . . ym g1 g2 . . . gm

Version-1.0

y=

g=

The column vector y is the vector of outputs, and g is a vector of nonlinear functions relating state and input variables to output variables. The set of equations (1.21) and (1.22) together constitute the dierential algebraic equations (DAEs) for the system.

1.5.1

Linearization of DAEs:

Let x0 be the initial state vector and u0 be the input vector corresponding to the equilibrium point about which the small-signal performance is to be investigated. Since x0 and u0 satisfy (1.21), we have x 0 = F (x0 , u0 ) = 0 (1.23) Let us perturb the system from the above state, by letting x = x0 + x where the prex denotes a small deviation. The new state must satisfy (1.21). Hence, x = x 0 + x = F [(x0 + x) , (u0 + u)] As the perturbations are assumed to be small, the nonlinear function F (x, u) can be expressed in terms of Taylors series expansion. With terms involving second and higher order powers of x and u neglected, we can write x i = x i0 + x i = fi [(x0 + x) , (u0 + u)] = fi (x0 , u0 ) + fi fi fi fi x1 + + xn + u1 + + ur x1 xn u1 ur (1.25) (1.24) u = u0 + u

Since x i0 = fi (x0 , u0 ) = 0, we obtain x i = fi fi fi fi x1 + + xn + u1 + + ur x1 xn u1 ur 13 Electrical Dept.

NITK Surathkal

Introduction for i = 1, 2, , n. In a like manner, from(1.22), we have yj = gj gj gj gi x1 + + xn + u1 + + ur x1 xn u1 ur

Version-1.0

for j = 1, 2, , m. Therefore, the linearized forms of (1.21) and (1.22) in matrix notation can be written as x = Ax + B u y = C x + D u where
f1 x1 fn x1

(1.26) (1.27)

A =
g1 x1 gm x1

f1 xn fn xn

B =

f1 u1 fn u1

f1 ur fn ur

g1 ur gm ur

C =

g1 xn gm xn

g1 u1 gm u1

D =

The above partial derivatives are evaluated at the equilibrium point about which the small perturbation is being analyzed. x is the state vector of dimension (n 1) y is the output vector of dimension (m 1) u is the input vector of dimension (r 1)

A is the state or plant matrix of size (n n) B is the control or input matrix of size (n r ) C is the output matrix of size (m n)

D is the (feed forward) matrix which denes the proportion of input which appears directly in the output of size (m r ). In general, to determine the small-signal stability behaviour of a non-linear dynamic system it is sucient to obtain the eigenvalues of A matrix indicated above. However, for power system applications, determination of A matrix may be more involved because of intricate relationship between the state variables and the algebraic variables. In practice, the following are the two important methods for obtaining the state matrix: 1. Numerical approach. 2. Analytical approach.

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Introduction

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Numerical approach: In this approach, the state matrix is obtained using numerical dierentiation. Here, starting from a valid equilibrium condition x0 , a second state vector is created xi , in which i is computed using the ith component of x0 is perturbed by a very small amount and the x th the F . This provides an intermediate state matrix in which only i column is non zero. This process is repeated until all columns of the state matrix are obtained by sequentially perturbing all entries of x0 . After constructing the state matrix, eigenvalues can be obtained in an usual manner [18]. In SIMULINK toolbox [19], a function namely, linmod is available for numerical linearization of systems. Analytical approach: In this approach, analytical expressions are obtained for all partial derivatives of variables. These expression are assembled in such a way that all elements are written only in terms of state variables. In the literature, the following two basic approaches are employed: 1. Load ow Jacobian-based approach [8]. 2. Current injection-based approach [1, 2]. 1.5.1.1 Load Flow Jacobian-based Approach:

The nonlinear model is of the form x = f x, y, u 0 = g x, y (1.28) (1.29)

vectors. Expression (1.29) where the vector y indicates both machine currents I dq and V consists of the stator algebraic equations and the network equations in the power-balance form. To show explicitly the traditional load ow equations and the other algebraic equations, y is partitioned as y = y = It dq 1 V1 Vm |2 n Vm+1 Vn |y t yt a b
T

(1.30)

Here, the vector y b corresponds to the load ow variables, and the vector y a corresponds to the other algebraic variables. Linearizing (1.28) and (1.29) around an operating point gives,
dx dt

0 NITK Surathkal

x y 15

C JAE

+ E [u]

(1.31)

Electrical Dept.

Introduction where y = y a y b

Version-1.0

JAE =

D11 D12 D21 JLF

(1.32)

1 Eliminating y a , y b , we get x C ) and JLF is = Asys x where Asys = (A BJAE the load ow Jacobian. The model represented by (1.31) is useful in both small-signal

stability analysis and voltage stability, since JLF is explicitly shown as part of the system dierential-algebraic Jacobian. 1.5.1.2 Current Injection-based Approach:

Generator Equations: For ith generator, the dierential equations are written as
p Vgp + [Eg ] uc x g = [Ag ] xg + Bg

(1.33)

where uc is the vector of small perturbation in the reference input variables of the generator controllers given by uc = [(Vref + Vs ) , B ]T . With B is assumed to be zero, we have uc = [Vref + Vs ] and Vgp are the small deviations in the generator terminal voltage expressed in polar coordinates given by Vgp = Vg0 g Vg

Using currents as the output variables of the generator, we have in Krons reference frame Ig = IDg IQg
p Vgp = [Cg ] xg + Dg

(1.34)

The derivations for IDg and IQg are given in Appendix- C.4. In this analysis, a synchronous machine is represented by 2.2 model -see Figure C.1. In addition, three IEEE-type exciters [2, 22]- single-time constant exciter, DC1A exciter and AC4A exciter, and two IEEE specied turbines [23]- hydro turbine and reheat-type

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Introduction

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steam turbine, are considered. This results in the state variable vector given by xg = Sm f h g k Ef d vR
T

xB xF

x1 x2 x3 y1 PGV

The association of dierent state variables with dierent components are depicted in App p pendix -A. The nonzero elements of matrix [Ag ] , Bg , [Cg ] , Dg , and [Eg ] are given in Appendix -C,-D and -E. Transformation of Matrices from Polar to Rectangular forms: It is given that Vgp = In rectangular coordinates we have, Vgr = The two expressions are related by Vgp = 1 Vg 0 VDg0 VQg0 VQg0 VDg0 VQg VDg = [P ] Vgr VQg VDg Vg0 g Vg

The derivation of [P ] matrix is given in Appendix -B.1. It can be seen that [P ]1 = [P ]

r The matrices Bg is obtained as r p Bg = Bg [P ] p p p r r r where Bg = Bg (2, 1) Bg (2, 2) and Bg = Bg (2, 1) Bg (2, 2) r Similarly, Dg can be obtained as r p Dg = Dg [P ]

The superscript r indicates the representation of matrices in rectangular coordinates. NITK Surathkal 17 Electrical Dept.

Introduction

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Network Equations: The linearized network equations can be expressed either using admittance matrix (in DQ variables) or using Jacobian matrix (obtained from power balance equations). Using the former, we have [YDQ ](2nb 2nb ) VQD (2nb 1) = IDQ (2nb 1) where each element of [YDQ ] is a 2x2 matrix. For example, YDQ (i, j ) = Bij Gij (1.35)

Gij Bij

VQDi and IDQi are vectors with elements VQDi = VQi VDi andIDQi = IDi IQi

Note that the voltages are expressed with VQi preceding VDi . On the other hand, the currents are expressed with IDi preceding IQi . This is deliberately done so that the matrix [YDQ ] is a real symmetric matrix (if phase shifting transformers are not considered). Also note that the admittance matrix representation is independent of the operating point. Derivation of System Equations: Let the number of generators in the system be ng , the number of loads be ml . Let the number of buses in the network be nb . Rewriting (1.35) we have, [YDQ ] VQD = [PG ] IG [PL ] IL where [PG ] is a (2nb 2ng ) and [PL ] is a (2nb 2ml ) matrix with elements PG (i, j ) = if generator j is connected to bus i. Otherwise, PG (i, j ) = 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 (1.36)

Similarly, [PL ] can be dened. PL (i, j ) is a unit matrix of dimension 2 2 if load j is connected to bus i, otherwise, PL (i, j ) is a null matrix. Notice that the signs associated 18

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Electrical Dept.

Introduction

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with IL is negative as the load currents are assumed to ow away from the bus (load convention). NOTE: The structure of [PG ] and [PL ] matrices for a 4 machine, 10-bus power system is presented in Appendix -B.2. The load current ILj at the j th load bus can be expressed as ILj = [YL ]j VLj where ILj = [IDLj VLj = [VQLj and [YL ]j = BDQ GDD GQQ BQD IQLj ]T VDLj ]T (1.37)

The elements of [YL ]j are given in Appendix -G, and [YL ] is a block diagonal matrix. In general we have, VL = [PL ]T VQD Using the above equation in (1.37) we get, IL = [YL ] [PL ]T VQD (1.38)

The generator current vector, IG is collection of the quantities Ig1 , Ig2 , Ig3 ... Igng and using (1.34), IG can be expressed as IG = [CG ] X G [YG ] V G where
T T T X T G = xg 1 xg 2 ...xgng

(1.39)

T T T V T G = Vg 1 Vg 2 ...Vgng

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Introduction

Version-1.0

T T T T IG = Ig 1 Ig 2 ...Igng

[CG ] and [YG ] matrices are given by, [CG ] = Diag Cg1 Cg2 ...Cgng

r r r [YG ] = Diag Dg 1 Dg 2 ... Dgng

We know that V G = [PG ]T VQD Using the above equation, (1.39) can be rewritten as IG = [CG ] X G [YG ] [PG ]T VQD Substituting (1.38) and (1.41) in (1.36) we get [YDQ ] VQD = [PG ] [CG ] X G [PG ] [YG ] [PG ]T VQD [PL ] [YL ] [PL ]T VQD Rearranging the terms associated with VQD we get YDQ VQD = [PG ] [CG ] X G where YDQ = [YDQ ] + [PG ] [YG ] [PG ]T + [PL ] [YL ] [PL ]T Solving for VQD from (1.42) and using it in (1.40) we get V G as, V G = [PG ]T YDQ
1

(1.40)

(1.41)

(1.42)

[PG ] [CG ] X G

(1.43)

From (1.33), the collection of all the generator equations is expressed by = [AG ] X + [BG ] VG + [EG ] U X G G c (1.44)

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Introduction where [AG ] = Diag Ag1 Ag2 Agng [EG ] = Diag Eg1 Eg2 Egng
T T uT c1 , uc2 ucng

Version-1.0

r r r [BG ] = Diag Bg 1 Bg 2 Bgng

= U T c

Substituting (1.43) in (1.44) gives, G = [AT ] XG + [EG ] U c X where [AT ] = [AG ] + [BG ] [PG ]T YDQ
1

(1.45)

[PG ] [CG ]

(1.46)

Since analytical approach provides better insight into linearization of system of equations and it is more accurate compared to numerical approach (which may suer from the problem of inaccurate estimates depending upon the amount of perturbation chosen), in this report, the current injection-based analytical method is employed and the system matrix [AT ] given in (1.46) is used to perform the eigenvalue analysis.

1.6

Modal Analysis of Linear Systems:

For an nth order LTI system, the zero-input-response, i.e., the natural response can be described in state space form as [4]. x =A x with initial value of states, x(0) and the state matrix A is of dimension(n n). Consider the transformation given by, x=U y (1.48) (1.47)

where U is assumed to be a matrix of right eigenvectors of A, pertaining to distinct eigenvalues, [1 , 2 , n ] of A. From (1.47) we have

Uy =AU y y =U NITK Surathkal

1

AU y 21

(1.49) Electrical Dept.

Introduction The operation, U

1

Version-1.0 A U represents the similarity transformation such that W A U = D (1.50)

where W = U 1 , is a matrix of left eigenvector of A. . . . . . . . . . U = u1 u2 un . . . . . . . . . . . . w1 w2 . . . . . . wn

with A ui = i ui

i = 1, 2, 3....n

W = and

with wj A = j w j

j = 1, 2, 3....n

1 2 .. . n

D = NOTE:

1. ui is a column vector and w j is a row vector. 2. ui and wj are orthonormal vector, i.e., wj ui = 1 =0 Using (1.50) in (1.49) we have, y = D y From (1.48), the initial value of y is given by y (0) = U 1 x (0) = W x (0) (1.53) (1.52) for for i=j i=j (1.51)

NITK Surathkal

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Introduction The solution of (1.52) is obtained as y1 (t) y2 (t) . . . yn (t) e 1 t e 2 t .. . e n t y1 (0) y2 (0) . . . yn (0)

Version-1.0

y (t) =

From ( 1.48) and (1.53) we have, x1 (t) e1 t w1 x (0)

or

x2 (t) . . . xn (t) x1 (t) x2 (t) . . . xn (t) . . . = u 1 . . .

u1 u2 un e2 t w2 x (0) = . . . n t e w n x (0)

. . . t e 1 w1 x (0) + u 2 . . . or

. . . t e 2 w 2 x (0) + + u n . . .
n

t e n wn x (0) (1.54)

x (t) =
i=1

(w i x (0)) ei t ui

NOTE: 1. (wi x (0)) is a scalar and it gives the contribution of the initial condition x (0) to the ith mode. In other words, w i determines to what extent the ith mode gets excited (in a state) for a given initial condition vector x (0). Thus, a left eigenvector carries mode controllability information. 2. ui describes the activity of each state variable in ith mode. In other words, it shows how ith mode of oscillation is distributed among the system states. Thus, it is said to describe the mode shape of each state variable in ith mode. The magnitude, | uki | gives the relative magnitude of activity and the angle, uki represents relative phase displacement of k th state in constituting the ith mode. The angle information will be useful to group machines which swing together in a mode. A right eigenvector carries information regarding on which state variables the mode is more observable.

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Introduction If x (0) = uj then from (1.54), we have

n

Version-1.0

x (t) =
i=1

wi uj

ei t ui

Using (1.51), a non zero value results only for i = j , hence we get, x (t) = w j uj ej t uj (1.55)

The above equation implies that only j th mode is excited. Further, (1.55) is re-written as
n

x (t) =
k =1

(wjk ukj ) ej t uj

(1.56)

where wjk (ukj ) represents the k th entry of the j th left(right) eigenvectors, w j uj of A, which are normalized so that (1.51) is valid.

1.6.1

Eigenvalue Sensitivity - Participation Matrix:

In the analysis of large power systems. it is desirable to know the level of impact that a set of state variables has on a given mode so that methods can be devised to control those modes. In this regard, eigenvalue sensitivity analysis- participation factor, provides a tool to identify the nature of modes. In the following lines, a derivation has been presented to obtain the participation matrix [5]. Assuming that the eigenvalues are distinct, we have Auj = j uj Now consider, A ars uj + A uj ars = j ars uj + j uj ars (1.57)

where ars is an element in the A matrix in the r th row and sth column position. Simplifying the above expression, we get, A ars uj + A uj ars j uj ars = j ars uj

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Introduction A ars uj ars j ars

Version-1.0

uj + (A j I )

uj

(1.58)

Pre-multiply the above equation by the left eigenvector w j , we get, wj A ars uj + wj (A j I ) uj ars = wj j ars uj (1.59)

Since we know that w j (A j I ) =0 (from the denition of the left eigenvectors) we have, j ars A ars

wj

uj = w j

uj

Since

A is a scalar, we can write ars

A uj w j a j rs = ars w j uj

Note that in

A all elements are zero except (r, s)th element which is 1. Therefore, ars j wjr usj = ars w j uj (1.60)

where wjr = wj (r ) and usj = uj (s), r th element and sth element in the vectors w j and uj respectively. Participation Matrix is obtained when r = s = k in (1.60), (i.e., when eigenvalue sensitivity is obtained corresponding to the diagonal element, akk of A). With this substitution for r and s, we get, Pjk = NOTE: 1. In the above expression for the participation factor, a division by a scalar w j uj normalizes the eigenvectors. 2. In MATLAB, if eig function is used, then the eigenvectors are inherently normalized. If eigs is used, the normalization should be carried out using the above expression. wjk ukj j = akk w j uj (1.61)

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Introduction Using (1.61) in (1.56) we get

n

Version-1.0

x (t) =
k =1

Pjk ej t uj

Note that the value of Pjk is decided based on the value of ukj for a given wjk . From this it can be said that ukj measures the activity of k th state variable in j th mode, wjk weighs the contribution of this activity to the mode. Thus, Pjk can be used as a relative measure to indicate the net participation of the k th state variable in building the time response of the j th mode [20, 21]. REMARKS: 1. The components obtained in (1.60) are referred to as dimensional generalised participation. As a special case when we set r = s = k, the components constitute a P matrix. The entries, Pjk with j, k = 1, 2.....n, of the P matrix are termed as the participation factors (PF) of the system. 2. wjk and ukj when taken separately, are unit dependent. However, Pjk s are dimensionless, i.e., independent of the units used for the state variable. This provides a straight forward measure of relative participation of states in a mode. 3. The sum of the values of all the entries of j th row or column of P is always equal to 1.0, i.e.,
n n

Pjk = 1.0
k =1

and
j =1

Pjk = 1.0

(1.62)

4. Even if Pjk is a complex number, the condition given by (1.62) is satised. However, the relative participation is measured by computing the absolute value of Pjk . 5. The participation factor, Pjk represents the sensitivity of the j th eigenvalue to the variations in k th diagonal element, (akk ) of A matrix. For example, a positive real participation factor denotes that an introduction of a damping coecient usually shifts to the left. 6. A large Pjk indicates that j th eigenvalue is very sensitive to a local feedback around the k th state variable. 7. The participation factor (or residue)-based analysis is valid only if the eigenvalues are distinct. If eigenvalues are nearly identical, the mode shapes given by the righteigenvectors are physically meaningless and participation factors do not give the NITK Surathkal 26 Electrical Dept.

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correct sensitivity information. It is observed in [5] that a situation of eigenvalues with degree of multiplicity greater than 1 rarely arises in power systems. Even in such cases, frequency response or linear response calculated using these eigenvalues/eigenvectors is correct. The complete eigenvalue analysis of dynamic system is demonstrated below through a linear spring-mass system.

1.7

Spring-Mass System Example:

Let us consider a multi-mass, multi-spring system as shown in Figure (1.2). There are 2 small masses connected by a very sti spring which in turn are connected to a relatively larger mass via a much less sti spring.
x1

x2

x3 M1 k 12 M2 k 23 M3

Figure 1.2: Multi-mass multi-spring system An equivalent circuit for the system is shown in Figure 1.3. Choosing the state variable vector as x = [x1 , x2 , x3 , v1 , v2 , v3 ]T , we can write the dynamic equation in state-space as dx1 dt dx2 dt dx3 dt dv1 dt dv2 dt dv3 dt NITK Surathkal = v1 = v2 = v3 k12 (x1 x2 ) M1 k12 k12 k23 = x1 + M2 M2 M2 k23 = (x2 x3 ) M3 = 27 (1.63) (1.64) (1.65) (1.66) x2 + k23 x3 M2 (1.67) (1.68)

Electrical Dept.

Introduction
x1

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k 12 x2

k 23

x3

M1

M2

M3

Figure 1.3: Equivalent circuit for multi-mass multi-spring system. Writing the above equations in matrix form, we get, x 1 x 2 x 3 v1 0 0 0
k12 M1 k12 M2

0 0 0
k12 M1

0 0 0 0
k23 M2 23 k M3

1 0 0

or

= v2 v3 x 1 x 2 x 3

k12 k23 +M M2 2 k23 M3

0 1 0 x2 x 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 v1 v 0 0 0 2 v3 0 0 0 x1 x2 x3

x1

= v1 v2 v3

0 Ak

3x3

I 0

3x3

3x3

3x3

=Ax v1 v2 v3 0

where
k12 M1 k12 M2 k12 M1

[Ak ] =

k12 k23 +M M2 2 k23 M3

k23 M2 k23 M 3

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Introduction Choose the parameters as follows: k12 = 2 N/m; k23 = 20 N/m; M1 = 10 kg; M2 = 1 kg; M3 = 1 kg

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We can observe that k23 >> k12 . This means is that masses M2 and M3 more rigidly coupled than the group M2 and M3 with M1 . Also observe that M1 >> M2 andM3 . From the knowledge of a simple spring-mass system it can be predicted that low frequency oscillations are mainly due to mass M1 and high frequency oscillation is predominantly associated with M2 and M3 . Substituting the numerical values of the parameters, we get [Ak ] as 0.2 2 0 0.2 0

[Ak ] =

22 20 20 20

To determine the eigenvalues of the original system, let us rst obtain the eigenvalues of [Ak ]. To this eect compute, + 0.2 0.2 0 det [I Ak ] = det 2 + 22 20 0 20 + 20 The characteristic equation is, 3 + 42.2 2 + 48 = 0. The roots of the polynomial are given by, 1 = 0, 2 = 1.1699, 3 = 41.0301

The eigenvalues of A can be obtained as follows: Let be an eigenvalue of A and u be the corresponding eigenvector. From the denition, we have Au=u or 0 I [Ak ] 0 Simplifying (1.69), we get u2 = u1 [Ak ] u1 = u2 NITK Surathkal 29 (1.70) (1.71) u1 u2 = u1 u2 (1.69)

Electrical Dept.

Introduction Using (1.70) in (1.71), we obtain [Ak ] u1 = 2 u1 Again from the denition, we can write that 2 = and the eigenvalues of A is given by = Thus, i NOTE:
with i=1,2,3,4,5

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= 0, 0, j 1.0816, j 6.4055

1. Two zero eigenvalues represent non-uniqueness of state variables. One zero eigenvalue is due to the displacement variable x, and the other is due to the velocity variable v . 2. A zero eigenvalue implies that if states x1 , x2 and x3 are changed by a given amount, it still unalters the relative displacement between the masses. Similar inferences can be made about the states v1 , v2 and v3 . 3. A zero eigenvalue due to v also demonstrates the absence of damping factor i.e., a force component which is a linear function of velocity. To eliminate one-zero eigenvalue due to the variable x,the state variables are redened as xn = [p, q, v1 , v2 , v3 ]T , where, (x2 x1 ) = p and (x3 x1 ) = q Using this new state-vector, the state-space equations from (1.63) to (1.68) are rewritten

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Introduction as: dp dt dq dt dv1 dt dv2 dt dv3 dt = v2 v1 = v3 v1 k12 p M1 k12 k23 = p+ (q p) M2 M2 k23 = (q p) M3 =

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(1.72) (1.73) (1.74) (1.75) (1.76)

Writing the above equation in matrix form, we have, p 0 0

k12 M1
12 k M2

0 0 0
k23 M2 k23 M2 23 k M3

q v1 = v2 v3

1 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

k23 M3

q v1 = Am xn 0 0 v2 v3 0 0

Using the numerical values of the parameters, we obtain, 1 1 0 1 0 1 0.2 0 0 0 0 22 20 0 0 0 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Am = The eigenvalues of Am are

1 = +j 6.4055, 2 = j 6.4055, 3 = +j 1.0816, 4 = j 1.0816, 5 = 0 The matrix of left-eigenvectors is given by,

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Introduction

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0.1123 90 0.1123 90 0.5096 0 0.5096 0 0 p 0.1057 90 q 0.1057 90 0.5358 0 0.5358 0 0 U = 0.0942 90 0.5774 0 0.0035 180 0.0035 180 0.0942 90 v1 0.7160 0 0.4569 90 0.4569 90 0.5774 0 v2 0.7160 0 0.6809 180 0.6809 180 0.4853 90 0.4853 90 0.5774 0 v3 The matrix of right-eigenvectors is given by, p q v1 v2 v3 1 2 3 4 5

0.3666 0 0.3487 180 2.3486 90 2.2336 90 0.0180 180 2.3486 90 2.2336 90 0.0180 180 0.3666 0 0.3487 180 W = 0.4923 0 0.8837 90 0.4285 90 0.4552 90 0.4635 0 0.4923 0 0.8837 90 0.4285 90 0.4552 90 0.4635 0 0 0 1.4434 0 0.1443 0 0.1443 0 The participation matrix is given by, 1 2 3 4 0 5 p 0 q 0.8333 v1 0.0833 v2 v3 0.0833

0.2638 0.2638 0.2362 0.2362 0.2638 0.2638 0.0833 0.0833 0.1958 0.1958 0.2209 0.2209

0.2362 0.2362 P = 0.0001 0.0001 0.2625 0.2625 0.2374 0.2374 NOTE:

The eigenvalues for the above matrix Am are determine using the MATLAB command [U, D] = eig(Am) where U is the matrix of right-eigenvectors and D is the diagonal matrix having the eigenvalues as the diagonal elements. The matrix of left-eigenvectors is determine using the command W = inv(U) the participation factor matrix P is determine using the command P=U.*conj(W) Observations: 1. All the participation factors are real and positive. 2. For the low frequency oscillation of 1.0816 rad/s (3 and 4 ), the participation factors corresponding to the velocities (v1 , v2 and v3 ) are relatively close to each NITK Surathkal 32 Electrical Dept.

Introduction

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other, and from the right-eigenvector matrix we can see that (v2 , v3 ) are in phase, and 180 out-o phase with v1 . From this, we can conclude that M1 , M2 and M3 participate almost equally in this mode and masses M2 and M3 together swing against M1 . 3. For the high frequency oscillations of 6.4055 rad/s (1 and 2 ), the participation factors corresponding to the velocities (v2 and v3 ) are relatively higher than that for the velocity v1 , and from the right-eigenvector matrix we can see that v2 and v3 are 180 out-o phase with respect to each other. From this, we can conclude that the mass M1 has very low participation in this mode. This mode is predominantly seen in velocities v2 and v3 , and the mass M2 swinging against the mass M3 . 4. The zero-mode (5 ) is not seen in p and q since, U (1, 5) = 0 and U (2, 5) = 0. Further, since U (3, 5) = U (4, 5) = U (5, 5), it is clear that the zero-mode (the rigidbody mode) is seen almost equally in state variables, v1 , v2 and v3 , and the mode exists due to the redundancy of the velocity state variables. 5. The positive participation factor denotes that a damping coecient usually shifts to the left. 6. For a 3- mass system there are only 2 oscillatory modes: 6.4055 rad/s and 1.0816 rad/s. These represent swing modes in a power system as these modes are mainly constituted by velocity associated with (rotor) masses.

Analysis with Damping Coecient: Figure (1.2) is modied as follows to include the eect of damping coecient. Assuming B2 = B3 = 0, and considering only B1 , the dierential equations for the reduced system are written as follows: dp dt dq dt dv1 dt dv2 dt dv3 dt = v2 v1 = v3 v1 k12 B1 p v1 M1 M1 k12 k23 = p+ (q p) M2 M2 k23 = (q p) M3 = (1.77) (1.78) (1.79) (1.80) (1.81)

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Introduction
x1

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x2

x3 M1 k 12 M2 B
1

k 23 M3 B
3

Figure 1.4: Modied multi-mass multi-spring system with damping. The above equations are written in the matrix form as, p q v1 = v2 v3 0 0
k12 M1 k12 M 2 k23 M3 k23 M2

0 0 0
k23 M2 k23 M 3

1 1 0 p 1 0 1 q B1 v1 = An xn M 0 0 1 0 0 0 v 2 v3 0 0 0

For the chosen parameters with B1 = 1 N/m/s, we have, 1 0 0 1 0.2 0 0.1 0 0 22 20 0 0 0 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

An = The eigenvalues of An are

1 = 0.0000 + j 6.4055, 2 = 0.0000 j 6.4055, 3 = 0.0083 + j 1.0809, 4 = 0.0083 j 1.0809, 5 = 0.08340 (1 and 2 have negligible damping) NOTE: From the denition of participation factor, it can be veried that due to the introNITK Surathkal 34 Electrical Dept.

Introduction

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duction of a diagonal term, An (3, 3) = -0.1 which is brought about by a non-zero viscous damping B1 , the eigenvalue with damping can be approximately estimated as 3
new

= 3

old

+ P (3, 3) 0.01

= j 1.0816 + 0.0833 0.1 = 0.00833 + j 1.0816 (there is a small change in frequency) Similar observation can be made with respect to 4 Construction of Time-domain Response: We know from (1.54) that having determined the eigenvalues and eigenvectors (right and left), we can estimate the time-domain zero-input response as:
n new

xn (t) =
i=1

(wi x (0)) ei t ui

or xn (t) = w1 x (0) e1 t u1 + w 2 x (0) e2 t u2 + w3 x (0) e3 t u3 + +w4 x (0) e4 t u4 + w5 x (0) e5 t u5 (1.82)

where xn = [p, q, v1 , v2 , v3 ]T . In the following lines, the time-domain response is constructed for 3 dierent initial values of states without accounting any damping. xn (0) = [1, 1, 0, 0, 0]T Case-1 From (1.82), the time-domain response is obtained as: xn (t) = j 0.1150 e1 t u1 + j 0.1150 e2 t u2 0.9558 e3 t u3 0.9558 e4 t u4 (0) e5 t u5 Further simplication leads us to the following result: p (t) = 0.0258 cos(6.4055t) 0.9742 cos(1.0816t) q (t) = +0.0242 cos(6.4055t) 1.0242 cos(1.0816t) v1 (t) = 0.0008 sin(6.4055t) 0.1800 sin(1.0816t) v2 (t) = +0.1646 sin(6.4055t) + 0.8734 sin(1.0816t) v3 (t) = 0.1566 sin(6.4055t) + 0.9276 sin(1.0816t) (1.83) (1.84) (1.85) (1.86) (1.87)

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Introduction

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The above response is veried by numerical solution of system of equation from (1.72) to (1.76). The plots obtained are as shown in Figure 1.5.
1 p(t) 0 1 2 q(t) 0 2 0.2 v1(t) 0 0.2 2 v2(t) 0 2 2 v3(t) 0 2

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 30 Time (s)

35

40

45

50

Figure 1.5: Numerical solution for Case-1. Note that for this xn (0), where vi (0) = 0 for i=1, 2 and 3, the zero-mode is not excited and the lower frequency mode is excited to a larger extent than the higher frequency mode in all the state variables. Case-2 xn (0) = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0]T From (1.82), the time-domain response is obtained as: xn (t) = j 2.3486 e1 t u1 j 2.3486 e2 t u2 + 0.4635 e3 t u3 + 0.4635 e4 t u4 (0) e5 t u5

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Introduction Further simplication leads us to the following result: p (t) = +0.5274 cos(6.4055t) + 0.4724 cos(1.0816t) q (t) = 0.4964 cos(6.4055t) + 0.4966 cos(1.0816t) v1 (t) = +0.0164 sin(6.4055t) + 0.0872 sin(1.0816t) v2 (t) = 3.3632 sin(6.4055t) 0.4234 sin(1.0816t) v3 (t) = +3.1984 sin(6.4055t) 0.4498 sin(1.0816t)

Version-1.0

(1.88) (1.89) (1.90) (1.91) (1.92)

The above response is veried by numerical solution of system of equation from (1.72) to (1.76). The plots obtained are as shown in Figure 1.6.
1 p(t) 0 1 1 q(t) 0 1 0.2 v1(t) 0 0.2 5 v2(t) 0 5 5 v3(t) 0 5

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 30 Time (s)

35

40

45

50

Figure 1.6: Numerical solution for Case-2. Note that for this xn (0), where only p(0) = 0, the higher frequency mode is excited to a larger extent in v2 (t) and v3 (t).

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Introduction Case-3 xn (0) = [0, 0, 1, 0, 0]T From (1.82), the time-domain response is obtained as:

Version-1.0

xn (t) = 0.0180 e1 t u1 0.0180 e2 t u2 + j 0.8837 e3 t u3 j 0.8837 e4 t u4 + 1.4434 e5 t u5 Further simplication leads us to the following result: p (t) = 0.0040 sin(6.4055t) 0.9006 sin(1.0816t) q (t) = +0.0038 sin(6.4055t) 0.9468 sin(1.0816t) v1 (t) = +0.0001 cos(6.4055t) + 0.1664 cos(1.0816t) + 0.8335 v2 (t) = 0.0256 cos(6.4055t) 0.8074 cos(1.0816t) + 0.8335 v3 (t) = +0.0244 cos(6.4055t) 0.8576 cos(1.0816t) + 0.8335 (1.93) (1.94) (1.95) (1.96) (1.97)

The above response is veried by numerical solution of system of equation from (1.72) to (1.76). The plots obtained are as shown in Figure 1.7.
1 p(t) 0 1 1 q(t) 0 1 1 v1(t) 0.8 0.6 2 v2(t) 1 0 2 v3(t) 0 2

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 t

30

35

40

45

50

10

15

20

25 30 Time (s)

35

40

45

50

Figure 1.7: Numerical solution for Case-3.

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Introduction

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Note that for this xn (0), where only v1 (0) = 0, the mode-zero is excited and only the low frequency mode is predominantly seen in all the state variables. Observations: 1. If p (0) = q (0) with vi (0) = 0 for i = 1, 2 and 3, the modal frequency 1.0816 rad/s is excited to a larger extent than that of the modal frequency 6.4055 rad/s. This is to some extent true as an equal amount of initial displacement is given to masses M2 and M3 . 2. As long as vi (0) = 0 for i = 1, 2 and 3, mode-zero (rigid-body mode) is not excited. 3. In all cases the modal frequency 6.4055 rad/s is not predominantly seen in the state variable v1 as is evident from the participation factor-vector pertaining to v1 . 4. Mode-zero is absent in state variables p and q as is clear from the right eigenvector corresponding to mode-zero. Further, any specication of p(0) and/or q (0) alone cannot excite mode-zero. NOTE: The above case studies have been illustrated in spring_mass.m le. Having selected a case in the MATLAB le, the numerical solution of the dierential equations (1.72) to (1.76) can be obtained by running a SIMULINK le spring_mass_sim.mdl.

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Version-1.0

Chapter 2 4-machine Power System Example

2.1 Four Machine System Details:

A well known 4 machine, 10-bus power system has been used to demonstrate the modal analysis of a power system. The single line diagram of the system is shown in Figure 2.1. The system details are adopted from [1].

1 1

5
8 9

6
4 5

1 2 3

10
6 7
Load B

8
10

3 3

11

Load A

2 2 4

Figure 2.1: Four machine power system. In all case studies presented 2.2 model has been used for all machines. The programme permits the selection of simplied models (even classical model) for generator. See Appendix (C.7) for details.

2.2

Base Case:

In this case, generators are provided with a single-time constant static exciter with no PSS, and turbines are not considered. Further, constant impedance type load model has been employed for both real and reactive components of loads. The eigenvalues obtained NITK Surathkal 41 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

Version-1.0

are shown in Table 2.1. Here, reduced state matrix has been used. In this case the number of valid state variables is 27 (including 1-zero eigenvalue). Mode No. 1 2 3,4 5 6 7 8 9,10 11 12 13,14 15,16 17,18 19 20,21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Eigenvalue Damp. factor Freq.(Hz) -42.9191 1.0000 0 -42.7135 1.0000 0 -16.0251 j 16.9998 0.6859 2.7056 -38.6952 1.0000 0 -37.6193 1.0000 0 -33.9306 1.0000 0 -33.6063 1.0000 0 -16.3995 j 12.2283 0.8017 1.9462 -27.4529 1.0000 0 -25.3330 1.0000 0 -1.1037 j 7.4473 0.1466 1.1853 -1.0488 j 6.7981 0.1525 1.0820 -0.0372 j 4.4583 0.0083 0.7096 -17.5410 1.0000 0 -15.6187 j 0.9081 0.9983 0.1445 -13.6191 1.0000 0 -0.0000 1.0000 0 -4.5000 1.0000 0 -4.8931 1.0000 0 -5.0199 1.0000 0 -4.6860 1.0000 0

Table 2.1: Eigenvalues for four machine system -base case.

The above results are obtained by executing the following steps: 1. Perform the power ow studies by running: fdlf_loadflow.m le. It requires the following .m and data les: (a) B_bus_form.m, fdlf_jacob_form.m, powerflow.m and lfl_result.m. (b) busno.dat : System details- number of lines, buses, transformers, etc (c) nt.dat : Transmission line and transformer data (d) pvpq.dat : Generation data and load data. (e) shunt.dat : Shunt data On successful run, it generates two output les: lfl.dat and report.dat. The converged loadow results are available in lfl.dat. 2. To perform the small-signal analysis execute the main le: small_sig.m . This le in turn calls the following .m les: NITK Surathkal 42 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

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(a) initcond.m : It calculates the initial conditions. The other .m les used by this le are: exciter-related les: static_exciter.m, DC1A_exciter.m and AC4A_exciter.m. turbine-related les: hydro_turbine.m and Reheat_turbine.m. pss_power_signal.m. PSS-related les: pss_slip_signal.m, pss_delpw_signal.m and load model related le: load_zip_model.m. (b) yform.m: It constructs the YDQ and YBU S matrices and prepares data for running time-domain simulation programme. (c) pmat.m : It prepares PG and PL matrices. (d) exciter_settings.m : Linearizes the equations pertaining to static, DC1A and AC4A exciters. (e) primemover_settings.m : Linearizes the equations pertaining to hydro and reheat steam -type turbines with their associated speed-governors.
r (f) genmat.m : Constructs generator related Ag , Bg , Cg and Eg matrices.

(g) statld.m : It constructs YL matrix for the static loads. 3. Run trace_mode.m to evaluate eigenvalues and identify the nature of a mode. It in turn calls r_eig_plot.m for obtaining the compass plot of right-eigenvectors pertaining to slip in an interactive fashion. 4. Run pss_selection.m to identify the candidate generators for PSS placement. It in turn calls pss_design.m for determining the GEPS plot, and the compensated GEPS plot for a chosen PSS. 5. Run freq_response.m to draw frequency response of the transfer function
Te (j ) . Vref (j )

6. Run transtability.mdl to perform time-domain simulation in SIMULINK. NOTE: Programmes given in items (3), (4), (5) and (6) can be executed in any order having executed small_sig.m le. The main small_sig.m le requires the following data les: (i) lfl.dat : Converged loadow results. (ii) nt.dat : Transmission line and transformer data. (iii) ld.dat : Load data.

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4-machine Power System Example (iv) shunt.dat : Shunt data. (v) gen.dat : Generator data. (vi) busno.dat : System details- number of lines, buses, transformers, etc. (vii) exc_static.dat : Single-time constant static exciter data . (viii) exc_AC4A.dat : IEEE AC4A type AC exciter data. (ix) exc_DC1A.dat : IEEE DC1A type DC commutator exciter data. (x) turb_hydro.dat : Simplied hydro-turbine data. (xi) turb_rhst.dat : Reheat-type steam turbine data. (xii) slip_pss.dat : Slip-signal-based PSS data. (xiii) power_pss.dat : Power-signal-based PSS data. (xiv) delPw_pss.dat : Delta-P-Omega type PSS data.

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2.2.1

Format of Data Files:

In the following lines the format of each of the data le has been given using 4 machine power system data: System details: File name: busno.dat --------------------------------------------------------------------3 ---> Slack bus number. 0.001 10 11 4 3 0 2 2 1.03 60 ---> Loadflow convergence tolerance. ---> Number of buses in the system. ---> Number of lines. ---> Number of transformers. ---> Number of PV buses = (Number of generators - 1). ---> Q-bit (please set this bit to zero only). ---> Number of load buses (including loads at PV and slack buses). ---> Number of shunts. ---> Slack bus voltage magnitude. ---> Nominal frequency in Hz.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

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4-machine Power System Example Network data:

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File name: nt.dat ----------------------------------------------------------------------From To R X B (total)/Tap ratio Remarks ----------------------------------------------------------------------9 9 9 9 9 10 10 5 5 7 7 1 2 10 10 10 6 6 8 8 6 6 8 8 5 6 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.220 0.220 0.220 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.012 0.012 0.330 0.330 0.330 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075 ---Line 1 ---Line 2 ---Line 3 ---Line 4 ---Line 5 ---Line 6 ---Line 7 ---Line 8 ---Line 9 ---Line 10 ---Line 11

1.000 ---> Transformer data starts here. 1.000

3 7 0.001 0.012 1.000 4 8 0.001 0.012 1.000 -----------------------------------------------------------------------Generation and load data: File name: pvpq.dat

-------------------------------------------------------------------------Bus No. Vg/PL0 Pg0/QL0 Remarks -------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2 4 9 10 1.03 1.01 1.01 11.59 15.75 7.00 7.00 7.00 2.12 2.88 ---> Generator buses other than the slack bus are specified as PV buses ---> Load data starts here (including loads at PV and slack buses)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4-machine Power System Example Shunt admittances: File name: shunt.dat -------------------Bus No. G B -------------------9 0.0 3.0 10 0.0 4.0 -------------------Converged load ow results: File name: lfl.dat

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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Bus No. Vb0 theta0 Pg0 Qg0 PL0 QL0 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.030000 1.010000 1.030000 1.010000 1.010800 0.987533 1.009533 0.984958 0.976120 0.971659 8.215523 -1.503809 0.000000 -10.204916 3.661654 -6.243121 -4.697706 -14.944164 -14.419101 -23.291847 7.000000 7.000000 7.217178 7.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 1.338523 1.591791 1.446427 1.807834 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.59 15.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.12 2.88

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Load data: File name: ld.dat -------------------------------------------Load Bus No. PL0 QL0 -------------------------------------------9 11.59 2.12 10 15.75 2.88 ---------------------------------------------

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4-machine Power System Example Generator data (2.2 model):

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File name: gen.dat ----------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen.No. xd xdd xddd Td0d Td0dd xq xqd xqdd Tq0d Tq0dd H D ----------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2 3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.033 0.033 0.033 0.0264 0.0264 0.0264 8.0 8.0 8.0 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.190 0.190 0.190 0.061 0.061 0.061 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.04 0.04 0.04 54 54 63 0 0 0

4 0.2 0.033 0.0264 8.0 0.05 0.190 0.061 0.03 0.4 0.04 63 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: Armature resistance, Ra is neglected. Generators are identied by their bus numbers to which they are connected. Single-time constant static exciter: File name: exc_static.dat -----------------------------------------Gen.no. KA TA EFDMIN EFDMAX -----------------------------------------1 2 3 200 200 200 0.02 0.02 0.02 -6.0 -6.0 -6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

4 200 0.02 -6.0 6.0 ------------------------------------------IEEE AC4A-type exciter: File name: exc_AC4A.dat ---------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen.no. Tr KA TA TC TB VIMAX VIMIN VRMIN VRMAX KC ---------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2 3 0.02 0.02 0.02 200 200 200 0.02 0.02 0.02 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 10 10 10 10 10 -10 -10 -10 -4.53 -4.53 -4.53 5.64 5.64 5.64 0 0 0

4 0.02 200 0.02 1.0 10 10 -10 -4.53 5.64 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4-machine Power System Example IEEE DC1A-type exciter:

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File name: exc_DC1A.dat ------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen. no. Tr KA TA TC TB VRMAX VRMIN KE TE E1 SE1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2 3 0.02 0.02 0.02 20 20 20 0.06 0.06 0.06 1 1 1 1 1 1 6.0 6.0 6.0 -6.0 -0.0485 -6.0 -0.0633 -6.0 -0.0198 0.250 0.405 0.500 3.5461 0.9183 2.3423 0.08 0.66 0.13

4 0.02 20 0.06 1 1 6.0 -6.0 -0.0525 0.500 2.8681 0.08 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------E2 SE2 KF TF -------------------------4.7281 0.260 0.040 1.0 1.2244 0.880 0.057 0.5 3.1230 0.340 0.080 1.0 3.8241 0.314 0.080 1.0 ---------------------------

Speed-governor for hydro-turbine: File name: turb_hydro.dat ---------------------------------------------------Gen. no. TW TG SIGMA T2 PMAX_fac PMIN_fac --------------------------------------------------1 1 0.2 0.05 0 1.1 0.1 2 3 1 1 0.2 0.2 0.05 0.05 0 0 1.1 1.1 0.1 0.1

4 1 0.2 0.05 0 1.1 0.1 ----------------------------------------------------

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4-machine Power System Example Speed-governor for steam turbine- reheat type:

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File name: turb_rhst.dat ----------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen.no. T1 T2 T3 SIGMA PMAX_fac PMIN_fac TCH TRH TCO FHP FIP FLP ----------------------------------------------------------------------------1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.05 1.1 0.1 0.3 10 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 2 3 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 1.1 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 10 10 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4

4 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.05 1.1 0.1 0.3 10 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------NOTE: The data les turb_hydro.dat, and turb_rhst.dat should not contain any entries for generators whose Pg0 = 0.

Slip-signal PSS: File name: slip_pss.dat ------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen.no. KS TR TW T1 T2 VSMAX VSMIN a0 a1 TRF ------------------------------------------------------------------------1 15 0.02 10 0.07577 0.03715 0.1 -0.1 570 35 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------TRF = 0 enables torsional filter, 1 disables it. NOTE: In pss_slip_signal.m, a variable Tmd_slip_nt and Tmd_slip_t provides an option to enable/disable input measurement delay given by TR depending on the value of TRF. Power-signal PSS: File name: power_pss.dat ------------------------------------Gen.No. TW TR KS VSMAX VSMIN ------------------------------------1 10 0.05 0.03 0.1 -0.1 2 3 10 10 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.1 0.1 -0.1 -0.1

4 10 0.05 0.03 0.1 -0.1 ------------------------------------NITK Surathkal 49 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example Delta-P-Omega PSS: File name: delPw_pss.dat -------------------------------------------------------------Gen.No. Tw1 Tw2 Tw3 Tw4 T6 T7 H KS3 T8 T9 -------------------------------------------------------------2 1 3 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0.01 0.01 0.01 10 10 10 54 54 63 1 1 1 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0.1

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4 10 10 10 10 0.01 10 63 1 0 0.1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------T1 T2 T3 T4 KS1 VSMAX VSMIN -----------------------------------------------------------0.06322 0.06322 0.06322 0.04452 0.04452 0.04452 0.06322 0.06322 0.06322 0.04452 0.04452 0.04452 10 15 10 0.1 0.1 0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1

0.06322 0.04452 0.06322 0.04452 10 0.1 -0.1 ------------------------------------------------------------

2.2.2

Component Selectors:

To perform stability studies with a variety of exciters, power system stabilizers and turbines, the following kinds of selectors are used: 1. Main Selectors. 2. Individual Selectors. These selectors permit us to choose a specic type of exciter/PSS/turbine for a given generator. For example, if one wants to select any one type of exciter for a given generator out of 3 dierent IEEE-type exciters (for which data les have been prepared), it can be carried out by using Individual Selectors without altering the data les. Whereas, the Main Selectors can be used to disable an exciter on a generator without modifying the Individual Selectors. The Main Selectors are as follows: Variable name AVR TURB PSS NITK Surathkal Component Exciters Turbines Power System Stabilizers 50 Enable 0 0 0 Disable 1 1 1 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

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NOTE: These selectors have been provided in le initcond.m. The vector size of these variables is equal to the number of buses in a system. The Individual Selectors are as follows: 1. Individual Selectors for exciters: ng_static ng_AC4A ng_DC1A ---> Single-time constant static type exciter. ---> IEEE AC4A-type exciter. ---> IEEE DC1A-type exciter.

Indicate the generator number on which a specic type of exciter is present, otherwise null. For example, if all generators are with single-time constant static type exciters, then the selectors are initialized as follows: ng_static=[1,2,3,4] ng_AC4A=[] ng_DC1A=[] The Main Selector, AVR is enabled for all exciters as: AVR = zeros(1,nb), where nb denotes the number of buses in the system. NOTE: (a) Since all the variables used in .m and transtability.mdl les are to be initialized, it is necessary to prepare the data le for IEEE AC4A and IEEE DC1A -type exciters, atleast for one machine. One may use typical data for the same. However, the respective exciter output is not used in the programme. (b) If it is required to enter a large set of generator numbers to initialize the Individual Selectors, one can list the generator numbers in a le ng_****.dat and use the load ng_****.dat command. This has to be done after commenting out the corresponding initialization command as %ng_**** = [...] in le initcond.m. (c) If classical model is used for a machine, then it is recommended to disable the exciter of that machine by using the Main Selector, AVR.

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Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example 2. Individual Selectors for turbines: ng_hydro ng_rht ---> Hydro-turbines. ---> Reheat-type steam turbines.

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The procedure to initialize these selectors is the same as that described for the exciters. For example, if no generators are with any types of turbines, then the selectors are initialized as follows: ng_hydro =[] ng_rht =[] In addition, the Main Selector, TURB is set as TURB=ones(1,nb) NOTE: (a) To initialize the variables pertaining to all turbines, it is necessary to prepare the data le using typical data for any one machine. However, the respective turbine output is not used in the programme. (b) If it is required to enter a large set of generator numbers to initialize the Individual Selectors, one can list the generator numbers in a le ng_****.dat and use the load ng_****.dat command. This has to be done after commenting out the corresponding initialization command as %ng_**** = [...] in le initcond.m. 3. Individual Selectors for power system stabilizers: ng_slip_pss ng_power_pss ng_delPw_pss ---> Slip signal-based PSS. ---> Power signal-based PSS. ---> Delta-P-Omega signal-based PSS.

The procedure to initialize these selectors is the same as that described for the exciters. For example, for the case in hand, no power system stabilizer on any generators is considered. This is implemented by making the following settings: ng_slip_pss=[] ng_power_pss=[] ng_delPw_pss=[] The Main Selector, PSS is set as PSS = ones(1,nb).

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4-machine Power System Example NOTE:

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(a) To initialize the variables pertaining to slip signal-, power signal- and delta-Pomega signal- based PSS, it is necessary to prepare the data les using typical data for any one machine. However, the respective PSS outputs are not used in the programme. (b) If it is required to enter a large set of generator numbers to initialize the Individual Selectors, one can list the generator numbers in a le ng_****.dat and use the load ng_****.dat command. This has to be done after commenting out the corresponding initialization command as %ng_**** = [...] in le initcond.m. (c) The Main Selector, PSS is normally used to disable any PSS without changing the Individual Selectors. For example, even if ng_slip_pss=[1], with all other selectors initialized to [], a setting given by PSS=ones(1,nb) disables all power system stabilizers.

2.2.3

Load Modelling:

Both real and reactive components of loads are modelled following polynomial approach. The composition of real and reactive components can be specied in le load_zip_model.m as follows: 1. Real component of load: p1 ---> fraction for constant power. p2 ---> fraction for constant current. p3 ---> fraction for constant impedance. For example, for the case considered, the real power component is modelled as constant impedance type, then the fractions are set as follows: p1 = 0; p2 = 0; p3 = 1; 2. Reactive component of load: r1 ---> fraction for constant power. r2 ---> fraction for constant current. r3 ---> fraction for constant impedance. NITK Surathkal 53 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

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For example, if reactive power component is modelled as constant impedance type, then the fractions are set as follows: r1 = 0; r2 = 0; r3 = 1; The frequency-dependency of loads are not accounted, hence the following variables in le yform.m are to be set to zero. Please do not tamper this settings. kpf = 0; kqf = 0; Determination of Nature of Oscillatory Modes: To identify the nature of an oscillator mode the following procedure is employed: 1. Compute the normalized slip participation factors (SPF) for the chosen mode. 2. Identify an actively participating generator if the amplitude of its SPF is greater than a certain value. Thus a set of candidate generators is formed. 3. If the sum of the amplitudes of the normalized participation factors pertaining to slip of the candidate generators is very low, then the mode is declared as a Non swing mode with very low slip participation. 4. For the mode, if the slip participation is relatively high, then the feasibility of formation of two coherent groups of generators among the generators in the set formed in item-2, is checked. The coherency of generators is veried by using the phase angle of the right eigenvector associated with slip [24]. If all modes are purely imaginary except the zero-eigenvalue(s), the phase angle dierence between the coherent group is 180 . Otherwise, this angle dierence may be less than 180 . 5. If the set formed in item-2 can be divided into two groups of coherent generators, then the mode is declared as a Swing mode, otherwise as a Non-swing mode. 6. If the mode has been classied as either Non-swing mode or Non-swing mode with very low slip participation, such a modes association with the state variables is declared using the highest magnitude of state participation factor. Using the above procedure, the oscillatory modes are characterized. For each mode, state variables which have a normalized participation factor amplitude greater than 0.1 are listed. For swing modes, the formation of coherent groups of generators is displayed by plotting the corresponding right eigenvectors associated with slip. The programme developed provides a feature to identify the generators in an interactive fashion. NITK Surathkal 54 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

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2.2.4

A Sample Run:

The above case is simulated by using the following steps: 1. Prepare the data les as indicated in the previous sections. 2. Initialize the Main and Individual Selectors in le initcond.m 3. Execute small_sig.m. The statements displayed in the MATLAB Command Window and the respective inputs are shown below: -------------------------------------------------------------------------wB = 376.9911 Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for network disturbances, otherwise 0: 0 Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for perturbation of VREF, otherwise 0: 1 Enter the generator number whose Vref needs to be perturbed: 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Execute trace_mode.m. The statements displayed in the MATLAB Command Window and the respective inputs are shown below: Enter 1 to display ALL eigenvalues (EIG), otherwise 0 (using EIGS): ------------------------------------------------------------------SL_number Eigenvalue dampingfactor frequency(Hz) -------------------------------------------------------------------1.0000 -42.9191 1.0000 0 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 6.0000 7.0000 8.0000 9.0000 10.0000 11.0000 12.0000 13.0000 NITK Surathkal -42.7135 -16.0251 +16.9998i -16.0251 -16.9998i -38.6952 -37.6193 -33.9306 -33.6063 -16.3995 +12.2283i -16.3995 -12.2283i -27.4529 -25.3330 -1.1037 + 7.4473i 55 1.0000 0.6859 0.6859 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.8017 0.8017 1.0000 1.0000 0.1466 0 2.7056 2.7056 0 0 0 0 1.9462 1.9462 0 0 1.1853 Electrical Dept. 1

4-machine Power System Example

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14.0000 15.0000 16.0000 17.0000 18.0000 19.0000 20.0000 21.0000 22.0000 23.0000 24.0000 25.0000 26.0000

-1.1037 - 7.4473i -1.0488 + 6.7981i -1.0488 - 6.7981i -0.0372 + 4.4583i -0.0372 - 4.4583i -0.0000 -17.5410 -15.6187 + 0.9081i -15.6187 - 0.9081i -13.6191 -4.5000 -5.0199 -4.8931

0.1466 0.1525 0.1525 0.0083 0.0083 1.0000 1.0000 0.9983 0.9983 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

1.1853 1.0820 1.0820 0.7096 0.7096 0 0 0.1445 0.1445 0 0 0 0

27.0000 -4.6860 1.0000 0 28.0000 -0.0000 1.0000 0 --------------------------------------------------------------------Enter the serial number of the eigenvalue for which you want to obtain the P.factor: 13 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------State variable Mag(Norm PF) ang(Norm PF)deg. Mag(PF) ang(PF)deg. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Delta-2 Slip-2 1.0000 0.5328 0.00 2.55 0.5971 0.3182 -8.21 -5.66

Slip-1 0.4127 2.29 0.2464 -5.92 DampG-2 0.1003 131.86 0.0599 123.65 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------You have chosen a SWING-MODE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------The generator(s) in group-1 is(are) ... Group1 = 2 The generator(s) in group-2 is(are) ... Group2 = 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Enter 1 if you want to plot the compass plot, otherwise 0: 1 NOTE: Use mouse click on the plot to identify the generator Press any key NITK Surathkal 56 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

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Current plot held Enter 1 if you want to repeat

for another eigenvalue, otherwise 0: 0

As shown above, the slip participation factor for machines 1 and 2 are more dominant. Further, the grouping of machines prepared by the programme is shown in Figure 2.2. The gure shows that this mode is a swing mode in which machine-1 swings against machine-2, and it constitute a local mode.
90 120 0.0015 60 SG1 30 0.0005

0.001 150

180

210

330

SG2 240 270 300

Figure 2.2: Plot of slip-right eigenvector for machines 1 and 2. Time-domain verication: The inference made from eigenvalue analysis is veried from a time-domain simulation by perturbing Vref for generator-1. This is carried out as follows: By entering 1 for the option: Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for perturbation of VREF, otherwise 0 : while executing small_sig.m (see above). Run transtability.mdl programme. Observe the scope labled Slip_COI. The plots are shown in Figure 2.3, where the local mode is seen clearly in the initial part of the response. The frequencies for the inter-area mode and the local mode (machines 1-2) are also veried from Figure 2.3. NITK Surathkal 57 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example

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x 10

Slip _ COI plot SG2 SG1 SG3 SG4

1.5

0.5

0 Slip _ COI

0.5

1 w= 2 = 7.47 rad/s (0.90.06) w= 2 = 4.4562 rad/s (4.26 2.85)

1.5

2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5 Time (s)

3.5

4.5

Figure 2.3: Slip COI plots for perturbation of Vref of m/c-1. For clarity only oscillatory modes are listed in Table 2.2 with their nature. SL No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Eigenvalue Nature of Modes -16.0251 j 16.9998 Non-swing mode (exciter mode) -16.3995 j 12.2283 Non-swing mode (exciter mode) -1.1037 j 7.4473 Swing-mode (m/cs. 1 and 2) -1.0488 j 6.7981 Swing-mode (m/cs. 3 and 4) -0.0372 j 4.4583 Swing-mode (m/cs. (1,2) and (3,4)) -15.6187 j 0.9081 Non-swing mode (exciter mode)

Table 2.2: Oscillatory modes - 4 machine system (Base case).

NOTE: 1. With the un-reduced state matrix, the non-zero eigenvalues are the same as that with the reduced state matrix, however, the zero eigenvalue in the reduced state matrix, is replaced by a complex conjugate pair 0.0000 j 0.0235. Thus, there are

28 eigenvalues which is equal to the number of state variables in the un-reduced case. Due to errors in the load ow (mismatch in power) and other numerical errors

in the computations, the two eigenvalues which should have been zero are calculated as a complex pair of small magnitude (0.0000 j 0.0235). The matrix, if reduced by following the procedure indicated in Appendix- B.3, the confusing zero eigenvalue NITK Surathkal 58 Electrical Dept.

4-machine Power System Example reduces to a perfect zero eigenvalue, see mode-23 in Table 2.1.

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2. Another observation is that some functions like rank in MATLAB works unreliably with the un-reduced state matrix.

2.2.5

Exciters on Manual Control:

In this case, exciters are disabled on all machines by setting AVR=ones(1,nb). For clarity, only the swing modes are listed in Table 2.3. From the table it can be inferred that the inter-area mode has a better damping than that in the base case. This demonstrates the eect of a high gain fast acting static exciter [25] in reducing the damping of the interarea mode. However, the presence of a static exciter improves the synchronizing torque component as is reected by an increase in the inter-area mode frequency (see Table 2.1). By comparing the results in Table 2.3 with that in Table 2.1, it can also be inferred that the exciter improves the damping of local modes. SL No 1 2 3 Eigenvalues Dampingfactor Freq.(Hz) -0.7041 j 7.2910 0.0961 1.1604 -0.6529 j 6.7193 0.0967 1.0694 -0.1459 j 4.0792 0.0357 0.6492 Nature of the mode Swing mode(2 & 1) Swing mode(4 & 3) Swing mode([1 2]&[3 4])

Table 2.3: Swing modes with all exciters on manual control.

2.2.6

Eect of Load Model with Exciters on Manual Control:

When both real and reactive power components of loads are model as constant power type, though the damping of swing modes are not eected with respect to constant impedance case, it makes the system small signal unstable as indicated by a negative damping factor for a pure real eigenvalue as shown in Table 2.4. This monotonic instability has been validated by plotting the magnitude of load bus voltages for a 3-phase fault at bus-1 with a fault duration of 0.01 s without line clearing - see Figure 2.4.

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4-machine Power System Example

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Modelling of P, Q components 100% power p1 = 1, p2 = 0, p3 = 0 r1 = 1, r2 = 0, r3 = 0

Mode

Damping factor 0.1011 0.1153 0.0452 -1.0000 -1.0000

Freq. (Hz)

Nature of mode

-0.7345 j 7.2286 -0.7609 j 6.5561 -0.1924 j 4.2506 1.0795 0.0046

1.1505 Swing mode(2 & 1) 1.0434 Swing mode(4 & 3) 0.6765 Swing mode([1 2]&[3 4]) 0 Non-Oscillatory mode 0 Non-Oscillatory mode

Table 2.4: Eect of constant power type load model for P & Q load components with manual exciter control.

Vbus Vs time plot 1

0.9

0.8

abs(Vbus)

0.7 BUS9 0.6 BUS10 0.5

0.4

0.3

0.5

1.5

2.5 Time (s)

3.5

4.5

Figure 2.4: Variation of the magnitude of the load bus voltages.

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Chapter 3 Design of Slip-signal PSS

3.1 Introduction:

Power system stabilizer (PSS) is a cost eective way of improving the damping of electromechanical oscillations of rotors and in turn it improves the power transfer capability of transmission lines. It provides the damping by modulating the voltage reference of exciter control so as to develop a component of electrical torque in phase with the rotor speed deviations. The location of PSS in a power system is depicted in Figure 3.1.
Measurement block

PT

Vg V ref + Vs

Main Field

i machine

th

+/

AVR

Exciter

Power system

PSS

PSS input signal(s)

Figure 3.1: Location of PSS in a power system. Such a way of producing damping torque is the most cost-eective method of enhancing the small-signal stability of power systems, in comparison to FACTS-based controllers [26]. The necessary power application is brought about in the normal process of torque development mechanism in the generator. Generally, PSS is installed to improve damping of local modes which is destabilized by the use of a high gain fast acting exciter. However, by judiciously placing power system stabilizers in a system, and with appropriate tuning NITK Surathkal 61 Electrical Dept.

Design of Slip-signal PSS

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of PSS parameters, it is possible to even improve the damping of inter area modes. While designing a PSS to produce damping torque in a desired frequency range, care must be taken to see that the PSS does not destabilize the other oscillatory modes, for example, torsional modes [1]. Another important criterion in designing a PSS is to provide additional damping torque without aecting the synchronizing torque at critical oscillation frequencies, so that the inter-tie power transfer is not constrained.

3.2

Types of Power System Stabilizers:

As per IEEE standards 421.5 - 1992 [22], the following are the two main categories of PSS: 1. Single input power system stabilizer: It is known that in order to modify a mode of oscillation by feedback, the chosen input must excite the mode and it must be visible in the chosen output [5]. Thus, for this kind of PSS design, commonly used input signals are shaft speed, terminal bus frequency and electrical power output. 2. Dual input power system stabilizer: In this kind of PSS design, a combination of signals such as speed and electrical power output are used. The design of speed-single input-based PSS design is presented in the following sections.

3.2.1

Slip-single Input PSS:

In the following lines, the structure of a speed-signal input PSS, is briey discussed. Typical structure of a single input PSS -see Figure 3.2. It consists of a washout circuit, compensator, torsional lter, gain and a limiter. The function of each of the components of PSS with guidelines for the selection of parameters are given below [1].
u

T (s)
R

s TW
1 + s TW

G (s)
C

FILT(s)
TORSIONAL FILTER

Vs S

MEASUREMENT DELAY CIRCUIT

WASHOUT

LEADLAG COMPENSATOR

GAIN

LIMITER

Figure 3.2: Block diagram of a single input PSS.

3.2.1.1

Washout Circuit:

Washout circuit is essentially a high-pass lter which removes dc osets in the input signal and it eliminates the steady state bias in the output of PSS which will modify the eld NITK Surathkal 62 Electrical Dept.

Design of Slip-signal PSS

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voltage. From the viewpoint of the washout f unction, the value of TW is not critical and may be anywhere in the range of 1 to 20 seconds. For local mode oscillations in the range of 0.8 to 2.0 Hz, a washout time constant of 1.5 s is satisfactory. From the viewpoint of low-frequency inter-area oscillations, a washout time constant of 10 seconds or higher is desirable, since lower-time constants result in signicant phase lead at low frequencies. Unless this is compensated for elsewhere, it will reduce the synchronizing torque component at inter-area frequencies. 3.2.1.2 Lead-Lag Compensator:

To damp rotor oscillations, a PSS must produce a component of electrical torque in phase with rotor speed deviation. This requires a phase-lead circuits to be used to compensate for the lag between the PSS output point (at the exciter) and the resulting electrical torque developed. The amount of phase lag to be compensated depends on the generator parameters, the type of exciters used and the system conditions. Though the degree of phase compensation should be designed so that the PSS contributes to damping over a wide range of frequencies covering both inter-area and local modes of oscillation, a phase characteristic acceptable for dierent system conditions is selected. Generally, slight under-compensation is preferable to overcompensation so that the PSS does not contribute to the negative synchronizing torque component. General transfer function of GC (s) is given by GC (s) = (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT3 ) (1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT4 )

If the degree of phase compensation required is small, a single rst-order phase-compensation block may be used. 3.2.1.3 Torsional Filter:

The torsional lter in the PSS is essentially a band reject or a low pass lter to attenuate the rst torsional mode frequency. The transfer function of the lter can be expressed as [1] 2 n a0 F ILT (s) = 2 (3.1) = 2 s + 2n s + n s2 + a 1 s + a 0 Torsional lter is necessitated by the adverse interaction of a slip-signal-based PSS with the torsional oscillations. This can be lead to shaft damage, particularly at light generator loads when the inherent mechanical damping is small. Even if shaft damage does not occur. stabilizer output can go into saturation (due to torsional frequency components) making it ineective. The criteria for designing the torsional lter are:

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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1. The maximum possible change in damping of any torsional mode is less than some fraction of the inherent torsional damping. 2. The phase lag of the lter in the frequency range of the lter 1 to 3 Hz is minimized. 3.2.1.4 Stabilizer Gain:

The amount of damping associated with the rotor oscillations depends on the stabilizer gain KS . The damping increases with an increase in stabilizer gain up to a certain value beyond which further increase in gain results in a decrease in the damping. To set the gain of the PSS, the following criterion are generally employed: 1. Based on the gain for instability: The optimal PSS gain is chosen for the particular tuning condition as the gain that results in the maximum damping of the critical (least damped) mode. The optimal gain (KS ) is related to the value of the gain KS that results in instability. For example, for speed input stabilizers, KS = 3S may K be used [27]. In [14], KS = S has been used. These studies are carried out using 2 root locus method. 2. Damping factor of the critical mode: Here, the gain is selected such that damping factor for the mode is above some typical value say 0.05 [5].
T1 T3 . This 3. High frequency gain: The high frequency gain of PSS is given by KS T 2 T4 should not be too high as it would lead to noise amplication decreasing the eectiveness of a PSS. K

3.2.1.5

Stabilizer Limits:

In order to restrict the level of generator terminal voltage uctuations during transient conditions and to prevent the PSS acting to counter the action of AVR, limits are imposed on the PSS output. The positive output limits of the stabilizer is set at a relatively large value in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 pu. This allows a high level of contribution from the PSS during large swings. With such a high value of stabilizer output limit, it is essential to have a means of limiting the generator terminal voltage to its maximum allowable value, typically in the 1.12 to 1.15 pu range [2]. The negative limit of PSS output is of importance during the back swing of the rotor (after initial acceleration is over). Negative side limit are raised to prevent the PSS from reducing the generators terminal voltage excessively following a fault. The AVR action is required to maintain the voltage (and thus prevent loss of synchronism) after the angular separation has increased. Typically, -0.02 to -0.05 pu is used for the negative limit. This allows sucient control range while providing satisfactory transient response [28]. NITK Surathkal 64 Electrical Dept.

Design of Slip-signal PSS

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3.3

Tuning of PSS:

The major objective of providing PSS is to increase the power transfer in the network, which would otherwise be limited by oscillatory instability. Further the PSS must also function properly when the system is subjected to large disturbances. In the literature, two basic tuning techniques have been successfully utilized with power system stabilizer applications: Phase compensation method: This method consists of adjusting the stabilizer to compensate for the phase lag through the generator, excitation system, and power system such that the stabilizer path provides torque changes which are in phase with speed changes. This is the most straightforward approach, easily understood and implemented in the eld [27]. Root locus method: Synthesis by root locus involves shifting the eigenvalues associated with the power system modes of oscillation by adjusting the stabilizer pole and zero locations in the s-plane [29]. This approach gives additional insight to performance by working directly with the closed-loop characteristics of the system, as opposed to the open-loop nature of the phase compensation technique, but is more complicated to apply, particularly in the eld. The steps involved in designing a PSS are as follows: 1. Computation of GEP S (s). 2. Design of compensator using phase compensation technique. 3. Determination of compensator gain.

3.3.1

Computation of GEP S (s):

As stated earlier, a PSS acts through generator, exciter system, and power system (GEPS). Therefore, a PSS must compensate the phase lag through the GEPS. To obtain the phase information of GEPS, the frequency response of the transfer function between the exciter reference input (i.e., PSS output) and the generator electrical torque should be observed. In computing this response, the generator speed and rotor angle should remain constant, otherwise, when the excitation of a generator is modulated, the resulting change in electrical torque causes variations in rotor speed and angle and that in turn aect the electrical torque. As we are interested only in the phase characteristics between exciter reference input and electrical torque, the feedback eect through rotor angle variation should be eliminated by holding the speed constant. This is achieved by removing the

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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columns and rows corresponding to rotor speed and angle from the state matrix [5]. The procedure involved has been explained in the following lines. The generator-exciter-power system (GEP S ) frequency response, which involves the determination of the frequency response of a system function between Te and Vs points, is obtained as follows: For ith machine, the expression for Te (see C.37) is linearized as Te = CT X G + BT V G where CT is constituted by appropriately choosing the elements from Ag (2, :) after multiplying it by (2H ).
r BT is constituted by using the elements from Bg (2, :) after multiplying it by (2H ).

(3.2)

X G is the vector of state variables -(16ng 1) V G is the vector of QD components of generator terminal voltages -(2ng 1). CT and BT are lled with zeros to match the dimension of X G and V G , respectively. From(1.43) we can relate V G to state vector as V G = Using (3.3) in (3.2) we have Te = CT X G + BT = CT + B T [PG ]T YDQ
1 1

[PG ]T YDQ

[PG ] [CG ] X G

(3.3)

[PG ] [CG ] X G X G (3.4)

[PG ]T YDQ

[PG ] [CG ]

= DT X G

(3.5)

Since GEP S (j ) is obtained for = 0 and Sm = 0, the respective elements are removed from DT . This reduces the size of DT to [1 (16 2)ng ]. Accordingly, X G is reduced to X T [(16 2)ng 1] Hence, Te = DT X T

(3.6)

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Design of Slip-signal PSS From (1.45), we can write that, = [AT ] X + [EG ] [Vref + Vs ] X G G

Version-1.0

(3.7)

where [EG ] = EG (:, i) for ith generator. To meet the requirement of = 0 and Sm = 0, the necessary changes are made in [AT ] and [EG ] to give. T = AT X T + EG Vs X Note that in the above equation only change in Vs is considered, with Vref = 0. Rearranging the terms in s-domain, we get X T (s) = sI AT Using (3.8) in (3.6) we have, Te (s) = DT GEP S (s) = sI AT
1 1

EG Vs (s)

(3.8)

EG Vs (s)
1

Te (s) = DT Vs (s)

sI AT

EG

The frequency response is obtained by letting s = j and spanning in the desired range, i.e., GEP S (j ) = NOTE: 1. The above derivation assumes that PSS is not present on any machine. 2. The GEPS computation is independent of the turbine-governor models. Te (j ) = DT Vs (j ) jI AT
1

EG

(3.9)

3.3.2

Design of Compensator GC (s):

Using (3.9), GEP S (j ) for machine-1 is obtained (for the base case) and its phase response is shown in Figure 3.3. If a PSS is to provide pure damping torque at all frequencies, ideally, the phase characteristics of PSS must balance the phase characteristics of GEPS at all frequencies. However, this is not practical, and the objective of designing a PSS is to see that it maximizes the damping of local modes as well as inter-area mode oscillations including other critical modes such as exciter/control modes without reducing the synchronizing torque component at those frequencies.

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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Phase angle of GEPS(jw) 0

10

20

30

40 Phasedeg

50

60

70

80

90

100

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency in Hz

2.5

3.5

Figure 3.3: Phase angle of GEP S (j ), for machine-1 enhances the stability performance of a system for large disturbances. provides such a setting of parameters which is acceptable and does not require frequent retuning as system conditions change. provides better performance during major system upsets which cause large frequency excursions. provides such a setting of parameters which gives the required degree of tolerance to allow for uncertainties in machine and system modelling. To meet these requirements the following criteria are chosen to design the phase compensation for PSS. 1. The compensated phase angle, L = GEP S (j )P SS (j ), should pass through 90 at frequency around 3.5 Hz. 2. The compensated phase angle at local mode frequency should be below 45 , preferably 20 . 3. The gain of the compensator at high frequencies should be minimized. The rst criterion is important to avoid destabilization of intra-plant modes with higher frequencies. It is also preferable to have the compensated phase angle to be lagging at inter-area modes so that PSS provides some synchronizing torque at these frequencies. The third criterion is required to minimize the noise amplication through PSS. NITK Surathkal 68 Electrical Dept.

Design of Slip-signal PSS NOTE:

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1. The compensated phase angle, L can also be read from Figure 1.1 and is assumed to be positive for lagging angle. If L =0, it shows that the torque change produced is purely damping (at a given frequency). A negative L denotes that the developed torque Te has a negative synchronizing torque component. 2. An improvement in the damping torque component is reected in an increase in the damping factor of the mode. 3. An improvement in the synchronizing torque component is reected in an increase in the frequency of the mode. This observation is identical to that in SMIB system Ts B where the natural frequency of oscillation of the rotor is given by for 2H classical modal of generator and with negligible damping. For simplicity, the compensator transfer function is assumed to be of the form given by, Gc (s) = (1 + sT1 ) KS (1 + sT2 ) (3.10)

Determination T1 and T2 [30] The phase angle lead m to be provided by the compensator is related to T1 and T2 as sin m = where = 1 1+ (3.11)

T2 T1

with 0 < < 1,

(3.12)

Further, the center frequency at which it oers a phase lead m is given by m = 1 T1 (3.13)

Choosing m = 20 and fm = 3 Hz, (with m = 2fm ), and using (3.11), (3.12) and (3.13) we get T1 = 0.07577 s and T2 = 0.03715 s with the compensator is shown in Figure 3.4. T1 NOTE: Typically must be less than 10. T2
T1 T2

= 2.0396. The phase angle of

In Figure 3.5, the phase response of the PSS which is the combined phase response of GC (s) and a washout circuit with TW = 10 s is depicted. The compensated phase response is also plotted in the gure. From the gure, it can be seen that the phase angle L is around 60 at 3 Hz, below 2 Hz the angle L is less than 40 and at inter-area mode of 0.7 Hz the angle is around 12.6 . NITK Surathkal 69 Electrical Dept.

Design of Slip-signal PSS

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Phase angle of compensator 20

18

16

14

12 Phasedeg

10

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency in Hz

2.5

3.5

Figure 3.4: Phase angle of compensator GC (j ). The above results/plots have been obtained by using the following steps: 1. Execute small_sig.m with appropriate options. 2. Run pss_design.m programme. A list of statements printed out by the programme is given below. Enter the generator number for which you want to obtain the angle of GEPS(s): Enter 1 :To design single input PSS - Slip signal 2 3 :To design double input PSS :To design single input PSS -Power signal 1

Enter your choice : 1 Enter the center frequency f_m for the PSS (in Hz) : 3 Enter the amount of phase lead required (in Degrees): 20 Enter the PSS gain Ks: 15

The ratio of T1 to T2 = 2.0396 is less than 10 Enter 1 : Only compensator 2 : Washout only 3 : Washout and measuring ckt. 4 : Washout, measuring ckt. and torsional filter Enter your choice : 2 Enter the value of Tw (in s) for the wash-out circuit [1 - 20]s : NITK Surathkal 70 10

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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Phase angle response 80

60

40

PSS(j)

20

Angle (deg.)

20 Compensated GEPS(j) 40

60 GEPS(j)

80

100

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency (Hz)

2.5

3.5

Figure 3.5: Phase angle of GEP S (j ), GP SS (j ) and P (j ) for machine-1. Enter 0 if you are satisfied with the design, otherwise 1 to re-design the pss: Update the slip_pss.dat for the machine 1 --------------------------------------------------------gen.no Ks Tw T1 T2 --------------------------------------------------------1 15 10 0.07577 0.03715 --------------------------------------------------------Use typical value for TR (0.02 s), a0 =570, and a1 = 35 --------------------------------------------------------Press any key to obtain the amplitude response of GEPS(iw) NOTE: A tentative value of KS needs to be entered while feeding the data for the programme. This will be used for printing purpose only. 0

3.3.3

Determination of Compensator Gain:

The compensator gain is chosen based on the amplitude response of GEP S (s), see Fig. 3.6. This plot also has been obtained by running the pss_design.m programme. For speed input PSS, the highest amplitude results for heavily loaded system condition [27]. In this thesis, the gain is chosen to provide a damping factor of more than 0.05 for NITK Surathkal 71 Electrical Dept.

Design of Slip-signal PSS

Amplitude plot 25

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20

magnitude 15 10 0

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency in Hz

2.5

3.5

Figure 3.6: Plot of amplitude of GEP S (s) for machine-1. lightly damped modes in the base case. To see the performance of the system with PSS, the system matrix needs to be modied to account for PSS. This interfacing procedure is discussed in the following section. 3.3.3.1 Interfacing PSS to the System Matrix:

The linearized model of the slip-input PSS is given by x P SS = AP SS xP SS + BP SS Sm Vs = CP SS xP SS + DP SS Sm where Sm denotes the deviation in slip for ith generator. The interfacing of the PSS to the system equations is carried out as follows: Rewriting (1.45) considering only the change in Vs , we have, G = [AT ] X G + [EG ] Vs X where [EG ] = EG (:, i) for ith generator. Writing Sm in terms of X G , we have Sm = eT 2 X G (3.17) (3.16) (3.14) (3.15)

th where eT 2 = [0 1 0 0 0](116ng ) , with 1 corresponding to slip state variable of i

machine.

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Design of Slip-signal PSS Now using (3.17) in (3.14) and (3.15) we get, x P SS = AP SS xP SS + BP SS eT 2 X G Vs = CP SS xP SS + DP SS eT 2 X G

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(3.18) (3.19)

Using (3.19) in (3.16) and rewriting the state model accounting PSS, we obtain, N = AN X N X where X N = [X G xP SS ]T [AT ] + [EG ] DP SS eT 2 BP SS eT 2 [EG ] CP SS AP SS

AN = 3.3.3.2

Eigenvalues with Slip-input PSS:

For the PSS designed in the previous section for machine-1, all oscillator modes are listed in Table 3.1, for KS = 15. Note that in this implementation FILT(s) and TR(s) are not considered. SL No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Eigenvalues Dampingfactor Freq.(Hz) -15.4522 j 17.0633 0.6712 2.7157 -15.6284 j 12.5252 0.7803 1.9934 -2.5472 j 8.4109 0.2899 1.3386 -1.0555 j 6.8044 0.1533 1.0830 -0.2653 j 4.5064 0.0588 0.7172 -14.5481 j 1.9838 0.9908 0.3157 Nature of the mode Non-Swing mode Non-Swing mode Swing mode(2 & 1) Swing mode(4 & 3) Swing mode([1 2]&[3 4]) Non-Swing mode

Table 3.1: Oscillatory modes for the base case with PSS on m/c-1.

The results are obtained by using the following steps: 1. Prepare the data le slip_pss.dat as shown below (see section 2.2.1):
File name: slip_pss.dat ------------------------------------------------------------------------Gen.no. KS 1 15 TR 0.02 TW 10 T1 0.07577 T2 0.03715 VSMAX 0.1 VSMIN -0.1 a0 570 a1 35 TRF 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TRF = 0 enables torsional filter, 1 disables it.

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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FILT(s) is not used by setting TRF = 1, and TR(s) is disabled by setting the variable Tmd_slip_nt to 1 in le pss_slip_signal.m. Even when TRF is 1, default value of a0 and a1 must be used in the data le. 2. Set ng_slip_pss = [1] and enable PSS by setting PSS=zeros(1,nb) in le initcond.m. 3. Run small_sig.m and then execute trace_mode.m programme. From the tabulated results, it can be seen that the damping factor for the inter-area mode (mode-17, 18) has increased from 0.0083 (see Table 2.1) to 0.0588. We can also observe that, the local mode-13, 14 is also well damped from its previous value of 0.1466. However, the presence of PSS on machine-1 has not inuenced the damping of mode-15, 16 signicantly as generator-1 has the lowest participation in that mode. Also note that the PSS has contributed to the synchronizing torque component, as is demonstrated by an increase in frequency of the inter-area mode and mode-13, 14. NOTE: From the root locus plot it was observed that one of the local modes becomes unstable when KS = 235. The root locus plot is obtained by a repeated run of small_sig.m and trace_mode.m programmes.

3.3.4

Time-domain Verication:

Rotor angle plots of all machines with and without PSS are shown in the Figures (3.7 and 3.8). Fault duration is set to 0.1 s, for a fault at bus 9 with no line clearing.
Plot of Rotor angle 0.4 SG1 SG2 SG3 SG4

0.3

0.2

0.1 Rotor angle

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

10 Time (s)

12

14

16

18

20

Figure 3.7: Variation of rotor angles with respect to COI reference without PSS.

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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Plot of Rotor angle 0.4

0.3

SG1 SG2 SG3 SG4

0.2

0.1 Rotor angle

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

10 Time (s)

12

14

16

18

20

Figure 3.8: Variation of rotor angles with PSS. The plots are obtained by employing the following steps: 1. The steps are identical to that indicated in the previous section 3.3.3.2. 2. While running small_sig.m, the following option is chosen: wB = 376.9911 Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for network disturbances, otherwise 0: 1 If NO action to be taken, PRESS ENTER for any/every prompt. Fault initiation time (s), Tfault= 0.5 Fault Duration,(s) Tclear= 0.1 Faulted Bus: 9 Line(s) to be tripped, [ , ]= 3. Run transtability.mdl programme.

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

Te (s) Vref (s) :

Version-1.0

3.3.5

Frequency response of

Frequency response of a system function between Te and Vref -point of the exciter, is obtained as follows: For ith machine, the expression for Te (see C.37) is linearized as Te = CT X G + BT V G where CT is constituted by appropriately choosing the elements from Ag (2, :) after multiplying it by (2H ).
r BT is constituted by using the elements from Bg (2, :) after multiplying it by (2H ).

(3.20)

X G is the vector of state variables -(16ng 1) V G is the vector of QD components of generator terminal voltages -(2ng 1). CT and BT are lled with zeros to match the dimension of X G and V G , respectively. From(1.43) we can relate V G to the state vector as V G = Using (3.21) in (3.20) we have, Te = CT X G + BT = CT + B T [PG ]T YDQ
1 1

[PG ]T YDQ

[PG ] [CG ] X G

(3.21)

[PG ] [CG ] X G X G (3.22)

[PG ]T YDQ

[PG ] [CG ]

= DT X G From (1.45), we can write that, G = [AT ] X G + [EG ] [Vref + Vs ] X where [EG ] = EG (:, i) for ith generator. Considering only the change in Vref , we have G = [AT ] X G + [EG ] Vref X

(3.23)

(3.24)

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Design of Slip-signal PSS Rearranging the terms in s-domain, we get X G (s) = [sI AT ]1 [EG ] Vref (s) Using (3.25) in (3.23) we have, Te (s) = DT [sI AT ]1 [EG ] Vref (s) F (s) = Te (s) = DT [sI AT ]1 [EG ] Vref (s)

Version-1.0

(3.25)

The frequency response is obtained by letting s = j and spanning in the desired range, i.e., F (j ) = The frequency response of
300

Te (j ) = DT [jI AT ]1 [EG ] Vref (j ) for machine-1 is shown in Figure 3.9.

Te (j ) Vref (j )

Frequency Vs magnitude plot of machine1.

250

200 Without PSS on machine1 150

magnitude

100 With PSS on machine1

50

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency in Hz

2.5

3.5

Figure 3.9: Frequency response plot with and without PSS.

Te (j ) From the gure it can see that, without PSS, the frequency response of shows Vref (j ) a prominent peak at inter-area mode (0.7003 Hz). However, with PSS (for KS =15) the

sharp peak is well attenuated demonstrating the eectiveness of PSS in improving the damping for inter-area mode (see Table 3.1). The gure also depicts the damping of local mode-13, 14 (1.3386 Hz) with the PSS.

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Design of Slip-signal PSS NOTE:

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1. The plot is obtained by executing freq_response.m after running small_sig.m programme with and without PSS. 2. In the implementation, [jI AT ] is realized as follows: Using W AU = D and W = U 1 we have, jI W 1 D U 1 = (jI U D W ) = (jU W U D W ) = U (jI D ) W The above expression is used to overcome the numerical problem faced while computing [jI AT ]1

3.4

Placement of Power System Stabilizers:

Placement of PSS in power system is an important issue in modal analysis. Power system stabilizers placed at the generators should be able to stabilize all of the electromechanical modes. The selection of PSS location is generally carried out using participation factor, residues and frequency response analysis [5, 27, 7]. Of these, participation factor based approach provides an initial screening of locations [7]. In this work, the following procedure is employed to decide the location of PSS. 1. List all swing modes whose damping factor is less than 0.05. 2. List participation factor for slip-signal for each of the selected swing mode. 3. Location of PSS is decided for the machine whose slip participation is the highest in that mode. The above procedure is implemented in pss_selection.m. The steps to be followed are: 1. Run small_sig.m le with appropriate choice. 2. Execute pss_selection.m programme. The output of the programmes is listed below: Enter 1 to use EIG function, otherwise 0 to use EIGS function: --------------------------------------------------------SL_number Eigenvalue dampingfactor 1

frequency(Hz)

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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ans = 1.0000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 -42.9191 -42.7135 -16.0251 +16.9998i 1.0000 1.0000 0.6859 0 0 2.7056 2.7056 0 0 0

-16.0251 -16.9998i 0.6859 -38.6952 1.0000 ------ A partial List----------

27.0000 -4.6860 1.0000 28.0000 -0.0000 1.0000 --------------------------------------------------------swing modes for which dampingfactor is less than 0.05 --------------------------------------------------------SL_number ans = 18.0000 -0.0372 - 4.4583i 0.0083 Eigenvalue dampingfactor

frequency(Hz)

0.7096

PSS is Disabled..... --------------------------------------------------------State variable Mag(slip-PF-nr) angle(slip-PF-nr) in deg. --------------------------------------------------------Slip-1 Slip-3 Slip-2 1.0000 0.9641 0.6263 0.00 -6.28 -4.41

Slip-4 0.6185 -1.98 --------------------------------------------------------Please press a key to obtain the angle of GEPS(s) for the selected machine Here it calls pss_design.m programme. NOTE: 1. The programme pss_selection.m also calls pss_design.m le if any of the swing mode has a damping factor less than 0.05. 2. While listing swing modes whose damping factor is less than 0.05, the presence of PSS (if enabled in the previous run) is also considered. Thus, in this method eort

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Design of Slip-signal PSS

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is made to stabilize/improving the damping of swing modes sequentially, until all modes are stabilized. 3. As power system stabilizers are added to a system, the sensitivity of modes to power system stabilizers at other generators is altered. For example, a generator having no appreciable participation in any mode in the original unstabilized system may have a signicant participation in the resulting unstable/poorly damped modes with PSS. 4. It is known that power system stabilizers do not add damping torques to a generator shaft directly, but indirectly through the generators electrical torques. The electrical torque is altered by modulating the generator voltage. If the generator voltage is kept constant by the automatic voltage regulator of another close by generator a power system stabilizer will be less eective. Therefore, participation/residue based design should be used with care. Various methods of PSS tuning in multimachine environment is discussed in [31].

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Chapter 4 Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

4.1 Introduction:

In this chapter, a dual input PSS where speed and electrical power deviations are used as input, is analyzed. This PSS is referred to as Delta-P-Omega PSS. The objective of this PSS is to derive an equivalent speed signal eq so that it does not contain torsional modes. The principle of this type of stabilizer is illustrated below [2, 32]: Neglecting D, from (C.35) we have Sm = 1 2H Tm dt 1 2H Te dt (4.1)

Note that torsional components are inherently attenuated in Te signal. Now the problem is to measure the integral of Tm free of torsional modes. In many applications, the Tm component is neglected. This is satisfactory, except when changing load on the unit and other system conditions when the mechanical power changes. Under such conditions, a spurious stabilizer output is produced if Te alone is used as the stabilizing signal. This in turn results in transient oscillations in voltage and reactive power. A way to measure integral of Tm is presented below: Rewriting (4.1), we have, 1 2H Tm dt = Sm + 1 2H Te dt (4.2)

The delta-P-omega stabilizer makes use of the above relationship to simulate a signal proportional to the integral of mechanical power change by adding signals proportional to shaft-speed change and integral of electrical power change. This signal will contain torsional oscillations unless a lter is used. Because mechanical power changes are relatively slow even for fast-valve movements, the derived integral of the mechanical power signal can be conditioned with a simple low-pass lter to remove torsional frequencies. These NITK Surathkal 81 Electrical Dept.

Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

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functions are realized in Figure 4.1. In the gure T FF represents a lter. The output of Tm dt signal which is free from torsional oscillation. the lter provides 21 H

Sm

TF F

1
2H

Tm dt signal

Te

1 2H

Figure 4.1: Block schematic to generate integral of Tm . Using this signal, the slip signal is synthesized which is completely free of torsional frequency components. This obtained by realizing (4.1) having simulated 21 Tm dt H signal. This permits the selection of a higher stabilizer gain that results in better damping of system oscillations, without causing the destabilization of exciter/swing modes unlike that is observed in a slip-signal-based PSS with torsional lter, FILT(s) [2]. The block schematic of a Delta-P-Omega type PSS is shown in Figure 4.2. In the gure, note that an integrator is approximated by a rst order transfer function by suitably choosing the time constant T7 . This is done to avoid oset problem in a pure integrator circuit.

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NITK Surathkal Figure 4.2: Delta-P-Omega PSS.

p.u. slip sTW1 1+sTW1 Washout Circuit sTW2 1+sTW2 Washout Circuit 1 1+sT6 Delay
N

Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

+ KS3

[ ]
1+sT8 (1+sT9) Filter
M

1+sT1 1+sT2

1 + sT3 1 + sT4

KS1 Gain Limiter

Vs

Compensator Gc(s)

83 Electrical Dept.

Te

sTW3 1+sTW3 Washout Circuit

sTW4 1+sTW4 Washout Circuit

T7

2H 1+sT7

Effective Integrator

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Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS It has the following advantages over speed or frequency based systems:

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it inherently attenuates torsional modes to the extent that torsional ltering in the main stabilizing path is not required. the shaft location for speed sensing is not critical. without the torsional lter, increased stabilizer loop gain is available. It is superior to systems using only electrical power, as the fastest load changes can be accommodated with minimal terminal voltage disturbance without taking the stabilizer out of service. Design of an electrical power input PSS is discussed in the next chapter.

4.2

Design of Delta-P-Omega PSS:

Following steps employed to design and analyze the PSS: 1. Design of the compensator. 2. Interfacing of PSS to the system matrix.

4.2.1

Design of the Compensator Gc (s):

The main requirement is to determine the values of T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 in the compensator transfer function given by: GC (s) = GC 1 (s) GC 2 (s) = (1 + sT1 ) (1 + sT3 ) (1 + sT2 ) (1 + sT4 )

To obtain the values of T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 , the compensators GC 1 (s) and GC 2 (s) are designed separately to achieve the desired overall compensated phase lag with the GEPS(s). GC 1 (s) and GC 2 (s) are designed following the steps indicated in section 3.3.2, choosing appropriate value for fm and m . For the 4 machine example, considering the base case, we have, fm = 3 Hz, and m = 10 for both GC 1 (s) and GC 2 (s). This results in T1 = T3 = 0.06322 s and T2 = T4 = 0.04452 s. The compensated phase lag considering the entire structure of PSS is shown in Figure 4.3. To get this, Te is approximately expressed in terms of Sm as Te (s) = s 2H Sm (s) neglecting the mechanical power deviation, Tm . The above plots are obtained by executing pss_design.m programme. The list of statements printed out by the programme is shown below: NITK Surathkal 84 Electrical Dept.

Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

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Plot of compensated GEPS(jw) (All blocks considered) 150

100

50 Phasedeg

GPSS(jw)

GEPS(jw)+GPSS(jw) GEPS(jw)

50

100

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency in Hz

2.5

3.5

Figure 4.3: Plot of compensated GEPS(j ) with all blocks. Enter the generator number for which you want to obtain the angle of GEPS(s): Enter 1 :To design single input PSS - Slip signal 2 :To design double input PSS 3 :To design single input PSS -Power signal Enter your choice : 2 Now you are designing compensator Gc1(s).............. Enter the center frequency f_m for Gc1 (in Hz) : 3 Enter the amount of phase lead required (in Degrees): Enter the PSS gain Ks: 15 10 1

The ratio of T1 to T2 = 1.4203 is less than 10 Enter y : if compensator Gc2(s) is same as the compensator Gc1(s) n : if compensator Gc2(s) is different from the compensator Gc1(s) Enter your choice (as a character input y or n): y Enter 1 : Compensators Gc1(s)*Gc2(s) only 2 : Compensators with Washout only 3 : All Blocks Enter your choice : 3 Enter the value of Tw1 (in s) for the wash-out circuit-1 [1 - 20]s : Enter the value of Tw2 (in s) for the wash-out circuit-2 [1 - 20]s : Enter the value of Tw3 (in s) for the wash-out circuit-3 [1 - 20]s : 10 10 10

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Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

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Enter the value of Tw4 (in s) for the wash-out circuit-4 [1 - 20]s : 10 Enter the value of T6 (in s) for the slip-path delay [0.01 - 0.05]s : 0.01 Enter the value of T7 (in s) for the equivalent integrator [1 - 10]s : 10 Enter the value of T8 (in s) for the Filter circuit [0 - 0.01]s : 0 Enter the value of T9 (in s) for the Filter circuit [0.1 - 0.2]s : 0.1 Enter 0 if you are satisfied with the design, otherwise 1 to re-design the pss: Update the delPW_pss.dat for the machine 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------gen.no Ks T1 T2 T3 T4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------1 15 0.06322 0.04452 0.06322 0.04452 0

-----------------------------------------------------------------------Press any key to obtain the amplitude response of GEPS(iw)

4.2.2

Interfacing of PSS to the System Matrix:

For the purpose of simplication, the blocks in Figure 4.2 is redrawn as in Figure 4.4.
p.u slip TFW
y y u PF
PW PF

u PC

+ + S3

TFF

TFC

PC

Vs

Te

TFT
y
PT

Figure 4.4: Delta-P-Omega PSS modied block schematic. The transfer function block T FW can be written in the state space form as: x P W = AP W xP W + BP W Sm yP W = CP W xP W + DP W Sm (4.3) (4.4)

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Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS The transfer function block T FT can be written in the state space form as: x P T = AP T xP T + BP T Te yP T = CP T xP T + DP T Te The transfer function block T FF can be written in the state space form as: x P F = AP F xP F + BP F uP F yP F = CP F xP F + DP F uP F The transfer function black T FC can be written in the state space form as: x P C = AP C xP C + BP C uP C yP C = CP C xP C + DP C uP C

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(4.5) (4.6)

(4.7) (4.8)

(4.9) (4.10)

uP F = yP W KS 3 yP T uP C = yP F yP T VS = yP C Simplications are carried out as follows: 1. Substitute (4.4) and (4.6) in (4.11) and simplify. 2. The modied (4.11) for uP F is substituted in (4.7) and (4.8). 3. The modied (4.8) for yP F and (4.6) are substituted in (4.12). 4. The modied (4.12) for uP C is substituted in (4.9) and (4.10). After the simplications we get, x P W = AP W xP W + BP W Sm x P T = AP T xP T + BP T Te x PF = (BP F CP W ) xP W + (BP F KS 3 CP T ) xP T + AP F xP F + (BP F DP W ) Sm + (BP F KS 3 DP T ) Te

(4.11) (4.12) (4.13)

(4.14) (4.15)

(4.16)

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Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

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x PC =

(BP C DP F CP W ) xP W + [BP C (DP F KS 3 CP T CP T )] xP T + (BP C CP F ) xP F AP C xP C + (BP C DP F DP W ) Sm + [BP C (DP F KS 3 DP T DP T )] Te (4.17)

VS =

(DP C DP F CP W ) xP W + [DP C (DP F KS 3 CP T CP T )] xP T + (DP C CP F ) xP F CP C xP C + (DP C DP F DP W ) Sm + [DP C (DP F KS 3 DP T DP T )] Te (4.18)

Using (3.17) and (3.23), we have, Sm = eT 2 X G ; Te = DT X G

The state space equation for the PSS is given by, x P SS = AP SS xP SS + BP SS X G (4.19)

VS = CP SS xP SS + DP SS X G where, xP SS = [xP W xP T xP F xP C ]T

(4.20)

BP SS = BP SS

eT 2 DT

DP SS = DP SS

eT 2 DT

AP SS

AP W

[0]

[0]

[0]

[0] AP T [0] [0] BP F CP W B P F KS 3 C P T AP F [0] BP C DP F CP W [BP C (DP F KS 3 CP T CP T )] BP C CP F AP C BP W [0] B P F DP W [0] BP T B P F K S 3 DP T

BP SS

BP C DP F DP W [BP C (DP F KS 3 DP T DP T )]

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Design of Delta-P-Omega Signal PSS

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CP SS =

DP C DP F CP W [DP C (DP F KS 3 CP T CP T )] DP C CP F CP C

DP SS =

DP C DP F DP W [DP C (DP F KS 3 DP T DP T )]

Rewriting (1.45) considering only the change in Vs , we have, = [AT ] X + [EG ] Vs X G G where [EG ] = EG (:, i) for ith generator. Using (4.20) in (4.21) and rewriting the state model accounting PSS we obtain, G X x P SS 4.2.2.1 = AT + EG DP SS EG CP SS BP SS AP SS X G xP SS (4.21)

Eigenvalues with Delta-P-Omega PSS:

For the base case, a few oscillatory modes with the PSS are listed in Table 4.1 for KS = 15. From the tabulated results it can be observed that the damping factor for inter-area mode is 0.0606 as against 0.0588 with slip-signal PSS. SL No 1 2 3 4 5 Eigenvalues Dampingfactor Freq.(Hz) -15.44078j 17.0756 0.6707 2.7177 -15.64061 j 12.5809 0.7792 2.0023 -2.50222 j 8.4307 0.2845 1.3418 -1.05559 j 6.8045 0.1533 1.0830 -0.27285 j 4.4942 0.0606 0.7153 Nature of the mode Non-Swing mode Non-Swing mode Swing mode(2 & 1) Swing mode(4 & 3) Swing mode([1 2] & [3 4])

Table 4.1: Oscillatory modes with Delta-P-Omega PSS.

The above results are obtained by using the following steps: 1. Prepare the data le delPw_pss.dat -see section 2.2.1. 2. Set only ng_delPw_pss=[1], with the other Individual Selectors initialized to []. 3. Enable the Main Selector by setting PSS=zeros(1,nb). 4. Run small_sig.m and then execute trace_mode.m programme. NOTE: From the root locus plot it was observed that one of the local modes becomes unstable when KS = 245. It was also observed that when FILT(s) and TR(s) are used with slip-signal based PSS, one of the local modes becomes unstable with gain KS = 40.

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Chapter 5 Design of Power-signal PSS

5.1 Introduction:

In a single-input power system stabilizer, electrical power output of the machine is normally used as the input signal as it provides high degree of attenuation to torsional modes unlike slip-signal [27]. An electrical power-input based PSS can be realized by observing the following relationship between Sm and Te given by 1 Te (j ) (5.1) 2H Note that the above relationship is obtained from (C.35) by neglecting the deviation in the mechanical power input to the machine and mechanical damping, and for sinusoidal j Sm (j ) = variation of quantities. From (5.1), it can be seen that 1. To get the same eect as a slip-input PSS, with the Te input, the output of the PSS block (Vs ) is fed to the exciter VREF summing junction with a negative sign (as against a positive sign that has been used with the slip-input PSS). 2. The phasor Te (j ) leads the Sm (j ) phasor by 90o (having accounted the negative sign in Vs ). This implies that using electrical power signal is equivalent to using slip signal with 90o phase lead. In other words, to get the phase angle of the compensated GEPS, L , it is required to simply add 90o to the angle of GEP S (j ). From the above observations, a power-input PSS is implemented along with a measurement delay transfer function and a washout-circuit as shown in Figure 5.1. Note that the function of the washout-circuit is identical to that with the slip-signal based PSS -see section 3.2.1.

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Design of Power-signal PSS

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Te

1 1+sTR Measurement Delay

sTW 1+sTW Washout circuit

KS Gain

Vs Limiter

Figure 5.1: Block schematic of power-input PSS.

5.2

Interfacing of Power-input PSS to the State Matrix:

The steps employed are as follows: 1. Following the procedure indicated in section 3.3.5 and rewriting (3.23), Te for ith machine is expressed in terms of the state variables as Te = DT X G 2. The linearized model of the power-input PSS is given by x P SS = AP SS xP SS + BP SS Te Vs = CP SS xP SS + DP SS Te where Te denotes the deviation in electrical power output for ith generator. Using (5.2) in (5.3) and (5.4) we get, x P SS = AP SS xP SS + BP SS DT X G Vs = CP SS xP SS + DP SS DT X G 3. Considering only the change in Vs , from (1.45) we have G = [AT ] X G + [EG ] Vs X where [EG ] = EG (:, i) for ith generator. 4. Using (5.6) in (5.7) and rewriting the state model accounting PSS, we obtain, = AP X X P P (5.7) (5.5) (5.6) (5.3) (5.4) (5.2)

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Design of Power-signal PSS where X P = [X G xP SS ]T [AT ] + [EG ] DP SS DT BP SS DT [EG ] CP SS AP SS

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AP =

5.3

4-machine Power System Example:

A power-input PSS has been designed for machine-1 in the base case. The phase angle of the compensated GEP S (j ) is obtained accounting the measurement delay of TR = 0.05 s and the washout-circuit (TW = 10 s), as shown in Figure 5.2.
Angle of the compensated GEPS for powerinput PSS 200 For machine1

150

100 Angle of the PSS Angle in deg.

50

Angle of the comp. GEPS 0 Angle of the GEPS

50

100

0.5

1.5

2 Frequency (Hz)

2.5

3.5

Figure 5.2: Phase angle of the compensated GEPS with power input PSS. The above plot has been obtained by using the following steps: 1. Execute small_sig.m with appropriate options. 2. Run pss_design.m programme. A list of statements printed out by the programme is given below. Enter the generator number for which you want to obtain the angle of GEPS(s): Enter 1 :To design single input PSS - Slip signal 2 3 :To design double input PSS :To design single input PSS -Power signal 93 Electrical Dept. 1

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Design of Power-signal PSS

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Enter your choice : 3 Enter 1 : Plain power type PSS 2 : With measurement delay and washout time constant Enter your choice : 2 Enter the PSS gain Ks: 0.03 0.05

Enter the value of Tw (in s) for the wash-out circuit [1 - 20]s : 10 Enter the value of TR (in s) for the measurement delay [0.01 - 0.05]s : Enter 0 if you are satisfied with the design, otherwise 1 to re-design the pss: Update the power_pss.dat for the machine 1 --------------------------------------------------gen.no Ks TR Tw --------------------------------------------------1 0.03 0.05 10.0 ---------------------------------------------------Press any key to obtain the amplitude response of GEPS(iw) 0

5.3.1

Eigenvalues with Power-input PSS:

The eect of the PSS on the swing modes is demonstrated in Table 5.1 for KS = 0.03. SL No Eigenvalues Damp. Factor Freq.(Hz) 1 -2.0881 j 5.8556 0.3358 0.9319 2 -1.0596 j 6.8066 0.1538 1.0833 3 -0.1988 j 4.2343 0.0469 0.6739 Remarks Swing mode(2 & 1) Swing mode(4 & 3) Swing mode([1 2] & [3 4])

Table 5.1: Swing modes with power-input PSS for the base case.

The results are obtained by using the following steps: 1. Prepare the data le power_pss.dat as shown below (see section 2.2.1):
File name: power_pss.dat ------------------------------------Gen.No. 1 2 3 4 TW 10 10 10 10 TR 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 KS 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.03 VSMAX 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 VSMIN -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -------------------------------------

-------------------------------------

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Design of Power-signal PSS

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2. Set ng_power_pss = [1] and enable PSS by setting PSS=zeros(1,nb) in le initcond.m. 3. Run small_sig.m and then execute trace_mode.m programme. NOTE: 1. Depending on the type of exciter and the system characteristics, the phase lead introduced by a power-input PSS may be too high at low frequencies (see Figure 5.2) leading to an increase in the damping of the swing modes at the expense of a reduction in the synchronizing torque. This is evident from a decrease in the frequency of oscillation of the modes (see also Table 2.1). 2. From the root locus plot it was observed that one of the exciter modes becomes unstable when KS = 0.4. This has been veried by the time domain simulation for a perturbation of Vref of machine-1 as shown in Figure 5.3.
Plot of Efd with power input PSS 6

Efd (p.u.)

4 M/c1 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (s) 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 5.3: Variation of Ef d for power PSS gain of 0.4.

5.3.2

Performance of the PSS for Power Ramping:

A major diculty with power-input PSS is that they respond to ramping of the generators mechanical power or load changes. The eect is that the generators terminal voltage may vary considerably. In some cases such a deviation in terminal voltage may even cause the machine to lose synchronism [5]. NITK Surathkal 95 Electrical Dept.

Design of Power-signal PSS

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In order to check the response of power-input PSS under power ramping, the mechanical power of the machine is ramped-down to 50% of its quiescent power output, (Pmo ), at t = 1 s and is ramped-up again at t = 11 s at a rate of Pmo /s. The aim here is to deteremine whether the machine is able to maintain synchronism and the terminal voltage remain within limits. This also provides a way to check the suitability of limits on Vs . For the case in hand, the mechanical power of machine-1 is varied as said above and the plots of its rotor angle and the terminal voltage are shown in Figure 5.4.
Variation of Vg and delta of machine 1 for power ramping 1.2

1 Terminal voltage 0.8

Vg (p.u.) and Rotor angle (rad)

0.6

0.4

0.2 Rotor angle

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

10 Time (s)

12

14

16

18

20

Figure 5.4: variation of rotor angle and the terminal voltage for machine-1 for power ramping case. The results are obtained by using the following steps: 1. Prepare the data le power_pss.dat as shown above. 2. While running small_sig.m, the following option is chosen: wB = 376.9911 0 0

Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for network disturbances, otherwise 0: Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for perturbation of VREF, otherwise 0: Enter 1 if you want to run transtability programme for

ramping of Tm, otherwise 0: 1 Enter the generator number whose Tm needs to be ramped-up/down: 1 3. Run time-domain simulation programme by executing transtability.mdl le. NITK Surathkal 96 Electrical Dept.

Version-1.0

Chapter 6 10-machine Power System Example

6.1 Ten Machine System Details:

A well known 10-machine, 39-bus New England power system has been used to demonstrate the modal analysis of a power system. The single line diagram of the system is shown in Figure 6.1. The system details are adopted from [1].
10 10
W

8 8
W

25

26

28

29
W

12 11 38 37 36 13 35 2 2 14 15 16 17 18 19 3 3
W

9 27 24 9

6 6 21 34 32
W W W W

22 23
W

39 33 30
W W

1 1

7 5 7

31 20
W

4 4 5

Figure 6.1: 10-machine 39-bus power system. 1.0 model has been used for the generators with all exciters on manual control. Constant impedance type loads have been employed. The modal analysis has been carried NITK Surathkal 97 Electrical Dept.

10-machine Power System Example out using the following steps: 1. Prepare the data les. 2. Initialize the Main and Individual Selectors in le initcond.m 3. Execute small_sig.m with appropriate inputs.

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4. Execute trace_mode.m. The statements displayed in the MATLAB Command Window and the respective inputs are shown below: Enter 1 to display ALL eigenvalues (EIG), otherwise 0 (using EIGS): ------------------------------------------------------------------SL_number Eigenvalue dampingfactor frequency(Hz) -------------------------------------------------------------------ans = ------------------------A partial list-------------------------31.0000 -0.2541 + 8.6811i 0.0293 1.3816 32.0000 33.0000 34.0000 35.0000 36.0000 37.0000 38.0000 39.0000 40.0000 41.0000 42.0000 43.0000 44.0000 45.0000 46.0000 47.0000 48.0000 49.0000 50.0000 51.0000 52.0000 53.0000 NITK Surathkal -0.2541 - 8.6811i -0.1823 + 8.3340i -0.1823 - 8.3340i -0.1865 + 8.2509i -0.1865 - 8.2509i -0.1698 + 7.1939i -0.1698 - 7.1939i -0.1624 + 6.9902i -0.1624 - 6.9902i -0.1636 + 6.3584i -0.1636 - 6.3584i -0.1609 + 6.2241i -0.1609 - 6.2241i -0.1939 + 5.9474i -0.1939 - 5.9474i -0.1560 + 3.6521i -0.1560 - 3.6521i -0.6715 -0.0000 -0.0338 -0.0898 -0.2900 98 0.0293 0.0219 0.0219 0.0226 0.0226 0.0236 0.0236 0.0232 0.0232 0.0257 0.0257 0.0258 0.0258 0.0326 0.0326 0.0427 0.0427 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.3816 1.3264 1.3264 1.3132 1.3132 1.1449 1.1449 1.1125 1.1125 1.0120 1.0120 0.9906 0.9906 0.9466 0.9466 0.5813 0.5813 0 0 0 0 0 Electrical Dept. 1

10-machine Power System Example

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54.0000 55.0000 56.0000 57.0000 58.0000

-0.2663 -0.1370 -0.1575 -0.1863 -0.2285

1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

0 0 0 0 0

59.0000 -0.2197 1.0000 0 --------------------------------------------------------------------Enter the serial number of the eigenvalue for which you want to obtain the P.factor: 48 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------State variable Mag(Norm PF) ang(Norm PF)deg. Mag(PF) ang(PF)deg. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Delta-2 1.0000 -0.00 0.4145 2.02 Slip-2 Slip-9 Slip-6 0.4996 0.1604 0.1278 4.92 0.23 -5.98 0.2071 0.0665 0.0530 6.94 2.25 -3.96

Slip-4 0.1032 -1.88 0.0428 0.13 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------You have chosen a SWING-MODE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------The generator(s) in group-1 is(are) ... Group1 = 4 6 7 9 5 3 1 8

The generator(s) in group-2 is(are) ... Group2 = 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Enter 1 if you want to plot the compass plot, otherwise 0: 1 NOTE: Use mouse click on the plot to identify the generator Press any key Current plot held Current plot held Enter 1 if you want to repeat

for another eigenvalue, otherwise 0: 0

Further, the grouping of machines prepared by the programme is shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3. Not more than 6 eigenvectors are drawn in each plot. NITK Surathkal 99 Electrical Dept.

10-machine Power System Example

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90 120

0.008 60 0.006

150

0.004

30

0.002 SG4 SG7 180 SG5 SG3 SG6 SG9 0

210

330

240 270

300

Figure 6.2: Plot of slip-right eigenvector for machine groups 1 and 2.

90 120

0.004 60 0.003

150

0.002

30

0.001 SG1 180 SG8 0

SG2 210 330

240 270

300

Figure 6.3: Plot of slip-right eigenvector for machine groups 1 and 2. Note that trace_mode.m can also be run with the following option: Enter 1 to display ALL eigenvalues (EIG), otherwise 0 (using EIGS): 0

You are scanning 10 eigenvalues around 1.000 Hz ..... Please press a key:

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10-machine Power System Example

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------------------------------------------------------------------SL_number Eigenvalue dampingfactor frequency(Hz) -------------------------------------------------------------------ans = 1.0000 2.0000 3.0000 4.0000 5.0000 6.0000 7.0000 8.0000 9.0000 10.0000 -0.1609 + 6.2241i -0.1636 + 6.3584i -0.1939 + 5.9474i -0.1624 + 6.9902i -0.1698 + 7.1939i -0.1865 + 8.2509i -0.1823 + 8.3340i -0.2541 + 8.6811i -0.1560 + 3.6521i -0.0000 0.0258 0.0257 0.0326 0.0232 0.0236 0.0226 0.0219 0.0293 0.0427 1.0000 0.9906 1.0120 0.9466 1.1125 1.1449 1.3132 1.3264 1.3816 0.5813 0

--------------------------------------------------------------------Enter the serial number of the eigenvalue for which you want to obtain the P.factor: 9 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------State variable Mag(Norm PF) ang(Norm PF)deg. Mag(PF) ang(PF)deg. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Delta-2 Slip-2 Slip-9 Field-9 Efd-9 Slip-6 Slip-4 Slip-5 Slip-7 Slip-3 1.0000 0.5544 0.2207 0.1850 0.1783 0.1756 0.1541 0.1424 0.1421 0.1202 -0.00 -7.82 -13.33 -15.76 -124.43 -7.59 -13.09 -15.58 -12.34 -14.30 0.4006 0.2221 0.0884 0.0741 0.0714 0.0703 0.0617 0.0570 0.0569 0.0482 -0.93 -8.75 -14.26 -16.69 -125.35 -8.52 -14.02 -16.50 -13.26 -15.23

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------You have chosen a SWING-MODE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------The generator(s) in group-1 is(are) ... Group1 = 4 6 7 9 5 3 101 1 8 10 Electrical Dept.

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10-machine Power System Example

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The generator(s) in group-2 is(are) ... Group2 = 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Enter 1 if you want to plot the compass plot, otherwise 0: 1 NOTE: Some times, the determination of eigenvalues using eigs function may not converge. In such cases, one may require to alter the maximum number of iterations (currently options.maxit is set to 25) or tolerance values (currently options.tol is set to 1e 12 ) in trace_mode.m

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Version-1.0

Appendix A Names of State Variables

The state variable strings used for the system are shown in order in the following Table. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 DeltaSlipFieldDampHDampGDampKEfdVR_DC9 xB_DC_AC10 xF_DC11 x1_st_tu12 x2_st_tu13 x3_st_tu14 y1_gv15 PG16 z-

Table A.1: System state variables.

1. The state variables dened for the machine are: DeltaSlipFieldDampHDampGDampK-

Table A.2: Machine state variables.

2. The state variable for the single-time constant static exciter is Efd. 3. The state variables for the DC1A exciter are VR_DCxB_DC_ACxF_DC-

Table A.3: DC1A-exciter state variables.

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Names of State Variables 4. The state variables for the AC4A exciter are EfdxB_DC_AC-

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Table A.4: AC4A-exciter state variables. 5. the state variables for the reheat-type steam turbine and the associated speedgovernor, are x1_st_tux2_st_tux3_st_tuy1_gvPG-

Table A.5: Reheat steam turbine state variables. 6. The state variables for the hydraulic turbine and the associated speed-governor, are y1_gvPGz-

Table A.6: Hydraulic turbine state variables. The state-vector is given by xg = Sm f h g k Ef d vR

T

xB xF

x1 x2 x3 y1 PGV

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Appendix B Derivation of P-matrix and Construction of PG, PL and Reduced State Matrices
B.1 Derivation of P matrix:

The generator terminal voltage is given by, Vg g = Vg (cos g + j sin g ) Now consider, Vg g = Vg0 ( sin g + j cos g ) g g = V ej ( 2 +g )
g0 g

(B.1)

Let Vg0 g ej ( 2 +g ) = VQg + j VDg

(B.2)
+g ) j ( 2

Vg0 g = Re (VQg + j VDg ) e Vg0 g = Re (VQg + j VDg ) Vg0 g =

(Vg0 sin g jVg0 cos g ) Vg 0 (B.3) (B.4)

1 [VDg0 VQg + VQg0 VDg ] Vg 0

We know that
2 2 Vg2 = VQg + VDg

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Derivation of necessary matrices Now consider 2Vg0 Vg = 2VQg0 VQg + 2VDg0 VDg VDg0 VQg0 VQg + VDg Vg = Vg 0 Vg 0 From (B.3) and (B.5) we can write Vg0 g Vg = 1 Vg 0 VDg0 VQg0 VQg0 VQg VDg = [P ] VQg VDg

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(B.5)

VDg0

Vgp =

Vg0 g Vg

Vgr =

VQg VDg

Vgp = [P ] Vgr where [P ] = 1 Vg 0 VDg0 VQg0 VQg0 VDg0

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Derivation of necessary matrices

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B.2

Construction of [PG] and [PL] Matrices:

The single line diagram of a 4 machine power system is shown in Figure 2.1. The system details are adopted from [1]. In this system, machines 1, 2, 3 and 4 are connected to buses 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Loads A and B are connected to buses 9 and 10 respectively. For this case, the [PG ] and [PL ] matrices are dened as follows.

Busno 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 PG = 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10

Gen1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gen2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gen3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Gen4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

LoadA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

LoadB 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

, PL =

2nb 2ng

2nb 2ml

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B.3

Derivation of Reduced-State Matrix:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

For the 4-machine system the state equations are written in the matrix form as follows:
0 a2,1 . . . . . . B . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . . . . . . 0 a2,64 . . . . . . a16,64 0 a18,64 . . . . . . a31,64 . . . . . . . . . 0 a50,64 . . . . . . a64,64

Z 1 2 Sm 2 . . . . . . 2 = Z . . . . . . . . . 4 S m4 . . . . . . Z4

1 1 Sm . . . . . .

a16,1 0 0

a18,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . a32,1 . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . 0

a50,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . a64,1

1 Sm1 . . . . . . 1 Z 2 Sm2 . . . . . . Z2 . . . . . . . . . 4 Sm4 . . . . . . Z4

Original Matrix

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Derivation of necessary matrices Expressing the rotor angle of other machines wrt machine-1, we have,

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2 1 = B Sm1 + 0 + B Sm2 + + 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 = B Sm1 + 0 + B Sm4 + + 0

Further, the rst row and column are removed from the original A-matrix. Now rewriting the state matrix we get,
a2,2 . . . . . . a16,2 a18,2 . . . . . . a32,2 . . . . . . . . . a50,2 . . . . . . a64,2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . . . . . . a2,64 . . . . . . a16,64 0 a18,64 . . . . . . a32,64 . . . . . . . . . 0 a50,64 . . . . . . a64,64

1 Sm . . . . . . 1 Z 2 1 2 Sm . . . . . . 2 Z

. . . . . . . . . 4 1 4 Sm . . . . . . 4 Z

Sm1 . . . . . . 1 Z 2 1 Sm2 . . . . . . Z2 . . . . . . . . . 4 1 Sm4 . . . . . . Z4

Reduced Matrix

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1. For the original A matrix , there will be 2-zero eigenvalues if mechanical damping on all machines is set to zero. This represents redundancy of state variables associated with rotor angle and rotor speed. 2. For the reduced A matrix, there will be 1-zero eigenvalue with zero mechanical damping on all machines. For an m-machine system, 1 , 2 , m are the rotor angles. The rotor variables (2 1 ) , (3 1 ) , (m 1 ) are the variables which have signicance leading to only (m 1) independent rotor angles. The process of matrix reduction removes the redundancy associated with the rotor angle. However the redundancy associated with the rotor speed (or slip) continues exist, which is indicated by 1-zero eigenvalue. This zero eigenvalue vanishes when (a) Mechanical damping is accounted on any machine. (b) Speed-governor model is considered. (c) Frequency-dependent load models are included.

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Appendix C Generator Modelling

C.1 Introduction:

A 3 phase synchronous machine is modelled in the rotor frame of reference as shown in Figure C.1. The gure shows 2 ctitious d and q stator windings representing three phase armature windings on the stator. The gure also depicts 2 rotor windings, including the eld winding f along d-axis and 2 rotor coils along q-axis. The short circuited coils, one along d-axis (h) and two along q-axis (g and k) represent the eect of damper windings and eddy currents induced in the rotor mass. This representation of the rotor circuits is normally referred to as 2.2 model [1].
di d ax is sta to rw in ng

xi

d a

fcoil

kcoil g coil

Figure C.1: 2.2 model of a Synchronous Machine.

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C.2
C.2.1

Rotor Equations:
d-axis Equations:

For ith generator the dierential equations are written in the state-space form as follows: 1 dh = [h + d ] dt Td xd E f d df 1 f + d + = dt Td (xd xd ) where d = x d id + E q Eq = xd x d h xd x d + xd f xd xd xd (C.3) (C.4) (C.1) (C.2)

C.2.2

q-axis Equations:

The dierential equations are written in the state-space form as follows: dg 1 = [g + q ] dt Tq dk 1 [k + q ] = dt Tq where q = x q iq E d Ed = (C.7) (C.8) (C.5) (C.6)

xq x q xq x q k + xq g xq xq xq

C.3

Stator Equations:

Neglecting stator transients and ignoring speed variations, the stator d- and q-axes voltage equations are given by vd = id Ra q vq = iq Ra + d (C.9) (C.10)

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where vd and vq represent d- and q- axis generator terminal voltages respectively. Using (C.3) and (C.7) in (C.9) and (C.10), we have vd = id Ra xq iq + Ed vq = iq Ra + xd id + Eq (C.11) (C.12)

C.4

Derivation of IDg and IQg :

Neglecting Ra , we have from (C.9) and (C.10), vq = d vq + jvd = Vg ej (g ) vq = Vg cos( g ) vd = Vg sin( g ) d = Vg cos( g ) q = Vg sin( g ) Using (C.3), (C.7), (C.18) and (C.19) we have, id = Vg cos ( g ) Eq vq E q = xd xd E vd E + Vg sin ( g ) iq = d = d xq xq (C.20) (C.21) vd = q (C.13) (C.14) (C.15) (C.16) (C.17) (C.18) (C.19)

iq + jid =

Vg cos ( g ) Eq Ed + Vg sin ( g ) +j xq xd IQg + jIDg = (iq + jid ) ej

(C.22)

(C.23)

IDg = IQg =

Vg cos ( g ) Eq Ed + Vg sin ( g ) sin + xq xd Vg cos ( g ) Eq Ed + Vg sin ( g ) cos xq xd

cos sin

(C.24) (C.25)

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Generator Modelling From (C.4) and (C.8) we have, E q = C 1 h + C 2 f Ed = C3 k C4 g where C1 = C2 C3 (xd xd ) xd (xd xd )xd = xd xd (xq xq ) = xq (xq xq )xq xq xq

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(C.26) (C.27)

(C.28) (C.29) (C.30) (C.31)

C4 = Therefore, IDg = 1 xq

C3 k C4 g + Vg sin ( g ) sin + + 1 Vg cos ( g ) C1 h C2 f cos xd (C.32)

IQg =

1 xq

C3 k C4 g + Vg sin ( g ) cos 1 Vg cos ( g ) C1 h C2 f sin xd (C.33)

C.5

Swing Equations:
d = S m B dt dSm 1 = DSm + Tm Te dt 2H (C.34)

(C.35)

In terms of the ux-linkages and the generator winding currents, the electromagnetic torque is given by Te = (d iq q id ) (C.36)

Using (C.18) - (C.21), (C.26) and (C.27), the above torque expression is modied as NITK Surathkal 114 Electrical Dept.

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Te =

C2 Vg f sin( g ) xd C3 Vg k cos( g ) xq

C1 Vg h sin( g ) xd Vg2 sin(2( g )) 2

C4 Vg g cos( g ) xq (C.37)

+ C5

where C5 = xd x q xd xq (C.38)

C.6

Modication of Dierential Equations:

Using (C.18) and (C.19) in (C.1), (C.2), (C.5) and (C.6) we get df dt = 1 f + Vg cos( g ) + Td h + Vg cos( g ) xd xd x d Ef d (C.39)

dh 1 = dt Td

(C.40)

dg 1 = g + Vg sin( g ) dt Tq dk 1 = dt Tq k + Vg sin( g )

(C.41)

(C.42)

p After linearizing the above equations, the non-zero elements of [Ag ], Bg , [Cg ] and p Dg matrices are given by

Ag (1, 2) = B Ag (2, 1) = +

(C.43)

1 C2 Vg0 f 0 cos(0 g0 ) C1 Vg0 h0 cos(0 g0 ) C4 Vg0 g0 sin(0 g0 ) + + 2H xq xd xd C3 Vg0 k0 sin(0 g0 ) + C5 Vg2 0 cos(2(0 g 0 )) xq (C.44)

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D 2H 1 C2 Vg0 sin(0 g0 ) Ag (2, 3) = 2H xd Ag (2, 2) = Ag (2, 4) = Ag (2, 5) = Ag (2, 6) = 1 C1 Vg0 sin(0 g0 ) 2H xd

(C.45) (C.46)

(C.47) (C.48)

1 C4 Vg0 cos(0 g0 ) 2H xq

1 C3 Vg0 cos(0 g0 ) 2H xq Vg0 sin(0 g0 ) Ag (3, 1) = Td Ag (3, 3) = Ag (3, 7) = 1 Td

(C.49) (C.50)

(C.51)

1 xd T d xd x d Vg0 sin(0 g0 ) Td 1 Td

(C.52) (C.53)

Ag (4, 1) = Ag (4, 4) = Ag (5, 1) =

(C.54) (C.55)

Vg0 cos(0 g0 ) Tq 1 Tq

Ag (5, 5) = Ag (6, 1) =

(C.56)

Vg0 cos(0 g0 ) Tq 1 Tq

(C.57) (C.58)

Ag (6, 6) =

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p Bg (2, 1) =

1 C2 f 0 cos(0 g0 ) C1 h0 cos(0 g0 ) C4 g0 sin(0 g0 ) + + 2H xq xd xd + C3 k0 sin(0 g0 ) + C5 Vg0 cos(2(0 g0 )) xq (C.59)

p Bg (2, 2) =

1 C2 f 0 sin(0 g0 ) C1 h0 sin(0 g0 ) C4 g0 cos(0 g0 ) + 2H xq xd xd C3 k0 cos(0 g0 ) + C5 Vg0 sin(2(0 g0 )) xq (C.60) (C.61)

p Bg (3, 1) =

sin(0 g0 ) Td cos(0 g0 ) Td sin(0 g0 ) Td cos(0 g0 ) Td cos(0 g0 ) Tq

p Bg (3, 2) =

(C.62)

p Bg (4, 1) =

(C.63) (C.64)

p Bg (4, 2) =

p Bg (5, 1) = p Bg (5, 2) =

(C.65) (C.66)

sin(0 g0 ) Tq cos(0 g0 ) Tq

p Bg (6, 1) = p Bg (6, 2) =

(C.67)

sin(0 g0 ) Tq

(C.68)

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Cg (1, 1) =

Vg0 sin 0 cos(0 g0 ) Vg0 cos 0 sin(0 g0 ) + IQg0 (C.69) xq xd C2 cos 0 xd C1 cos 0 xd C4 sin 0 xq C3 sin 0 xq (C.70)

Cg (1, 3) = Cg (1, 4) = Cg (1, 5) = Cg (1, 6) = Cg (2, 1) = Cg (2, 3) = Cg (2, 4) =

(C.71) (C.72)

(C.73)

Vg0 sin 0 sin(0 g0 ) Vg0 cos 0 cos(0 g0 ) + IDg0 (C.74) xq xd C2 sin 0 xd C1 sin 0 xd C4 cos 0 xq C3 cos 0 xq (C.75)

(C.76) (C.77)

Cg (2, 5) = Cg (2, 6) =

(C.78)

p Dg (1, 1) =

cos 0 sin(0 g0 ) sin 0 cos(0 g0 ) xq xd cos 0 cos(0 g0 ) sin 0 sin(0 g0 ) + xq xd sin 0 sin(0 g0 ) cos 0 cos(0 g0 ) xq xd sin 0 cos(0 g0 ) cos 0 sin(0 g0 ) + xq xd

(C.79)

p Dg (1, 2) =

(C.80) (C.81)

Dg (2, 1) =
p Dg (2, 2) =

(C.82)

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C.7

Simplication of Machine Model:

Modications to be made in 2.2 model to get various other simple models [1] are tabulated in Table C.1. Model Basic Modications Settings for No dynamic Saliency x q = xd

2.2

2.1

xq = xq and Tqo = 0

x q = xd

1.1

xd = xd and Tdo = 0 xq = xq and Tqo = 0

x q = xd

1.0

xd = xd and Tdo = 0 xq = xq = xq and Tqo = 0 Tqo = 0

x q = xd

0.0 (classical)

xd = xd and Tdo = 0 Tdo = 10000 (say) xq = xq = xq = xd and Tqo = 0, Tqo = 0

Table C.1: Simplications in 2.2 model.

NOTE: For classical model, the q-axis transient voltage, Eq = Eq is assumed to be a constant. To achieve this in 2.2 model, one may require to disable exciter in addition to choosing an appropriate value for xd relative to xd . For example, one may set xd = 6xd .

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Appendix D Exciter Modelling

As per [2, 22], the following IEEE-type exciter models are considered.

D.1

Single Time Constant Static Exciter:

Vc E fdmax VREF +

KA 1+sTA E fdmin

fd

VS

Figure D.1: Single time constant static excitation system. The time delay associated with the bus voltage measuring transducer is neglected. dEf d 1 = [Ef d + KA (Vref + Vs Vc )] dt TA After linearizing (D.1), the non-zero elements of the matrices are given by, (D.1)

1 TA KA p Bg (7, 2) = TA KA Eg (7, 2) = TA Ag (7, 7) =

(D.2) (D.3) (D.4)

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D.2

IEEE-type DC1A Exciter:

VS + VRMAX

VC

VF

1 + sT C 1 + sT B TGR

VB

KA 1 + sT A REG VRMIN

VR +

1 sT E

E FD

VFE

VREF

KE

VX

. S E(E FD) VX = E FD

sK F 1 + sT F ESS

Figure D.2: IEEE-type DC1A excitation system.

( )
TB

TC

1
Vs V

( )
TB

TC

xB +

VB

c +Vref VF

1+sTB

Figure D.3: TGR block.

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VF

xF

( )
KF TF 1+sTF

Efd

( )
TF

KF

Figure D.4: ESS block. NOTE: 1. The saturation function SE (Ef d ) is given by SE (Ef d ) = As eBs
Ef d

where As and Bs are to be determined from two sample points. 2. The time constant of the bus voltage measuring transducer is taken as 0.02 s and the corresponding dierential equation is not considered for linearization. The dierential equations for the DC1A exciter are given by,

dxF dt dxB dt

= =

1 xF + TF

KF TF

Ef d Vref + Vs Vc KF TF KF TF Ef d + x F Ef d + x F

(D.5) (D.6)

1 TC xB + 1 TB TB

TC dvR 1 vR + KA xB + Vref + Vs Vc = dt TA TB dEf d 1 = KE + A s e B s E f d E f d + v R dt TE

(D.7) (D.8)

After linearizing the above equations, the non-zero elements of the matrices are given by,

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Ag (7, 7) = Ag (7, 8) =

1 KE + As (Bs Ef d0 + 1)e(Bs TE

Ef d0 )

(D.9) (D.10)

1 TE KA TC KF TA TB TF 1 TA

Ag (8, 7) = Ag (8, 8) = Ag (8, 9) = Ag (8, 10) =

(D.11)

(D.12) (D.13)

KA TA KA TC TA TB 1 TB 1 TB 1 KF TF TC TB 1 TC TB KF TF

(D.14) (D.15)

Ag (9, 7) = Ag (9, 9) = Ag (9, 10) = Ag (10, 7) =

(D.16)

1 TB 1 TF 1 TF

(D.17) (D.18)

Ag (10, 10) =

(D.19)

p Bg (8, 2) = p Bg (9, 2) =

KA TC TA TB 1 TB 1 TC TB

(D.20) (D.21)

Eg (8, 2) = Eg (9, 2) =

KA TC TA TB 1 TB 1 TC TB

(D.22)

(D.23)

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D.3

IEEE-type AC4A Exciter:

VS V 1MAX VB (V RMAX KCIFD )

+ VC

+ V1MIN

V1

1 + sT C 1 + sT B

KA 1 + sT A

E FD

VREF

V RMIN

Figure D.5: IEEE-type AC4A excitation system.

( )
TB

TC

1
Vs V

( )
TB

TC

xB +

VB

c +Vref

1+sTB

Figure D.6: TGR block. The time constant of the bus voltage measuring transducer is taken as 0.02 s and the corresponding dierential equation is not considered for linearization. The dierential equations for the IEEE-type AC4A excitation system are given by,

dxB dt

1 TC xB + 1 TB TB

(Vref + Vs Vc )

(D.24) (D.25)

TC dEf d 1 Ef d + KA xB + = [Vref + Vs Vc ] dt TA TB

After linearizing the above equations, the non-zero elements of the matrices are given by,

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Ag (7, 7) = Ag (7, 9) =

1 TA

(D.26) (D.27)

KA TA 1 TB KA TC TA TB 1 TB 1 TC TB

Ag (9, 9) =
p Bg (7, 2) = p Bg (9, 2) =

(D.28) (D.29)

(D.30)

Eg (7, 2) = Eg (9, 2) =

KA TC TA TB 1 TB 1 TC TB

(D.31) (D.32)

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Appendix E Turbine and Speed-governor Modelling

As per the IEEE committee report [23], the following are the typical types of turbinegovernor are considered.

E.1

Hydro Turbine and its Speed Governor Model:

PGV

(1 sT W ) ( 1 + 0.5 sT W)

PM

Figure E.1: Hydraulic turbine model.

T W 0.5TW P GV 1+ TW 0.5TW 1+0.5sTW

Z1 +

PM

Figure E.2: Modied hydraulic turbine model.

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P o + K (1 + sT2 ) p.u. slip (1 + sT 1 )(1+sT 3) Pe P min

P max

GV

Figure E.3: Model of speed-governor for hydro turbines. The above model is modied as shown below for the purpose of linearization.
K T2 T1

pu slip

1 1+ sT1

T2 T1

y1 +

P 1
Pe

GV

1+ sT3

Figure E.4: Modied model of speed-governor for hydro turbine. The dierential equations for the hydro turbine and the speed-governor are given by,

dy1 1 T2 = K 1 dt T1 T1 dPGV dt =

Sm y 1

(E.1)

1 T2 K Sm y1 PGV T3 T1

(E.2)

2 dz1 = [3PGV z1 ] dt TW PM = z1 2PGV NOTE: 1. P0 is a constant. 2. (E.4) is used in (C.35) in place of Tm .

(E.3) (E.4)

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After linearization of above equations the non-zero elements of the matrices are given by

Ag (2, 15) = Ag (2, 16) = Ag (14, 2) =

1 H

(E.5)

1 2H K T1 1 T1 K T2 T1 T3 1 T3 1 T3 1 T2 T1

(E.6)

(E.7) (E.8)

Ag (14, 14) = Ag (15, 2) = Ag (15, 14) = Ag (15, 15) = Ag (16, 15) =

(E.9) (E.10)

(E.11)

6 TW 2 TW

(E.12) (E.13)

Ag (16, 16) =

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E.2

Reheat Type Steam Turbine and its Speed-governor Model:

+ +

PM

F HP

F IP

F LP

PGV

1 1 + sTCH

1
1 + sTRH

1 1 + sT CO

Figure E.5: Tandem compounded, single-reheat-type steam turbine model.

P O K(1+sT2 ) p.u slip 1+sT1 Q +

Pmax 1 T3 Pmin 1 s PGV

Figure E.6: Model for speed-governor for steam turbines.

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K T2 T1

pu slip

1 1+ sT1

T2 T1

y1 +

Figure E.7: Modied model for speed-governor for steam turbines. The dierential equations for the steam turbine and the associated speed-governor are given by, dx1 dt dx2 dt dx3 dt dy1 dt dPGV dt (PGV x1 ) TCH 1 (x1 x2 ) = TRH 1 = (x2 x3 ) TCO T2 1 K 1 Sm y 1 = T1 T1 = = 1 T2 P0 K Sm y1 PGV T3 T1 1 (E.14) (E.15) (E.16) (E.17)

(E.18)

PM = FHP x1 + FIP x2 + FLP x3 NOTE: 1. P0 is a constant. 2. (E.19) is used in (C.35) in place of Tm .

(E.19)

After linearization of above equations the non-zero elements of the matrices are given by,

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Ag (2, 11) = Ag (2, 12) = Ag (2, 13) =

FHP 2H FIP 2H FLP 2H 1 TCH

(E.20) (E.21)

(E.22) (E.23)

Ag (11, 11) = Ag (11, 15) = Ag (12, 11) =

1 TCH 1 TRH 1 TRH

(E.24)

(E.25) (E.26)

Ag (12, 12) = Ag (13, 12) =

1 TCO 1 TC 0 1 T2 T1

(E.27) (E.28)

Ag (13, 13) = Ag (14, 2) =

K T1 1 T1

(E.29)

Ag (14, 14) = Ag (15, 2) = Ag (15, 14) = Ag (15, 15) =

(E.30) (E.31)

K T2 T1 T3 1 T3 1 T3

(E.32) (E.33)

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Appendix F Network Modelling

F.1 Introduction:

Transmission network mainly consists of transmission lines and transformers. Since the time constants of these elements are relatively small compared to the mechanical time constants, the network transients are neglected and the network is assumed to be in sinusoidal steady state. The modelling of these components are briey discussed in the following sections:

F.2

Transmission Lines:

Transmission Lines are modelled as a nominal circuit [9] as shown in Figure F.1.

From Node y 2

To Z Node y 2

Figure F.1: Nominal Model of transmission lines. where, Z : represents the series impedance of the line. y : represents half of the total line charging y , at each node. 2

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Network Modelling

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F.3

Transformers:

The transformers are generally used as inter-connecting (IC) transformers and generator transformers. These transformers are usually with o-nominal-turns-ratio and are modelled as equivalent circuit [9] as shown in Figure F.2.

No tap side

y t/a

Tap side

(a1)
a

yt

(1a ) a2

yt

Figure F.2: Transformer Model where,

1 yt = z t zt : represents the series impedance at nominal-turns-ratio.

a: represents per unit o-nominal tap position. The transmission network is represented by an algebraic equation given by

=I YBU S V where YBU S = Bus admittance matrix = Vector of bus voltages V = Vector of injected bus currents I

(F.1)

The above equation is obtained by writing the network equations in the node-frame of reference taking ground as the reference.

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Appendix G Static Loads

P L = P L0 Q L = Q L0 V V0 V V0
mp

p1 +
np

V V0 V V0

mi

p2 +
ni

V V0 V V0

mz

p3
nz

(G.1) (G.2)

r1 +

r2 +

r3

PL0 = initial value of the active component of load. QL0 = initial value of the reactive component of load. V0 = initial value of the bus voltage magnitude at load bus. This model is also referred to as the ZIP model, since it consists of the sum of constant impedance (Z ), constant current (I ), and constant power (P ) terms. The parameters of this model are the coecients p1 to p3 and r1 to r3 , which dene the proportion of each component. While selecting these fractions, it should be noted that p1 + p 2 + p 3 = 1 r1 + r 2 + r 3 = 1 For real component of load power: constant power mp = 0.0 constant current mi = 1.0 constant impedance mz = 2.0 For reactive component of load power: constant power np = 0.0 constant current ni = 1.0 constant impedance nz = 2.0

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Static Loads We know that IQ + jID = = = = = PL + jQL V PL jQL

V2 V

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(G.3) (G.4) (G.5) (G.6) (G.7)

PL jQL V V2 PL jQL (VQ + jVD ) V2 QL QL PL PL VQ + 2 VD + j VD 2 VQ 2 2 V V V V

Comparing the like terms, we get the Q and D components of the load current for j th load bus as IQ = P L ID = P L VQ V2 VD V2 + QL QL VD V2 VQ V2 (G.8) (G.9)

where the load bus voltage magnitude V is given by V Linearizing(G.8) and (G.9), we get IQ = VD 0 P L0 Q L0 VQ0 PL + 2 QL + 2 VQ + 2 VD 2 V0 V0 V0 V0 + (PL0 VQ0 + QL0 VD0 ) ID = 2 V03 V (G.10) =
2 2 VQ + VD

VD 0 VQ0 P L0 Q L0 PL 2 QL + 2 VD 2 VQ 2 V0 V0 V0 V0 + (PL0 VD0 QL0 VQ0 ) 2 V03 V (G.11)

Considering only the rst term in (G.1), one component of PL can be obtained as follows: = P L0 = p 1 mp NITK Surathkal 1 V0
mp

p 1 m p V0 P L0 V0 136 V

(mp 1)

Electrical Dept.

Static Loads

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Following the above procedure for the remaining two terms in (G.1), we have PL = mk where mk = m p p 1 + m i p 2 + m z p 3 Similarly, QL can be obtained as QL = nk where nk = n p r 1 + n i r 2 + n z r 3 Using the result given in (B.5) we can write V = VQ0 VD 0 VQ + VD V0 V0 (G.14) Q L0 V0 V (G.13) P L0 V0 V (G.12)

Substitution of (G.14), (G.12), and (G.13) in (G.10) and (G.11) yields IQ = GQQ VQ + BQD VD ID = BDQ VQ + GDD VD or ID IQ where BDQ = Q L0 V02 (nk 2)
2 VQ P L0 0 +1 2 2 V0 V0

BDQ GDD GQQ BQD

VQ VD

(mk 2) (mk 2) (nk 2) (nk 2)

VQ0 VD0 V02 VQ0 VD0 V02 VQ0 VD0 V02 VQ0 VD0 V02

(G.15)

BQD

Q L0 = V02 P L0 V02

2 VD P L0 (nk 2) 20 + 1 + 2 V0 V0 2 VQ Q L0 0 +1 + 2 2 V0 V0

(G.16)

GQQ =

(mk 2)

(G.17)

GDD

P L0 = V02

2 VD Q L0 (mk 2) 20 + 1 2 V0 V0

(G.18)

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Appendix H Initial Condition Calculations

From the load-ow analysis, the following end results are noted: 1. Real power output of generator, Pg0 2. Reactive power output of generator, Qg0 3. Terminal bus voltage, Vg0 g0 Using these values, the initial conditions of states variables are calculated as follows [1]: 1. Compute g0 = Vg0 (cos g0 + j sin g0 ) V Pg0 + jQg0 = I g 0 0 Ig 0 = g0 V q 0 = V g0 + jxq I g0 E q 0 0 = E 2. Compute g0 ej0 iq0 + jid0 = I = Ig0 (0 0 ) iq0 = Ig0 cos(0 0 ) id0 = Ig0 sin(0 0 ) (H.5) (H.6) (H.1) (H.2)

(H.3) (H.4)

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Initial Condition Calculations 3. Compute g0 ej0 vq0 + jvd0 = V = Vg0 (g0 0 )

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vq0 = Vg0 cos(g0 0 ) vd0 = Vg0 sin(g0 0 ) 4. Compute Ef d0 = Eq0 (xd xq )id0 5. Compute d0 = v q 0 q0 = vd0 6. Compute h0 = d0 f 0 = d0 + k 0 = q 0 g 0 = q 0 7. Compute Tm0 = Pg0 8. Compute The generator eld current, if 0 = The exciter current, I F D 0 = x d if 0 (f 0 d0 ) xf l xd E f d0 xd x d

(H.7) (H.8)

(H.9)

(H.10) (H.11)

(H.12) (H.13) (H.14) (H.15)

(H.16)

(H.17)

(H.18)

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Initial Condition Calculations NOTE:

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In the above calculations, the armature resistance, Ra has been neglected. The initial condition of state variables are calculated for the operating point whose small-signal stability is to be determined.

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Bibliography
[1] K.R. Padiyar, Power System Dynamics - Stability and Control, BS Publications, Hyderabad, India, 2002. [2] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1994. [3] Graham Rogers, Demystifying Power System Oscillations , IEEE Computer Application in Power, 1996. [4] Ogata K, State Space Analysis of Control Systems, Prentice-Hall, Englewood cli, NJ, 1967. [5] Graham Rogers, Power System Oscillations, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London, 2000. [6] Nelson Martins, Ecient Eigenvalue and Frequency Response Methods Applied to Power System Small-Signal Stability Studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-1, No. 1, pp 217-224, February, 1986. [7] M. Klein, G.J. Rogers, S. Moorthy and P. Kundur, Analytical Investigation of Factors Inuencing Power System Stabilizers Performance, IEEE Trans.on Energy Conversion, Vol.7, No.3, pp 382-390, September, 1992. [8] P.W. Sauer and M.A. Pai, Power System Dynamics and Stability, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersy, 1998. [9] A.R. Bergen and V. Vittal, Power System Analysis, Pearson Education Asia, India,2001. [10] P.G. Murthy and M.Pavella, Transient Stability of Power Systems, Theory and Practice, John Wiley& Sons Ltd., England, 1994. [11] Nelson Martins and L.T. G. Lima, Determination of Suitable Locations for PSS and Static var Compensators for Damping Electromechanical Oscillations in Large Power systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp 1455-1469, November, 1990. NITK Surathkal 143 Electrical Dept.

Bibliography

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[12] P.Kundur, G.R.Rogers, D.Y.Wong, L.Wang, M.G.Lauby, A Comprehensive Computer Program Package for Small-Signal Stability Analysis of Power System, IEEE Trans.on Power Systems, Vol.5, No.4, November, 1990. [13] Using MATLAB, Version 5.3, Release 11, The Math Works Inc. [14] P. Kundur, D.C. Lee and H.M. Zein El-Din,Power System Stabilizers for Thermal Units: Analytical Techniques and On-site Validation, IEEE Trans.on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, pp. 81-95, January, 1981. [15] H. Breulmann, E. Grebe, W. Winter, R. Witzmann, P. Dupuis, M.P. Houry, T. Margotin, J. Zerenyi, J. Dudzik, PSE S.A., J. Machowski, L. Martn, J. M. Rodrguez, E. Urretavizcaya, Analysis and Damping of Inter-Area Oscillations in the UCTE/CENTREL Power System, CIGRE, Germany, 2000. [16] S.A.Soman, S.A.Khaparde and Shubha Pandit, Computational Methods for Large Sparse power Systems Analysis, An Object Oriented Approach, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 2002. [17] Mariesa Crow, Computational Methods for Electric Power System, CRC Press LLC, Landon, 2003. [18] J.G.Stoolweg, J.Person, A.M.van Voorden, G.C.Paap, W.L.Kling,A Study of the Eigenvalue Analysis Capabilities of Power System Dynamics Simulation Software, 14th PSCC, Sevilla, 24-28 June, 2002. [19] Using Simulink, Version 3, Release 11, The Math Works Inc. [20] F.L.Pagola,I.J. Perez-Arriaga and G.C Verghese,On Sensitivities, Residues and Participations: Applications to Oscillatory Stability Analysis and Control, IEEE Trans. on power systems, Vol.PWRS-4, No. 1, pp. 278-285, February., 1989. [21] G.C. Verghese, I.J. Perez-Arriage, and F.C. Schweppe, Selective Model Analysis with Application to Electric Power Systems, Part I: Heuristic Introduction, Part II: The Dynamic Stability Problem, IEEE Trans. on power systems, Vol.PAS-101, No. 9, pp. 3117-3134, September, 1982. [22] IEEE Recommended Practice for Excitation Systems Model for Power System Stability Studies, IEEE Standard 421.5-1992. [23] IEEE Committe Report, Dynamic Models for Steam and Hydro Turbines in Power System Studies, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,Vol.PAS-92, pp.1904-1915, November/December, 1973. NITK Surathkal 144 Electrical Dept.

Bibliography

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[24] M. Klein, G.J. Rogers, P. Kundur, A Fundamental Study of Inter-area Oscillations in Power System, IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, Vol.6, No. 3, pp. 914-921, August, 1991. [25] F.P.deMello and C.Concordia, Concept of Synchronous Machine Stability as Affected by Excitation Control, IEEE Trans.on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-88, pp.316-329, Apirl, 1969. [26] Hingorani N.G and Gyugyi.L, Understanding FACTS, IEEE press, NewYork, 2000. [27] E.V. Larsen and D.A. Swann,Applying Powers System Stabilizers, Part I; General Concepts, Part II; Performance Objectives and Tuning Concepts, Part III; Practical considerations , IEEE Trans on power Apparatus and Systems Vol PAS-100, No.6, pp. 3017-3046, June, 1981. [28] P.Kundur, M.Klien, G.J. Rogers and M.S. Zwyno, Application of Power System Stabilizers for Enhancement of Overall System Stability, IEEE Trans.on Power Systems, Vol 4, pp. 614-626, May, 1989. [29] K.E. Bollinger, A. Laha, R. Hamilton, T. Harras, Power System Stabilizer Design Using Root Locus Methods, IEEE Trans.on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-94, pp.1484-1488, September/October, 1975. [30] Ogata K, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice-Hall, N.J, July, 2001. [31] S.Lefebvre, Tuning of Stabilizers in Multimachine Power System,IEEE Trans.on Power Apparatus Systems, Vol. PAS-102, No. 2, February, 1983. [32] D.C. Lee, R.E. Beaulieu and J.A.R. Service, A Power System Stabilizer Using Speed and Electric Power Inputs-Design and Field Experience IEEE Trans.on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, pp. 81-95, January, 1981.

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Acknowledgments

The authors thank Prof. A.M.Kulkarni at IIT Bombay for his valuable suggestions and discussions regarding the programme implementation.

Please report bugs to: [email protected]

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