Forging

Forging is the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: '"cold," "warm," or "hot" forging. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 580 metric tons. !" #" Forged parts usuall$ re%uire further processing to achieve a finished part. ! &istor$ # 'dvantages and disadvantages ( )rocesses (.! *emperature (.# +rop forging (.#.! ,pen-die drop forging (.#.# .mpression-die drop forging (.#.#.! +esign of impression-die forgings and tooling (.( )ress forging (./ 0pset forging (.5 'utomatic hot forging (.1 2oll forging (.3 4et-shape and near-net-shape forging (.3.! 5ost implications

(.8 .nduction forging History Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.*raditionall$, forging was performed 6$ a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the !#th centur$, the hammer and anvil are not o6solete. *he smith$ or forge has evolved over centuries to 6ecome a facilit$ with engineered processes, production e%uipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industr$. .n modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers powered 6$ compressed air, electricit$, h$draulics or steam. *hese hammers ma$ have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. 7maller power hammers, 500 l6 8#(0 kg9 or less reciprocating weight, and h$draulic presses are common in art smithies as well. 7ome steam hammers remain in use, 6ut the$ 6ecame o6solete with the availa6ilit$ of the other, more convenient, power sources. Advantages and disadvantages Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an e%uivalent cast or machined part. 's the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. 's a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics.

7ome metals ma$ 6e forged cold, however iron and steel are almost alwa$s hot forged. &ot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forming, which would increase the difficult$ of performing secondar$ machining operations on the piece. 'lso, while work hardening ma$ 6e desira6le in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as heat treating, are generall$ more economical and more controlla6le. 'llo$s that are amena6le to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium allo$s and titanium, can 6e hot forged, followed 6$ hardening. citation needed" )roduction forging involves significant capital e:penditure for machiner$, tooling, facilities and personnel. .n the case of hot forging, a high temperature furnace 8sometimes referred to as the forge9 will 6e re%uired to heat ingots or 6illets. ,wing to the massiveness of large forging hammers and presses and the parts the$ can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot metal, a special 6uilding is fre%uentl$ re%uired to house the operation. .n the case of drop forging operations, provisions must 6e made to a6sor6 the shock and vi6ration generated 6$ the hammer. ;ost forging operations will re%uire the use of metal-forming dies, which must 6e precisel$ machined and carefull$ heat treated to correctl$ shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces involved. Processes

' cross-section of a forged connecting rod that has 6een etched to show the grain flow. *here are man$ different kinds of forging processes availa6le, however the$ can 6e grouped into three main classes: !" +rawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases 0pset: <ength decreases, cross-section increases 7%ueezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow 5ommon forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die forging, impression-die forging, press forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting. Temperature Hot working and Cold working 'll of the following forging processes can 6e performed at various temperatures, however the$ are generall$ classified 6$ whether the metal temperature is a6ove or 6elow the recr$stallization temperature. .f the temperature is a6ove the material's recr$stallization temperature it is deemed hot forging= if the temperature is 6elow the material's recr$stallization temperature 6ut a6ove (>!0ths of the recr$stallization temperature 8on an a6solute scale9 it is deemed warm forging= if 6elow (>!0ths of the recr$stallization temperature 8usuall$ room temperature9 then it is deemed cold forging. *he main advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is deformed

work hardening effects are negated 6$ the recr$stallization process. 5old forging t$picall$ results in work hardening of the piece.

Drop forging *here are two t$pes of drop forging: open-die drop forging and closed-die drop forging. 's the names impl$, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not full$ enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does. *he similarit$ 6etween the two is that a hammer is raised up and then dropped onto the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die. Open-die drop forging ,pen-die forging is also known as smith forging. 1" .n open-die forging, a hammer strikes and deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationar$ anvil. ,pen-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies 8the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece9 do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow e:cept where contacted 6$ the dies. *herefore the operator needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. *he dies are usuall$ flat in shape, 6ut some have a speciall$ shaped surface for specialized operations. For e:ample, a die ma$ have a round, concave, or conve: surface or 6e a tool to form holes or 6e a cut-off tool. ,pen-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work. .n some cases, open-die forging ma$ 6e emplo$ed to rough-shape ingots to prepare them for su6se%uent operations. ,pendie forging ma$ also orient the grain to increase strength in the re%uired direction.

5ogging is successive deformation of a 6ar along its length using an open-die drop forge. .t is commonl$ used to work a piece of raw material to the proper thickness. ,nce the proper thickness is achieved the proper width is achieved via edging. ?dging is the process of concentrating material using an concave shaped open die. *he process is called edging, 6ecause it is usuall$ carried out on the ends of the workpiece. Fullering is a similar process that thins out sections of the forging using a conve: shaped die. *hese processes prepare the workpieces for further forging processes. @" ?dging Fullering .mpression-die drop forging .mpression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. .n impression-die work metal is placed in a die resem6ling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. 0suall$ the hammer die is shaped as well. *he hammer is then dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. *he hammer is generall$ in contact with the workpiece on the scale of milliseconds. +epending on the size and comple:it$ of the part the hammer ma$ 6e dropped multiple times in %uick succession. ?:cess metal is s%ueezed out of the die cavities, forming what is referred to as flash. *he flash cools more rapidl$ than the

rest of the material= this cool metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from forming. *his also forces the metal to completel$ fill the die cavit$. 'fter forging the flash is removed. .n commercial impression-die forging the workpiece is usuall$ moved through a series of cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. *he first impression is used to distri6ute the metal into the rough shape in accordance to the needs of later cavities= this impression is called an edging, fullering, or 6ending impression. *he following cavities are called 6locking cavities, in which the piece is working into a shape that more closel$ resem6les the final product. *hese stages usuall$ impart the workpiece with generous 6ends and large fillets. *he final shape is forged in a final or finisher impression cavit$. .f there is onl$ a short run of parts to 6e done it ma$ 6e more economical for the die to lack a final impression cavit$ and instead machine the final features. (" .mpression-die forging has 6een further improved in recent $ears through increased automation which includes induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging. ,ne variation of impression-die forging is called flashless forging, or true closed-die forging. .n this t$pe of forging the die cavities are completel$ closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. *he maAor advantage to this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can

account for #0 to /5B of the starting material. *he disadvantages of this process include additional cost due to a more comple: die design and the need for 6etter lu6rication and workpiece placement. *here are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging. ,ne method incorporates casting a forging preform from li%uid metal. *he casting is removed after it has solidified, 6ut while still hot. .t is then finished in a single cavit$ die. *he flash is trimmed, then the part is %uench hardened. 'nother variation follows the same process as outlined a6ove, e:cept the preform is produced 6$ the spra$ing deposition of metal droplet into shaped collectors 8similar to the ,spre$ process9.

5losed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and re%uired design work to make working die cavities. &owever, it has low recurring costs for each part, thus forgings 6ecome more economical with more volume. *his is one of the maAor reasons closed-die forgings are often used in the automotive and tool industr$. 'nother reason forgings are common in these industrial sectors is 6ecause forgings generall$ have a6out a #0 percent higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.

Design of impression-die forgings and tooling Forging dies are usuall$ made of high-allo$ or tool steel. +ies must 6e impact resistant, wear resistant, maintain strength at high temperatures, and have the a6ilit$ to withstand c$cles of rapid heating and cooling. .n order to produce a 6etter, more economical die the following rules should 6e followed: !!" *he dies should part along a single, flat plane if at all possi6le. .f not the parting plane should follow the contour of the part. *he parting surface should 6e a plane through the center of the forging and not near an upper or lower edge. 'de%uate draft should 6e provided= a good guideline is at least (C for aluminum and 5C to 3C for steel Denerous fillets and radii should 6e used 2i6s should 6e low and wide *he various sections should 6e 6alanced to avoid e:treme difference in metal flow Full advantage should 6e taken of fi6er flow lines +imensional tolerances should not 6e closer than necessar$ *he dimensional tolerances of a steel part produced using the impression-die forging method are outlined in the ta6le 6elow. .t should 6e noted that the dimensions across the paring plane are affected 6$ the closure of the

dies, and are therefore dependent die wear and the thickness of the final flash. +imensions that are completel$ contained within a single die segment or half can 6e maintained at a significantl$ greater level of accurac$. !0" +imensional tolerances for impression-die forgings, ;ass kg 8l69" ;inus tolerance mm 8in9" )lus tolerance mm 8in9" 0./5 8!9 0.!5 80.0019 0./8 80.0!89 0.@! 8#9 0.#0 80.0089 0.1! 80.0#/9 #.#3 859 0.#5 80.0!09 0.31 80.0(09 /.5/ 8!09 @.03 8#09 ##.18 8509 0.#8 80.0!!9 0.8/ 80.0((9 0.(( 80.0!(9 0.@@ 80.0(@9 0./8 80.0!@9 !./5 80.0539

/5.(1 8!009 0.3/ 80.0#@9 #.#! 80.0839 ' lu6ricant is alwa$s used when forging to reduce friction and wear. .t is also used to as a thermal 6arrier to restrict heat transfer from the workpiece to the die. Finall$, the lu6ricant acts as a parting compound to prevent the part from sticking in one of the dies.

Press forging )ress forging works slowl$ 6$ appl$ing continuous pressure or force, which differs from the nearinstantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. *he amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is measured in seconds 8as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges9. *he press forging operation can 6e done either cold or hot. *he main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its a6ilit$ to deform the complete workpiece. +rop-hammer forging usuall$ onl$ deforms the surfaces of the workpiece in contact with the hammer and anvil= the interior of the workpiece will sta$ relativel$ undeformed. 'nother advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. Ee specificall$ know what kind of strain can 6e put on the part, 6ecause the compression rate of the press forging operation is controlled. *here are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece 6eing in contact with the dies for such an e:tended period of time. *he operation is a time consuming process due to the amount of steps and how long each of them take. *he workpiece will cool faster 6ecause the dies are in contact with workpiece= the dies facilitate drasticall$ more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. 's the workpiece cools it 6ecomes stronger and less ductile,

which ma$ induce cracking if deformation continues. *herefore heated dies are usuall$ used to reduce heat loss, promote surface flow, and ena6le the production of finer details and closer tolerances. *he workpiece ma$ also need to 6e reheated. Ehen done in high productivit$, press forging is more economical than hammer forging. *he operation also creates closer tolerances. .n hammer forging a lot of the work is a6sor6ed 6$ the machiner$, when in press forging, the greater percentage of work is used in the work piece. 'nother advantage is that the operation can 6e used to create an$ size part 6ecause there is no limit to the size of the press forging machine. 4ew press forging techni%ues have 6een a6le to create a higher degree of mechanical and orientation integrit$. F$ the constraint of o:idation to the outer most la$ers of the part material, reduced levels of microcracking take place in the finished part. )ress forging can 6e used to perform all t$pes of forging, including open-die and impression-die forging. .mpression-die press forging usuall$ re%uires less draft than drop forging and has 6etter dimensional accurac$. 'lso, press forgings can often 6e done in one closing of the dies, allowing for eas$ automation.

Upset forging 0pset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece 6$ compressing its length. !#" Fased on num6er of pieces produced this is the most widel$ used forging process. !#" ' few e:amples of common parts produced using the upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, 6olts, screws, and other fasteners. 0pset forging is usuall$ done in special high speed machines called crank presses, 6ut upsetting can also 6e done in a vertical crank press or a h$draulic press. *he machines are usuall$ set up to work in the horizontal plane, to facilitate the %uick e:change of workpieces from one station to the ne:t. *he initial workpiece is usuall$ wire or rod, 6ut some machines can accept 6ars up to #5 cm [email protected] in9 in diameter and a capacit$ of over !000 tons. *he standard upsetting machine emplo$s split dies that contain multiple cavities. *he dies open enough to allow

the workpiece to move from one cavit$ to the ne:t= the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinall$ against the 6ar, upsetting it into the cavit$. .f all of the cavities are utilized on ever$ c$cle then a finished part will 6e produced with ever$ c$cle, which is wh$ this process is ideal for mass production. !#" *he following three rules must 6e followed when designing parts to 6e upset forged: !(" *he length of unsupported metal that can 6e upset in one 6low without inAurious 6uckling should 6e limited to three times the diameter of the 6ar. <engths of stock greater than three times the diameter ma$ 6e upset successfull$ provided that the diameter of the upset is not more than !.5 times the diameter of the stock. .n an upset re%uiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and where the diameter of the cavit$ is not more than !.5 times the diameter of the stock, the length of unsupported metal 6e$ond the face of the die must not e:ceed the diameter of the 6ar.

Automatic

ot forging

*he automatic hot forging process involves feeding milllength steel 6ars 8t$picall$ 3 m 8#( ft9 long9 into one end of the machine at room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the other end. *his all occurs ver$ %uickl$= small parts can 6e made at a rate of !80 parts per minute 8ppm9 and larger can 6e made at a rate of @0 ppm. *he parts can 6e solid or hollow, round or s$mmetrical, up to 1 kg 8!( l69, and up to !8 cm 83.! in9 in diameter. *he main advantages to this process are its high output rate and a6ilit$ to accept low cost materials. <ittle la6or is re%uired to operate the machiner$. *here is no flash produced so material savings are 6etween #0 and (0B over conventional forging. *he final product is a consistent !,050 C5 8!,@#0 CF9 so air cooling will result in a part that is still easil$ machina6le 8the advantage 6eing

the lack of annealing re%uired after forging9. *olerances are usuall$ G0.( mm 80.0!# in9, surfaces are clean, and draft angles are 0.5 to !C. *ool life is nearl$ dou6le that of conventional forging 6ecause contact times are on the order of 1>!00 of a second. *he downside to the process is it onl$ feasi6le on smaller s$mmetric parts and cost= the initial investment can 6e over H!0 million, so large %uantities are re%uired to Austif$ this process. *he process starts 6$ heating up the 6ar to !,#00 to !,(00 C5 8#,!@# to #,(3# CF9 in less than 10 seconds using high power induction coils. .t is then descaled with rollers, sheared into 6lanks, and transferred several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed, final forged, and pierced 8if necessar$9. *his process can also 6e couple with high speed cold forming operations. Denerall$, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so that the advantages of cold-working can 6e o6tained, while maintaining the high speed of automatic hot forging. ?:amples of parts made 6$ this process are: wheel hu6 unit 6earings, transmission gears, tapered roller 6earing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for <) gas c$linders. ;anual transmission gears are an e:ample of automatic hot forging used in conAunction with cold working.

!oll forging 2oll forging is a process where round or flat 6ar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in length. 2oll forging is performed using two c$lindrical or semi-c$lindrical rolls, each containing one or more shaped grooves. ' heated 6ar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a stop the rolls rotate and the 6ar is progressivel$ shaped as it is rolled out of the machine. *he work piece is then transferred to the ne:t set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. *his continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. *he advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favora6le grain structure into the workpiece.

?:amples of products produced using this method include a:les, tapered levers and leaf springs. 4et-shape and near-net-shape forging 7ee also: 4ear-net-shape *his process is also known as precision forging. *his process was developed to minimize cost and waste associated with post forging operations. *herefore, the final product from a precision forging needs little to no final machining. 5ost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease in energ$ used, and the reduction or elimination of machining. )recision forging also re%uires less of a draft, !C to 0C. *he downside of this process is its cost, therefore it is onl$ implemented if significant cost reduction can 6e achieved.

Cost implications *o achieve a low cost net shape forging for demanding applications that are su6Aect to a high degree of scrutin$, i.e. non-destructive testing 6$ wa$ of a die-penetrant inspection techni%ue, it is crucial that 6asic forging process disciplines are implemented. .f the 6asic disciplines are not met, there is a high pro6a6ilit$ that su6se%uent material removal operations will 6e necessar$ to remove material defects found at nondestructive testing inspection. &ence low cost parts will not 6e achieva6le.

?:ample disciplines are: die-lu6ricant management 80se of uncontaminated and homogeneous mi:tures, amount and placement of lu6ricant9. *ight control of die temperatures and surface finish > friction.

"nduction forging 0nlike the a6ove processes, induction forging is 6ased on the t$pe of heating st$le used. ;an$ of the a6ove processes can 6e used in conAunction with this heating method. #$uipment Hydraulic drop- ammer 8a9 ;aterial flow of a conventionall$ forged disc= 869 ;aterial flow of an impactor forged disc.

*he most common t$pe of forging e%uipment is the hammer and anvil. )rinciples 6ehind the hammer and anvil are still used toda$ in drop-hammer e%uipment. *he principle 6ehind the machine is ver$ simpleIraise the hammer and then drop it or propel it into the workpiece, which rests on the anvil. *he main variations 6etween drop-hammers are in the wa$ the hammer is powered= the most common 6eing air and steam hammers. +rophammers usuall$ operate in a vertical position. *he main reason for this is e:cess energ$ 8energ$ that isn't used to deform the workpiece9 that isn't released as heat or sound needs to 6e transmitted to the foundation. ;oreover, a large machine 6ase is needed to a6sor6 the impacts. *o overcome some of the shortcomings of the drophammer, the counter6low machine or impactor is used. .n a counter6low machine 6oth the hammer and anvil move and the workpiece is held 6etween them. &ere e:cess energ$ 6ecomes recoil. *his allows the machine to work horizontall$ and consist of a smaller 6ase. ,ther advantages include less noise, heat and vi6ration. .t also produces a distinctl$ different flow pattern. Foth of these machines can 6e used for open die or closed die forging. ' forging press, often Aust called a press, is used for press forging. *here are two main t$pes: mechanical and h$draulic presses. ;echanical presses function 6$ using cams, cranks and>or toggles to produce a preset 8a predetermined force at a certain location in the stroke9 and reproduci6le stroke. +ue to the nature of this t$pe of

s$stem, different forces are availa6le at different stroke positions. ;echanical presses are faster than their h$draulic counterparts 8up to 50 strokes per minute9. *heir capacities range from ( to !10 ;4 8(00 to !8,000 short tons-force9. &$draulic presses use fluid pressure and a piston to generate force. *he advantages of a h$draulic press over a mechanical press are its fle:i6ilit$ and greater capacit$. *he disadvantages include a slower, larger, and costlier machine to operate. *he roll forging, upsetting, and automatic hot forging processes all use specialized machiner$. <ist of large forging presses : Force 8tonnes9 .ngot size 8tonnes9 !1,000 !5,000 5hina !/,000 !(,000 5old sizing +ou6le hammer 7emi-solid metal casting Anvil 100 580 100 +oosan 5ompan$ ?rzhong 5hina 5hina First &eav$ .ndustries Japan 7teel Eorks 7outh Korea Japan 5ountr$

*he anvil serves as a work 6ench to the 6lacksmith, where the metal to 6e 6eaten is placed. 'nvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. *he flat top has two holes= the wider is called the hard$ hole, where the s%uare shank of the hard$ fits. *he smaller hole is called the punch hole, used as clearance when punching holes in hot metal. C isel 5hisels are made of high car6on steel. *he$ are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. 5hisels are of two t$pes, hot and cold chisels. *he cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. 0suall$ hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not 6e su6stituted with cold chisels. !" Tongs *ongs are used 6$ the 6lacksmith for holding hot metals securel$. *he mouths are custom made 6$ the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal. Fuller Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. *he$ are often used in pairs, the 6ottom fuller has a s%uare shank which fits into the hard$ hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. *he work is placed on the 6ottom fuller and the top is

placed on the work and struck with a hammer. *he top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal. Hardy *he hard$ is a cutting tool similar to the chisel. .t is used as a chisel or hammer for cutting 6oth hot and cold metals. .t has a s%uare shank that fits into the hard$ hole in the anvil, with the cutting edge facing upwards. *he metal to 6e cut is placed on the cutting edge and struck with a hammer. *he$ are also used with set tools which are placed over the workpiece and struck. %lack tu& ' slack tu6 is usuall$ a large container full of water, 6rine, or oil used 6$ a 6lacksmith to %uench hot metal. *he term is 6elieved to derive from the word "slake", as in slaking the heat. 'orkpiece (aterials *he materials that are used most commonl$ in drop forging are aluminum, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium. ;ild steel is the 6est choice, and magnesium generall$ performs prett$ poorl$ as a drop forging material.

Oven ,ven depicted in a painting 6$ Jean-FranLois ;illet 'n oven is an enclosed compartment for heating, 6aking or dr$ing. .t is most commonl$ used in cooking and potter$. ,vens used in potter$ are also known as kilns. 'n oven used for heating or for industrial processes is called a furnace or industrial oven. .n modern times the oven is used to cook and heat food in man$ households across the glo6e. 'ncient Dreek porta6le oven, !3th centur$ F5? 7ettlements across the .ndus Malle$ 5ivilization were the first to have an oven within each mud-6rick house 6$ (#00 F5. 5ulinar$ historians credit the Dreeks for developing 6read 6aking into an art. Front-loaded 6read ovens were developed in ancient Dreece. *he Dreeks created a wide variet$ of doughs, loaf shapes and st$les of serving 6read with other foods. Faking developed as a trade and profession as 6read increasingl$ was prepared outside of the famil$ home 6$ speciall$ trained workers to 6e sold to the pu6lic. *his is one of the oldest forms of professional food processing. 5ontents ! 5ooking # .ndustrial, scientific, and artisanal use

Cooking (odern oven .n cooking, the conventional oven is a kitchen appliance and is used for roasting and heating. Food normall$ cooked in this manner includes meat, casseroles and 6aked goods such as 6read, cake and other desserts. ;odern ovens are fueled 6$ gas or electricit$. Ehen an oven is contained in a complete stove, the fuel used for the oven ma$ 6e the same as or different from the fuel used for the 6urners on top of the stove. ,vens usuall$ can use a variet$ of methods to cook. *he most common ma$ 6e to heat the oven from 6elow. *his is commonl$ used for 6aking and roasting. *he oven ma$ also 6e a6le to heat from the top to provide 6roiling. .n order to provide faster, more-even cooking, convection ovens use a small fan to 6low hot air around the cooking cham6er. 'n oven ma$ also provide an integrated rotisserie. ,vens also var$ in the wa$ that the$ are controlled. *he simplest ovens 8for e:ample, the 'D' cooker9 ma$ not have an$ controls at all= the ovens simpl$ run continuousl$ at various temperatures. ;ore conventional ovens have a simple thermostat which turns the oven on and off and selects the temperature at which it will operate. 7et to the highest setting, this ma$ also ena6le the 6roiler element. ' timer ma$ allow the oven to 6e turned on and off automaticall$ at pre-set times. ;ore sophisticated ovens ma$ have comple:, computer-6ased

controls allowing a wide variet$ of operating modes and special features including the use of a temperature pro6e to automaticall$ shut the oven off when the food is completel$ cooked to the desired degree. 7ome ovens provide various aids to cleaning. 5ontinuous cleaning ovens have the oven cham6er coated with a catal$tic surface that helps 6reak down 8o:idize9 food splatters and spills over time. 7elf-cleaning ovens use p$rol$tic decomposition 8e:treme heat9 to o:idize dirt. 7team ovens ma$ provide a wet-soak c$cle to loosen dirt, allowing easier manual removal. .n the a6sence of an$ special methods, chemical oven cleaners are sometimes used or Aust old-fashioned scru66ing. .ndustrial, scientific, and artisanal use ,utside the culinar$ world, ovens are used for a num6er of purposes. ' furnace can 6e used either to provide heat to a 6uilding or used to melt su6stances such as glass or metal for further processing. ' 6last furnace is a particular t$pe of furnace generall$ associated with metal smelting 8particularl$ steel manufacture9 using refined coke or similar hot-6urning su6stance as a fuel, with air pumped in under pressure to increase the temperature of the fire. ' kiln is a high-temperature oven used in wood dr$ing, ceramics and cement manufacture to convert mineral feedstock 8in the form of cla$ or calcium or aluminum rocks9 into a glassier, more solid form. .n the case of ceramic kilns, a shaped cla$ o6Aect is the final result,

while cement kilns produce a su6stance called clinker that is crushed to make the final cement product. 85ertain t$pes of dr$ing ovens used in food manufacture, especiall$ those used in malting, are also referred to as kilns.9 'n autoclave is an oven-like device with features similar to a pressure cooker that allows the heating of a%ueous solutions to higher temperatures than water's 6oiling point in order to sterilize the contents of the autoclave. .ndustrial ovens are similar to their culinar$ e%uivalents and are used for a num6er of different applications that do not re%uire the high temperatures of a kiln or furnace. Kiln For the census-designated place, see Kiln, ;ississippi. For the software package, see Fog 5reek 7oftware. "Kilns" redirects here. For the house where 5. 7. <ewis wrote man$ of his works, see *he Kilns. 5harcoal Kilns, 5alifornia Dold Kiln, Mictoria, 'ustralia

Hop kiln. 'nagama kiln firing. Farnham )otter$, Erecclesham, 7urre$ with the preserved 6ottle kiln on the right of photo

5atenar$ arch kiln under construction 'n empt$, intermittent kiln= note the decorated vase having Aust 6een removed from kiln ' kiln is a thermall$ insulated cham6er, or oven, in which a controlled temperature regime is produced. Kilns are used to harden, 6urn, or dr$ materials. 7pecific uses include: *o dr$ green lum6er so that the lum6er can 6e used immediatel$ +r$ing wood for use as firewood &eating wood to the point of p$rol$sis to produce charcoal For annealing, fusing and deforming glass, or fusing metallic o:ide paints to the surface of glass For cremation 8at high temperature9 +r$ing of to6acco leaves Firing of material, such as cla$, to form ceramics +r$ing malted 6arle$ for 6rewing +r$ing hops for 6rewing 8known as a hop kiln or oast house9 7melting ore to e:tract metal &eating limestone with cla$ to make cement

&eating lime to make %uicklime or calcium o:ide5ontents hide" ! 5eramic kilns !.! *$pes of kiln # Eood-dr$ing kiln Ceramic kilns Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics, which, 6$ definition, re%uire heat treatment, often at high temperature. +uring this process, chemical and ph$sical reactions occur which cause the material to 6e permanentl$ altered. .n the case of potter$, cla$ materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. *he final characteristics are determined 6$ the composition and preparation of the cla$ 6od$, 6$ the temperature at which it is fired, and 6$ the glazes that ma$ 6e used. 'lthough modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical s$stems to control the firing temperatures, p$rometric devices have 6een used to provide visual indication of the firing regime since around !000 '+. 5la$ consists of fine-grained particles, that are relativel$ weak and porous. 5la$ is com6ined with other minerals to create a worka6le cla$ 6od$. )art of the firing process includes sintering. *his process heats the cla$ until the particles partiall$ melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glass$ phase interspersed with pores and cr$stalline material. *hrough firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material

to shrink slightl$. *his cr$stalline material is a matri: of predominantl$ silicon and aluminium o:ides, and is ver$ hard and strong, although usuall$ somewhat 6rittle. Types of kiln .n the 6roadest terms, there are two t$pes of kiln, 6oth sharing the same 6asic characteristics of 6eing an insulated 6o: with controlled inner temperature and atmosphere. .n using an intermittent kiln, the ware to 6e fired is loaded into the kiln. *he kiln is sealed, and the internal temperature increased according to a schedule. 'fter the firing process is completed, 6oth the kiln and the ware are cooled. ' continuous kiln, sometimes called a tunnel kiln, is a long structure in which onl$ the central portion is directl$ heated. From the cool entrance, ware is slowl$ transported through the kiln, and its temperature is increased steadil$ as it approaches the central, hottest part of the kiln. From there, its transportation continues and the temperature is reduced until it e:its the kiln at near room temperature. ' continuous kiln is the most energ$-efficient, 6ecause heat given off during cooling is rec$cled to pre-heat the incoming ware. ' special t$pe of kiln, common in ta6leware and tile manufacture, is the roller-hearth kiln, in which ware placed on 6ats is carried through the kiln on rollers.

Kiln technolog$ is ver$ old. *he development of the kiln from a simple earthen trench filled with pots and fuel, pit firing, to modern methods happened in stages. ,ne improvement was to 6uild a firing cham6er around pots with 6affles and a stoking hole, this allowed heat to 6e conserved and used more efficientl$. *he use of a chimne$ stack improves the air flow or draw of the kiln, thus 6urning the fuel more completel$. ?arl$ e:amples of kilns found in Fritain include those made for the making of roof-tiles during the 2oman occupation. *hese kilns were 6uilt up the side of a slope, such that a fire could 6e lit at the 6ottom and the heat would rise up into the kiln. Eith the advent of the industrial age, kilns were designed to utilize electricit$ and more refined fuels, including natural gas and propane. *he maAorit$ of large, industrial potter$ kilns now use natural gas, as it is generall$ clean, efficient and eas$ to control. ;odern kilns can 6e fitted with computerized controls, allowing for refined adAustments during the firing c$cle. ' user ma$ choose to control the rate of temperature clim6 or ramp, hold or soak the temperature at an$ given point, or control the rate of cooling. Foth electric and gas kilns are common for smaller scale production in industr$ and craft, handmade and sculptural work. 'nagama kiln - the 'sian anagama kiln has 6een used since medieval times and is considered the oldest st$le of production kiln, 6rought to Japan from 5hina via Korea in the 5th centur$. *his kiln usuall$ consists of one long firing cham6er, pierced with smaller stacking ports on

one side, with a fire6o: at one end and a flue at the other. Firing time can var$ from one da$ to several weeks. *raditional anagama kilns are also 6uilt on a slope to allow for a 6etter draft. Fottle kiln - a t$pe of intermittent kiln, usuall$ coal-fired, formerl$ used in the firing of potter$= such a kiln was surrounded 6$ a tall 6rick hovel or cone, of t$pical 6ottle shape. 5atenar$ arch kiln, t$picall$ used for the firing of potter$ using salt, these 6$ their form 8a catenar$ arch9 tend to retain their shape over repeated heating and cooling c$cles, whereas other t$pes re%uire e:tensive metalwork supports. ?lectric kilns - kilns operated 6$ electricit$ were developed in the #0th centur$, primaril$ for smaller scale use such as in schools, universities, and ho66$ centers. *he atmosphere in most designs of electric kiln is rich in o:$gen, as there is no open flame to consume o:$gen molecules, however reducing conditions can 6e created with appropriate gas input. Feller kiln 6rought contemporar$ design to wood firing 6$ re-using the un6urnt gas from the chimne$ in order to heat the air up 6efore entering the fire6o:. *his leads to an even shorter firing c$cle and less wood consumption. *his design re%uires e:ternal ventilation to prevent the in-chimne$ radiator from melting, 6eing t$picall$ in metal. *he result is a ver$ efficient wood kiln firing one cu6ic meter of ceramics with one cu6ic meter of wood.

;icrowave assisted firing - this techni%ue com6ine microwave energ$ with more conventional energ$ sources such as radiant gas or electric heating in order to process ceramic materials to the re%uired high temperatures. ;icrowave-assisted firing offers significant economic 6enefits. 4o6origama kiln - the 4o6origama is an evolution from 'nagama design as a multi-cham6er kiln, usuall$ 6uilt on a slope, where wood is stacked from the front fire6o: at first, then onl$ through the side-stoking holes with the 6enefit of having air heated up to 100 N5 from the front fire6o:, ena6ling more efficient firings. 7Ovres kiln was invented in 7Ovres, France and ena6led to reach efficientl$ high-temperature 8!#80 N59 in order to have full$ water-proof ceramic 6odies and eas$ to o6tain glazes. .t features a down-draft design that ena6led to reach high temperature in shorter time, even with woodfiring. *op-hat kiln - an intermittent kiln of a t$pe sometimes used in the firing of potter$. *he ware is set on a refractor$ hearth, or plinth, over which a 6o:-shaped cover is then lowered. Eood-dr$ing kiln ' variet$ of wood dr$ing kiln technologies e:ist toda$: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio fre%uenc$.

5onventional wood dr$ kilns 82asmussen, !@889 are either package-t$pe 8sideloader9 or track-t$pe 8tram9 construction. ;ost hardwood lum6er kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lum6er packages into the kiln. ;ost softwood lum6er kilns are track t$pes in which lum6er packages are loaded on kiln>track cars for loading the kiln. ;odern high-temperature, high-air-velocit$ conventional kilns can t$picall$ dr$ !-inch-thick 8#5 mm9 green lum6er in !0 hours down to a moisture content of !8B. &owever, !-inch-thick green 2ed ,ak re%uires a6out #8 da$s to dr$ down to a moisture content of 8B. &eat is t$picall$ introduced via steam running through fin>tu6e heat e:changers controlled 6$ on>off pneumatic valves. <ess common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. &umidit$ is removed via a s$stem of vents, the specific la$out of which are usuall$ particular to a given manufacturer. .n general, cool dr$ air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is e:pelled at the other. &ardwood conventional kilns also re%uire the introduction of humidit$ via either steam spra$ or cold water misting s$stems to keep the relative humidit$ inside the kiln from dropping too low during the dr$ing c$cle. Fan directions are t$picall$ reversed periodicall$ to ensure even dr$ing of larger kiln charges. ;ost softwood lum6er kilns operate 6elow #/0 CF 8!!1 C59 temperature. &ardwood lum6er kiln dr$ing schedules t$picall$ keep the dr$ 6ul6 temperature 6elow !80 CF 88#

C59. +ifficult-to-dr$ species might not e:ceed !/0 degrees F. +ehumidification kilns are ver$ similar to conventional kilns in 6asic construction. +r$ing times are usuall$ compara6le. &eat is primaril$ supplied 6$ an integral dehumidification unit which also serves to remove humidit$. 'u:iliar$ heat is often provided earl$ in the schedule where the heat re%uired ma$ e:ceed the heat generated 6$ the +& unit. 7olar kilns are conventional kilns, t$picall$ 6uilt 6$ ho66$ists to keep initial investment costs low. &eat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is t$picall$ passive. 4ewer wood dr$ing technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the dr$ing process. ' variet$ of vacuum technologies e:ist, var$ing primaril$ in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. &ot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and t$picall$ operate at significantl$ reduced a6solute pressure. +iscontinuous and 77M 8super-heated steam9 use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. +iscontinuous technolog$ allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the cham6er is then heated, and finall$ vacuum is pulled. 77M run at partial atmospheres 8t$picall$ around !>( of full atmospheric pressure9 in a h$6rid of vacuum and conventional kiln technolog$ 877M kilns are significantl$ more popular in ?urope where the

locall$ harvested wood is easier to dr$ versus species found in 4orth 'merica9. 2F>M 8radio fre%uenc$ P vacuum9 kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and t$picall$ have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization 6eing provided 6$ electricit$ rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources. Malid economic studies of different wood dr$ing technologies are 6ased on the total energ$, capital, insurance>risk, environmental impacts, la6or, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fi6er. *hese costs 8which can 6e a significant part of the entire plant costs9involve the differential impact of the presence of dr$ing e%uipment in a specific plant. 'n e:ample of this is that ever$ piece of e%uipment 8in a lum6er manufacturing plant9 from the green trimmer to the infeed s$stem at the planer mill is the "dr$ing s$stem". 7ince thousands of different t$pes of wood products manufacturing plants e:ist around the glo6e, and ma$ 6e integrated 8lum6er, pl$wood, paper, etc.9 or stand alone 8lum6er onl$9, the true costs of the dr$ing s$stem can onl$ 6e determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without dr$ing. *he total 8harmful9 air emissions produced 6$ wood kilns, including their heat source, can 6e significant. *$picall$, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced 8per pound of water removed9. *his is especiall$ true in the dr$ing of thin veneers and high-temperature dr$ing of softwoods.

Furnace From Eikipedia, the free enc$clopedia For other uses, see Furnace 8disam6iguation9. *his article is missing citations or needs footnotes. )lease help add inline citations to guard against cop$right violations and factual inaccuracies. 8Jul$ #0039 .ndustrial Furnace from !@03 ' furnace is a device used for heating. *he name derives from <atin forna:, oven. *he earliest furnace was e:cavated at Falakot, a site of the .ndus Malle$ 5ivilization, dating 6ack to its mature phase 8c. #500!@00 F59. *he furnace was most likel$ used for the manufacturing of ceramic o6Aects. !" .n 'merican ?nglish and 5anadian ?nglish, the term furnace on its own is generall$ used to descri6e household heating s$stems 6ased on a central furnace 8known either as a 6oiler or a heater in Fritish ?nglish9, and sometimes as a s$non$m for kiln, a device used in the production of ceramics. .n Fritish ?nglish the term furnace is used e:clusivel$ to mean industrial furnaces which are used for man$ things, such as the e:traction of metal from ore 8smelting9 or in oil refineries and other chemical plants, for e:ample as the heat source for fractional distillation columns. *he term furnace can also refer to a direct fired heater, used in 6oiler applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to chemical reactions for processes like

cracking, and is part of the standard ?nglish names for man$ metallurgical furnaces worldwide. *he heat energ$ to fuel a furnace ma$ 6e supplied directl$ 6$ fuel com6ustion, 6$ electricit$ such as the electric arc furnace, or through .nduction heating in induction furnaces.5ontents ! &ousehold furnaces !.! ;odern Furnace components !.# &eat distri6ution # ;etallurgical furnaces ( .ndustrial process furnaces (.! 2adiant section (.# 5onvection section (.( Furner (./ 7oot6lower (.5 7tack (.1 .nsulation (.3 First fire / ,utdoor wood-fired 6oilers /.! +escription /.# Fenefits /.( 5ontrovers$

House old furnaces A condensing furnace ' household furnace is a maAor appliance that is permanentl$ installed to provide heat to an interior space through intermediar$ fluid movement, which ma$ 6e air, steam, or hot water. *he most common fuel source for modern furnaces in the 0nited 7tates is natural gas= other common fuel sources include <)D 8li%uefied petroleum gas9, fuel oil, coal or wood. .n some cases electrical resistance heating is used as the source of heat, especiall$ where the cost of electricit$ is low. 5om6ustion furnaces alwa$s need to 6e vented to the outside. *raditionall$, this was through a chimne$, which tends to e:pel heat along with the e:haust. ;odern highefficienc$ furnaces can 6e @8B efficient and operate without a chimne$. *he small amount of waste gas and heat are mechanicall$ ventilated through a small tu6e through the side or roof of the house. "&igh-efficienc$" in this sense ma$ 6e misleading, 6ecause furnace efficienc$ is t$picall$ e:pressed as a "first-law" efficienc$, whereas the energ$ efficienc$ of a t$pical furnace is much lower than the first-law thermal efficienc$. F$ comparison, cogeneration has a higher energ$ efficienc$ than is realiza6le from 6urning fuel to generate heat directl$ at a moderate temperature. &owever, as the vast maAorit$ of consumers 8as well as man$ government regulators9 are unfamiliar with e:erg$

efficienc$, 5arnot efficienc$, and the second law of thermod$namics, the use of first-law efficiencies to rate furnaces is well-entrenched. ;odern household furnaces are classified as condensing or non-condensing 6ased on their efficienc$ in e:tracting heat from the e:haust gases. Furnaces with efficiencies greater than appro:imatel$ 8@B e:tract so much heat from the e:haust that water vapor in the e:haust condenses= the$ are referred to as condensing furnaces. 7uch furnaces must 6e designed to avoid the corrosion that this highl$ acidic condensate might cause and ma$ need to include a condensate pump to remove the accumulated water. 5ondensing furnaces can t$picall$ deliver heating savings of #0B-(5B assuming the old furnace was in the 10B 'nnual Fuel 0tilization ?fficienc$ 8'F0?9 range. ;odern Furnace components *he furnace components can 6e divided into three categories. *he 6urners, heat e:changer, draft inducer, and venting. *he controls and safet$ devices. *he 6lower and air movement. *he flame originates at the 6urners and is drawn into the heat e:changer 6$ the negative pressure produced 6$ the draft inducer. *he hot gases produced 6$ the com6ustion of the flame pass through the cham6ers of the heat e:changer and heat the metal walls of the heat

e:changer. *he gases cool as the$ transfer the heat to the heat e:changer and are at a6out !#0 Q 8/@ R9 as the$ e:it on a high efficienc$ furnace. *he cooled gases then enter the draft inducer 6lower and are pushed into the venting pipes. *he e:haust gases then are directed out of the house through the vent pipes. *he controls include the gas valve, ignition control, ignitor, flame sensor, transformer, limit control, 6lower control 6oard, and flame roll out switch. *he transformer provides #/ volts of electricit$ to power the controls. #/ volts is applied to the thermostat that is installed in the living space. *he thermostat is 6asicall$ an automatic switch that closes and completes the electrical circuit when the room temperature drops 6elow the heat setting. *his then allows #/ volts to the circuit 6oard which initiates the heat se%uence. *he circuit 6oard has a rela$ that closes to power up the motor on the draft inducer 6lower. *hen the circuit 6oard ignitor rela$ is energized which sends !#0 volts to the hot surface ignitor and makes it glow 6right and get e:tremel$ hot. 4e:t the gas valve rela$ in the circuit 6oard is energized. *his allows voltage to the gas valve and energizes a solenoid coil in the gas valve which opens the valve to allow gas to flow to the 6urners. *he gas flows into the 6urners and is ignited 6$ the hot surface ignitor. *he ignition control circuit 6oard applies an '5 voltage to the flame sensor which is Aust a stainless steel rod. 'n interesting thing occurs inside a 6urning flame, which is

called ionization. *hat is, free electrons are produced which can conduct electricit$ through the flame itself. *he electrons will normall$ flow from the flame sensor, through the flame when present, and 6ack to ground through the grounded 6urners. *he ignition s$stem must prove that a flame is present to continue the gas flow, or if there's no flame, then shut off the gas flow through the gas valve to prevent a possi6le e:plosion. .t also must not 6e fooled into thinking there is a flame present 6$ a flame sensor that is touching the ground from 6eing 6roken or 6ent. *he wa$ it does this is 6$ a diode effect where the sensor surface area is less than !0B of the ground surface area. *his produces a half-wave of electrical current from each full wave. *he ignition control circuit detects the half-wave to determine if the sensor is merel$ touching ground. .f the ignition control receives this half wave signal from the flame sensor then com6ustion will continue. 4ow the circuit 6oard timer counts a determined amount of time and energizes the 6lower rela$. *his rela$ powers up the 6lower motor and air is then pushed through the heat e:changer where it removes the heat from the hot metal and enters the ductwork to go to the various rooms in the house. *he limit control is a safet$ device that will open the electrical circuit to the ignition control and stop the gas flow if the furnace overheats. *he flame roll-out switch does the same thing if the flame was rolling out of the heat e:changer instead of 6eing completel$ induced into it 6$ the draft inducer.

*he 6lower creates a negative pressure on the intake side which draws air into the ductwork return air s$stem and 6lows the air out through the heat e:changer and then into suppl$ air ductwork to distri6ute throughout the home.

Heat distri&ution *he furnace transfers heat to the living space of the 6uilding through an intermediar$ distri6ution s$stem. .f the distri6ution is through hot water 8or other fluid9 or through steam, then the furnace is more commonl$ termed a 6oiler. ,ne advantage of a 6oiler is that the furnace can provide hot water for 6athing and washing dishes, rather than re%uiring a separate water heater. ,ne disadvantage to this t$pe of application is when the 6oiler 6reaks down, 6oth heating and domestic hot water is not availa6le. 'ir convection heating s$stems have 6een in use for over a centur$, 6ut the older s$stems relied on a passive air circulation s$stem where the greater densit$ of cooler air caused it to sink into the furnace, and the lesser densit$ of the warmed air caused it to rise in the ductwork, the two forces acting together to drive air circulation in a s$stem termed "gravit$-feed= the la$out of the ducts and furnace was optimized for short, large ducts and caused the furnace to 6e referred to as an "octopus" furnace.

F$ comparison, most modern "warm air" furnaces t$picall$ use a fan to circulate air to the rooms of house and pull cooler air 6ack to the furnace for reheating= this is called forced-air heat. Fecause the fan easil$ overcomes the resistance of the ductwork, the arrangement of ducts can 6e far more fle:i6le than the octopus of old. .n 'merican practice, separate ducts collect cool air to 6e returned to the furnace. 't the furnace, cool air passes into the furnace, usuall$ through an air filter, through the 6lower, then through the heat e:changer of the furnace, whence it is 6lown throughout the 6uilding. ,ne maAor advantage of this t$pe of s$stem is that it also ena6les eas$ installation of central air conditioning 6$ simpl$ adding a cooling coil at the e:haust of the furnace. 'ir is circulated through ductwork, which ma$ 6e made of sheet metal or plastic "fle:" duct and insulated or uninsulated. 0nless the ducts and plenum have 6een sealed using mastic or foil duct tape, the ductwork is likel$ to have a high leakage of conditioned air, possi6l$ into unconditioned spaces. 'nother cause of wasted energ$ is the installation of ductwork in unheated areas, such as attics and crawl spaces= or ductwork of air conditioning s$stems in attics in warm climates. *he following rare 6ut difficult-to-diagnose failure can occur. .f the temperature inside the furnace e:ceeds a ma:imum threshold, a safet$ mechanism with a thermostat will shut the furnace down. ' s$mptom of this failure is that the furnace repeatedl$ shuts down 6efore

the house reaches the desired temperature= this is commonl$ referred to as the furnace "riding the high limit switch". *his condition commonl$ occurs if the temperature setting of the high limit thermostat is set too close to the normal operating temperature of the furnace. 'nother situation ma$ occur if a humidifier is incorrectl$ installed on the furnace and the duct which directs a portion of the humidified air 6ack into the furnace is too large. *he solution is to reduce the diameter of the crossfeed tu6e, or install a 6affle that reduces the volume of re-fed air. (etallurgical furnaces *he ;anufacture of .ron -- Filling the Furnace, an !83( wood engraving .n metallurg$, several specialised furnaces are used. *hese include: Furnaces used in smelters, including: *he 6last furnace, used to reduce iron ore to pig iron 7teelmaking furnaces, including: )uddling furnace 2ever6erator$ furnace Fessemer converter ,pen hearth furnace Fasic o:$gen furnace

?lectric arc furnace ?lectric induction furnace Furnaces used to remelt metal in foundries. Furnaces used to reheat and heat treat metal for use in: 2olling mills, including tinplate works and slitting mills. Forges. Macuum furnaces .ndustrial process furnaces 7chematic diagram of an industrial process furnace 'n industrial furnace or direct fired heater, is an e%uipment used to provide heat for a process or can serve as reactor which provides heats of reaction. Furnace designs var$ as to its function, heating dut$, t$pe of fuel and method of introducing com6ustion air. &owever, most process furnaces have some common features. Fuel flows into the 6urner and is 6urnt with air provided from an air 6lower. *here can 6e more than one 6urner in a particular furnace which can 6e arranged in cells which heat a particular set of tu6es. Furners can also 6e floor mounted, wall mounted or roof mounted depending on design. *he flames heat up the tu6es, which in turn heat the fluid inside in the first part of the furnace known as the radiant section or fire6o:. .n this cham6er where com6ustion takes place, the heat is transferred mainl$ 6$

radiation to tu6es around the fire in the cham6er. *he heating fluid passes through the tu6es and is thus heated to the desired temperature. *he gases from the com6ustion are known as flue gas. 'fter the flue gas leaves the fire6o:, most furnace designs include a convection section where more heat is recovered 6efore venting to the atmosphere through the flue gas stack. 8&*FS&eat *ransfer Fluid. .ndustries commonl$ use their furnaces to heat a secondar$ fluid with special additives like anti-rust and high heat transfer efficienc$. *his heated fluid is then circulated round the whole plant to heat e:changers to 6e used wherever heat is needed instead of directl$ heating the product line as the product or material ma$ 6e volatile or prone to cracking at the furnace temperature.9 2adiant section ;iddle of radiant section *he radiant section is where the tu6es receive almost all its heat 6$ radiation from the flame. .n a vertical, c$lindrical furnace, the tu6es are vertical. *u6es can 6e vertical or horizontal, placed along the refractor$ wall, in the middle, etc., or arranged in cells. 7tuds are used to hold the insulation together and on the wall of the furnace. *he$ are placed a6out ! ft 8(00 mm9 apart in this picture of the inside of a furnace. *he tu6es, shown 6elow, which are reddish 6rown from corrosion, are car6on steel tu6es and run the height of the radiant section. *he tu6es are a distance awa$ from the insulation so radiation can 6e reflected to the 6ack of the

tu6es to maintain a uniform tu6e wall temperature. *u6e guides at the top, middle and 6ottom hold the tu6es in place.

Convection section *he convection section is located a6ove the radiant section where it is cooler to recover additional heat. &eat transfer takes place 6$ convection here, and the tu6es are finned to increase heat transfer. *he first two tu6e rows in the 6ottom of the convection section and at the top of the radiant section is an area of 6are tu6es 8without fins9 and are known as the shield section, so named 6ecause the$ are still e:posed to plent$ of radiation from the fire6o: and the$ also act to shield the convection section tu6es, which are normall$ of less resistant material from the high temperatures in the fire6o:. *he area of the radiant section Aust 6efore flue gas enters the shield section and into the convection section called the 6ridgezone. 5rossover is the term used to descri6e the tu6e that connects from the convection section outlet to the radiant section inlet. *he crossover piping is normall$ located outside so that the temperature can 6e monitored and the efficienc$ of the convection section can 6e calculated. *he sightglass at the top allows personnel to see the flame shape and pattern from a6ove and visuall$ inspect if flame impingement is occurring. Flame impingement happens when the flame touches the tu6es and causes small isolated spots of ver$ high temperature.

Furnace &urner *he 6urner in the vertical, c$lindrical furnace as a6ove, is located in the floor and fires upward. 7ome furnaces have side fired 6urners, such as in train locomotives. *he 6urner tile is made of high temperature refractor$ and is where the flame is contained in. 'ir registers located 6elow the 6urner and at the outlet of the air 6lower are devices with mova6le flaps or vanes that control the shape and pattern of the flame, whether it spreads out or even swirls around. Flames should not spread out too much, as this will cause flame impingement. 'ir registers can 6e classified as primar$, secondar$ and if applica6le, tertiar$, depending on when their air is introduced. *he primar$ air register supplies primar$ air, which is the first to 6e introduced in the 6urner. 7econdar$ air is added to supplement primar$ air. Furners ma$ include a premi:er to mi: the air and fuel for 6etter com6ustion 6efore introducing into the 6urner. 7ome 6urners even use steam as premi: to preheat the air and create 6etter mi:ing of the fuel and heated air. *he floor of the furnace is mostl$ made of a different material from that of the wall, t$picall$ hard casta6le refractor$ to allow technicians to walk on its floor during maintenance. ' furnace can 6e lit 6$ a small pilot flame or in some older models, 6$ hand. ;ost pilot flames nowada$s are lit 6$ an ignition transformer 8much like a car's spark plugs9. *he pilot flame in turn lights up the main flame. *he pilot flame uses natural gas while the main flame can use 6oth

diesel and natural gas. Ehen using li%uid fuels, an atomizer is used, otherwise, the li%uid fuel will simpl$ pour onto the furnace floor and 6ecome a hazard. 0sing a pilot flame for lighting the furnace increases safet$ and ease compared to using a manual ignition method 8like a match9. %oot&lower 7oot6lowers are found in the convection section. 's this section is a6ove the radiant section and air movement is slower 6ecause of the fins, soot tends to accumulate here. 7oot6lowing is normall$ done when the efficienc$ of the convection section is decreased. *his can 6e calculated 6$ looking at the temperature change from the crossover piping and at the convection section e:it. 7oot6lowers utilize flowing media such as water, air or steam to remove deposits from the tu6es. *his is t$picall$ done during maintenance with the air 6lower turned on. *here are several different t$pes of soot6lowers used. Eall 6lowers of the rotar$ t$pe are mounted on furnace walls protruding 6etween the convection tu6es. *he lances are connected to a steam source with holes drilled into it at intervals along its length. Ehen it is turned on, it rotates and 6lows the soot off the tu6es and out through the stack. %tack damper *he flue gas stack is a c$lindrical structure at the top of all the heat transfer cham6ers. *he 6reeching directl$

6elow it collects the flue gas and 6rings it up high into the atmosphere where it will not endanger personnel. *he stack damper contained within works like a 6utterfl$ valve and regulates draft 8pressure difference 6etween air intake and air e:it9in the furnace, which is what pulls the flue gas through the convection section. *he stack damper also regulates the heat lost through the stack. 's the damper closes, the amount of heat escaping the furnace through the stack decreases, 6ut the pressure or draft in the furnace increases which poses risks to those working around it if there are air leakages in the furnace, the flames can then escape out of the fire6o: or even e:plode if the pressure is too great. "nsulation .nsulation is an important part of the furnace 6ecause it prevents e:cessive heat loss. 2efractor$ materials such as fire6rick, casta6le refractories and ceramic fi6re, are used for insulation. *he floor of the furnace are normall$ casta6le t$pe refractories while those on the walls are nailed or glued in place. 5eramic fi6re is commonl$ used for the roof and wall of the furnace and is graded 6$ its densit$ and then its ma:imum temperature rating. For e:ample, 8T #,(00 CF means 8 l6>ft( densit$ with a ma:imum temperature rating of #,(00 CF. 'n e:ample of a casta6le composition is kastolite. First fire *he first fire is the moment when a furnace or another heating device 8usuall$ for industrial use such as

metallurg$ or ceramics9 is first lit after its construction. *he refractor$ of the furnace walls should 6e as dr$ as possi6le and the first fire should 6e done slowl$ with a small flame as the refractor$ of the still unfired furnace has a minimal amount of moisture. Draduall$ or during su6se%uent firings, the flame or heat source 8e.g. Kanthal heating elements9 can 6e turned up higher. 'fter first fire some adAustments should 6e done usuall$ to fine-tune the furnace.+espite this, a first fire is alwa$s a moment of great e:citement for the people who designed and 6uilt the furnace.

Outdoor wood-fired &oilers +escription 'n outdoor wood-fired 6oiler 8,EF9 also known as a waterstove or outdoor wood furnace or simpl$ a wood 6oiler, is a heating technolog$ that has grown in popularit$ in the 4orthern 0nited 7tates. ,EFs in most cases look like a small shack with metal siding. *he$ are self-contained, and are onl$ connected to the 6uilding the$ heat through underground insulated water pipes. ,EFs contain a metal com6ustion cham6er for a wood fire, which is surrounded 6$ a water tank or water Aacket. *he fire heats the water, which is then circulated through the insulated water pipes into the heated 6uilding. ,nce the hot water from the 6oiler reaches the 6uilding, the

heat from the hot water can 6e transferred to most e:isting heating s$stems and the 6uilding's hot water suppl$. ' damper and fan on the 6oiler interacts with a thermostat inside the 6uilding. .f the 6uilding's temperature falls, the thermostat will trigger the damper to open, letting o:$gen enter the com6ustion cham6er, which causes the fire to 6urn more intensel$. *he fire will then raise the temperature of the water which increases the heat supplied to the home. )enefits ,EFs have several 6enefits that increase their popularit$. *heir large com6ustion cham6er accommodates more fuel than man$ other forms of wood heat, decreasing the num6er of times an owner has to add fuel to the fire. &ome insurance ma$ cost more for people who heat with an indoor form of wood heat than with an ,EF. Finall$, for people with a large suppl$ of free wood and willing to invest the time to prepare the wood and stock the ,EF, an ,EF can 6e less e:pensive than heating with gas, oil, or electricit$ Controversy ,EFs are not without controvers$, as their emissions sometimes 6other neigh6ors. 7ome states and municipalities have regulated the devices.*he$ are not currentl$ regulated 6$ the 0nited 7tates ?nvironmental )rotection 'genc$ 8?)'9, unlike other forms of wood heat. &owever, recentl$ the ?)' has worked with

manufacturers to develop a method for manufacturers to identif$ ,EFs that meet a voluntar$ emissions standard.7tudies conducted on ,EFs suggest that these devices ma$ produce more emissions, most nota6l$ particulate matter under #.5 micrometers 8);#.59 than other heating technologies, though manufacturers dispute these assessments ?:posure to elevated levels of );#.5 has 6een associated with cardiopulmonar$ health effects and premature death.'s of Jul$ #001, the &)F', along with man$ of the maAor ,EF manufactures, have re%uested users of their products follow the ",utdoor Eood Furnace Fest Furn )ractices". 1" *hese guidelines have 6een set up 6$ the &)F' to help cut down on pro6lems associated with ,EFs. ?arl$ in Januar$ #003, the 0nited 7tates ?nvironmental )rotection 'genc$ 8?)'9 initiated a voluntar$ program /" for manufacturers of outdoor wood furnaces. *he ?)''s primar$ intent is to encourage manufacturers to produce cleaner ,utdoor Eood-fired &$dronic &eaters 8,E&&9 models. *he ?)' also wants those who 6u$ an ,E&& > ,EF to 6u$ the cleanest models availa6le, which are those that meet ?)' performance verified levels. *o participate in this program, manufacturers commit their 6est efforts to develop cleaner models with goals of distri6uting their units starting in 'pril #003.*he ?)' now pu6lishes a list of all ,E&& > ,EF units that pass the new voluntar$ program. *hese furnaces come with either an orange ?)' tag, signif$ing <evel ! certification, or a white ?)' tag, signif$ing <evel # certification, to notif$

the customer of the units particular emission level output. 8,ne 6eneficial aspect of this process to consumers is that outdoor wood 6oilers that are ?)'-certified are usuall$ more energ$ efficient than those that are not, e:tracting more energ$ per unit of wood, and thus reducing costs to the owner. )lus, consumers 6enefit 6$ knowing that such 6oilers are far less likel$ to anno$ their neigh6ors.9 Foilers that do pollute enough to cause a pu6lic nuisance 8such as 6$ smoke wafting into the house of a neigh6or9 can 6e su6Aect to lawsuits 6$ near6$ people who are impacted 6$ the smoke nuisance in %uestion, an ancient right under the common law for the a6atement of nuisance. *his is in addition to local and state regulations, laws, or ordinances that cause restrictions on operation to or even compel removal of e:cessivel$ polluting 6oilers. For e:ample, the 5ommonwealth of ;assachusetts +epartment of ?nvironmental )rotection has 6arred the sale, installation, or use of new outdoor wood 6oilers that are not <evel # certified 6$ the ?)', though old 6oilers remain grandfathered so long as the$ do not cause a pu6lic nuisance or manifestl$ impact health and safet$ Clinker *waste+ 5linker is a general name given to waste from industrial processes I particularl$ those that involve smelting metals, 6urning fossil fuels and using a 6lacksmith's forge which will usuall$ result in a large 6uildup of clinker around the tu$Ore. 5linker often forms a loose, 6lack

deposit that can consist of coke, coal, slag, charcoal, grit, and other waste materials. 5linker ma$ 6e reused to make hard cinder paths. .t is laid and rolled, and forms a hard path with a rough surface. 5linker often has a glass$ look to it= also note that it is much heavier than coke. .Definitions of forging terms .n impression die forging, a workpiece is plasticall$ deformed 6etween two dies filling the die cavit$. ' small amount of material or "flash" that flows outside the die impression cools rapidl$, creating resistance that facilitates material flow into unfilled impressions. &orizontal forging machines 8upsetters9 produce impression die forgings similar to those made on hammers or presses. "Drip dies" 8the fi:ed die and moving die9 correspond to the 6ottom die on a hammer or press= the ram-operated header die corresponds to the top die. <ike other technical fields and engineering disciplines, forging technolog$ has a language all its own. Knowing what these terms mean and how the$ are applied can 6e of enormous help in seeking %uotations, specif$ing forged products over other alternatives, and understanding wh$ forged components deliver superior performance over non-forged parts.

'luminum precision forging plasticall$ deforms an aluminum allo$ to a finished part shape in special dies. F$ design, little or no su6se%uent machining>processing is re%uired as a result of close tolerances, thin sections, small radii and minimum draft angles. 'llo$ steel forging: one made from a steel containing additional allo$ing elements other than car6on 8e.g.. 4i, 5r, ;o9 to enhance ph$sical and mechanical properties and>or heat-treat response. Far: a section hot rolled from a 6illet to a round, s%uare, rectangular, he:agonal or other shape with a crosssection less than !1 s%. in. Fillet: a semifinished section 8width U#V thickness9, hot rolled from a metal ingot, generall$ having a crosssection ranging from !1 to 1/ s%. in. 'lso applies to a hotworked forged, rolled or e:truded round or s%uare. Flank: raw material or forging stock from which a forging is made. Floom: same as a 6illet, 6ut with a cross-sectional area greater than (1 s%. in. Flocker-t$pe forging: one with the general shape of the final configuration, 6ut featuring a generous finish allowance, large radii, etc. 5ar6on steel forging: one made from a steel whose maAor allo$ing element, car6on, produces the resultant properties and hardness.

5lose-tolerance forging: one held to closer-thanconventional dimensional tolerances.

.n impression die forging, a workpiece is plasticall$ deformed 6etween two dies filling the die cavit$. ' small amount of material or "flash" that flows outside the die impression cools rapidl$, creating resistance that facilitates material flow into unfilled impressions.

&orizontal forging machines 8upsetters9 produce impression die forgings similar to those made on hammers or presses. "Drip dies" 8the fi:ed die and moving die9 correspond to the 6ottom die on a hammer

or press= the ram-operated header die corresponds to the top die. 5losed die forging: see impression die forging. 5oining: a post-forging process - on hot or cold parts - to attain closer tolerances or improved surfaces. 5old-coined forging: one that is restruck cold to improve selected tolerances or reduce a specific section thickness. 5old forging: various forging processes conducted at or near am6ient temperatures to produce metal components to close tolerances and net shape. *hese include 6ending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining e:trusion 8forward or 6ackward9, punching, thread rolling and others. 5old heading: plasticall$ deforming metal at am6ient temperatures to increase the cross-sectional area of the stock 8either solid 6ar or tu6ing9 at one or more points along the longitudinal a:is. 5old working: imparting plastic deformation to a metal or allo$ at a temperature 6elow recr$stallization to produce hardness and strength increases via strain hardening. 5ontrolled cooling of forgings is used to attain re%uired properties and>or corresponding microstructural phase changes= applies to heat-treata6le steels 8e.g., %uenching9 and to microallo$ed steels, which re%uire no heat treatment, 6ut onl$ controlled cooling to attain final properties.

5onventional forging: one that, 6$ design, re%uires a specified amount of finish 8or machining9 to reach the final dimensional re%uirements. 5ounter6low forging: one made 6$ e%uipment incorporating two opposed rams, which simultaneousl$ strike repeated 6lows on the workpiece. 5ross forging: the practice of working stock in one or more directions to make resultant properties more isotropic 8e%ual in three directions9 - e.g., 6$ upsetting and redrawing the material. +irectional properties: refers to the inherent directionalit$ within a forging such that properties are optimall$ oriented to do the most good under in-service conditions. *$picall$, ma:imum strength is oriented along the a:is that will e:perience the highest loads. +isc: "pancake" shaped forging 8flat with a round crosssection9= e.g., a 6lank for gears, rings and flanged hu6s. +raft: the necessar$ taper on the side of a forging to allow removal from the dies= also applies to the die impression. 5ommonl$ e:pressed in degrees as the draft angle. +raftless forging: a forging with zero draft on vertical walls. +rawing: 8!9 reducing the cross-section of forging stock while simultaneousl$ increasing the length= 8#9 in heat treating, the same as tempering.

+rop forging: one produced 6$ hammering metal in a drop hammer 6etween impression dies.

,pen die forging of shafts consists of manipulating the stock and progressivel$ forging the component to shape. *urning on a lathe 6rings the shaft to near-net shape.

,pen die forging of disc shapes involves progressive upsetting>forging to reach desired dimensions. )ierced discs are often used as preforms for saddle>mandrel rings and hollow forgings. ?:trusion: forcing metal through a die orifice in the same direction as the applied force 8forward e:trusion9 or in the opposite direction 86ackward e:trusion9. Finish: 8!9 the material remaining after forging that is machined awa$ to produce the final part= 8#9 the surface condition of a forging after machining. Finish all over 8F.'.,.9: designates that forgings 6e made sufficientl$ larger than dimensions shown to permit machining on all surfaces to given sizes.

Finish allowance: amount of stock left on the surface of a forging to 6e removed 6$ su6se%uent machining. Flash: e:cess metal that e:tends out from the 6od$ of the forging to ensure complete filling of the finishing impressions. Flashless forging: "true" closed die forging in which metal deformed in a die cavit$ permits virtuall$ no e:cess metal to escape. Flow lines: patterns that reveal how the grain structure follows the direction of working in a forging. Forgea6ilit$: relative a6ilit$ of a material to deform without rupture. Forging reduction: ratio of the cross-sectional area 6efore and after forging= sometimes refers to percentage reduction in thickness. Forging stock: wrought rod, 6ar, etc. used as the raw material or stock in forging. Free-machining-steel forgings: those made from steels with special allo$ing-element additions to facilitate machining. Drain flow: fi6erlike lines that show 8via macroscopic etching9 the orientation of the microstructural grain pattern of forgings achieved 6$ working during forging processes. ,ptimizing grain flow orientation ma:imizes mechanical properties.

&ammer forging: one produced on a forging hammer, usuall$ 6etween impression dies 6ut sometimes flat dies= the process of forging in a drop hammer 8see drop forging9. &and forging: one made 6$ manuall$ controlled manipulation in a press without impression dies, usuall$ 6etween flat dies with progressive forging of the workpiece= also referred to as flat-die forging. &eat treatment: heating or cooling operations, sometimes isothermal, to produce desired properties in forgings. &igh-energ$-rate forging: forgings made on e%uipment that utilizes ver$ high ram velocities. &og-out: product machined from 6ar, plate, sla6, etc. &ollow forging: a c$lindrical open die forging, e.g., thickwalled tu6es or rings. &ot-die forging: a process in which dies are heated close to the forging temperature of the allo$ 6eing forged> used for difficult-to-forge allo$s.

,ne of man$ open die forging options, hollow forging starts with a punched or pierced disc on a tapered draw 6ar. )rogressive reduction of the outside diameter increases the overall length of the sleeve, while the inside diameter remains constant.

,pen die forging of rings starts with a preform on saddle>mandrel. )rogressive reduction of the wall thickness to increase the diameter achieves the re%uired dimensions. 7u6se%uent machining then delivers the near-net shape. &ot forging: same as hot working - plasticall$ deforming an allo$ at a temperature a6ove its recr$stallization point, i.e., high enough to avoid strain hardening. &u6: a 6oss in the center of a forging that forms an integral part of the 6od$. .mpact e:trusion: a reverse e:trusion process in which metal is displaced 6ackwards 6etween a punch and a die to form a hollow part.

.mpression die forging: one formed to shape and size in die cavities or impressions= also commonl$ referred to as closed die forging. .sothermal forging: is most commonl$ conducted at a6out #000 degrees F under a controlled atmosphere or vacuum to prevent o:idation while forging superallo$s. ;achine forging 8upsetter forging9: one made in a forging machine or upsetter, in which a horizontall$ moving die in the ram forces the allo$ into the die cavities. ;andrel forging: see saddle>mandrel forging. ;atch: aligning a point in one die half with the corresponding point in the opposite die half. ;icroallo$ed-steel forging: one made from a mircroallo$ed steel re%uiring onl$ controlled cooling to reach optimum properties, which is in contrast to conventional %uenched-and-tempered steels that re%uire traditional heat treatments to achieve the same results. ;icrostructure: the microscopic structure of metals>allo$s as seen on a mounted, ground, polished and etched specimen to reveal grain size, constituent phases, etc. 4ear-net-shape forging: forging components as close as possi6le to the re%uired dimensions of the finished part. ,pen die forging: one produced 6$ working 6etween flat or simpl$ contoured dies 6$ repetitive strokes and continuous manipulation of the workpiece= sometimes called hand forging.

)arting line: the plane that divides the two die halves used in forging= also applies to the resulting forging and impression dies. )iercing: forming or enlarging a hole via a tapered or c$lindrical punch. )lastic deformation: permanent distortion of a material without fracturing it. )late: a flat, hot-rolled metal or allo$ product whose thickness is much less than its width. )recision forging: an$ forging process that produces parts to closer tolerances than conventional forging processes.

7eamless ring rolling starts with a donut-shaped preform which is s%ueezed 6etween a free-turning ..+. roll and a driven ,.+. roll. Fasicall$, the ring mill makes the section thinner while increasing the ring diameter.

' cold forging process, upsetting or cold heading gathers steel in the head and, if re%uired, other locations along the length of the part. ;etal flows at right angles to the ram force, increasing diameter and reducing length. )reform: forging operation in which stock is preformed or shaped to a predetermined size and contour prior to su6se%uent die forging operations= also, ring 6lanks of a specific shape for profile 8contour9 ring rolling. )ress forging: the shaping of metal 6etween dies on a mechanical or h$draulic press. Wuenched-and-tempered steel forging: one that is %uenched and tempered to produce the re%uired hardness and properties= should more accuratel$ 6e referred to as hardened-and-tempered. 8&ardening and tempering are heat treatments that follow austenitizing, which is usuall$ the first heat treatment performed on car6on- and allo$-steel forgings.9 2estriking: a salvage operation following a primar$ forging operation - rehitting forgings in the same die in which the$ were last forged.

2i6: a forged wall or vertical section generall$ proAecting in a direction parallel to the ram stroke. 2i6-and-we6 forging: one whose 6asic configuration consists of ri6s and we6s. 2ing rolling: forming seamless rings from pierced discs or thickwalled, ring-shaped 6lanks 6etween rolls that control wall thickness, ring diameter, height and contour. 2oll forging: shaping stock 6etween power driven rolls that incorporate contoured dies= used for preforming and to produce finished parts. 2ough machining: an initial machining operation that leaves ade%uate stock for su6se%uent finish machining. 7addle>mandrel forging: rolling and forging a pierced disc over a mandrel to $ield a seamless ring or tu6e.

Fackward e:trusion, another cold forging process, produces hollow parts. &ere, the metal flows 6ack around the descending ram in the opposite direction.

Forward e:trusion, a 6asic cold forging operation, reduces slug diameter while increasing length. 7tepped shafts and c$linders are t$pical e:amples of this process. 7la6: a flat-shaped semifinished, rolled metal ingot with a width not less than !0 in. and a cross-sectional area not less than !1 s%. in. 7tandard tolerance: an esta6lished tolerance for a certain class of product= preferred over "commercial" or "pu6lished" tolerance. 7traightening: a finishing operation for correcting misalignment in a forging or 6etween different sections of a forging. 7tructural integrit$: inherent microstructural soundness of forgings as a result of achieving !00B densit$, uniform metallurgical structure and grain size, as well as the a6sence of porosit$, segregation, large inclusions and other non-forged part defects. 7waging: reducing the size of forging stock= alternatel$, forging in semicontoured dies to lengthen a 6lank.

*arget machining: incorporating a "target" 86enchmark or gage point9 on a forging to facilitate machining= coined locating surfaces and drilled centers are commonl$ used. *olerance: the specified permissi6le deviation from a specified or nominal dimension= the permissi6le variation in the size of a part. *rimming: performed hot or cold, the mechanical shearing of flash or e:cess material from a forging 6$ use of a trimmer in a trim press. 0pset forging: one made 6$ upset of an appropriate length of 6ar, 6illet or 6loom= working metal to increase the cross-sectional area of a portion or all of the stock. 0psetter 8forging machine9: a machine with horizontal action used to produce upset forgings. Earm forging: forging of steel at temperatures ranging from a6out !000 degrees F to Aust 6elow the normal hot working range of !@00 to #(00 degrees F. Ee6: a relativel$ flat, thin portion of a forging - generall$ parallel to the forging plane - that connects ri6s and 6osses. Eide tolerance: an$ special tolerance wider than "standard". UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUXXXXX XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX