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NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 2 of 20
INDUSTRIAL PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
1. Calibration Description:
TypeJModel : PT100
Temperature Range : - 40 GGC to + 550 GGC
Best Measurement Capability : 0.03 GGCfrom - 40GGC to 0 GGC
0.03 GGC from > 0 GGC to 250 GGC
0.03 GGC from > 250GGC to 420 GGC
0.05 GGC from > 420GGC to 550 GGC
2. Scope
2.1 These methods describe the principles, necessary apparatus, and procedures for calibration
and testing of platinum resistance thermometer ( PRTs) or industrial resistance thermometers
(!PRTs).
2.2 These methods cover only the tests for insulation resistance, calibration, and thermal cycling
stability at ice point (hysteresis).
2.3 These methods are not necessarily intended for, recommended to be performed on, or
appropriate for every type of thermometer.
2.+ Thermometer performance minimum specifications and acceptance limits are included.
2.S The standard specifies requirements for !ndustrial Platinum Resistance Thermometer sensor,
PRT f !PRT. Temperature range - +0 C to SS0 C
3. Reference Standard Specification Codes
The temperature f resistance relation ships used in this procedure are base on the EN D!N 607S1 :
199S
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 3 of 20
4. Purpose
To define the relation ship between resistance and temperature:
* For the range - 40 GGC to 0 GGC the interpolation equation is:
#
9
= #

[1+ t + t
2
+ t
3
{t-100)]
* For the range 0 GGC to 550 GGC the interpolation equation is:
#
9
= #

[1+ t + t
2
]
And by Using the Callendar - Van Dusen equation, the calculated values of the
constants , and for the quality of commonly Industrial Platinum Resistance
Thermometer in these equation can be obtained.
This paper presents the methods, equipment, and uncertainties associated with
the calibration of industrial thermometers in the Temperature Laboratory.
The form and complexity of the calibration procedure will depend on both the
accuracy and the temperature range required.
5. Tolerances
The minimum requirement of temperature tolerance allowed in EN D!N 607S1 at temperature, I (C),
for normal two classes of !PRT's are as follows:
Class A : ( 0.1S + 0.002 |I | ) and
Class B : ( 0.3+ 0.00S |I | )
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page + of 20
6. Equipment Require
Description Specification ModelJType
Usable Range : - +0C to SS0C
Uniformity : s 0.03C or depend on capability
1. Apparatus
Stability : s 0.03C or depend on capability
See 6.1 for details
Usable Range : - +0C to 660C 2. Reference
Thermometer
Uncertainty : s 0.02C or depend on capability
See 6.2 for details
Usable Range : - +0C to 660C 3 Neasurement
!nstruments
Uncertainty : depend on capability
See 6.3 for details
6.1 Apparatus
The necessary but not limited to apparatuses for this calibration method are:
6.1.1 !ce-Point Bath ; The simplest fixed point with an error of less than 0.01
o
C
6.1.2 Triple Point of Water ; To accurately realize the triple point of water, a triple point of
water cell is used.
6.1.3 Fluid Baths ; For controlling the temperature of various type of fluid baths by
adjusting the amount of heating or cooling.
Water Baths, Salt Baths or Refrigerated Baths
Table 1. Fluid Bath Nedia and Typical Operating Temperature Range
Media Estimated Temperature Range {GGC)
Silicone Oils - 100 to 31S
Light Nineral Oils - 7S to 200
Alcohol - 100 to S
Water 0.S to 100
Nolten Salts 200 to 620
Dry Fluids(Fluidized Particle) 7S to 8S0
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page S of 20
6.1.+ Temperature Furnaces ; For controlling the temperature by adjusting the amount of
heating
6.1.S Block Calibrations ; For controlling the high temperature by adjusting the amount of
heating
6.2 Reference Thermometers
Standard Thermometer ; SPRT, PRT, TfC etc. to use with Digital !ndicators
6.3 Measurement Instruments
There are several types of measurements can be used to monitor the measurands.
- AC or DC Bridges ; These instruments typically provide the option of a digital display which
can be set to provide readings in ohms, or temperature.
- Digital !ndicators ; Digital Thermometer or Digital Nulti-meter
Note : All Fluid Baths, Temperature Furnaces and Block Calibrators must be evaluated to ensure
the qualification of them be stable with time and uniform over the working space at the
measuring temperatures.
7. Facilities or Controlled conditions
Laboratory Temperature Condition (23 ?) C,
Relative Humidity (S0 ?) RH
Air ventilation system for harmful at high temperature operation.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 6 of 20
S. Measurements to be carried out
S.1 Preliminary operation
- visual inspection (any damages, clean contacts, etc.)
- !nitial check for connection wire configuration (2, 3 or + wires)
- !nsulation check (resistance between sheath and leads must be higher than 1 C O)
- !ce-point or triple point check at appropriate current (initial measurement at the ice-point
or water-triple point)
S.2 Preconditioning
- The !PRTs which require to calibrate exceed +00 C should be annealing at +S0 C at
lease two hours before proceeding of measurements.
- Then measure the !PRT's resistance value at ice point or WTP , the difference between
before and after annealing should not greater than 6 m O which corresponding to
temperature about 1S mK.
- Prepare calibration system as figure below ; (one or two SPRTs can be selected and
assigned as reference standards)
Reference PRTfSPRT
!PRTfPRT to be calibrated
100.002S
#9
#
$
Fluid Bath
!ndicator
- Carry out the measurements according to the step 8.3 and complete the result sheets.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 7 of 20
S.3 Calibration Procedures
Before performing the measurement, the test !PRT must be undergone preconditioning procedure
and then allow the temperature to ambient temperature.
- During the calibration process, thermometer is required to immerse at least 10 times of
thermometer sheathKs diameter plus sensor length below the liquid surface.(normally the
immersion depth should be 1S0 mm to 200 mm)
- The immersion depth and measurement results shall be recorded in the result sheets.
- The !PRTs can be calibrated either from the lowest to the highest calibration point of the
range or vice versa.
- The suggestion is it should be started from maximum temperature to the minimum
temperature.
8.3.1 Before starting the first calibration point, set the temperature at 0 C (or 0.01C).
8.3.2 Wait until the reference standard reading stabilized then record readings on the calibration
worksheet.
Record the ice point (0C) or WTP readings before and after measurement cycle. The
difference in ice-point reading is hysteresis (thermal cycling short term stability) in the
uncertainty budget.
For normal !PRT, apply the proper sensing current as required by customer, if no specific
current the sensing current of 1 mA should be applied for S to 10 set of measurements, the
following measurement sequence at least 10 min. and record should be followed:
5I. UUC 5I. UUC 5I. D 5I.
[Fr Hgn uaII) PPT, appI) In snsng urrnI / J mA /r JU sI / masurmnIs an
Inn appI) J x mA /r JU sI / masurmnIs /r sI/ naIng rrIn, /IIw
masurmnI squn aI IasI JU mn an rr In aIa.|
8.3.3 Nove all thermometers to ambient temperature and then put them in the desired fluid bath
or furnace depend on required point.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 8 of 20
8.3.+ Adjust the temperature of the liquid bath or furnace to the required calibration point and wait
for stabilize. (normally starts the first point from the highest to the lowest temperature)
8.3.S Repeat sequence of measurements after stabilize.
8.3.6 Set the bath controller (or temperature furnace) to the next lower required calibration points,
wait until stabilize then record sequence of measurements.
8.3.7 Repeat 7.3.+ to 7.3.6 to complete all required calibration points.
8.3.8 Repeat measurement at ice point ( 0 C) or WTP again to check thermal cycling stability and
to complete the calibration process.
1/ In InrmaI )Ing sIaDII) s ngnr Inan In xpI unrIanI), pr/rm In annaIng
prss aI 5UGC D) mr Inan nurs an pr/rm In prss / masurmnI agan.
8.3.9 Disconnect all equipment. End of measurement process
8.3.10 Calculate the results and relate uncertainties.
- Calculation of the temperature according to D!N EN 607S1
- Calculation of the deviation function to D!N EN 607S1
- Critical analysis of the deviation function
- Calculation of uncertainty
8.3.11 Report the calibration results.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 9 of 20
APPENDIX A PRTJIPRT Calibration Characteristic
This calibration guideline provides calibrations of industrial thermometers over the range from O +0 C
to SS0 C. The different types of thermometers include industrial platinum resistance thermometers
(!PRTs) and platinum resistance thermometer ( PRTs) can be performed by both comparison with an
!TS-90 calibrated standard platinum resistance thermometer (SPRT) calibrated on the !nternational
Temperature Scale of 1990 and by a limited number of fixed-points.
The comparison baths are liquid baths alcohol ( O 80C to 1C), water (0.SC to100 C), oil (S0C to
2S0C), and salt (1S0C to SS0C).
The fixed points may be used are the melting point of ice (0 C), the triple point of water (0.01C),
and the melting point of gallium (29.76+6C).
The temperature measurement system for the reference SPRT it is a commercially-available digital
thermometer andfor ac resistance ratio bridge, for the !PRTs.
All of these temperature measurement systems are integrated via the computer data acquisition
systems that semi-automate calibrations. This paper presents the methods, equipment, and
uncertainties associated with the calibration of industrial thermometers in the Temperature
Laboratory.
The calibration report provides an !TS-90 based table of measured bath or fixed-point temperature
versus thermometer resistance, calibration uncertainties, and the thermometer calibration
coefficients.
The !PRTf PRT calibrations are performed by following the instruction on the EN D!N 607S1.
The typical !PRTKs nominal resistance values at 0 C, R
0
, are normally 100 O
The !PRT calibrations results are present in the form of the interpolation equations defined in !TS-90.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 10 of 20
To define the relation ship between resistance and temperature:
* For the range O +0 C to 0 C the interpolation equation is:
P
I
= P
U
[1+ At + Bt
2
+ Ct
3
(t-100)|
* For the range 0 C to SS0 C the interpolation equation is:
P
I
= P
U
[1+ At + Bt
2
|
And by Using the Callendar O van Dusen equation, the calculated values of the constants for the
quality of commonly !ndustrial Platinum Resistance Thermometer in these equation are:
A = 3.9083 x 10
-3 o
C
-1
B = - S.77S x 10
-7 o
C
-2
[the constant B should be about - S.7S x 10
-7
S to - S.89 x 10
-7
|
C = - +.183 x 10
-12 o
C
-+
For the !PRT satisfying the above relationships, the average slope of the ratio W-versus-t between
0 C and 100 C or the temperature coefficient, defined as:
0
0 100
R 100
R R

= o
Where:
P
U
is the resistance at 0
o
C;
P
JUU
is the resistance at 100
o
C;
The ,, is used as the PRT sensorKs purity criteria:
o = 0.0038S
o
C
-1
for sensor complying with EN D!N-607S1
o ~ 0.003920
o
C
-1
for many secondary standard PRTKs.
Tolerances
The minimum requirement of temperature tolerance allowed in EN D!N 607S1 at temperature, I (
o
C),
for normal two classes of !PRTKs are as follows:
Class A : (0.1S + 0.002 |I | ) and
Class B : (0.3+ 0.00S |I | )
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 11 of 20
TOLERANCE
Class A Class B
Temperature
{C )
{C ) {) { C ) {)
- 200 0.SS 0.2+ 1.3 0.S6
- 100 0.3S 0.1+ 0.8 0.32
0.000 0.1S 0.06 0.3 0.12
100 0.3S 0.13 0.8 0.30
200 0.SS 0.20 1.3 0.+8
300 0.7S 0.27 1.8 0.6+
+00 0.9S 0.33 2.3 0.79
S00 1.1S 0.38 2.8 0.93
600 1.3S 0.+3 3.3 1.06
6S0 1.+S 0.+6 3.6 1.13
700 3.8 1.17
Thermometer Connecting Wire Configuration Check
Connecting wire Configuration
!dentification marking or color coding
Check that the correct wires are connected to the properly terminal of digital thermometer or the
resistance bridge as out line above. !n the even of unclear marked wires, the following procedure
should be performed.
1.1 The resistance of sensing wires across the sensing element should be approximately the R
0
.
(about 100O for Pt 100 !PRT etc.)
1.2 The resistance of current wires across the sensing element should be approximately the R
0
.
(about 100O for Pt 100 !PRT etc.)
1.3 The resistance of the connecting wires at the same side of the sensing element should be
approximately zero.
1.+ Neasure the cable length for 2 wires or 3 wires connections.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 12 of 20
APPENDIX B Uncertainty for calibration by comparison
Total uncertainty for comparison calibration of thermometers consists always of the same general
parts:
Uncertainty
contribution of the
standard
Uncertainty
contribution of the
furnacefbath
Uncertainty
contribution of the
UUT
Uncertainty contribution of the
approximationf interpolation
function
/I
s
/I
F
/I
m,X
/I
Fun
General Model Function:
AI
X
= I
5
O I
X
-/ I
5
-/ I
F
-/ I
m,X
-/ I
Fun
Uncertainty of the calibration
) t ( u ) t ( u ) t ( u ) t ( u ) t ( u
Func
2
X , m
2
F
2
S
2
X
o + o + o + = A
Uncertainty contribution of the standard
The uncertainty for the standard can be estimated by a sub-budget:
/I
5
= oI
CaI_5
-o I
Dr/I_5
-o I
CaI_M
-oI
Dr/I_M
with:
M Cal S Cal
t t
* *
/ / Calibration uncertainty of thermometer (sensor) and electrical
measuring device
(expanded uncertainty from last recalibration)
M Drift S Drift
t t
* *
/ / Uncertainty of thermometer (sensor) and electrical measuring device
due to the drift since last recalibration
(typical rectangular distribution.)
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 13 of 20
Uncertainty Contribution of the furnaceJbath
The uncertainty for the furnacefbath can be estimated by a sub-budget:
/I
F
= oI
1nnm
- oI
1nsIaD
with:
oI
1nnm
Local inhomogeneity of the temperature distribution inside the calibration
volume of the furnace, block or bath
(typical rectangular distribution.)
oI
!nsta
!nstability of the temperature inside the calibration volume of the furnace,
block or bath
(typical rectangular distribution.)
Tn n/rmaIn rgarng nnmgnI) an nsIaDII) an D DIan /rm praI
nvsIgaIns / In InrmaI prprIs / In /urna r DaIn.
5p/aIns / In manu/aIurr an D IaKn nI aunI DuI nav I D vr/.
Uncertainty Contribution of the UUT
The uncertainty for UUT can be estimated together with measurement instrument by a sub- budget:
oI
m,X
= oI
UUC
+ oI
n)sI
+ oI
Ln
+ oI
rs
+ oI
CaI_M
+ oI
Dr/II_M
+ oI
Ln_M
with:
Uncertainty due to UUC
oI
UUC :
Type A uncertainty of the thermometer reading
(standard deviation of the reading-normal distributed k=1)
oI
n)sI :
Uncertainty contributions of thermometer under test (sensor) due to
thermal cycling short term stability at ice point is assume as hysteresis.
(typical rectangular distributed)
Uncertainty due to !ndicator
oI
rs
; oI
Ln
: Uncertainty contributions of thermometer under test (sensor) due to
resolution limits, nonlinearity, D
(typical rectangular distributed)
oI
CaI_M
; oI
Dr/I_M
: Uncertainty contributions of the electrical measuring device used for UUT
measurement due to calibration, drift, D
(typical rectangular or normal distribution)
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 1+ of 20
APPENDIX C Uncertainty Calculation
Calibration of a Pt resistance thermometer
The measurement
The !ndustrial Platinum Resistance Thermometer (!PRT) which nominal value about 100 O at 0 C,
had been calibrated by comparing with Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer and a high
precision calibrated digital thermometer.
The resistance of the !PRT being calibrated was measured using the + - terminal input of the high
precision digital thermometer.
The two probes were immersed at approximately 200 mm immersion depth and compared in stirred
liquid baths (water and oil) over the range 0 C to 2S0 C.
Neasurements at 0 C were done only at the start and finish of the sequence.
The model
The aim in calibration is to obtain the correction C:
C = A I
X
= I
5
- I
X
; (1)
where I
5
is the `true' temperature derived from the calibrated reference sensor (corrected for its
calibration) and I
X
is the value of temperature given for the !PRT by:
I = a(w-1) + D(w-1)
2
+ (w-1)
3
; (2)
Where:
w = P
I
, P
U
P
I
and P
U
are the resistances of the !PRT at temperature I and at 0 C, respectively.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 1S of 20
The minimum uncertainty components should be considered are described below:
Reference temperature (Uncertainty contribution of the standard)
1. Calibration of reference thermometer:
Standard thermometer (SPRTs or PRTs) was calibrated with reported uncertainty of 6 mK
(Ui = 6 mK) over the range 0 C to +20 C.
The stated coverage factor was 2 (corresponding to v
i
= . : table of Student's values ).
2. Use of thermometer (ThermometerKs drift):
The drift in calibration was the only contribution that needed consideration. !n this example,
an uncertainty of 2 mK, based on history of the thermometer is chosen.
Noreover, drift is thought more likely to be linear (rectangular distribution) so, U

was taken
as the half-width 2 mK, half the extent of possible drift for the period, and the reducing factor
K as 1.732. Being a reasonable estimate, v
i
= .
3. Calibration of standard digital thermometer:
The calibration uncertainty corresponding to term of temperature was 1 mK (U = 1 mK)
over the range 0 C to +20 C and the calibration was done at an ambient temperature of 23
2 C.
The stated coverage factor was 2 (corresponding to v
i
= . : table of Student's values ).
+. Drift of standard digital thermometer:
The drift of digital thermometer over period of using corresponding to temperature was + mK
and the reasonable uncertainty ( U

= + mK) is considered rectangular with K

= 1.732 and
v
i
= .
S. Type A uncertainty in mean reading :
For example at 100 C the observed range ( P) of data displayed on the digital thermometer
was 0.1 mK over (nominally) 30 readings
The uncertainty calculated as U

= 0.1 mK (for n ~30, K

= 2 and v
i
= .).
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 16 of 20
The IPRT
6. Stability of !PRT at 0 C:
!ce point measurements of the !PRT at the start and finish of the calibration sequence differed
by 0.+ mO which corresponding to temperature of about 1 mK.
Consider this value as a reflection of short-term instability in the sensor and assume it was due
to linear drift. !ts effect was assumed rectangular with U

= 0.S mK, K

= 1.732and v
i
= .
7. Type A uncertainty in mean reading :
The standard deviation of UUC resistance measurement at 100 C observed on the digital
thermometer can be translated to the values of temperature 0.1 mK over (nominally) 30
readings
The uncertainty calculated translate to the values as U

= 0.1 mK (for n ~30, K

= 2 and
v
i
= .).
8. Calibration of Digital Thermometer ( or DNN)
The 1 kO range of the Digital Thermometer or DNN had been calibrated at an ambient
temperature of 23 2C.
The calibration uncertainty was 3 ppm , based on a coverage factor of 2.
The DNN was used for the measurements P
I
at 100C, P
I
= 139O, and the corresponding
expanded uncertainties for the calibration are 0.+m O which corresponding to ~ 1 mK.
9. Drift of Digital Thermometer ( or DNN)
The Digital Thermometer or DNN was used under the same conditions (ambient
temperature, integration time, etc) that applied during its calibration, so drift was the only
relevant component. Such drift would already have been included in item 8, above.
10. Resolution of Digital Thermometer (DNN)
The resolution uncertainty is half the least count of 0.1 mO. (corresponding to 0.26 mK)
!t would affect both resistance measurements, in the sense that it represents the lower limit
for uncertainty in their measurement. So, apply it once and use the largest sensitivity
coefficient, that for Ro. The uncertainty would have a rectangular distribution with ki = 1.732.
!n this example this component have been already included in item 7, above.
11. Linearity of Digital Thermometer (DNN)
This uncertainty component is also included in the uncertainty of calibration.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 17 of 20
Fluid Bath and Furnace
12. Temperature difference (both uniformity and instability of baths and furnace): assume the
spatial variation in the oil bath at 100 C was assessed as 10 mK over the region in which
PRT sensors are generally placed for calibration, being the maximum difference between any
two temperatures measured in the region. !t was assumed from this that there was a 9S
chance that the temperature difference between any two probes was within the range 10
mK, i.e., U = 10 mK.
Interpolation Function Fitting
13. Fitting and interpolation: calibrations were done at six temperatures, from which six values of
C were obtained, scattering about zero. The approximately range of C values at 100 C was
20 mK, so we have U = 10 mK. This selects the goodness of fit for the chosen cubic.
Uncertainty calculation Using the above values, the calculation of expanded uncertainty
proceeds as follows:
the combined standard uncertainty, u
c
= 9,1 mK
the number of effective degrees of freedom, v
eff
> 200
the coverage factor, k = 2,0
the expanded uncertainty, U = 18,2 mK.
so after rounding of expanded uncertainty, U = 18 mK.
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 18 of 20
APPENDIX D Example of Calibration Report
RESULTS:
The measurement results of the !PRT are reported in the table below:
Temperature {9)
{
o
C)
UUC Resistance {#)
{)
Uncertainty
{K)
-38.8309 8+.71680 0.020
0.0102 100.00717 0.020
29.76+6 111.S996+ 0.020
1S6.S979 1S9.83310 0.020
231.9292 187.S9997 0.020
300.01SS 212.13SS7 0.030
++9.9971 26+.329S2 0.030
NOTE:
The calibration results were fitted by using least square method to obtain the unique constants, A,
B and C. The temperature-resistance relationships can be calculated using the interpolation
function below:
For the range 0
o
C to +S0
o
C
P
I
= P
U
( J - AI - BI
2
}
and for the range - 38
o
C to 0
o
C
P
I
= P
U
( J-AI - BI
2
- C(I-JUU}I
3
)
Where;
P
t
= resistance (in ohms) at temperature, t (
o
C)
P
U
= 100.006 612 O
A = 0.003 909 63
o
C
-1
B = -S.739 697 -10
-7 o
C
-2
C = -2.S61 6+S - 10
-11 o
C
-+
The estimated temperature measurement uncertainty when using this equation for whole range is 0.0SK
And the temperature coefficient o was calculated from
0
0 100
R 100
R R
= o
= 0.003 8S2 23
o
C
-1
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 19 of 20
APPENDIX E Calculate the constants values
From !nterpolation Equations for !ndustrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers, the constants:
Calandar vandusen-Coefficient [A, B, C| can be calculate as example below.
For Example;
From reference table ASTN-E1137 the resistance values corresponding to temperature are list below:
t { GGC) R
t
{)
600 313.71
+00 2+7.09
200 17S.86
0 100.00
-200 18.S2
For temperature range [ 0C < I < 5UC |, the interpolation equation is:
P
I
= P
U
( J - AI - BI
2
}
( P
I
, P
U
} - J = AI - BI
2
at 200 C 0.7S8 6 = 200A + +0 000B (1)
at +00 C 1.+70 9 = +00A + 160 000B (2)
at 600 C 2.137 1 = 600A + 360 000B (3)
(1)+ (2) 2.229 S = 600A + 200 000B (+)
(3) - (+) - 0.092 + = 160.000B
B = ( -0.092+) 160,000
= -0.000 000 S77 S37 31+
= -S.77S x10
-7
from Eq.(+) calculate constant A
2.229S = 600A + 200,000 x (-0.000000S77S3731+)
600A = 2.229S + 0.11S S07 +62
A = 2.3+S 007 +62 600
= 0.0039083+S77
= 3.9083 x10
-3
For temperature range [- 200GC < I < UGC|, the interpolation equation is:
P
I
= P
U
( J-AI-BI
2
-C(I-JUU}I
3
}
( P
I
, P
U
}-J = AI-BI
2
-C(I-JUU}I
3
NIMT-CNL-SP No. 401
Page 20 of 20
at: [-200GC|
(18.S2 f100)-1 = 0.003 908 3+S 77(-200) + (-0.000 000 S77 S37 31+)(-200)
2
+C [(-200)-100|(-200)
3
-0.81+ 8 = - 0.781 669 1S+ - 0.023 101 +92 + 2,+00,000,000 C
C = - 0.81+ 8 + 0.781 669 1S+ + 0.023101+92
= - 0.010 029 3S+ 2,+00,000,000
= - +.178 897 S x10
-12
(18.S2 f100)-1 = 0.003 908 3(-200) + (-0.000 000 S77 S)(-200)
2
+C[(-200)-100|(-200)
3
C = - 0.81+ 8 +0.781 66+0.023 1
= - 0.010 0+2,+00,000,000
= - +.183 3 x10
-12
The calculation functions are also available in some commercial software such as Nicrosoft Excel.