SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52

Dept. of ISE, SJBIT

SYLLABUS


PART A

UNIT 1 6 Hours
Machine Architecture: Introduction, System Software and Machine Architecture,
Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC) - SIC Machine Architecture, SIC/XE Machine
Architecture, SIC Programming Examples.

UNIT 2 6 Hours
Assemblers -1: Basic Assembler Function - A Simple SIC Assembler, Assembler Algorithm
and Data Structures, Machine Dependent Assembler Features - Instruction Formats &
Addressing Modes, Program Relocation.

UNIT 3 6 Hours
Assemblers -2: Machine Independent Assembler Features Literals,Symbol-Definition
Statements, Expression, Program Blocks, Control Sections and Programming Linking,
Assembler Design Operations - One- Pass Assembler, Multi-Pass Assembler,
Implementation Examples MASM Assembler.

UNIT 4 8 Hours
Loaders and Linkers: Basic Loader Functions - Design of an Absolute Loader, A Simple
Bootstrap Loader, Machine-Dependent Loader Features Relocation, Program Linking,
Algorithm and Data Structures for a Linking Loader; Machine-Independent Loader Features
- Automatic Library Search, Loader Options, Loader Design Options - Linkage Editor,
Dynamic Linkage, Bootstrap Loaders, Implementation Examples - MS-DOS Linker.



PART B

UNIT 5 6 Hours
Editors and Debugging Systems: Text Editors - Overview of Editing Process, User
Interface, Editor Structure, Interactive Debugging Systems - Debugging Functions and
Capabilities, Relationship With Other Parts Of The System, User-Interface Criteria

UNIT 6 8 Hours
Macro Processor: Basic Macro Processor Functions - Macro Definitions and Expansion,
Macro Processor Algorithm and Data Structures, Machine- Independent Macro Processor
Features - Concatenation of Macro Parameters, Generation of Unique Labels, Conditional
Macro Expansion, Keyword Macro Parameters, Macro Processor Design Options - Recursive
Macro
Expansion, General-Purpose Macro Processors, Macro Processing Within Language
Translators, Implementation Examples - MASM Macro Processor, ANSI C Macro Processor.



SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52

Dept. of ISE, SJBIT

UNIT 7 6 Hours
Lex and Yacc 1: Lex and Yacc - The Simplest Lex Program, Recognizing Words With
LEX, Symbol Tables, Grammars, Parser-Lexer Communication, The Parts of Speech Lexer,
A YACC Parser, The Rules Section, Running LEX and YACC, LEX and Hand- Written
Lexers, Using LEX Regular Expression, Examples of Regular Expressions, A Word
Counting Program,
Parsing a Command Line.

UNIT 8 6 Hours
Lex and Yacc - 2 : Using YACC Grammars, Recursive Rules, Shift/Reduce Parsing, What
YACC Cannot Parse, A YACC Parser - The Definition Section, The Rules Section, Symbol
Values and Actions, The LEXER, Compiling and Running a Simple Parser, Arithmetic
Expressions and Ambiguity, Variables and Typed Tokens.

Text Books:
1. Leland.L.Beck: System Software, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, 1997.
(Chapters 1.1 to 1.3, 2 (except 2.5.2 and 2.5.3), 3 (except 3.5.2 and 3.5.3), 4 (except 4.4.3))

2. John.R.Levine, Tony Mason and Doug Brown: Lex and Yacc, O'Reilly, SPD, 1998.
(Chapters 1, 2 (Page 2-42), 3 (Page 51-65))

Reference Books:
1. D.M.Dhamdhere: System Programming and Operating Systems, 2
nd
Edition, Tata McGraw
- Hill, 1999.











SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52

Dept. of ISE, SJBIT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Machine Architecture
1.1 Introduction. 01

1.2 System Software and Machine Architecture. 01
1.3 Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC). 02
1.3.1 SIC Machine Architecture. 02
1.3.2 SIC Programming Examples. 05
1.3.3 SIC/XE Machine Architecture. 08
1.4 Recommended Questions 14

2. Assemblers -1

2.1 Basic Assembler Function 15
2.1.1 A Simple SIC Assembler 20
2.1.2Assembler Algorithm and Data Structures 22
2.2 Machine Dependent Assembler Features 30
2.2.1 Instruction Formats & Addressing Modes 30
22.2. Program Relocation. 36
2.3 Recommended Questions 39

3. Assemblers -2

3.1 Machine Independent Assembler Features 40
3.1.1 Literals 40
3.1.2 Symbol-Definition Statements 42
3.1.3 Expression, Program Blocks 47
3.1.4 Control Sections and Programming Linking 48
3.2 Assembler Design Operations 59
3.2.1 One-Pass Assembler 60
3.2.2 Multi-Pass Assembler 64
3.3 Implementation Examples MASM Assembler. 66
3.4 Recommended Questions 67

4. Loaders and Linkers

4.1 Basic Loader Functions 68
4.1.1 Design of an Absolute Loader 70
4.1.2 A Simple Bootstrap Loader 73
4.2 Machine-Dependent Loader Features 74
4.2.1Relocation 75
4.2.2Program Linking 77
4.2.3 Algorithm and Data Structures for a Linking Loader 87
4.3 Machine-Independent Loader Features 92
4.3.1 Automatic Library Search 92

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4.3.2 Loader Options 92
4.4 Loader Design Options 93
4.4.1 Linkage Editor 94
4.4.2 Dynamic Linkage 95
4.4.3Bootstrap Loaders 96
4.5Implementation Examples 96
4.5.1 MS-DOS Linker. 96
4.6 Recommended Questions 97

5. Editors and Debugging Systems

5.1 Text Editors 98
5.1.1 Overview of Editing Process 98
5.2.2 User Interface 99
5.2.3 Editor Structure 100
5.2 Interactive Debugging Systems 103
5.2.1Debugging Functions and Capabilities 103
5.2.2 Relationship with Other Parts of the System 105
5.2.3User-Interface Criteria 106
5.3 Recommended Questions

6. Macro Processor

6.1 Basic Macro Processor Functions 108
6.1.1 Macro Definitions and Expansion 108
6.1.2 Macro Processor Algorithm and Data Structures 111
6.2 Machines-Independent Macro Processor Features 118
6.2.1 Concatenation of Macro Parameters 118
6.2.2 Generation of Unique Labels 120
6.2.3 Conditional Macro Expansion 122
6.2.4 Keyword Macro Parameters 127
6.3 Macro Processor Design Options 129
6.3.1 Recursive Macro Expansion 129
6.3.2 General-Purpose Macro Processors 132
6.3.3 Macro Processing Within Language Translators 132
6.4 Implementation Examples 133
6.5 Recommended Questions 134

7. Lex and Yacc 1

7.1 Lex and Yacc 135
7.2 A YACC Parser 136
7.3 Using LEX 142
7.4 Recommended Questions 157




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8. Lex and Yacc 2

8.1 Using YACC 158
8.2 A YACC Parser 160
8.3 The LEXER 164
8.4 Compiling and Running a Simple Parser 166
8.5 Arithmetic Expressions and Ambiguity 168
8.6 Variables and Typed Tokens 173
8.7 Recommended Questions 201














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UNIT - 1
MACHINE ARCHITECTURE
1.1 Introduction:
The Software is set of instructions or programs written to carry out certain task on
digital computers. It is classified into system software and application software. System
software consists of a variety of programs that support the operation of a computer.
Application software focuses on an application or problem to be solved. System software
consists of a variety of programs that support the operation of a computer.
Examples for system software are Operating system, compiler, assembler, macro
processor, loader or linker, debugger, text editor, database management systems (some of
them) and, software engineering tools. These softwares make it possible for the user to focus
on an application or other problem to be solved, without needing to know the details of how
the machine works internally.
1.2 System Software and Machine Architecture:
One characteristic in which most system software differs from application software is
machine dependency.
System software supports operation and use of computer. Application software
provides solution to a problem. Assembler translates mnemonic instructions into machine
code. The instruction formats, addressing modes etc., are of direct concern in assembler
design. Similarly,
Compilers must generate machine language code, taking into account such
hardware characteristics as the number and type of registers and the machine instructions
available. Operating systems are directly concerned with the management of nearly all of the
resources of a computing system.


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There are aspects of system software that do not directly depend upon the type of
computing system, general design and logic of an assembler, general design and logic of a
compiler and code optimization techniques, which are independent of target machines.
Likewise, the process of linking together independently assembled subprograms does not
usually depend on the computer being used.

1.3 The Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC):
Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC) is a hypothetical computer that includes the
hardware features most often found on real machines. There are two versions of SIC, they
are, standard model (SIC), and, extension version (SIC/XE) (extra equipment or extra
expensive).
1.3.1 SIC Machine Architecture:
We discuss here the SIC machine architecture with respect to its Memory and
Registers, Data Formats, Instruction Formats, Addressing Modes, Instruction Set, Input and
Output
Memory:
There are 2
15
bytes in the computer memory, that is 32,768 bytes. It uses Little
Endian format to store the numbers, 3 consecutive bytes form a word , each location in
memory contains 8-bit bytes.
Registers:
There are five registers, each 24 bits in length. Their mnemonic, number and use are
given in the following table.



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Mnemonic Number Use
A 0 Accumulator; used for arithmetic operations
X 1 Index register; used for addressing
L 2 Linkage register; JSUB
PC 8 Program counter
SW 9 Status word, including CC
Data Formats:
Integers are stored as 24-bit binary numbers. 2s complement representation is used
for negative values, characters are stored using their 8-bit ASCII codes.No floating-point
hardware on the standard version of SIC.
Instruction Formats:
Opcode(8) x Address (15)
All machine instructions on the standard version of SIC have the 24-bit format as
shown above
Addressing Modes:
Mode Indication Target address calculation
Direct x = 0 TA = address
Indexed x = 1 TA = address + (x)




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There are two addressing modes available, which are as shown in the above table.
Parentheses are used to indicate the contents of a register or a memory location.
Instruction Set :
1. SIC provides, load and store instructions (LDA, LDX, STA, STX, etc.). Integer
arithmetic operations: (ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV, etc.).
2. All arithmetic operations involve register A and a word in memory, with the result
being left in the register. Two instructions are provided for subroutine linkage.
3. COMP compares the value in register A with a word in memory, this instruction sets
a condition code CC to indicate the result. There are conditional jump instructions:
(JLT, JEQ, JGT), these instructions test the setting of CC and jump accordingly.
4. JSUB jumps to the subroutine placing the return address in register L, RSUB returns
by jumping to the address contained in register L.

Input and Output:
Input and Output are performed by transferring 1 byte at a time to or from the
rightmost 8 bits of register A (accumulator). The Test Device (TD) instruction tests whether
the addressed device is ready to send or receive a byte of data. Read Data (RD), Write Data
(WD) are used for reading or writing the data.
Data movement and Storage Definition
LDA, STA, LDL, STL, LDX, STX ( A- Accumulator, L Linkage Register, X
Index Register), all uses3-byte word. LDCH, STCH associated with characters uses 1-byte.
There are no memory-memory move instructions.
Storage definitions are
WORD - ONE-WORD CONSTANT
RESW - ONE-WORD VARIABLE
BYTE - ONE-BYTE CONSTANT
RESB - ONE-BYTE VARIABLE

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1.3.2Example Programs (SIC):
Example 1: Simple data and character movement operation
LDA FIVE
STA ALPHA
LDCH CHARZ
STCH C1
ALPHA RESW 1
FIVE WORD 5
CHARZ BYTE CZ
C1 RESB 1
Example 2: Arithmetic operations
LDA ALPHA
ADD INCR
SUB ONE
STA BETA
..
..
..
ONE WORD 1
ALPHA RESW 1
BEETA RESW 1
INCR RESW 1

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Example 3: Looping and Indexing operation

LDX ZERO ; X = 0
MOVECH LDCH STR1, X ; LOAD A FROM STR1
STCH STR2, X ; STORE A TO STR2
TIX ELEVEN ; ADD 1 TO X, TEST
JLT MOVECH
.
.
.
STR1 BYTE C HELLO WORLD
STR2 RESB 11
ZERO WORD 0
ELEVEN WORD 11

Example 4: Input and Output operation
INLOOP TD INDEV : TEST INPUT DEVICE
JEQ INLOOP : LOOP UNTIL DEVICE IS READY
RD INDEV : READ ONE BYTE INTO A
STCH DATA : STORE A TO DATA
.
.
OUTLP TD OUTDEV : TEST OUTPUT DEVICE

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JEQ OUTLP : LOOP UNTIL DEVICE IS READY
LDCH DATA : LOAD DATA INTO A
WD OUTDEV : WRITE A TO OUTPUT DEVICE
.
.
INDEV BYTE X F5 : INPUT DEVICE NUMBER
OUTDEV BYTE X 08 : OUTPUT DEVICE NUMBER
DATA RESB 1: ONE-BYTE VARIABLE
Example 5: To transfer two hundred bytes of data from input device to memory
LDX ZERO
CLOOP TD INDEV
JEQ CLOOP
RD INDEV
STCH RECORD, X
TIX B200
JLT CLOOP
.
.
INDEV BYTE X F5
RECORD RESB 200
ZERO WORD 0
B200 WORD 200


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1.3.3SIC/XE Machine Architecture:
Memory
Maximum memory available on a SIC/XE system is 1 Megabyte (2
20
bytes).
Registers
Additional B, S, T, and F registers are provided by SIC/XE, in addition to the
registers of SIC.

Mnemonic Number Special use
B 3 Base register
S 4 General working register
T 5 General working register
F 6 Floating-point accumulator (48 bits)

Floating-point data type:
There is a 48-bit floating-point data type, F*2
(e-1024)
1 11 36
s exponent fraction

Instruction Formats:
The new set of instruction formats fro SIC/XE machine architecture are as follows.
Format 1 (1 byte): contains only operation code (straight from table).

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Format 2 (2 bytes): first eight bits for operation code, next four for register 1 and
following four for register 2. The numbers for the registers go according to the
numbers indicated at the registers section (ie, register T is replaced by hex 5, F is
replaced by hex 6).
Format 3 (3 bytes): First 6 bits contain operation code, next 6 bits contain flags, last
12 bits contain displacement for the address of the operand. Operation code uses only
6 bits, thus the second hex digit will be affected by the values of the first two flags (n
and i). The flags, in order, are: n, i, x, b, p, and e. Its functionality is explained in the
next section. The last flag e indicates the instruction format (0 for 3 and 1 for 4).
Format 4 (4 bytes): same as format 3 with an extra 2 hex digits (8 bits) for addresses
that require more than 12 bits to be represented.

Format 1 (1 byte)
8
op

Format 2 (2 bytes)
8 4 4
op r1 r2

Formats 1 and 2 are instructions do not reference memory at all
Format 3 (3 bytes)
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 12
op n i x b p e disp


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Format 4 (4 bytes)
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 20
op n i x b p e address
Addressing modes & Flag Bits
Five possible addressing modes plus the combinations are as follows.
1. Direct (x, b, and p all set to 0): operand address goes as it is. n and i are both set to
the same value, either 0 or 1. While in general that value is 1, if set to 0 for format 3
we can assume that the rest of the flags (x, b, p, and e) are used as a part of the
address of the operand, to make the format compatible to the SIC format.

2. Relative (either b or p equal to 1 and the other one to 0): the address of the operand
should be added to the current value stored at the B register (if b = 1) or to the value
stored at the PC register (if p = 1)

3. Immediate(i = 1, n = 0): The operand value is already enclosed on the instruction
(ie. lies on the last 12/20 bits of the instruction)

4. Indirect(i = 0, n = 1): The operand value points to an address that holds the address
for the operand value.

5. Indexed (x = 1): value to be added to the value stored at the register x to obtain real
address of the operand. This can be combined with any of the previous modes except
immediate.

The various flag bits used in the above formats have the following meanings
e - > e = 0 means format 3, e = 1 means format 4

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Bits x,b,p : Used to calculate the target address using relative, direct, and indexed addressing
Modes.
Bits i and n: Says, how to use the target address
b and p - both set to 0, disp field from format 3 instruction is taken to be the target address.
For a format 4 bits b and p are normally set to 0, 20 bit address is the target address

x - x is set to 1, X register value is added for target address calculation
i=1, n=0 Immediate addressing, TA: TA is used as the operand value, no memory reference
i=0, n=1 Indirect addressing, ((TA)): The word at the TA is fetched. Value of TA is taken as
the address of the operand value
i=0, n=0 or i=1, n=1 Simple addressing, (TA):TA is taken as the address of the operand value
Two new relative addressing modes are available for use with instructions assembled using
format 3.
Mode Indication Target address calculation
Base relative b=1,p=0
TA=(B)+ disp
(0disp 4095)
Program-counter
relative
b=0,p=1
TA=(PC)+ disp
(-2048disp 2047)

Instruction Set:
SIC/XE provides all of the instructions that are available on the standard version. In
addition we have, Instructions to load and store the new registers LDB, STB, etc, Floating-
point arithmetic operations, ADDF, SUBF, MULF, DIVF, Register move instruction : RMO,

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Register-to-register arithmetic operations, ADDR, SUBR, MULR, DIVR and, Supervisor call
instruction : SVC.
Input and Output:
There are I/O channels that can be used to perform input and output while the CPU is
executing other instructions. Allows overlap of computing and I/O, resulting in more
efficient system operation. The instructions SIO, TIO, and HIO are used to start, test and halt
the operation of I/O channels.
Example Programs (SIC/XE)
Example 1: Simple data and character movement operation

LDA #5
STA ALPHA
LDA #90
STCH C1
.
.
ALPHA RESW 1
C1 RESB 1

Example 2: Arithmetic operations

LDS INCR
LDA ALPHA

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ADD S,A
SUB #1
STA BETA
.
..
ALPHA RESW 1
BETA RESW 1
INCR RESW 1

Example 3: Looping and Indexing operation

LDT #11
LDX #0 : X = 0
MOVECH LDCH STR1, X : LOAD A FROM STR1
STCH STR2, X : STORE A TO STR2
TIXR T : ADD 1 TO X, TEST (T)
JLT MOVECH
.
.

STR1 BYTE C HELLO WORLD
STR2 RESB 11


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RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. Bring out the differences b/w System software and Application software.( 5)
2. Give the SIC machine architecture with all options? (10)
3. Suppose alpha is an array of 100 words. Write a sequence of instructions for SIC\XE
to set all 100 elements to 0. (6)
4. Write a sequence of instructions for SIC to clear a 20 byte string to all blanks.(6)
5. Give the machine architecture of SIC/XE? (10)
6. With an example, explain simple I/O operation of SIC/XE? (5)

















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CHAPTER -2
ASSEMBLERS-1
2.1 Basic Assembler Functions:
The basic assembler functions are:
Translating mnemonic language code to its equivalent object code.
Assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels.


The design of assembler can be to perform the following:
Scanning (tokenizing)
Parsing (validating the instructions)
Creating the symbol table
Resolving the forward references
Converting into the machine language

SIC Assembler Directive:
START: Specify name & starting address.
END: End of the program, specify the first execution instruction.
BYTE, WORD, RESB, RESW
End of record: a null char(00)
End of file: a zero length record
The design of assembler in other words:
Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents
SOURCE
PROGRAM
OBJECT CODE ASSEMBLER


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Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses
Decide the proper instruction format Convert the data constants to internal machine
representations
Write the object program and the assembly listing

So for the design of the assembler we need to concentrate on the machine architecture of the
SIC/XE machine. We need to identify the algorithms and the various data structures to be
used. According to the above required steps for assembling the assembler also has to handle
assembler directives, these do not generate the object code but directs the assembler to
perform certain operation. These directives are:
The assembler design can be done:
Single pass assembler
Multi-pass assembler

Single-pass Assembler:
In this case the whole process of scanning, parsing, and object code conversion is
done in single pass. The only problem with this method is resolving forward reference. This
is shown with an example below:
10 1000 FIRST STL RETADR 141033
--
--
--
--
95 1033 RETADR RESW 1


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In the above example in line number 10 the instruction STL will store the linkage
register with the contents of RETADR. But during the processing of this instruction the value
of this symbol is not known as it is defined at the line number 95. Since I single-pass
assembler the scanning, parsing and object code conversion happens simultaneously. The
instruction is fetched; it is scanned for tokens, parsed for syntax and semantic validity. If it
valid then it has to be converted to its equivalent object code. For this the object code is
generated for the opcode STL and the value for the symbol RETADR need to be added,
which is not available.
Due to this reason usually the design is done in two passes. So a multi-pass assembler
resolves the forward references and then converts into the object code. Hence the process of
the multi-pass assembler can be as follows:
Pass-1
Assign addresses to all the statements
Save the addresses assigned to all labels to be used in Pass-2
Perform some processing of assembler directives such as RESW, RESB to find the
length of data areas for assigning the address values.
Defines the symbols in the symbol table(generate the symbol table)

Pass-2
Assemble the instructions (translating operation codes and looking up addresses).
Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD etc.
Perform the processing of the assembler directives not done during pass-1.
Write the object program and assembler listing.

Assembler Design:
The most important things which need to be concentrated is the generation of Symbol
table and resolving forward references.

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Symbol Table:
This is created during pass 1
All the labels of the instructions are symbols
Table has entry for symbol name, address value.
Forward reference:
Symbols that are defined in the later part of the program are called forward
referencing.
There will not be any address value for such symbols in the symbol table in
pass 1.

Example Program:
The example program considered here has a main module, two subroutines
Purpose of example program
- Reads records from input device (code F1)
- Copies them to output device (code 05)
- At the end of the file, writes EOF on the output device, then RSUB to the
operating system
Data transfer (RD, WD)
-A buffer is used to store record
-Buffering is necessary for different I/O rates
-The end of each record is marked with a null character (00)16
-The end of the file is indicated by a zero-length record
Subroutines (JSUB, RSUB)
-RDREC, WRREC
-Save link register first before nested jump

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The first column shows the line number for that instruction, second column shows the
addresses allocated to each instruction. The third column indicates the labels given to the
statement, and is followed by the instruction consisting of opcode and operand. The last
column gives the equivalent object code.
The object code later will be loaded into memory for execution. The simple object
program we use contains three types of records:
Header record
- Col. 1 H
- Col. 2~7 Program name
- Col. 8~13 Starting address of object program (hex)
- Col. 14~19 Length of object program in bytes (hex)
Text record
- Col. 1 T
- Col. 2~7 Starting address for object code in this record (hex)

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- Col. 8~9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (hex)
- Col. 10~69 Object code, represented in hex (2 col. per byte)
End record
- Col.1 E
- Col.2~7 Address of first executable instruction in object program (hex) ^ is only for
separation only

2.1.1 Simple SIC Assembler
The program below is shown with the object code generated. The column named LOC gives
the machine addresses of each part of the assembled program (assuming the program is
starting at location 1000). The translation of the source program to the object program
requires us to accomplish the following functions:
1. Convert the mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalent.
2. Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses.
3. Build the machine instructions in the proper format.
4. Convert the data constants specified in the source program into their internal
machine representations in the proper format.
5. Write the object program and assembly listing.

All these steps except the second can be performed by sequential processing of the source
program, one line at a time. Consider the instruction
10 1000 LDA ALPHA 00-----
This instruction contains the forward reference, i.e. the symbol ALPHA is used is not
yet defined. If the program is processed ( scanning and parsing and object code conversion)
is done line-by-line, we will be unable to resolve the address of this symbol. Due to this
problem most of the assemblers are designed to process the program in two passes.

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In addition to the translation to object program, the assembler has to take care of
handling assembler directive. These directives do not have object conversion but gives
direction to the assembler to perform some function. Examples of directives are the
statements like BYTE and WORD, which directs the assembler to reserve memory locations
without generating data values. The other directives are START which indicates the
beginning of the program and END indicating the end of the program.
The assembled program will be loaded into memory for execution. The simple object
program contains three types of records: Header record, Text record and end record. The
header record contains the starting address and length. Text record contains the translated
instructions and data of the program, together with an indication of the addresses where these
are to be loaded. The end record marks the end of the object program and specifies the
address where the execution is to begin.
The format of each record is as given below.
Header record:
Col 1 H
Col. 2-7 Program name
Col 8-13 Starting address of object program (hexadecimal)
Col 14-19 Length of object program in bytes (hexadecimal)
Text record:
Col. 1 T
Col 2-7. Starting address for object code in this record (hexadecimal)
Col 8-9 Length off object code in this record in bytes (hexadecimal)
Col 10-69 Object code, represented in hexadecimal (2 columns per byte of
object code)


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End record:
Col. 1 E
Col 2-7 Address of first executable instruction in object program
(hexadecimal)
The assembler can be designed either as a single pass assembler or as a two pass
assembler. The general description of both passes is as given below:
Pass 1 (define symbols)
Assign addresses to all statements in the program
Save the addresses assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2
Perform assembler directives, including those for address assignment, such as
BYTE and RESW
Pass 2 (assemble instructions and generate object program)
Assemble instructions (generate opcode and look up addresses)
Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD
Perform processing of assembler directives not done during Pass 1
Write the object program and the assemblylisting

2.1.2. Algorithms and Data structure
The simple assembler uses two major internal data structures: the operation Code
Table (OPTAB) and the Symbol Table (SYMTAB).
OPTAB:
It is used to lookup mnemonic operation codes and translates them to their machine
language equivalents. In more complex assemblers the table also contains
information about instruction format and length.


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In pass 1 the OPTAB is used to look up and validate the operation code in the source
program. In pass 2, it is used to translate the operation codes to machine language. In
simple SIC machine this process can be performed in either in pass 1 or in pass 2.
But for machine like SIC/XE that has instructions of different lengths, we must
search OPTAB in the first pass to find the instruction length for incrementing
LOCCTR.

In pass 2 we take the information from OPTAB to tell us which instruction format to
use in assembling the instruction, and any peculiarities of the object code instruction.

OPTAB is usually organized as a hash table, with mnemonic operation code as the
key. The hash table organization is particularly appropriate, since it provides fast
retrieval with a minimum of searching. Most of the cases the OPTAB is a static
table- that is, entries are not normally added to or deleted from it. In such cases it is
possible to design a special hashing function or other data structure to give optimum
performance for the particular set of keys being stored.

SYMTAB:
This table includes the name and value for each label in the source program, together
with flags to indicate the error conditions (e.g., if a symbol is defined in two different
places).
During Pass 1: labels are entered into the symbol table along with their assigned
address value as they are encountered. All the symbols address value should get
resolved at the pass 1.
During Pass 2: Symbols used as operands are looked up the symbol table to obtain the
address value to be inserted in the assembled instructions.
SYMTAB is usually organized as a hash table for efficiency of insertion and retrieval.
Since entries are rarely deleted, efficiency of deletion is the important criteria for
optimization.

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Both pass 1 and pass 2 require reading the source program. Apart from this an
intermediate file is created by pass 1 that contains each source statement together
with its assigned address, error indicators, etc. This file is one of the inputs to the pass
2.
A copy of the source program is also an input to the pass 2, which is used to retain the
operations that may be performed during pass 1 (such as scanning the operation field
for symbols and addressing flags), so that these need not be performed during pass 2.
Similarly, pointers into OPTAB and SYMTAB is retained for each operation code
and symbol used. This avoids need to repeat many of the table-searching operations.

LOCCTR:
Apart from the SYMTAB and OPTAB, this is another important variable which helps in the
assignment of the addresses. LOCCTR is initialized to the beginning address mentioned in
the START statement of the program. After each statement is processed, the length of the
assembled instruction is added to the LOCCTR to make it point to the next instruction.
Whenever a label is encountered in an instruction the LOCCTR value gives the address to be
associated with that label.
The Algorithm for Pass 1:
Begin
read first input line
if OPCODE = START then begin
save #[Operand] as starting addr
initialize LOCCTR to starting address
write line to intermediate file
read next line
end( if START)

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else
initialize LOCCTR to 0
While OPCODE != END do
begin
if this is not a comment line then
begin
if there is a symbol in the LABEL field then
begin
search SYMTAB for LABEL
if found then
set error flag (duplicate symbol)
else
(if symbol)
search OPTAB for OPCODE
if found then
add 3 (instr length) to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = WORD then
add 3 to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = RESW then
add 3 * #[OPERAND] to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = RESB then

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add #[OPERAND] to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = BYTE then
begin
find length of constant in bytes
add length to LOCCTR
end
else
set error flag (invalid operation code)
end (if not a comment)
write line to intermediate file
read next input line
end { while not END}
write last line to intermediate file
Save (LOCCTR starting address) as program length
End {pass 1}
The algorithm scans the first statement START and saves the operand field (the
address) as the starting address of the program. Initializes the LOCCTR value to this
address. This line is written to the intermediate line.
If no operand is mentioned the LOCCTR is initialized to zero. If a label is
encountered, the symbol has to be entered in the symbol table along with its
associated address value.
If the symbol already exists that indicates an entry of the same symbol already exists.
So an error flag is set indicating a duplication of the symbol.


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It next checks for the mnemonic code, it searches for this code in the OPTAB. If
found then the length of the instruction is added to the LOCCTR to make it point to
the next instruction.
If the opcode is the directive WORD it adds a value 3 to the LOCCTR. If it is RESW,
it needs to add the number of data word to the LOCCTR. If it is BYTE it adds a value
one to the LOCCTR, if RESB it adds number of bytes.
If it is END directive then it is the end of the program it finds the length of the
program by evaluating current LOCCTR the starting address mentioned in the
operand field of the END directive. Each processed line is written to the intermediate
file.

The Algorithm for Pass 2:
Begin
read 1st input line
if OPCODE = START then
begin
write listing line
read next input line
end
write Header record to object program
initialize 1st Text record
while OPCODE != END do
begin
if this is not comment line then
begin

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search OPTAB for OPCODE
if found then
begin
if there is a symbol in OPERAND field then
begin
search SYMTAB for OPERAND field then
if found then
begin
store symbol value as operand address
else
begin
store 0 as operand address
set error flag (undefined symbol)
end
end (if symbol)
else store 0 as operand address
assemble the object code instruction
else if OPCODE = BYTE or WORD then
convert constant to object code
if object code doesnt fit into current Text record then
begin

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Write text record to object code
initialize new Text record

end
add object code to Text record
end {if not comment}
write listing line
read next input line
end
write listing line
read next input line
write last listing line
End {Pass 2}
Here the first input line is read from the intermediate file. If the opcode is START, then this
line is directly written to the list file. A header record is written in the object program which
gives the starting address and the length of the program (which is calculated during pass 1).
Then the first text record is initialized. Comment lines are ignored. In the instruction, for the
opcode the OPTAB is searched to find the object code.
If a symbol is there in the operand field, the symbol table is searched to get the
address value for this which gets added to the object code of the opcode. If the address not
found then zero value is stored as operands address. An error flag is set indicating it as
undefined. If symbol itself is not found then store 0 as operand address and the object code
instruction is assembled.

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If the opcode is BYTE or WORD, then the constant value is converted to its
equivalent object code( for example, for character EOF, its equivalent hexadecimal value
454f46 is stored). If the object code cannot fit into the current text record, a new text record
is created and the rest of the instructions object code is listed. The text records are written to
the object program. Once the whole program is assemble and when the END directive is
encountered, the End record is written.
Design and Implementation Issues
Some of the features in the program depend on the architecture of the machine. If the
program is for SIC machine, then we have only limited instruction formats and hence limited
addressing modes. We have only single operand instructions. The operand is always a
memory reference. Anything to be fetched from memory requires more time. Hence the
improved version of SIC/XE machine provides more instruction formats and hence more
addressing modes. The moment we change the machine architecture the availability of
number of instruction formats and the addressing modes changes. Therefore the design
usually requires considering two things: Machine-dependent features and Machine-
independent features.

2.2. Machine-Dependent Assembler Features:
Instruction formats and addressing modes
Program relocation.

2.2.1 .Instruction formats and Addressing Modes
The instruction formats depend on the memory organization and the size of the memory.
In SIC machine the memory is byte addressable. Word size is 3 bytes. So the size of the
memory is 2
12
bytes. Accordingly it supports only one instruction format. It has only two
registers: register A and Index register. Therefore the addressing modes supported by this
architecture are direct, indirect, and indexed. Whereas the memory of a SIC/XE machine is
2
20
bytes (1 MB). This supports four different types of instruction types, they are:

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1 byte instruction
2 byte instruction
3 byte instruction
4 byte instruction

Instructions can be:
Instructions involving register to register
Instructions with one operand in memory, the other in Accumulator (Single
operand instruction)
Extended instruction format
Addressing Modes are:
Index Addressing(SIC): Opcode m, x
Indirect Addressing: Opcode @m
PC-relative: Opcode m
Base relative: Opcode m
Immediate addressing: Opcode #c

1. Translations for the Instruction involving Register-Register addressing mode:

During pass 1 the registers can be entered as part of the symbol table itself. The value for
these registers is their equivalent numeric codes. During pass2, these values are assembled
along with the mnemonics object code. If required a separate table can be created with the
register names and their equivalent numeric values.
2. Translation involving Register-Memory instructions:

In SIC/XE machine there are four instruction formats and five addressing modes. For formats
and addressing modes
Among the instruction formats, format -3 and format-4 instructions are Register-Memory
type of instruction. One of the operand is always in a register and the other operand is in the

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memory. The addressing mode tells us the way in which the operand from the memory is to
be fetched.
There are two ways: Program-counter relative and Base-relative. This addressing mode
can be represented by either using format-3 type or format-4 type of instruction format. In
format-3, the instruction has the opcode followed by a 12-bit displacement value in the
address field. Where as in format-4 the instruction contains the mnemonic code followed by
a 20-bit displacement value in the address field.

Program-Counter Relative:
In this usually format-3 instruction format is used. The instruction contains the opcode
followed by a 12-bit displacement value.
The range of displacement values are from 0 -2048. This displacement (should be small
enough to fit in a 12-bit field) value is added to the current contents of the program counter to
get the target address of the operand required by the instruction.
This is relative way of calculating the address of the operand relative to the program
counter. Hence the displacement of the operand is relative to the current program counter
value. The following example shows how the address is calculated:


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Base-Relative Addressing Mode:

In this mode the base register is used to mention the displacement value. Therefore the target
address is
TA = (base) + displacement value

This addressing mode is used when the range of displacement value is not sufficient.
Hence the operand is not relative to the instruction as in PC-relative addressing mode.
Whenever this mode is used it is indicated by using a directive BASE.
The moment the assembler encounters this directive the next instruction uses base-
relative addressing mode to calculate the target address of the operand.
When NOBASE directive is used then it indicates the base register is no more used
to calculate the target address of the operand. Assembler first chooses PC-relative,
when the displacement field is not enough it uses Base-relative.

LDB #LENGTH (instruction)
BASE LENGTH (directive)
:
NOBASE

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For example:
12 0003 LDB #LENGTH 69202D
13 BASE LENGTH
: :
100 0033 LENGTH RESW 1
105 0036 BUFFER RESB 4096
: :
160 104E STCH BUFFER, X 57C003
165 1051 TIXR T B850
In the above example the use of directive BASE indicates that Base-relative addressing
mode is to be used to calculate the target address. PC-relative is no longer used. The value of
the LENGTH is stored in the base register. If PC-relative is used then the target address
calculated is:
The LDB instruction loads the value of length in the base register which 0033.
BASE directive explicitly tells the assembler that it has the value of LENGTH.

BUFFER is at location (0036)
16

(B) = (0033)
16

disp = 0036 0033 = (0003)
16


20 000A LDA LENGTH 032026

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: :
175 1056 EXIT STX LENGTH 134000
Consider Line 175. If we use PC-relative
Disp = TA (PC) = 0033 1059 = EFDA
PC relative is no longer applicable, so we try to use BASE relative addressing mode.
Immediate Addressing Mode
In this mode no memory reference is involved. If immediate mode is used the target address
is the operand itself.

If the symbol is referred in the instruction as the immediate operand then it is immediate with
PC-relative mode as shown in the example below:




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Indirect and PC-relative mode:
In this type of instruction the symbol used in the instruction is the address of the location
which contains the address of the operand. The address of this is found using PC-relative
addressing mode. For example:

The instruction jumps the control to the address location RETADR which in turn has the
address of the operand. If address of RETADR is 0030, the target address is then 0003 as
calculated above.
2.2.2Program Relocation
Sometimes it is required to load and run several programs at the same time. The system must
be able to load these programs wherever there is place in the memory. Therefore the exact
starting is not known until the load time.
Absolute Program
In this the address is mentioned during assembling itself. This is called Absolute Assembly.
Consider the instruction:
55 101B LDA THREE 00102D
This statement says that the register A is loaded with the value stored at location
102D. Suppose it is decided to load and execute the program at location 2000
instead of location 1000.
Then at address 102D the required value which needs to be loaded in the register
A is no more available. The address also gets changed relative to the displacement

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of the program. Hence we need to make some changes in the address portion of
the instruction so that we can load and execute the program at location 2000.
Apart from the instruction which will undergo a change in their operand address
value as the program load address changes. There exist some parts in the program
which will remain same regardless of where the program is being loaded.
Since assembler will not know actual location where the program will get loaded,
it cannot make the necessary changes in the addresses used in the program.
However, the assembler identifies for the loader those parts of the program which
need modification.
An object program that has the information necessary to perform this kind of
modification is called the relocatable program.



The above diagram shows the concept of relocation. Initially the program is loaded at
location 0000. The instruction JSUB is loaded at location 0006.
The address field of this instruction contains 01036, which is the address of the
instruction labeled RDREC. The second figure shows that if the program is to be
loaded at new location 5000.


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The address of the instruction JSUB gets modified to new location 6036. Likewise
the third figure shows that if the program is relocated at location 7420, the JSUB
instruction would need to be changed to 4B108456 that correspond to the new
address of RDREC.
The only part of the program that require modification at load time are those that
specify direct addresses. The rest of the instructions need not be modified. The
instructions which doesnt require modification are the ones that is not a memory
address (immediate addressing) and PC-relative, Base-relative instructions.
From the object program, it is not possible to distinguish the address and constant The
assembler must keep some information to tell the loader.The object program that
contains the modification record is called a relocatable program.
For an address label, its address is assigned relative to the start of the program
(START 0). The assembler produces a Modification recordto store the starting
location and the length of the address field to be modified. The command for the
loader must also be a part of the object program. The Modification has the following
format:

Modification record
Col. 1 M
Col. 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified, relative to the
beginning of the program (Hex)
Col. 8-9 Length of the address field to be modified, in half-bytes (Hex)
One modification record is created for each address to be modified The length is stored in
half-bytes (4 bits) The starting location is the location of the byte containing the leftmost bits
of the address field to be modified. If the field contains an odd number of half-bytes, the
starting location begins in the middle of the first byte.

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In the above object code the red boxes indicate the addresses that need modifications. The
object code lines at the end are the descriptions of the modification records for those
instructions which need change if relocation occurs. M00000705 is the modification
suggested for the statement at location 0007 and requires modification 5-half bytes. Similarly
the remaining instructions indicate.
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. What are the fundamental functions of assembler? With an example, give the list of
assembler directives?(6)
2. Explain the data structures used in Assemblers (8).
3. what is program relocation? Explain the problem associated with it and solutions? (6)
4. Give the format of the following (8)
a. Header record
b. Text record
c. End record
d. Modification record
5. Explain the function of each pass of an 2 pass assembler.(5)
6. Explain the following (8)
a. SYMTAB
b. LOCCTR
c. OPTAB
7. Give the algorithm for pass1 of an 2 pass assembler. (8)
8. Give the algorithm for pass2 of an 2 pass assembler (8)

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CHAPTER -3
Assembler-2
3.1 Machine-Independent features:
These are the features which do not depend on the architecture of the machine. These are:
Literals
Expressions
Program blocks
Control sections

3.1.1 Literals:
A literal is defined with a prefix = followed by a specification of the literal value.
Example:
45 001A ENDFIL LDA =CEOF 032010
-
-
93 LTORG
002D * =CEOF 454F46
The example above shows a 3-byte operand whose value is a character string EOF.
The object code for the instruction is also mentioned. It shows the relative displacement
value of the location where this value is stored. In the example the value is at location (002D)
and hence the displacement value is (010). As another example the given statement below
shows a 1-byte literal with the hexadecimal value 05.
215 1062 WLOOP TD =X05 E32011

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It is important to understand the difference between a constant defined as a literal and
a constant defined as an immediate operand. In case of literals the assembler generates the
specified value as a constant at some other memory location In immediate mode the operand
value is assembled as part of the instruction itself. Example
55 0020 LDA #03 010003
All the literal operands used in a program are gathered together into one or more
literal pools. This is usually placed at the end of the program. The assembly listing of a
program containing literals usually includes a listing of this literal pool, which shows the
assigned addresses and the generated data values. In some cases it is placed at some other
location in the object program. An assembler directive LTORG is used. Whenever the
LTORG is encountered, it creates a literal pool that contains all the literal operands used
since the beginning of the program. The literal pool definition is done after LTORG is
encountered. It is better to place the literals close to the instructions.
A literal table is created for the literals which are used in the program. The literal
table contains the literal name, operand value and length. The literal table is usually created
as a hash table on the literal name.
Implementation of Literals:
During Pass-1:
The literal encountered is searched in the literal table. If the literal already exists, no
action is taken; if it is not present, the literal is added to the LITTAB and for the address
value it waits till it encounters LTORG for literal definition. When Pass 1 encounters a
LTORG statement or the end of the program, the assembler makes a scan of the literal table.
At this time each literal currently in the table is assigned an address. As addresses are
assigned, the location counter is updated to reflect the number of bytes occupied by each
literal.



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During Pass-2:
The assembler searches the LITTAB for each literal encountered in the instruction
and replaces it with its equivalent value as if these values are generated by BYTE or WORD.
If a literal represents an address in the program, the assembler must generate a modification
relocation for, if it all it gets affected due to relocation. The following figure shows the
difference between the SYMTAB and LITTAB

3.1.2 Symbol-Defining Statements:
EQU Statement:
Most assemblers provide an assembler directive that allows the programmer to define
symbols and specify their values. The directive used for this EQU (Equate). The general
form of the statement is
Symbol EQU value
This statement defines the given symbol (i.e., entering in the SYMTAB) and assigning to it
the value specified. The value can be a constant or an expression involving constants and any
other symbol which is already defined. One common usage is to define symbolic names that
can be used to improve readability in place of numeric values. For example

+LDT #4096

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This loads the register T with immediate value 4096, this does not clearly what exactly this
value indicates. If a statement is included as:
MAXLEN EQU 4096 and then
+LDT #MAXLEN
Then it clearly indicates that the value of MAXLEN is some maximum length value.
When the assembler encounters EQU statement, it enters the symbol MAXLEN along with
its value in the symbol table. During LDT the assembler searches the SYMTAB for its entry
and its equivalent value as the operand in the instruction. The object code generated is the
same for both the options discussed, but is easier to understand. If the maximum length is
changed from 4096 to 1024, it is difficult to change if it is mentioned as an immediate value
wherever required in the instructions. We have to scan the whole program and make changes
wherever 4096 is used. If we mention this value in the instruction through the symbol defined
by EQU, we may not have to search the whole program but change only the value of
MAXLENGTH in the EQU statement (only once).
Another common usage of EQU statement is for defining values for the general-
purpose registers. The assembler can use the mnemonics for register usage like a-register A ,
X index register and so on. But there are some instructions which requires numbers in place
of names in the instructions. For example in the instruction RMO 0,1 instead of RMO A,X.
The programmer can assign the numerical values to these registers using EQU directive.
A EQU 0
X EQU 1 and so on
These statements will cause the symbols A, X, L to be entered into the symbol
table with their respective values. An instruction RMO A, X would then be allowed. As
another usage if in a machine that has many general purpose registers named as R1, R2,,
some may be used as base register, some may be used as accumulator. Their usage may
change from one program to another. In this case we can define these requirement using
EQU statements.
BASE EQU R1

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INDEX EQU R2
COUNT EQU R3
One restriction with the usage of EQU is whatever symbol occurs in the right hand side of
the EQU should be predefined. For example, the following statement is not valid:
BETA EQU ALPHA
ALPHA RESW 1
As the symbol ALPHA is assigned to BETA before it is defined. The value of ALPHA is not
known.
ORG Statement:
This directive can be used to indirectly assign values to the symbols. The directive is
usually called ORG (for origin). Its general format is:
ORG value
Where value is a constant or an expression involving constants and previously defined
symbols. When this statement is encountered during assembly of a program, the assembler
resets its location counter (LOCCTR) to the specified value. Since the values of symbols
used as labels are taken from LOCCTR, the ORG statement will affect the values of all labels
defined until the next ORG is encountered. ORG is used to control assignment storage in the
object program. Sometimes altering the values may result in incorrect assembly.
ORG can be useful in label definition. Suppose we need to define a symbol table with
the following structure:
SYMBOL 6 Bytes
VALUE 3 Bytes
FLAG 2 Bytes
The table looks like the one given below.

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The symbol field contains a 6-byte user-defined symbol; VALUE is a one-word
representation of the value assigned to the symbol; FLAG is a 2-byte field specifies symbol
type and other information. The space for the ttable can be reserved by the statement:
STAB RESB 1100
If we want to refer to the entries of the table using indexed addressing, place the
offset value of the desired entry from the beginning of the table in the index register. To refer
to the fields SYMBOL, VALUE, and FLAGS individually, we need to assign the values first
as shown below:
SYMBOL EQU STAB
VALUE EQU STAB+6
FLAGS EQU STAB+9
To retrieve the VALUE field from the table indicated by register X, we can write a
statement:
LDA VALUE, X
The same thing can also be done using ORG statement in the following way:

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STAB RESB 1100
ORG STAB
SYMBOL RESB 6
VALUE RESW 1
FLAG RESB 2
ORG STAB+1100
The first statement allocates 1100 bytes of memory assigned to label STAB. In the
second statement the ORG statement initializes the location counter to the value of STAB.
Now the LOCCTR points to STAB. The next three lines assign appropriate memory storage
to each of SYMBOL, VALUE and FLAG symbols. The last ORG statement reinitializes the
LOCCTR to a new value after skipping the required number of memory for the table STAB
(i.e., STAB+1100).
While using ORG, the symbol occurring in the statement should be predefined as is
required in EQU statement. For example for the sequence of statements below:
ORG ALPHA
BYTE1 RESB 1
BYTE2 RESB 1
BYTE3 RESB 1
ORG
ALPHA RESB 1
The sequence could not be processed as the symbol used to assign the new location
counter value is not defined. In first pass, as the assembler would not know what value to
assign to ALPHA, the other symbol in the next lines also could not be defined in the symbol
table. This is a kind of problem of the forward reference.

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3.1.3 .Expressions:
Assemblers also allow use of expressions in place of operands in the instruction. Each
such expression must be evaluated to generate a single operand value or address. Assemblers
generally arithmetic expressions formed according to the normal rules using arithmetic
operators +, - *, /. Division is usually defined to produce an integer result. Individual terms
may be constants, user-defined symbols, or special terms. The only special term used is * (
the current value of location counter) which indicates the value of the next unassigned
memory location. Thus the statement
BUFFEND EQU *
Assigns a value to BUFFEND, which is the address of the next byte following the
buffer area. Some values in the object program are relative to the beginning of the program
and some are absolute (independent of the program location, like constants). Hence,
expressions are classified as either absolute expression or relative expressions depending on
the type of value they produce.
Absolute Expressions: The expression that uses only absolute terms is absolute
expression. Absolute expression may contain relative term provided the relative terms
occur in pairs with opposite signs for each pair. Example:
MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER
In the above instruction the difference in the expression gives a value that does not
depend on the location of the program and hence gives an absolute immaterial o the
relocation of the program. The expression can have only absolute terms. Example:
MAXLEN EQU 1000
Relative Expressions: All the relative terms except one can be paired as described in
absolute. The remaining unpaired relative term must have a positive sign. Example:
STAB EQU OPTAB + (BUFEND BUFFER)

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Handling the type of expressions: to find the type of expression, we must keep track
the type of symbols used. This can be achieved by defining the type in the symbol
table against each of the symbol as shown in the table below:

3.1.4 Program Blocks:
Program blocks allow the generated machine instructions and data to appear in the object
program in a different order by Separating blocks for storing code, data, stack, and larger
data block.
Assembler Directive USE:
USE [blockname]
At the beginning, statements are assumed to be part of the unnamed (default) block. If no
USE statements are included, the entire program belongs to this single block. Each program
block may actually contain several separate segments of the source program. Assemblers
rearrange these segments to gather together the pieces of each block and assign address.
Separate the program into blocks in a particular order.Large buffer area is moved to the end
of the object program. Program readability is betterif data areas are placed in the source
program close to the statements that reference them.
In the example below three blocks are used :
Default: executable instructions
CDATA: all data areas that are less in length
CBLKS: all data areas that consists of larger blocks of memory

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Example Code



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Arranging code into program blocks:
Pass 1
A separate location counter for each program block is maintained.
Save and restore LOCCTR when switching between blocks.
At the beginning of a block, LOCCTR is set to 0.
Assign each label an address relative to the start of the block.

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Store the block name or number in the SYMTAB along with the assigned relative
address of the label
Indicate the block length as the latest value of LOCCTR for each block at the end of
Pass1
Assign to each block a starting address in the object program by concatenating the
program blocks in a particular order

Pass 2
Calculate the address for each symbol relative to the start of the object program by
adding
The location of the symbol relative to the start of its block
The starting address of this block

Control Sections:
A control section is a part of the program that maintains its identity after assembly; each
control section can be loaded and relocated independently of the others. Different control
sections are most often used for subroutines or other logical subdivisions. The programmer
can assemble, load, and manipulate each of these control sections separately.
Because of this, there should be some means for linking control sections together. For
example, instructions in one control section may refer to the data or instructions of other
control sections. Since control sections are independently loaded and relocated, the assembler
is unable to process these references in the usual way. Such references between different
control sections are called external references.
The assembler generates the information about each of the external references that
will allow the loader to perform the required linking. When a program is written using
multiple control sections, the beginning of each of the control section is indicated by an
assembler directive
assembler directive: CSECT

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The syntax
secname CSECT
separate location counter for each control section
Control sections differ from program blocks in that they are handled separately by the
assembler. Symbols that are defined in one control section may not be used directly another
control section; they must be identified as external reference for the loader to handle. The
external references are indicated by two assembler directives:
EXTDEF (external Definition):
It is the statement in a control section, names symbols that are defined in this section
but may be used by other control sections. Control section names do not need to be named in
the EXTREF as they are automatically considered as external symbols.
EXTREF (external Reference):
It names symbols that are used in this section but are defined in some other control
section.
The order in which these symbols are listed is not significant. The assembler must include
proper information about the external references in the object program that will cause the
loader to insert the proper value where they are required.

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Handling External Reference
Case 1
15 0003 CLOOP +JSUB RDREC 4B100000
The operand RDREC is an external reference.
o The assembler has no idea where RDREC is
o inserts an address of zero
o can only use extended formatto provide enough room (that is, relative
addressing for external reference is invalid)
The assembler generates information for each external reference that will allow the
loaderto perform the required linking.

Case 2
190 0028 MAXLEN WORD BUFEND-BUFFER 000000
There are two external references in the expression, BUFEND and BUFFER.
The assembler inserts a value of zero
passes information to the loader

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Add to this data area the address of BUFEND
Subtract from this data area the address of BUFFER

Case 3
On line 107, BUFEND and BUFFER are defined in the same control section and the
expression can be calculated immediately.
107 1000 MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER

Object Code for the example program:



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The assembler must also include information in the object program that will cause the loader
to insert the proper value where they are required. The assembler maintains two new record
in the object code and a changed version of modification record.


Define record (EXTDEF)

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Col. 1 D
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section
Col. 8-13 Relative address within this control section (hexadecimal)
Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols

Refer record (EXTREF)
Col. 1 R
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section
Col. 8-73 Name of other external reference symbols

Modification record
Col. 1 M
Col. 2-7 Starting address of the field to be modified (hexadecimal)
Col. 8-9 Length of the field to be modified, in half-bytes (hexadecimal)
Col.11-16 External symbol whose value is to be added to or subtracted from
the indicated field
A define record gives information about the external symbols that are defined in this control
section, i.e., symbols named by EXTDEF.A refer record lists the symbols that are used as
external references by the control section, i.e., symbols named by EXTREF.
The new items in the modification record specify the modification to be performed:
adding or subtracting the value of some external symbol. The symbol used for modification
may be defined either in this control section or in another section.
The object program is shown below. There is a separate object program for each of
the control sections. In the Define Record and refer record the symbols named in EXTDEF
and EXTREF are included.


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In the case of Define, the record also indicates the relative address of each external
symbol within the control section.For EXTREF symbols, no address information is available.
These symbols are simply named in the Refer record.


Handling Expressions in Multiple Control Sections:
The existence of multiple control sections that can be relocated independently of one
another makes the handling of expressions complicated. It is required that in an expression
that all the relative terms be paired (for absolute expression), or that all except one be paired
(for relative expressions).

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When it comes in a program having multiple control sections then we have an
extended restriction that:
Both terms in each pair of an expression must be within the same control section
o If two terms represent relative locations within the same control section , their
difference is an absolute value (regardless of where the control section is
located.
Legal: BUFEND-BUFFER (both are in the same control section)

o If the terms are located in different control sections, their difference has a
value that is unpredictable.
Illegal: RDREC-COPY (both are of different control section) it is the
difference in the load addresses of the two control sections. This value
depends on the way run-time storage is allocated; it is unlikely to be of
any use.

How to enforce this restriction
o When an expression involves external references, the assembler cannot
determine whether or not the expression is legal.
o The assembler evaluates all of the terms it can, combines these to form an
initial expression value, and generates Modification records.
o The loader checks the expression for errors and finishes the evaluation.

3.2 ASSEMBLER DESIGN OPTIONS
Here we are discussing
o The structure and logic of one-pass assembler. These assemblers are used when it is
necessary or desirable to avoid a second pass over the source program.
o Notion of a multi-pass assembler, an extension of two-pass assembler that allows an
assembler to handle forward references during symbol definition.


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3.2.1. One-Pass Assembler
The main problem in designing the assembler using single pass was to resolve forward
references. We can avoid to some extent the forward references by:
Eliminating forward reference to data items, by defining all the storage reservation
statements at the beginning of the program rather at the end.
Unfortunately, forward reference to labels on the instructions cannot be avoided.
(forward jumping)
To provide some provision for handling forward references by prohibiting forward
references to data items.

There are two types of one-pass assemblers:
One that produces object code directly in memory for immediate execution (Load-
and-go assemblers).
The other type produces the usual kind of object code for later execution.

Load-and-Go Assembler
Load-and-go assembler generates their object code in memory for immediate
execution.
No object program is written out, no loader is needed.
It is useful in a system with frequent program development and testing
o The efficiency of the assembly process is an important consideration.
Programs are re-assembled nearly every time they are run; efficiency of the assembly
process is an important consideration.



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Forward Reference in One-Pass Assemblers: In load-and-Go assemblers when a forward
reference is encountered :
Omits the operand address if the symbol has not yet been defined
Enters this undefined symbol into SYMTAB and indicates that it is undefined
Adds the address of this operand address to a list of forward references associated
with the SYMTAB entry
When the definition for the symbol is encountered, scans the reference list and inserts
the address.
At the end of the program, reports the error if there are still SYMTAB entries
indicated undefined symbols.
For Load-and-Go assembler
o Search SYMTAB for the symbol named in the END statement and jumps to
this location to begin execution if there is no error


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After Scanning line 40 of the program:
40 2021 J` CLOOP 302012
The status is that upto this point the symbol RREC is referred once at location 2013,
ENDFIL at 201F and WRREC at location 201C. None of these symbols are defined. The
figure shows that how the pending definitions along with their addresses are included in the
symbol table.



The status after scanning line 160, which has encountered the definition of RDREC and
ENDFIL is as given below:


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If One-Pass needs to generate object code:
If the operand contains an undefined symbol, use 0 as the address and write the Text
record to the object program.
Forward references are entered into lists as in the load-and-go assembler.
When the definition of a symbol is encountered, the assembler generates another Text
record with the correct operand address of each entry in the reference list.
When loaded, the incorrect address 0 will be updated by the latter Text record
containing the symbol definition.
Object Code Generated by One-Pass Assembler:

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3.2.2 Multi_Pass Assembler:
For a two pass assembler, forward references in symbol definition are not allowed:
ALPHA EQU BETA
BETA EQU DELTA
DELTA RESW 1
o Symbol definition must be completed in pass 1.
Prohibiting forward references in symbol definition is not a serious inconvenience.
o Forward references tend to create difficulty for a person reading the program.

Implementation Issues for Modified Two-Pass Assembler:
Implementation Isuues when forward referencing is encountered in Symbol Defining
statements :
For a forward reference in symbol definition, we store in the SYMTAB:
o The symbol name
o The defining expression
o The number of undefined symbols in the defining expression

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The undefined symbol (marked with a flag *) associated with a list of symbols depend
on this undefined symbol.
When a symbol is defined, we can recursively evaluate the symbol expressions
depending on the newly defined symbol.

Multi-Pass Assembler Example Program

Multi-Pass Assembler : Example for forward reference in Symbol Defining Statements:


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3.3 MASM Assembler
The Microsoft Macro Assembler is an X86 architecture assembler for MS-DOS and
Microsoft Windows. While the name MASM has earlier usage as the Unisys OS 1100 Meta-
Assembler, it is commonly understood in more recent years to refer to the Microsoft Macro
Assembler. It is an archetypal MACRO assembler for the x86 PC market that is owned and
maintained by a major operating system vendor and since the introduction of MASM version
6.0 in 1991 has had a powerful preprocessor that supports pseudo high level emulation of
variety of high level constructions including loop code, conditional testing and has a semi-
automated system of procedure creation and management available if required. Version
6.11d was 32 bit object module capable using a specialised linker available in the WinNT 3.5
SDK but with the introduction of binary patches that upgraded version 6.11d, all later
versions were 32 bit Portable Executable console mode application that produced both OMF
and COFF object modules for 32 bit code.




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RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS
1) Explain the following: Literals, Symbol defining statements, Expressions (8)
2) Explain program blocks with an example. (10)
3) Explain control section and program linking. (8)
4) Explain the following (8)
a) Define record
b) Refer record
c) Modification record(revised)
5) Explain one pass assembler. (6)
6) Explain multipass assembler. (8)
7) Write shortnotes on (8)
a) MASM assembler
b) SPARC assembler





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UNIT- 4
LOADERS AND LINKERS
Introduction
The Source Program written in assembly language or high level language will be
converted to object program, which is in the machine language form for execution. This
conversion either from assembler or from compiler, contains translated instructions and data
values from the source program, or specifies addresses in primary memory where these items
are to be loaded for execution.
This contains the following three processes, and they are,
Loading - which allocates memory location and brings the object program into
memory for execution - (Loader)
Linking- which combines two or more separate object programs and supplies the
information needed to allow references between them - (Linker)
Relocation - which modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address
different from the location originally specified - (Linking Loader)
4.1 Basic Loader Functions:
A loader is a system program that performs the loading function. It brings object program
into memory and starts its execution. The role of loader is as shown in the figure 4.1.
Translator may be assembler/complier, which generates the object program and later loaded
to the memory by the loader for execution. In figure 4.2 the translator is specifically an
assembler, which generates the object loaded, which becomes input to the loader. The
figure4.3 shows the role of both loader and linker.




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Figure 4.1 : The Role of Loader



Assembler
Object
Program

Loader
Object
program
ready for
execution
Memory

Translator
Object
Program

Loader
Object
program
ready for
execution
Memory
Source
Program
Source
Program

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Figure 4.2: The Role of Loader with Assembler



Figure 4.3: The Role of both Loader and Linker
Type of Loaders
The different types of loaders are, absolute loader, bootstrap loader, relocating loader
(relative loader), and, direct linking loader. The following sections discuss the functions and
design of all these types of loaders.

4.1.1Design of Absolute Loader:
The operation of absolute loader is very simple. The object code is loaded to specified
locations in the memory. At the end the loader jumps to the specified address to begin
execution of the loaded program. The role of absolute loader is as shown in the figure 4.4.

Assembler
Object
Program

Linker
Object
program
ready for
execution
Memory
Executable
Code

Loader
Source
Program

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The advantage of absolute loader is simple and efficient. But the disadvantages are, the need
for programmer to specify the actual address, and, difficult to use subroutine libraries.



Figure 4.4: The Role of Absolute Loader
The algorithm for this type of loader is given here. The object program and, the object
program loaded into memory by the absolute loader are also shown. Each byte of
assembled code is given using its hexadecimal representation in character form. Easy to read
by human beings. Each byte of object code is stored as a single byte. Most machine store
object programs in a binary form, and we must be sure that our file and device conventions
do not cause some of the program bytes to be interpreted as control characters.
Begin
read Header record
verify program name and length
Object
Program
Absolute
Loader Object
program
ready for
execution
Memory
1000
2000

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read first Text record
while record type is <> E do
begin
{if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation}
move object code to specified location in memory
read next object program record
end
jump to address specified in End record
end




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4.1.2 A Simple Bootstrap Loader
When a computer is first turned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader, called
bootstrap loader is executed. This bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer
-- usually an operating system. The bootstrap itself begins at address 0. It loads the OS
starting address 0x80. No header record or control information, the object code is
consecutive bytes of memory.
The algorithm for the bootstrap loader is as follows
Begin
X=0x80 (the address of the next memory location to be loaded
Loop

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AGETC (and convert it from the ASCII character
code to the value of the hexadecimal digit)
save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S
AGETC
combine the value to form one byte A (A+S)
store the value (in A) to the address in register X
XX+1
End
It uses a subroutine GETC, which is
GETC Aread one character
if A=0x04 then jump to 0x80
if A<48 then GETC
A A-48 (0x30)
if A<10 then return
A A-7
return
4.2. Machine-Dependent Loader Features
Absolute loader is simple and efficient, but the scheme has potential disadvantages One of
the most disadvantage is the programmer has to specify the actual starting address, from
where the program to be loaded. This does not create difficulty, if one program to run, but
not for several programs. Further it is difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently.

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This needs the design and implementation of a more complex loader. The loader must
provide program relocation and linking, as well as simple loading functions.
4.2.1 Relocation
The concept of program relocation is, the execution of the object program using any part of
the available and sufficient memory. The object program is loaded into memory wherever
there is room for it. The actual starting address of the object program is not known until load
time. Relocation provides the efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory and when
several independent programs are to be run together. It also supports the use of subroutine
libraries efficiently. Loaders that allow for program relocation are called relocating loaders or
relative loaders.
Methods for specifying relocation
Use of modification record and, use of relocation bit, are the methods available for
specifying relocation. In the case of modification record, a modification record M is used in
the object program to specify any relocation. In the case of use of relocation bit, each
instruction is associated with one relocation bit and, these relocation bits in a Text record is
gathered into bit masks.
Modification records are used in complex machines and is also called Relocation and
Linkage Directory (RLD) specification. The format of the modification record (M) is as
follows. The object program with relocation by Modification records is also shown here.
Modification record
col 1: M
col 2-7: relocation address
col 8-9: length (halfbyte)
col 10: flag (+/-)
col 11-17: segment name


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H

COPY

000000 001077
T

000000

1D17202D69202D

48101036

4B105D

3F2FEC

032010
T

00001D

13

0F2016

010003

0F200D

4B10105D

3E2003

454F46
T

001035

1D

B410

B400

B440

75101000

332008

57C003

B850
T

001053

1D

3B2FEA

134000

4F0000

F1

..

53C003

DF2008

B850
T

00070

07

3B2FEF

4F0000

05
M

000007

05+COPY
M

000014

05+COPY
M

000027

05+COPY
E

000000
The relocation bit method is used for simple machines. Relocation bit is 0: no
modification is necessary, and is 1: modification is needed. This is specified in the columns
10-12 of text record (T), the format of text record, along with relocation bits is as follows.
Text record:
col 1: T
col 2-7: starting address
col 8-9: length (byte)
col 10-12: relocation bits
col 13-72: object code
Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record (col:10-12 relocation bits), since each
text record contains less than 12 words, unused words are set to 0, and, any value that is to be

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modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments. For absolute
loader, there are no relocation bits column 10-69 contains object code. The object program
with relocation by bit mask is as shown below. Observe FFC - means all ten words are to be
modified and, E00 - means first three records are to be modified.
H

COPY

000000 00107A
T

000000

1E

FFC

140033

481039

000036

280030

300015

3C0003

00001E

15

E00

0C0036

481061

080033

4C0000

000003

000000
T

001039

1E

FFC

040030

000030

30103F

D8105D

280030

...
T

001057

0A

800

100036

4C0000

F1

001000
T

001061

19

FE0

040030

E01079

508039

DC1079

2C0036

...
E

000000
4.2.2 Program Linking
The Goal of program linking is to resolve the problems with external references
(EXTREF) and external definitions (EXTDEF) from different control sections.
EXTDEF (external definition) - The EXTDEF statement in a control section
names symbols, called external symbols, that are defined in this (present) control section and
may be used by other sections.
ex: EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFFEND, LENGTH
EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA
EXTREF (external reference) - The EXTREF statement names symbols used in
this (present) control section and are defined elsewhere.
ex: EXTREF RDREC, WRREC
EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC
How to implement EXTDEF and EXTREF

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The assembler must include information in the object program that will cause the loader to
insert proper values where they are required in the form of Define record (D) and, Refer
record(R).
Define record
The format of the Define record (D) along with examples is as shown here.
Col. 1 D
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section
Col. 8-13 Relative address within this control section (hexadecimal)
Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols
Example records
D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054
D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070
Refer record
The format of the Refer record (R) along with examples is as shown here.
Col. 1 R
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section
Col. 8-73 Name of other external reference symbols
Example records
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB

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Here are the three programs named as PROGA, PROGB and PROGC, which are
separately assembled and each of which consists of a single control section. LISTA, ENDA
in PROGA, LISTB, ENDB in PROGB and LISTC, ENDC in PROGC are external
definitions in each of the control sections. Similarly LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC in
PROGA, LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC in PROGB, and LISTA, ENDA, LISTB, ENDB in
PROGC, are external references. These sample programs given here are used to illustrate
linking and relocation. The following figures give the sample programs and their
corresponding object programs. Observe the object programs, which contain D and R records
along with other records.
0000 PROGA START 0
EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA
EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC
..
.
0020 REF1 LDA LISTA 03201D
0023 REF2 +LDT LISTB+4 77100004
0027 REF3 LDX #ENDA-LISTA 050014
.
.
0040 LISTA EQU *

0054 ENDA EQU *
0054 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000014
0057 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6

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005A REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 00003F
005D REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000014
0060 REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA FFFFC0
END REF1

0000 PROGB START 0
EXTDEF LISTB, ENDB
EXTREF LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC
..
.
0036 REF1 +LDA LISTA 03100000
003A REF2 LDT LISTB+4 772027
003D REF3 +LDX #ENDA-LISTA 05100000
.
.
0060 LISTB EQU *

0070 ENDB EQU *
0070 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000000
0073 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6
0076 REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 FFFFFF

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0079 REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) FFFFF0
007C REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA 000060
END

0000 PROGC START 0
EXTDEF LISTC, ENDC
EXTREF LISTA, ENDA, LISTB, ENDB
..
..
0018 REF1 +LDA LISTA 03100000
001C REF2 +LDT LISTB+4 77100004
0020 REF3 +LDX #ENDA-LISTA 05100000
.
.
0030 LISTC EQU *

0042 ENDC EQU *
0042 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000030
0045 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 000008
0045 REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 000011
004B REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000000

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004E REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA 000000
END

H PROGA 000000 000063
D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
.
.
T 000020 0A 03201D 77100004 050014
.
.
T 000054 0F 000014 FFFF6 00003F 000014 FFFFC0
M000024 05+LISTB
M000054 06+LISTC
M000057 06+ENDC
M000057 06 -LISTC
M00005A06+ENDC
M00005A06 -LISTC
M00005A06+PROGA
M00005D06-ENDB
M00005D06+LISTB

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M00006006+LISTB
M00006006-PROGA
E000020

H PROGB 000000 00007F
D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
.
T 000036 0B 03100000 772027 05100000
.
T 000007 0F 000000 FFFFF6 FFFFFF FFFFF0 000060
M000037 05+LISTA
M00003E 06+ENDA
M00003E 06 -LISTA
M000070 06 +ENDA
M000070 06 -LISTA
M000070 06 +LISTC
M000073 06 +ENDC
M000073 06 -LISTC
M000073 06 +ENDC
M000076 06 -LISTC

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M000076 06+LISTA
M000079 06+ENDA
M000079 06 -LISTA
M00007C 06+PROGB
M00007C 06-LISTA
E
H PROGC 000000 000051
D LISTC 000030 ENDC 000042
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB
.
T 000018 0C 03100000 77100004 05100000
.
T 000042 0F 000030 000008 000011 000000 000000
M000019 05+LISTA
M00001D 06+LISTB
M000021 06+ENDA
M000021 06 -LISTA
M000042 06+ENDA
M000042 06 -LISTA
M000042 06+PROGC
M000048 06+LISTA

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M00004B 06+ENDA
M00004B 006-LISTA
M00004B 06-ENDB
M00004B 06+LISTB
M00004E 06+LISTB
M00004E 06-LISTA
E
The following figure shows these three programs as they might appear in memory
after loading and linking. PROGA has been loaded starting at address 4000, with PROGB
and PROGC immediately following.


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For example, the value for REF4 in PROGA is located at address 4054 (the beginning
address of PROGA plus 0054, the relative address of REF4 within PROGA). The following
figure shows the details of how this value is computed.

The initial value from the Text record
T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FFFFC0 is 000014. To this is added the
address assigned to LISTC, which is 4112 (the beginning address of PROGC plus 30). The
result is 004126.
That is REF4 in PROGA is ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=4054-4040+4112=4126.
Similarly the load address for symbols LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040, LISTB:
PROGB+0060=40C3 and LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112
Keeping these details work through the details of other references and values of these
references are the same in each of the three programs.

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4.3.3 Algorithm and Data structures for a Linking Loader
The algorithm for a linking loader is considerably more complicated than the absolute loader
program, which is already given. The concept given in the program linking section is used
for developing the algorithm for linking loader. The modification records are used for
relocation so that the linking and relocation functions are performed using the same
mechanism.
Linking Loader uses two-passes logic. ESTAB (external symbol table) is the main
data structure for a linking loader.
Pass 1: Assign addresses to all external symbols
Pass 2: Perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking
ESTAB - ESTAB for the example (refer three programs PROGA PROGB and
PROGC) given is as shown below. The ESTAB has four entries in it; they are name of the
control section, the symbol appearing in the control section, its address and length of the
control section.










Program Logic for Pass 1
Control section Symbol Address Length
PROGA 4000 63
LISTA 4040
ENDA 4054
PROGB 4063 7F
LISTB 40C3
ENDB 40D3
PROGC 40E2 51
LISTC 4112
ENDC 4124

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Pass 1 assign addresses to all external symbols. The variables & Data structures used during
pass 1 are, PROGADDR (program load address) from OS, CSADDR (control section
address), CSLTH (control section length) and ESTAB. The pass 1 processes the Define
Record. The algorithm for Pass 1 of Linking Loader is given below.

Program Logic for Pass 2
Pass 2 of linking loader perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking. It uses
modification record and lookup the symbol in ESTAB to obtain its address. Finally it uses
end record of a main program to obtain transfer address, which is a starting address needed
for the execution of the program. The pass 2 process Text record and Modification record of
the object programs. The algorithm for Pass 2 of Linking Loader is given below.

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How to improve Efficiency?
The question here is can we improve the efficiency of the linking loader. Also observe that,
even though we have defined Refer record (R), we havent made use of it. The efficiency can
be improved by the use of local searching instead of multiple searches of ESTAB for the
same symbol. For implementing this we assign a reference number to each external symbol
in the Refer record. Then this reference number is used in Modification records instead of
external symbols.01 is assigned to control section name, and other numbers for external
reference symbols.
The object programs for PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are shown below, with above
modification to Refer record (Observe R records).

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Symbol and Addresses in PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are as shown below. These
are the entries of ESTAB. The main advantage of reference number mechanism is that it
avoids multiple searches of ESTAB for the same symbol during the loading of a control
section










Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGA 4000
2 LISTB 40C3
3 ENDB 40D3
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGB 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124

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4.3. Machine-independent Loader Features
Here we discuss some loader features that are not directly related to machine architecture and
design. Automatic Library Search and Loader Options are such Machine-independent Loader
Features.
4.3.1Automatic Library Search
This feature allows a programmer to use standard subroutines without explicitly including
them in the program to be loaded. The routines are automatically retrieved from a library as
they are needed during linking. This allows programmer to use subroutines from one or more
libraries. The subroutines called by the program being loaded are automatically fetched from
the library, linked with the main program and loaded. The loader searches the library or
libraries specified for routines that contain the definitions of these symbols in the main
program.
4.3.2Loader Options
Loader options allow the user to specify options that modify the standard processing. The
options may be specified in three different ways. They are, specified using a command
language, specified as a part of job control language that is processed by the operating
system, and an be specified using loader control statements in the source program.
Here are the some examples of how option can be specified.
INCLUDE program-name (library-name) - read the designated object program from
a library
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGC 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTB 40C3
5 ENDB 40D3

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DELETE csect-name delete the named control section from the set pf programs
being loaded
CHANGE name1, name2 - external symbol name1 to be changed to name2
wherever it appears in the object programs
LIBRARY MYLIB search MYLIB library before standard libraries
NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL no loading and linking of unneeded
routines
Here is one more example giving, how commands can be specified as a part of object
file, and the respective changes are carried out by the loader.
LIBRARY UTLIB
INCLUDE READ (UTLIB)
INCLUDE WRITE (UTLIB)
DELETE RDREC, WRREC
CHANGE RDREC, READ
CHANGE WRREC, WRITE
NOCALL SQRT, PLOT
The commands are, use UTLIB (say utility library), include READ and WRITE
control sections from the library, delete the control sections RDREC and WRREC from the
load, the change command causes all external references to the symbol RDREC to be
changed to the symbol READ, similarly references to WRREC is changed to WRITE,
finally, no call to the functions SQRT, PLOT, if they are used in the program.
4.4 Loader Design Options
There are some common alternatives for organizing the loading functions, including
relocation and linking. Linking Loaders Perform all linking and relocation at load time. The

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Other Alternatives are Linkage editors, which perform linking prior to load time and,
dynamic linking, in which linking function is performed at execution time
Linking Loaders


The above diagram shows the processing of an object program using Linking Loader.
The source program is first assembled or compiled, producing an object program. A linking
loader performs all linking and loading operations, and loads the program into memory for
execution.
4.4.1 Linkage Editors
The figure below shows the processing of an object program using Linkage editor. A linkage
editor produces a linked version of the program often called a load module or an executable
image which is written to a file or library for later execution. The linked program produced
is generally in a form that is suitable for processing by a relocating loader.
Library
Object
Program(s)
Linking loader
Memory

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Some useful functions of Linkage editor are, an absolute object program can be
created, if starting address is already known. New versions of the library can be included
without changing the source program. Linkage editors can also be used to build packages of
subroutines or other control sections that are generally used together. Linkage editors often
allow the user to specify that external references are not to be resolved by automatic library
search linking will be done later by linking loader linkage editor + linking loader
savings in space


4.4.2Dynamic Linking
The scheme that postpones the linking functions until execution. A subroutine is loaded and
linked to the rest of the program when it is first called usually called dynamic linking,
dynamic loading or load on call. The advantages of dynamic linking are, it allow several
executing programs to share one copy of a subroutine or library. In an object oriented system,
Library
Object
Program(s)
Linkage Editor
Linked
program
Memory
Relocating loader

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dynamic linking makes it possible for one object to be shared by several programs. Dynamic
linking provides the ability to load the routines only when (and if) they are needed. The
actual loading and linking can be accomplished using operating system service request.
4.4.3 Bootstrap Loaders
If the question, how is the loader itself loaded into the memory? is asked, then the answer is,
when computer is started with no program in memory, a program present in ROM (
absolute address) can be made executed may be OS itself or A Bootstrap loader, which in
turn loads OS and prepares it for execution. The first record ( or records) is generally referred
to as a bootstrap loader makes the OS to be loaded. Such a loader is added to the beginning
of all object programs that are to be loaded into an empty and idle system.
4.5 Implementation Examples
This section contains brief description of loaders and linkers for actual computers. They are,
MS-DOS Linker - Pentium architecture, SunOS Linkers - SPARC architecture, and, Cray
MPP Linkers T3E architecture.
4.5.1MS-DOS Linker
This explains some of the features of Microsoft MS-DOS linker, which is a linker for
Pentium and other x86 systems. Most MS-DOS compilers and assemblers (MASM) produce
object modules, and they are stored in .OBJ files. MS-DOS LINK is a linkage editor that
combines one or more object modules to produce a complete executable program - .EXE file;
this file is later executed for results.
The following table illustrates the typical MS-DOS object module
Record Types Description
THEADR Translator Header
TYPDEF,PUBDEF, EXTDEF External symbols and references
LNAMES, SEGDEF, GRPDEF Segment definition and grouping

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LEDATA, LIDATA Translated instructions and data
FIXUPP Relocation and linking information
MODEND End of object module
THEADR specifies the name of the object module. MODEND specifies the end of
the module. PUBDEF contains list of the external symbols (called public names). EXTDEF
contains list of external symbols referred in this module, but defined elsewhere. TYPDEF the
data types are defined here. SEGDEF describes segments in the object module ( includes
name, length, and alignment). GRPDEF includes how segments are combined into groups.
LNAMES contains all segment and class names. LEDATA contains translated instructions
and data. LIDATA has above in repeating pattern. Finally, FIXUPP is used to resolve
external references.
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1) Write an algorithm for an absolute loader ( 7)
2) Explain bootstrap loaders. (6)
3) Write an algorithm for Bootstrap loader. (7)
4) Explain relocation w.r.t. loader. (8)
5) Explain bitmask with an example.(5)
6) Explain program linking with an example. (7)
7) Write the algorithm for pass 1 of an linking loader. (8)
8) Write the algorithm for pass 2 of an linking loader. (8)
9) Explain CSADDR, PROGADDR, ESTAB.(6)
10) Explain linkage editors. (8)
11) Explain dynamic linking. (8)
12) Write shortnotes on (10)
a. MS-DOS Linker
b. Sun OS linker



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Chapter 5
EDITORS AND DEBUGGING SYSTEMS
An Interactive text editor has become an important part of almost any computing
environment. Text editor acts as a primary interface to the computer for all type of
knowledge workers as they compose, organize, study, and manipulate computer-based
information.
An interactive debugging system provides programmers with facilities that aid in
testing and debugging of programs. Many such systems are available during these days. Our
discussion is broad in scope, giving the overview of interactive debugging systems not
specific to any particular existing system.
5.1 Text Editors:
An Interactive text editor has become an important part of almost any computing
environment. Text editor acts as a primary interface to the computer for all type of
knowledge workers as they compose, organize, study, and manipulate computer-
based information.
A text editor allows you to edit a text file (create, modify etc). For example the
Interactive text editors on Windows OS - Notepad, WordPad, Microsoft Word, and
text editors on UNIX OS - vi, emacs , jed, pico.
Normally, the common editing features associated with text editors are, Moving the
cursor, Deleting, Replacing, Pasting, Searching, Searching and replacing, Saving and
loading, and, Miscellaneous(e.g. quitting).

5.1.1 Overview of the editing process
An interactive editor is a computer program that allows a user to create and revise a target
document. Document includes objects such as computer diagrams, text, equations tables,
diagrams, line art, and photographs. In text editors, character strings are the primary elements
of the target text.

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Document-editing process in an interactive user-computer dialogue has four tasks:
- Select the part of the target document to be viewed and manipulated
- Determine how to format this view on-line and how to display it
- Specify and execute operations that modify the target document
- Update the view appropriately
The above task involves traveling, filtering and formatting. Editing phase involves insert,
delete, replace, move, copy, cut, paste, etc
o Traveling locate the area of interest
o Filtering - extracting the relevant subset
o Formatting visible representation on a display screen
There are two types of editors. Manuscript-oriented editor and program oriented
editors. Manuscript-oriented editor is associated with characters, words, lines, sentences and
paragraphs. Program-oriented editors are associated with identifiers, keywords, statements.
User wish what he wants formatted.
5.1.2 User Interface:
Conceptual model of the editing system provides an easily understood abstraction of the
target document and its elements. For example, Line editors simulated the world of the key
punch 80 characters, single line or an integral number of lines, Screen editors Document
is represented as a quarter-plane of text lines, unbounded both down and to the right.
The user interface is concerned with, the input devices, the output devices and, the
interaction language. The input devices are used to enter elements of text being edited, to
enter commands. The output devices, lets the user view the elements being edited and the
results of the editing operations and, the interaction language provides communication with
the editor.

Input Devices are divided into three categories:

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o text devices
o button devices
o Locator devices.

1. Text Devices are keyboard. Button Devices are special function keys,
symbols on the screen. Locator Devices are mouse, data tablet. There are
voice input devices which translates spoken words to their textual
equivalents.
2. Output Devices are Teletypewriters(first output devices), Glass teletypes
(Cathode ray tube (CRT) technology), Advanced CRT terminals, TFT
Monitors and Printers (Hard-copy).
3. The interaction language could be, typing oriented or text command oriented
and menu-oriented user interface. Typing oriented or text command oriented
interaction was with oldest editors, in the form of use of commands, use of
function keys, control keys etc.
4. Menu-oriented user interface has menu with a multiple choice set of text
strings or icons. Display area for text is limited. Menus can be turned on or
off.

5.1.3 Editor Structure:
Most text editors have a structure similar to that shown in the following figure. That is most
text editors have a structure similar to shown in the figure regardless of features and the
computers
Command language Processor accepts command, uses semantic routines performs
functions such as editing and viewing. The semantic routines involve traveling, editing,
viewing and display functions.



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Editing operations are specified explicitly by the user and display operations are
specified implicitly by the editor. Traveling and viewing operations may be invoked
either explicitly by the user or implicitly by the editing operations.
In editing a document, the start of the area to be edited is determined by the current
editing pointer maintained by the editing component. Editing component is a
collection of modules dealing with editing tasks. Current editing pointer can be set or
reset due to next paragraph, next screen, cut paragraph, paste paragraph etc..,.
When editing command is issued, editing component invokes the editing filter
generates a new editing buffer contains part of the document to be edited from
current editing pointer. Filtering and editing may be interleaved, with no explicit
editor buffer being created.
In viewing a document, the start of the area to be viewed is determined by the current
viewing pointer maintained by the viewing component. Viewing component is a
collection of modules responsible for determining the next view. Current viewing
pointer can be set or reset as a result of previous editing operation.
Editing
component
Traveling
component
Viewing
component
Command
language
processor
Editing
filter
Viewing
filter
Viewing
buffer
Main
memory
File
system
Display
component
Output
devices
input
Typical Editor Structure
Paging
Routines
Control
Data
Editing
buffer

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When display needs to be updated, viewing component invokes the viewing filter
generates a new viewing buffer contains part of the document to be viewed from
current viewing pointer. In case of line editors viewing buffer may contain the
current line, Screen editors - viewing buffer contains a rectangular cutout of the
quarter plane of the text.
Viewing buffer is then passed to the display component of the editor, which produces
a display by mapping the buffer to a rectangular subset of the screen called a
window. Identical user edits the text directly on the screen. Disjoint Find and
Replace (For example, there are 150 lines of text, user is in 100th line, decides to
change all occurrences of text editor with editor).
The editing and viewing buffers can also be partially overlapped, or one may be
completely contained in the other. Windows typically cover entire screen or a
rectangular portion of it. May show different portions of the same file or portions of
different file. Inter-file editing operations are possible.
The components of the editor deal with a user document on two levels: In main
memory and in the disk file system. Loading an entire document into main memory
may be infeasible only part is loaded demand paging is used uses editor paging
routines.
Documents may not be stored sequentially as a string of characters. Uses separate
editor data structure that allows addition, deletion, and modification with a minimum
of I/O and character movement.

Types of editors based on computing environment
Editors function in three basic types of computing environments:
1. Time sharing
2. Stand-alone
3. Distributed.
Each type of environment imposes some constraints on the design of an editor.

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In time sharing environment, editor must function swiftly within the context of the
load on the computers processor, memory and I/O devices.
In stand-alone environment, editors on stand-alone system are built with all the
functions to carry out editing and viewing operations The help of the OS may also
be taken to carry out some tasks like demand paging.
In distributed environment, editor has both functions of stand-alone editor; to run
independently on each users machine and like a time sharing editor, contend for
shared resources such as files.

5.2 Interactive Debugging Systems:
An interactive debugging system provides programmers with facilities that aid in testing and
debugging of programs. Many such systems are available during these days. Our discussion
is broad in scope, giving the overview of interactive debugging systems not specific to any
particular existing system.
Here we discuss
- Introducing important functions and capabilities of IDS
- Relationship of IDS to other parts of the system
- The nature of the user interface for IDS
5.2.1. Debugging Functions and Capabilities:
One important requirement of any IDS is the observation and control of the flow of program
execution. Setting break points execution is suspended, use debugging commands to
analyze the progress of the program, rsum execution of the program. Setting some
conditional expressions, evaluated during the debugging session, program execution is
suspended, when conditions are met, analysis is made, later execution is resumed.
A Debugging system should also provide functions such as tracing and trace back.

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Tracing can be used to track the flow of execution logic and data modifications. The
control flow can be traced at different levels of detail procedure, branch, individual
instruction, and so on
Trace back can show the path by which the current statement in the program was
reached. It can also show which statements have modified a given variable or
parameter. The statements are displayed rather than as hexadecimal displacements

Program-Display capabilities
A debugger should have good program-display capabilities.
Program being debugged should be displayed completely with statement numbers.
The program may be displayed as originally written or with macro expansion.
Keeping track of any changes made to the programs during the debugging session.
Support for symbolically displaying or modifying the contents of any of the variables
and constants in the program. Resume execution after these changes.

To provide these functions, a debugger should consider the language in which the
program being debugged is written. A single debugger many programming languages
language independent. The debugger- a specific programming language language
dependent. The debugger must be sensitive to the specific language being debugged.
The context being used has many different effects on the debugging interaction. The
statements are different depending on the language
Cobol - MOVE 6.5 TO X
Fortran - X = 6.5
C - X = 6.5

Examples of assignment statements

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Similarly, the condition that X be unequal to Z may be expressed as
COBOL- IF X NOT EQUAL TO Z
FORTRAN- IF(X.NE.Z)
C - IF(X<> Z)
Similar differences exist with respect to the form of statement labels, keywords and so on
The notation used to specify certain debugging functions varies according to the
language of the program being debugged. Sometimes the language translator itself has
debugger interface modules that can respond to the request for debugging by the user. The
source code may be displayed by the debugger in the standard form or as specified by the
user or translator.
It is also important that a debugging system be able to deal with optimized code.
Many optimizations like
- Invariant expressions can be removed from loops
- Separate loops can be combined into a single loop
- Redundant expression may be eliminated
- Elimination of unnecessary branch instructions
Leads to rearrangement of segments of code in the program. All these optimizations
create problems for the debugger, and should be handled carefully.
5.2.2 Relationship with Other Parts of the System:
The important requirement for an interactive debugger is that it always be available.
Must appear as part of the run-time environment and an integral part of the system.
When an error is discovered, immediate debugging must be possible. The debugger
must communicate and cooperate with other operating system components such as
interactive subsystems.


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Debugging is more important at production time than it is at application-development
time. When an application fails during a production run, work dependent on that
application stops.
The debugger must also exist in a way that is consistent with the security and
integrity components of the system.
The debugger must coordinate its activities with those of existing and future
language compilers and interpreters.

5.2.3. User-Interface Criteria:
Debugging systems should be simple in its organization and familiar in its language,
closely reflect common user tasks.
The simple organization contribute greatly to ease of training and ease of use.
The user interaction should make use of full-screen displays and windowing-systems
as much as possible.
With menus and full-screen editors, the user has far less information to enter and
remember. There should be complete functional equivalence between commands and
menus user where unable to use full-screen IDSs may use commands.
The command language should have a clear, logical and simple syntax.
command formats should be as flexible as possible.
Any good IDSs should have an on-line HELP facility. HELP should be accessible
from any state of the debugging session.

RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. List out the four tasks to be accomplished by an interactive editor process. (4)
2. Explain user interface. (6)
3. With a diagram explain the structure of an editor. (10)
4. Explain user interface criteria. (6)
5. Explain debugging functions and its capabilities. (8)


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Chapter 6
MACRO PROCESSOR
A Macro represents a commonly used group of statements in the source programming
language.
A macro instruction (macro) is a notational convenience for the programmer
o It allows the programmer to write shorthand version of a program (module
programming)
The macro processor replaces each macro instruction with the corresponding group of
source language statements (expanding)
o Normally, it performs no analysis of the text it handles.
o It does not concern the meaning of the involved statements during macro
expansion.
The design of a macro processor generally is machine independent!
Two new assembler directives are used in macro definition
o MACRO: identify the beginning of a macro definition
o MEND: identify the end of a macro definition
Prototype for the macro
o Each parameter begins with &
name MACRO parameters
:
body
:
MEND
o Body: the statements that will be generated as the expansion of the macro.



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6.1. Basic Macro Processor Functions:
Macro Definition and Expansion
Macro Processor Algorithms and Data structures

6.1.1Macro Definition and Expansion:
Figure shows the MACRO expansion. The left block shows the MACRO definition
and the right block shows the expanded macro replacing the MACRO call with its block of
executable instruction.
M1 is a macro with two parameters D1 and D2. The MACRO stores the contents of
register A in D1 and the contents of register B in D2. Later M1 is invoked with the
parameters DATA1 and DATA2, Second time with DATA4 and DATA3. Every call of
MACRO is expended with the executable statements.


Fig 6.1: macro call
The statement M1 DATA1, DATA2 is a macro invocation statements that gives the name of
the macro instruction being invoked and the arguments (M1 and M2) to be used in
expanding. A macro invocation is referred as a Macro Call or Invocation.


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Macro Expansion:
The program with macros is supplied to the macro processor. Each macro invocation
statement will be expanded into the statement s that form the body of the macro, with the
arguments from the macro invocation substituted for the parameters in the macro prototype.
During the expansion, the macro definition statements are deleted since they are no longer
needed.
The arguments and the parameters are associated with one another according to their
positions. The first argument in the macro matches with the first parameter in the macro
prototype and so on.
After macro processing the expanded file can become the input for the Assembler.
The Macro Invocation statement is considered as comments and the statement generated
from expansion is treated exactly as though they had been written directly by the
programmer.
he difference between Macros and Subroutines is that the statement s from the body
of the Macro is expanded the number of times the macro invocation is encountered, whereas
the statement of the subroutine appears only once no matter how many times the subroutine
is called. Macro instructions will be written so that the body of the macro contains no labels.
Problem of the label in the body of macro:
o If the same macro is expanded multiple times at different places in the
program
o There will be duplicate labels, which will be treated as errors by the
assembler.
Solutions:
o Do not use labels in the body of macro.
o Explicitly use PC-relative addressing instead.
Ex, in RDBUFF and WRBUFF macros,
o JEQ *+11
o JLT *-14
It is inconvenient and error-prone.

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The following program shows the concept of Macro Invocation and Macro
Expansion.


Fig 6.2: concept of Macro Invocation and Macro Expansion.

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6.1.2 Macro Processor Algorithm and Data Structure:
Design can be done as two-pass or a one-pass macro. In case of two-pass assembler.
Two-pass macro processor
You may design a two-pass macro processor
o Pass 1:
Process all macro definitions
o Pass 2:
Expand all macro invocation statements
However, one-pass may be enough
o Because all macros would have to be defined during the first pass before any
macro invocations were expanded.
The definition of a macro must appear before any statements that
invoke that macro.
Moreover, the body of one macro can contain definitions of the other macro
Consider the example of a Macro defining another Macro.
In the example below, the body of the first Macro (MACROS) contains statement that
define RDBUFF, WRBUFF and other macro instructions for SIC machine.
The body of the second Macro (MACROX) defines the se same macros for SIC/XE
machine.
A proper invocation would make the same program to perform macro invocation to
run on either SIC or SIC/XEmachine.







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MACROS for SIC machine

Fig 4.3(a)

MACROX for SIC/XE Machine

Fig 4.3(b)


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A program that is to be run on SIC system could invoke MACROS whereas a
program to be run on SIC/XE can invoke MACROX.
However, defining MACROS or MACROX does not define RDBUFF and WRBUFF.
These definitions are processed only when an invocation of MACROS or MACROX
is expanded.

One-Pass Macro Processor:
A one-pass macro processor that alternate between macro definition and macro
expansion in a recursive way is able to handle recursive macro definition.
Restriction
o The definition of a macro must appear in the source program before any
statements that invoke that macro.
o This restriction does not create any real inconvenience.

The design considered is for one-pass assembler. The data structures required are:
DEFTAB (Definition Table)
o Stores the macro definition including macro prototype and macro body
o Comment lines are omitted.
o References to the macro instruction parameters are converted to a positional
notation for efficiency in substituting arguments.

NAMTAB (Name Table)
o Stores macro names
o Serves as an index to DEFTAB
Pointers to the beginning and the end of the macro definition (DEFTAB)




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ARGTAB (Argument Table)
o Stores the arguments according to their positions in the argument list.
o As the macro is expanded the arguments from the Argument table are
substituted for the corresponding parameters in the macro body.
o The figure below shows the different data structures described and their
relationship.



Fig 6.4: data structures and their relationship.

The above figure shows the portion of the contents of the table during the processing of the
program in page no. 3. In fig 4.4(a) definition of RDBUFF is stored in DEFTAB, with an
entry in NAMTAB having the pointers to the beginning and the end of the definition. The
arguments referred by the instructions are denoted by the their positional notations. For
example,
TD =X?1
The above instruction is to test the availability of the device whose number is given by the
parameter &INDEV. In the instruction this is replaced by its positional value? 1.


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Figure 4.4(b) shows the ARTAB as it would appear during expansion of the RDBUFF
statement as given below:

CLOOP RDBUFF F1, BUFFER, LENGTH
For the invocation of the macro RDBUFF, the first parameter is F1 (input device code),
second is BUFFER (indicating the address where the characters read are stored), and the third
is LENGTH (which indicates total length of the record to be read). When the ?n notation is
encountered in a line fro DEFTAB, a simple indexing operation supplies the proper argument
from ARGTAB.
The algorithm of the Macro processor is given below. This has the procedure DEFINE to
make the entry of macro name in the NAMTAB, Macro Prototype in DEFTAB. EXPAND is
called to set up the argument values in ARGTAB and expand a Macro Invocation statement.
Procedure GETLINE is called to get the next line to be processed either from the DEFTAB or
from the file itself.
When a macro definition is encountered it is entered in the DEFTAB. The normal approach is
to continue entering till MEND is encountered. If there is a program having a Macro defined
within another Macro.
While defining in the DEFTAB the very first MEND is taken as the end of the Macro
definition. This does not complete the definition as there is another outer Macro which
completes the definition of Macro as a whole. Therefore the DEFINE procedure keeps a
counter variable LEVEL.

Every time a Macro directive is encountered this counter is incremented by 1. The
moment the innermost Macro ends indicated by the directive MEND it starts decreasing the
value of the counter variable by one. The last MEND should make the counter value set to
zero. So when LEVEL becomes zero, the MEND corresponds to the original MACRO
directive.
Most macro processors allow thr definitions of the commonly used instructions to
appear in a standard system library, rather than in the source program. This makes the use of
macros convenient; definitions are retrieved from the library as they are needed during macro
processing.

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Fig 6.5: Macro library
Algorithms


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Comparison of Macro Processor Design
One-pass algorithm
o Every macro must be defined before it is called
o One-pass processor can alternate between macro definition and macro
expansion
o Nested macro definitions are allowed but nested calls are not allowed.
Two-pass algorithm
o Pass1: Recognize macro definitions
o Pass2: Recognize macro calls
o Nested macro definitions are not allowed

6.2. Machine-independent Macro-Processor Features.
The design of macro processor doesnt depend on the architecture of the machine. We will be
studying some extended feature for this macro processor. These features are:
Concatenation of Macro Parameters
Generation of unique labels
Conditional Macro Expansion
Keyword Macro Parameters

6.2.1. Concatenation of unique labels:
Most macro processor allows parameters to be concatenated with other character
strings. Suppose that a program contains a series of variables named by the symbols
XA1, XA2, XA3,, another series of variables named XB1, XB2, XB3,, etc. If
similar processing is to be performed on each series of labels, the programmer might
put this as a macro instruction.
The parameter to such a macro instruction could specify the series of variables to be
operated on (A, B, etc.). The macro processor would use this parameter to construct
the symbols required in the macro expansion (XA1, Xb1, etc.).

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Suppose that the parameter to such a macro instruction is named &ID. The body of
the macro definition might contain a statement like
LDA X&ID1


& is the starting character of the macro instruction; but the end of the parameter is not
marked. So in the case of &ID1, the macro processor could deduce the meaning that was
intended.
If the macro definition contains contain &ID and &ID1 as parameters, the situation
would be unavoidably ambiguous.
Most of the macro processors deal with this problem by providing a special
concatenation operator. In the SIC macro language, this operator is the character .
Thus the statement LDA X&ID1 can be written as
LDA X&ID



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The above figure shows a macro definition that uses the concatenation operator as
previously described. The statement SUM A and SUM BETA shows the invocation
statements and the corresponding macro expansion.
6.2.2. Generation of Unique Labels
it is not possible to use labels for the instructions in the macro definition, since
every expansion of macro would include the label repeatedly which is not
allowed by the assembler.
This in turn forces us to use relative addressing in the jump instructions.
Instead we can use the technique of generating unique labels for every macro
invocation and expansion.
During macro expansion each $ will be replaced with $XX, where xx is a two-
character alphanumeric counter of the number of macro instructions
expansion.
For example,
XX = AA, AB, AC

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This allows 1296 macro expansions in a single program.
The following program shows the macro definition with labels to the instruction.

The following figure shows the macro invocation and expansion first time.


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If the macro is invoked second time the labels may be expanded as $ABLOOP
$ABEXIT.
6.2.3. Conditional Macro Expansion
There are applications of macro processors that are not related to assemblers or assembler
programming.
Conditional assembly depends on parameters provides
MACRO &COND
..
IF (&COND NE )
part I
ELSE
part II
ENDIF

ENDM
Part I is expanded if condition part is true, otherwise part II is expanded. Compare operators:
NE, EQ, LE, GT.
Macro-Time Variables:
Macro-time variables (often called as SET Symbol) can be used to store working
values during the macro expansion. Any symbol that begins with symbol & and not a macro
instruction parameter is considered as macro-time variable. All such variables are initialized
to zero.


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Figure 4.5(a) gives the definition of the macro RDBUFF with the parameters
&INDEV, &BUFADR, &RECLTH, &EOR, &MAXLTH. According to the above program
if &EOR has any value, then &EORCK is set to 1 by using the directive SET, otherwise it
retains its default value 0.


Fig 6.9(b): Use of Macro-Time Variable with EOF being NOT NULL

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Fig 6.9(c) Use of Macro-Time conditional statement with EOF being NULL


Fig 6.9(d) Use of Time-variable with EOF NOT NULL and MAXLENGTH being NULL

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The above programs show the expansion of Macro invocation statements with different
values for the time variables. In figure 4.9(b) the &EOF value is NULL. When the macro
invocation is done, IF statement is executed, if it is true EORCK is set to 1, otherwise normal
execution of the other part of the program is continued.
The macro processor must maintain a symbol table that contains the value of all
macro-time variables used. Entries in this table are modified when SET statements are
processed. The table is used to look up the current value of the macro-time variable whenever
it is required.
When an IF statement is encountered during the expansion of a macro, the specified
Boolean expression is evaluated.
If the value of this expression TRUE,
The macro processor continues to process lines from the DEFTAB until it encounters
the ELSE or ENDIF statement.
If an ELSE is found, macro processor skips lines in DEFTAB until the next ENDIF.
Once it reaches ENDIF, it resumes expanding the macro in the usual way.

If the value of the expression is FALSE,
The macro processor skips ahead in DEFTAB until it encounters next ELSE or
ENDIF statement.
The macro processor then resumes normal macro expansion.
The macro-time IF-ELSE-ENDIF structure provides a mechanism for either generating(once)
or skipping selected statements in the macro body. There is another construct WHILE
statement which specifies that the following line until the next ENDW statement, are to be
generated repeatedly as long as a particular condition is true. The testing of this condition,
and the looping are done during the macro is under expansion. The example shown below
shows the usage of Macro-Time Looping statement.


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WHILE-ENDW structure
When an WHILE statement is encountered during the expansion of a macro, the
specified Boolean expression is evaluated.
TRUE
o The macro processor continues to process lines from DEFTAB until it
encounters the next ENDW statement.
o When ENDW is encountered, the macro processor returns to the preceding
WHILE, re-evaluates the Boolean expression, and takes action based on
the new value.
FALSE
o The macro processor skips ahead in DEFTAB until it finds the next ENDW
statement and then resumes normal macro expansion.



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6.2.4 Keyword Macro Parameters
All the macro instruction definitions used positional parameters. Parameters
and arguments are matched according to their positions in the macro prototype
and the macro invocation statement.

The programmer needs to be careful while specifying the arguments. If an
argument is to be omitted the macro invocation statement must contain a null
argument mentioned with two commas.

Positional parameters are suitable for the macro invocation. But if the macro
invocation has large number of parameters, and if only few of the values need
to be used in a typical invocation, a different type of parameter specification is
required
Ex: XXX MACRO &P1, &P2, ., &P20, .
XXX A1, A2,,,,,,,,,,,,A20,..
Null arguments

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Keyword parameters
Each argument value is written with a keyword that names the corresponding
parameter.
Arguments may appear in any order.
Null arguments no longer need to be used.
Ex: XXX P1=A1, P2=A2, P20=A20.
It is easier to read and much less error-prone than the positional method.



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Fig 6.10 Example showing the usage of Keyword Parameter

6.3 Macro Processor Design Options
6.3.1 Recursive Macro Expansion
We have seen an example of the definition of one macro instruction by another. But we have
not dealt with the invocation of one macro by another. The following example shows the
invocation of one macro by another macro.

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Problem of Recursive Expansion
Previous macro processor design cannot handle such kind of recursive macro
invocation and expansion
o The procedure EXPAND would be called recursively, thus the invocation
arguments in the ARGTAB will be overwritten.
o The Boolean variable EXPANDING would be set to FALSE when the inner
macro expansion is finished, i.e., the macro process would forget that it had
been in the middle of expanding an outer macro.


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Solutions
o Write the macro processor in a programming language that allows recursive
calls, thus local variables will be retained.
o If you are writing in a language without recursion support, use a stack to take
care of pushing and popping local variables and return addresses.

The procedure EXPAND would be called when the macro was recognized. The arguments
from the macro invocation would be entered into ARGTAB as follows:
Parameter Value
1 BUFFER
2 LENGTH
3 F1
4 (unused)
- -

The Boolean variable EXPANDING would be set to TRUE, and expansion of the macro
invocation statement would begin. The processing would proceed normally until statement
invoking RDCHAR is processed. This time, ARGTAB would look like

Parameter
Value
1 F1
2 (Unused)
-- --

At the expansion, when the end of RDCHAR is recognized, EXPANDING would be
set to FALSE. Thus the macro processor would forget that it had been in the middle of
expanding a macro when it encountered the RDCHAR statement. In addition, the arguments
from the original macro invocation (RDBUFF) would be lost because the value in ARGTAB
was overwritten with the arguments from the invocation of RDCHAR.


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6.3.2 General-Purpose Macro Processors
Macro processors that do not dependent on any particular programming language, but
can be used with a variety of different languages
Pros
o Programmers do not need to learn many macro languages.
o Although its development costs are somewhat greater than those for a
language specific macro processor, this expense does not need to be repeated
for each language, thus save substantial overall cost.
Cons
o Large number of details must be dealt with in a real programming language
Situations in which normal macro parameter substitution should not
occur, e.g., comments.
Facilities for grouping together terms, expressions, or statements
Tokens, e.g., identifiers, constants, operators, keywords
Syntax had better be consistent with the source programming language

6.3.3Macro Processing within Language Translators
The macro processors we discussed are called Preprocessors.
o Process macro definitions
o Expand macro invocations
o Produce an expanded version of the source program, which is then used as input
to an assembler or compiler
You may also combine the macro processing functions with the language translator:
o Line-by-line macro processor
o Integrated macro processor





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6.4 Line-by-Line Macro Processor
Used as a sort of input routine for the assembler or compiler
o Read source program
o Process macro definitions and expand macro invocations
o Pass output lines to the assembler or compiler
Benefits
o Avoid making an extra pass over the source program.
o Data structures required by the macro processor and the language translator can
be combined (e.g., OPTAB and NAMTAB)
o Utility subroutines can be used by both macro processor and the language
translator.
Scanning input lines
Searching tables
Data format conversion
o It is easier to give diagnostic messages related to the source statements

Integrated Macro Processor
An integrated macro processor can potentially make use of any information about the
source program that is extracted by the language translator.
o Ex (blanks are not significant in FORTRAN)
DO 100 I = 1,20
a DO statement
DO 100 I = 1
An assignment statement
DO100I: variable (blanks are not significant in FORTRAN)
An integrated macro processor can support macro instructions that depend upon the
context in which they occur.




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RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1.explain the data structures of macroprocessors?(8)
2.Explain the following (6)
a. NAMTAB
b. DEFTAB
c. ARGTAB
3. Write the algorithm for a one pass macro processor. (8)
4.Explain the following (8)
a. Conditional macro expansion
b.Concatenation of macro parameters
c.Keyword macro parameters
d.Generation of unique labels.
5.Explain Recursive Macro Expansion. (7)
6.Explain general purpose macro processors. (6)
7.Explain the following (8)
a. MASM macro processor
b. ANSI C macro processor






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Unit 7
LEX AND YACC-1
Lex is a program generator designed for lexical processing of character input streams. It
accepts a high-level, problem oriented specification for character string matching, and
produces a program in a general purpose language which recognizes regular expressions.The
regular expressions are specified by the user in the source specifications given to Lex.
7.1 Lex and Yacc
The Lex written code recognizes these expressions in an input stream and partitions the
input stream into strings matching the expressions. At the boundaries between strings
program sections provided by the user are executed. The Lex source file associates the
regular expressions and the program fragments. As each expression appears in the input to
the program written by Lex, the corresponding fragment is executed.
Lex turns the user's expressions and actions (called source in this memo) into the host
general-purpose language; the generated program is named yylex. The yylex program will
recognize expressions in a stream (called input in this memo) and perform the specified
actions for each expression as it is detected. See Figure 1.
+-------+
Source -> | Lex | -> yylex
+-------+

+-------+
Input -> | yylex | -> Output

+-------+




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7.2 A YACC Parser
The structure of a lex file is intentionally similar to that of a yacc file; files are divided up
into three sections, separated by lines that contain only two percent signs, as follows:
Definition section
%%
Rules section
%%
C code section
The definition section is the place to define macros and to import header files written
in C. It is also possible to write any C code here, which will be copied verbatim into
the generated source file.
The rules section is the most important section; it associates patterns with C
statements. Patterns are simply regular expressions. When the lexer sees some text in
the input matching a given pattern, it executes the associated C code. This is the basis
of how lex operates.
The C code section contains C statements and functions that are copied verbatim to
the generated source file. These statements presumably contain code called by the
rules in the rules section. In large programs it is more convenient to place this code in
a separate file and link it in at compile time.
Example:
/*** Definition section ***/

%{
/* C code to be copied verbatim */
#include <stdio.h>
%}

/* This tells lex to read only one input file */


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%%
/*** Rules section ***/

/* [0-9]+ matches a string of one or more digits */
[0-9]+ {
/* yytext is a string containing the matched text. */
printf("Saw an integer: %s\n", yytext);
}

. { /* Ignore all other characters. */ }

%%
/*** C Code section ***/

int main(void)
{
/* Call the lexer, then quit. */
yylex();
return 0;

REGULAR EXPRESSIONS:
Regular expression specifies a set of strings to be matched. It contains text characters and
operator characters The letters of the alphabet and the digits are always text characters; thus
the regular expression integer matches the string integer wherever it appears and the
expression
a57D
looks for the string a57D.
Operators:
The operator characters are
" \ [ ] ^ - ? . * + | ( ) $ / { } % <>

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and if they are to be used as text characters, an escape should be used. The quotation mark
operator (") indicates that whatever is contained between a pair of quotes is to be taken as
text characters.
Thus
xyz"++"
matches the string xyz++ when it appears.

Note that a part of a string may be quoted. It is harmless but unnecessary to quote an
ordinary text character; the expression
"xyz++"
is the same as the one above. Thus by quoting every non-alphanumeric character being used
as a text character, the user can avoid remembering the list above of current operator
characters, and is safe should further extensions to Lex lengthen the list.
An operator character may also be turned into a text character by preceding it with
\ as in
xyz\+\+
which is another, less readable, equivalent of the above expressions.
Another use of the quoting mechanism is to get a blank into an expression; blanks or tabs end
a rule. Any blank character not contained within []must be quoted.

Several normal C escapes with \ are recognized: \n is newline, \t is tab, and \b is
backspace. To enter \ itself, use \\. Since newline is illegal in an expression, \n must
be used; it is not required to escape tab and backspace. Every character but blank,
tab, newline and the list above is always a text character.
Character classes. Classes of characters can be specified using the operator pair [].
The construction [abc] matches a single character, which may be a, b, or c. Within

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square brackets, most operator meanings are ignored. Only three characters are
special: these are \ - and ^. The - character indicates ranges.
For example:
[a-z0-9<>_]indicates the character class containing all the lower case letters, the digits, the
angle brackets, and underline. Ranges may be given in either order.
Using - between any pair of characters which are not both upper case letters, both
lower case letters, or both digits is implementation dependent and will get a warning
message. If it is desired to include the character - in a character class, it should be first
or last; thus
[-+0-9]
matches all the digits and the two signs.
In character classes, the ^ operator must appear as the first character after the left bracket; it
indicates that the resulting string is to be complemented with respect to the computer
character set. Thus , [^abc] matches all characters except a, b, or c, including all special
or control characters
or [^a-zA-Z]
is any character which is not a letter. The \ character provides the usual escapes within
character class brackets.
Optional expressions.: The operator ? indicates an optional element of an expression.
Thus ab?c
matches either ac or abc.
Repeated expressions: Repetitions of classes are indicated by the operators * and +.
Ex: a*

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is any number of consecutive a characters, including zero, while a+ is one or more instances
of a.
For example [a-z]+
is all strings of lower case letters.
Defining regular expressions in Lex :
Character Meaning
A-Z, 0-9, a-z Characters and numbers that form part of the pattern.
. Matches any character except \n.
- Used to denote range. Example: A-Z implies all characters from A to Z.
[ ] A character class. Matches any character in the brackets. If the first
character is ^ then it indicates a negation pattern. Example: [abC]
matches either of a, b, and C.
* Match zero or more occurrences of the preceding pattern.
+ Matches one or more occurrences of the preceding pattern.
? Matches zero or one occurrences of the preceding pattern.
$ Matches end of line as the last character of the pattern.
{ } Indicates how many times a pattern can be present. Example: A{1,3}
implies one or three occurrences of A may be present.
\ Used to escape meta characters. Also used to remove the special meaning
of characters as defined in this table.
^ Negation.
| Logical OR between expressions.

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"<some symbols>" Literal meanings of characters. Meta characters hold.
/ Look ahead. Matches the preceding pattern only if followed by the
succeeding expression. Example: A0/1 matches A0 only if A01 is the
input.
( ) Groups a series of regular expressions.

Examples of regular expressions:
Regular expression Meaning
joke[rs] Matches either jokes or joker.
A{1,2}shis+ Matches AAshis, Ashis, AAshi, Ashi.
(A[b-e])+ Matches zero or one occurrences of A followed by any character from
b to e.
Tokens in Lex are declared like variable names in C. Every token has an associated expression.
(Examples of tokens and expression are given in the following table.) Using the examples in our
tables, we'll build a word-counting program. Our first task will be to show how tokens are declared.
Examples of token declarations
Token Associated expression Meaning
number ([0-9])+ 1 or more occurrences of a digit
chars [A-Za-z] Any character
blank " " A blank space
word (chars)+ 1 or more occurrences of chars
variable (chars)+(number)*(chars)*( number)*


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7.3. USING LEX:
If lex.l is the file containing the lex specification, the C source for the lexical analyzer is
produced by running lex with the following command:

lex lex.l
lex produces a C file called lex.yy.c.
Options
There are several options available with the lex command. If you use one or more of them,
place them between the command name lex and the filename argument.
The -t option sends lex's output to the standard output rather than to the file lex.yy.c.
The -v option prints out a small set of statistics describing the so-called finite automata that
lex produces with the C program lex.yy.c.
WORD COUNTING PROGRAM
In this section we can add C variable declarations. We will declare an integer variable here
for our word-counting program that holds the number of words counted by the program.
We'll also perform token declarations of Lex.
Declarations for the word-counting program
%{
int wordCount = 0;
%}
chars [A-za-z\_\'\.\"]
numbers ([0-9])+
delim [" "\n\t]
whitespace {delim}+
words {chars}+
%%

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The double percent sign implies the end of this section and the beginning of the second of the
three sections in Lex programming.
Lex rules for matching patterns
Let's look at the Lex rules for describing the token that we want to match. (We'll use C to
define what to do when a token is matched.) Continuing with our word-counting program,
here are the rules for matching tokens.
Lex rules for the word-counting program
{words} { wordCount++; /*
increase the word count by one*/ }
{whitespace} { /* do
nothing*/ }
{numbers} { /* one may
want to add some processing here*/ }
%%

C code
The third and final section of programming in Lex covers C function declarations (and
occasionally the main function) Note that this section has to include the yywrap() function.
Lex has a set of functions and variables that are available to the user. One of them is yywrap.
Typically, yywrap() is defined as shown in the example below.
C code section for the word-counting program
void main()
{
yylex(); /* start the analysis*/
printf(" No of words:
%d\n", wordCount);
}
int yywrap()
{
return 1;
}

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LEXER
lexical analysis is the process of converting a sequence of characters into a sequence of
tokens. A program or function which performs lexical analysis is called a lexical analyzer,
lexer or scanner. A lexer often exists as a single function which is called by a parser or
another function
Token
A token is a string of characters, categorized according to the rules as a symbol (e.g.
IDENTIFIER, NUMBER, COMMA, etc.). The process of forming tokens from an input
stream of characters is called tokenization and the lexer categorizes them according to a
symbol type. A token can look like anything that is useful for processing an input text stream
or text file.
A lexical analyzer generally does nothing with combinations of tokens, a task left for a parser.
For example, a typical lexical analyzer recognizes parenthesis as tokens, but does nothing to
ensure that each '(' is matched with a ')'.
Consider this expression in the C programming language:
sum=3+2;
Tokenized in the following table:
lexeme token type
sum Identifier
= Assignment operator
3 Number
+ Addition operator
2 Number

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; End of statement
Tokens are frequently defined by regular expressions, which are understood by a lexical
analyzer generator such as lex. The lexical analyzer (either generated automatically by a tool
like lex, or hand-crafted) reads in a stream of characters, identifies the lexemes in the stream,
and categorizes them into tokens. This is called "tokenizing." If the lexer finds an invalid
token, it will report an error.
Following tokenizing is parsing. From there, the interpreted data may be loaded into data
structures for general use, interpretation, or compiling.
Examples:
1. Write a Lex source program to copy an input file while adding 3 to every positive number
divisible by 7.
%%
int k;
[0-9]+ {
k = atoi(yytext);
if (k%7 == 0)
printf("%d", k+3);
else
printf("%d",k);
}
to do just that. The rule [0-9]+ recognizes strings of digits; atoi converts the digits to binary and
stores the result in k. The operator % (remainder) is used to check whether k is divisible by 7; if it is,
it is incremented by 3 as it is written out. It may be objected that this program will alter such input
items as 49.63 or X7. Furthermore, it increments the absolute value of all negative numbers divisible
by 7. To avoid this, just add a few more rules after the active one, as here:

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%%
int k;
-?[0-9]+ {
k = atoi(yytext);
printf("%d",
k%7 == 0 ? k+3 : k);
}
-?[0-9.]+ ECHO;
[A-Za-z][A-Za-z0-9]+ ECHO;
Numerical strings containing a .'' or preceded by a letter will be picked up by one of the last
two rules, and not changed. The if-else has been replaced by a C conditional expression to save
space; the form a?b:c means if a then b else c''.
2. Write a Lex program that histograms the lengths of words, where a word is defined as a
string of letters.
int lengs[100];
%%
[a-z]+ lengs[yyleng]++;
. |
\n ;
%%
yywrap()
{
int i;
printf("Length No. words\n");

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for(i=0; i<100; i++)
if (lengs[i] > 0)
printf("%5d%10d\n",i,lengs[i]);
return(1);
}
3.. Write a lex program to find the number of vowels and consonants.
%{
/* to find vowels and consonents*/
int vowels = 0;
int consonents = 0;
%}
%%
[ \t\n]+
[aeiouAEIOU] vowels++;
[bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyzBCDFGHJKLMNPQRSTVWXYZ] consonents++;
.
%%
main()
{
yylex();
printf(" The number of vowels = %d\n", vowels);
printf(" number of consonents = %d \n", consonents);
return(0);
}

The same program can be executed by giving alternative grammar. It is as follows:
Here a file is opened which is given as a argument and reads to text and counts the number of
vowels and consonants.


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%{
unsigned int vowelcount=0;
unsigned int consocount=0;
%}
vowel [aeiouAEIOU]
consonant [bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyzBCDFGHJKLMNPQRSTVWXYZ]
eol \n

%%

{vowel} { vowelcount++;}
{consonant} { consocount++; }

%%
main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
if(argc > 1)
{
FILE *fp;
fp=fopen(argv[1],"r");
if(!fp)
{
fprintf(stderr,"could not open %s\n",argv[1]);
exit(1);
}
yyin=fp;
}
yylex();
printf(" vowelcount=%u consonantcount=%u\n ",vowelcount,consocount);
return(0);
}

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4. Write a Lex program to count the number of words, characters, blanks and lines in a
given text.

%{
unsigned int charcount=0;
int wordcount=0;
int linecount=0;
int blankcount =0;
%}
word[^ \t\n]+
eol \n
%%
[ ] blankcount++;
{word} { wordcount++; charcount+=yyleng;}
{eol} {charcount++; linecount++;}
. { ECHO; charcount++;}
%%
main(argc, argv)
int argc;
char **argv;
{
if(argc > 1)
{
FILE *file;
file = fopen(argv[1],"r");
if(!file)
{
fprintf(stderr, "could not open %s\n", argv[1]);
exit(1);
}
yyin = file;

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yylex();
printf("\nThe number of characters = %u\n", charcount);
printf("The number of wordcount = %u\n", wordcount);
printf("The number of linecount = %u\n", linecount);
printf("The number of blankcount = %u\n", blankcount);
return(0);
}
else
printf(" Enter the file name along with the program \n");
}

5. Write a lex program to find the number of positive integer, negative integer, positive
floating positive number and negative floating point number.

%{
int posnum = 0;
int negnum = 0;
int posflo = 0;
int negflo = 0;
%}
%%
[\n\t ];
([0-9]+) {posnum++;}
-?([0-9]+) {negnum++; }
([0-9]*\.[0-9]+) { posflo++; }
-?([0-9]*\.[0-9]+) { negflo++; }
. ECHO;
%%
main()
{
yylex();

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printf("Number of positive numbers = %d\n", posnum);
printf("number of negative numbers = %d\n", negnum);
printf("number of floting positive number = %d\n", posflo);
printf("number of floating negative number = %d\n", negflo);
}


6. Write a lex program to find the given c program has right number of brackets. Count
the number of comments. Check for while loop.


%{
/* find main, comments, {, (, ), } */
int comments=0;
int opbr=0;
int clbr=0;
int opfl=0;
int clfl=0;
int j=0;
int k=0;
%}
%%
"main()" j=1;
"/*"[ \t].*[ \t]"*/" comments++;
"while("[0-9a-zA-Z]*")"[ \t]*\n"{"[ \t]*.*"}" k=1;
^[ \t]*"{"[ \t]*\n
^[ \t]*"}" k=1;
"(" opbr++;
")" clbr++;
"{" opfl++;
"}" clfl++;

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[^ \t\n]+
. ECHO;
%%
main(argc, argv)
int argc;
char *argv[];
{
if (argc > 1)
{
FILE *file;
file = fopen(argv[1], "r");
if (!file)
{
printf("error opeing a file \n");
exit(1);
}
yyin = file;
}
yylex();
if(opbr != clbr)
printf("open brackets is not equal to close brackets\n");
if(opfl != clfl)
printf("open flower brackets is not equal to close flower brackets\n");
printf(" the number of comments = %d\n",comments);
if (!j)
printf("there is no main function \n");
if (k)
printf("there is loop\n");
else printf("there is no valid for loop\n");
return(0);
}

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6. Write a lex program to replace scanf with READ and printf with WRITE statement
also find the number of scanf and printf.

%{
int pc=0,sc=0;
%}
%%
printf fprintf(yyout,"WRITE");pc++;
scanf fprintf(yyout,"READ");sc++;
. ECHO;
%%
main(int argc,char* argv[])
{
if(argc!=3)
{
printf("\nUsage: %s <src><dest>\n",argv[0]);
return;
}
yyin=fopen(argv[1],"r");
yyout=fopen(argv[2],"w");
yylex();
printf("\nno. of printfs:%d\nno. of scanfs:%d\n",pc,sc);
}

7. Write a lex program to find whether the given expression is valid.

%{
#include <stdio.h>
int valid=0,ctr=0,oc = 0;
%}
NUM [0-9]+

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OP [+*/-]
%%
{NUM}({OP}{NUM})+ {
valid = 1;
for(ctr = 0;yytext[ctr];ctr++)
{
switch(yytext[ctr])
{
case '+':
case '-':
case '*':
case '/': oc++;
}
}
}
{NUM}\n {printf("\nOnly a number.");}
\n { if(valid) printf("valid \n operatorcount = %d",oc);
else printf("Invalid");
valid = oc = 0;ctr=0;
}
%%
main()
{
yylex();
}

/* Another solution for the same problem */

%{
int oprc=0,digc=0,top=-1,flag=0;
char stack[20];

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%}
digit [0-9]+
opr [+*/-]
%%
[ \n\t]+
['('] {stack[++top]='(';}
[')'] {flag=1;
if(stack[top]=='('&&(top!=-1))
top--;
else
{
printf("\n Invalid expression\n");
exit(0);
}
}
{digit} {digc++;}
{opr}/['('] { oprc++; printf("%s",yytext);}
{opr}/{digit} {oprc++; printf("%s",yytext);}
. {printf("Invalid "); exit(0);}
%%
main()
{
yylex();
if((digc==oprc+1||digc==oprc) && top==-1)
{
printf("VALID");
printf("\n oprc=%d\n digc=%d\n",oprc,digc);
}
else
printf("INVALID");
}

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8.Write a lex program to find the given sentence is simple or compound.

%{
int flag=0;
%}
%%
(" "[aA][nN][dD]" ")|(" "[oO][rR]" ")|(" "[bB][uU][tT]" ") flag=1;
. ;
%%
main()
{yylex();
if (flag==1)
printf("COMPOUND SENTENCE \n");
else
printf("SIMPLE SENTENCE \n");
}

9. Write a lex program to find the number of valid identifiers.

%{
int count=0;
%}
%%
(" int ")|(" float ")|(" double ")|(" char ")

{
int ch; ch = input();
for(;;)
{
if (ch==',') {count++;}
else

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if(ch==';') {break;}
ch = input();
}
count++;
}
%%
main(int argc,char *argv[])
{
yyin=fopen(argv[1],"r");
yylex();
printf("the no of identifiers used is %d\n",count);
}
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. write the specification of lex with an example? (10)
2. what is regular expressions? With examples explain? (8)
3. write a lex program to count the no of words , lines , space, characters? (8)
4. write a lex program to count the no of vowels and consonants? (8)
5. what is lexer- parser communication? Explain? (5)
6. write a program to count no of words by the method of substitution? (7)








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UNIT - 8
LEX AND YACC 2
8.1 USING YACC
Yacc provides a general tool for describing the input to a computer program. The Yacc user
specifies the structures of his input, together with code to be invoked as each such structure is
recognized. Yacc turns such a specification into a subroutine that handles the input process;
frequently, it is convenient and appropriate to have most of the flow of control in the user's
application handled by this subroutine.
The input subroutine produced by Yacc calls a user-supplied routine to return the next
basic input item. Thus, the user can specify his input in terms of individual input characters
or in terms of higher level constructs such as names and numbers. The user supplied routine
may also handle idiomatic features such as comment and continuation conventions, which
typically defy easy grammatical specification. Yacc is written in portable C.
Yacc provides a general tool for imposing structure on the input to a computer
program. User prepares a specification of the input process; this includes rules describing the
input structure, code to be invoked when these rules are recognized, and a low-level routine
to do the basic input.
Grammars:
The heart of the input specification is a collection of grammar rules. Each rule
describes an allowable structure and gives it a name. For example, one grammar rule might
be
date : month_name day ',' year

Here, date, month_name, day, and year represent structures of interest in the input
process; presumably, month_name, day, and year are defined elsewhere. The comma ``,'' is

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enclosed in single quotes; this implies that the comma is to appear literally in the input. The
colon and semicolon merely serve as punctuation in the rule, and have no significance in
controlling the input. Thus, with proper definitions, the input
July 4, 1776
might be matched by the above rule.
An important part of the input process is carried out by the lexical analyzer. This
user routine reads the input stream, recognizing the lower level structures, and communicates
these tokens to the parser. For historical reasons, a structure recognized by the lexical
analyzer is called a terminal symbol, while the structure recognized by the parser is called a
nonterminal symbol. To avoid confusion, terminal symbols will usually be referred to as
tokens.
Basic Specifications:
Every specification file consists of three sections: the declarations, (grammar) rules,
and programs. The sections are separated by double percent ``%%'' marks. (The percent
``%'' is generally used in Yacc specifications as an escape character.)
In other words, a full specification file looks like
declarations
%%
rules
%%
programs

The declaration section may be empty. Moreover, if the programs section is omitted, the
second %% mark may be omitted also; thus, the smallest legal Yacc specification is
%%

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rules
Blanks, tabs, and newlines are ignored except that they may not appear in names or
multi-character reserved symbols. Comments may appear wherever a name is legal; they are
enclosed in /* . . . */, as in C and PL/I.
The rules section is made up of one or more grammar rules.
A grammar rule has the form:
A:BODY;
A represents a non terminal name, and BODY represents a sequence of zero or more
names and literals. The colon and the semicolon are Yacc punctuation. Names may be of
arbitrary length, and may be made up of letters, dot ``.'', underscore ``_'', and non-initial
digits. Upper and lower case letters are distinct. The names used in the body of a grammar
rule may represent tokens or nonterminal symbols.
8.2 AYACC PARSER
A literal consists of a character enclosed in single quotes ``'''. As in C, the backslash ``\'' is
an escape character within literals, and all the C escapes are recognized. Thus
'\n' newline
'\r' return
'\'' single quote ``'''
'\\' backslash ``\''
'\t' tab
'\b' backspace
'\f' form feed
'\xxx' ``xxx'' in octal

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For a number of technical reasons, the NUL character ('\0' or 0) should never be used in
grammar rules.
If there are several grammar rules with the same left hand side, the vertical bar ``|''
can be used to avoid rewriting the left hand side. In addition, the semicolon at the end of a
rule can be dropped before a vertical bar. Thus the grammar rules
A : B C D ;
A : E F ;
A : G ;
can be given to Yacc as
A : B C D
| E F
| G
;
It is not necessary that all grammar rules with the same left side appear together in
the grammar rules section, although it makes the input much more readable, and
easier to change.
If a nonterminal symbol matches the empty string, this can be indicated in the
obvious way:
empty : ;
Names representing tokens must be declared; this is most simply done by writing
%token name1, name2 . . .

In the declarations section, Every name not defined in the declarations section is
assumed to represent a non-terminal symbol. Every non-terminal symbol must appear on
the left side of at least one rule.

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Of all the nonterminal symbols, one, called the start symbol, has particular
importance. The parser is designed to recognize the start symbol; thus, this symbol
represents the largest, most general structure described by the grammar rules. By
default, the start symbol is taken to be the left hand side of the first grammar rule in
the rules section.
It is possible, and in fact desirable, to declare the start symbol explicitly in the
declarations section using the % start keyword:
%start symbol
The end of the input to the parser is signaled by a special token, called the endmarker.
If the tokens up to, but not including, the endmarker form a structure which matches
the start symbol, the parser function returns to its caller after the end-marker is seen;
it accepts the input. If the endmarker is seen in any other context, it is an error.
It is the job of the user-supplied lexical analyzer to return the endmarker when
appropriate; see section 3, below. Usually the endmarker represents some reasonably
obvious I/O status, such as ``end-of-file'' or ``end-of-record''.

Actions:
With each grammar rule, the user may associate actions to be Yacc: Yet Another
Compiler-Compiler performed each time the rule is recognized in the input process.

These actions may return values, and may obtain the values returned by previous
actions. Moreover, the lexical analyzer can return values for tokens, if desired.
An action is an arbitrary C statement, and as such can do input and output, call
subprograms, and alter external vectors and variables. An action is specified by one
or more statements, enclosed in curly braces ``{'' and ``}''. For example,

A : '(' B ')'
{ hello( 1, "abc" ); }

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and
XXX : YYY ZZZ
{ printf("a message\n");
flag = 25; }
are grammar rules with actions.
To facilitate easy communication between the actions and the parser, the action
statements are altered slightly. The symbol ``dollar sign'' ``$'' is used as a signal to Yacc in
this context.
To return a value, the action normally sets the pseudo-variable ``$$'' to some value.
For example, an action that does nothing but return the value 1 is
{ $$ = 1; }
To obtain the values returned by previous actions and the lexical analyzer, the action
may use the pseudo-variables $1, $2, . . ., which refer to the values returned by the
components of the right side of a rule, reading from left to right. Thus, if the rule is
A : B C D ;

for example, then $2 has the value returned by C, and $3 the value returned by D.
As a more concrete example, consider the rule
expr : '(' expr ')' ;
The value returned by this rule is usually the value of the expr in parentheses. This
can be indicated by
expr : '(' expr ')' { $$ = $2 ; }
By default, the value of a rule is the value of the first element in it ($1). Thus, grammar
rules of the form

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A : B ;
frequently need not have an explicit action.
In the examples above, all the actions came at the end of their rules. Sometimes, it is
desirable to get control before a rule is fully parsed. Yacc permits an action to be written in
the middle of a rule as well as at the end.
The user may define other variables to be used by the actions. Declarations and
definitions can appear in the declarations section, enclosed in the marks ``%{'' and ``%}''.
These declarations and definitions have global scope, so they are known to the action
statements and the lexical analyzer. For example,
%{ int variable = 0; %}
could be placed in the declarations section, making variable accessible to all of the
actions. The Yacc parser uses only names beginning in ``yy''; the user should avoid such
names.
In these examples, all the values are integers.
8.3 Lexer
The user must supply a lexical analyzer to read the input stream and communicate
tokens (with values, if desired) to the parser. The lexical analyzer is an integer-valued
function called yylex. The user must supply a lexical analyzer to read the input stream and
communicate tokens (with values, if desired) to the parser. The lexical analyzer is an
integer-valued function called yylex. The parser and the lexical analyzer must agree on these
token numbers in order for communication between them to take place. The numbers may be
chosen by Yacc, or chosen by the user. In either case, the ``# define'' mechanism of C is used
to allow the lexical analyzer to return these numbers symbolically. For example, suppose
that the token name DIGIT has been defined in the declarations section of the Yacc
specification file. The relevant portion of the lexical analyzer might look like:
yylex(){

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extern int yylval;
int c;
. . .
c = getchar();
. . .
switch( c ) {
. . .
case '0':
case '1':
. . .
case '9':
yylval = c-'0';
return( DIGIT );
. . .
}
. . .
The intent is to return a token number of DIGIT, and a value equal to the numerical
value of the digit. Provided that the lexical analyzer code is placed in the programs
section of the specification file, the identifier DIGIT will be defined as the token
number associated with the token DIGIT.


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This mechanism leads to clear, easily modified lexical analyzers; the only pitfall
is the need to avoid using any token names in the grammar that are reserved or
significant in C or the parser;
For example, the use of token names if or while will almost certainly cause
severe difficulties when the lexical analyzer is compiled. The token name error is
reserved for error handling, and should not be used naively.
The token numbers may be chosen by Yacc or by the user. In the default situation,
the numbers are chosen by Yacc.
The default token number for a literal character is the numerical value of the character
in the local character set. Other names are assigned token numbers starting at 257.

8.4Compiling and running a SimpleParser:
Yacc turns the specification file into a C program, which parses the input according to the
specification given. The algorithm used to go from the specification to the parser is complex.
however, is relatively simple, and understanding how it works, while not strictly necessary,
will nevertheless make treatment of error recovery and ambiguities much more
comprehensible.
The parser produced by Yacc consists of a finite state machine with a stack. The
parser is also capable of reading and remembering the next input token (called the lookahead
token). The current state is always the one on the top of the stack. The states of the finite
state machine are given small integer labels; initially, the machine is in state 0, the stack
contains only state 0, and no lookahead token has been read.
The machine has only four actions available to it, called shift, reduce, accept, and
error. A move of the parser is done as follows:
1. Based on its current state, the parser decides whether it needs a lookahead token to
decide what action should be done; if it needs one, and does not have one, it calls yylex to
obtain the next token.

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2. Using the current state, and the lookahead token if needed, the parser decides on its next
action, and carries it out. This may result in states being pushed onto the stack, or popped off
the stack, and in the lookahead token being processed or left alone.
The shift action is the most common action the parser takes. Whenever a shift action is
taken, there is always a lookahead token. For example, in state 56 there may be an action:
IF shift 34
which says, in state 56, if the lookahead token is IF, the current state (56) is pushed
down on the stack, and state 34 becomes the current state (on the top of the stack). The look
ahead token is cleared.
The reduce action keeps the stack from growing without bounds. Reduce actions are
appropriate when the parser has seen the right hand side of a grammar rule, and is
prepared to announce that it has seen an instance of the rule, replacing the right hand side by
the left hand side. It may be necessary to consult the lookahead token to decide whether to
reduce, but usually it is not; in fact, the default action (represented by a ``.'') is often a
reduce action.
Reduce actions are associated with individual grammar rules. Grammar rules are
also given small integer numbers, leading to some confusion. The action
reduce 18
refers to grammar rule 18, while the action
IF shift 34
refers to state 34. Suppose the rule being reduced is
A : x y z ;
The reduce action depends on the left hand symbol (A in this case), and the number
of symbols on the right hand side (three in this case). To reduce, first pop off the top three
states from the stack (In general, the number of states popped equals the number of symbols
on the right side of the rule).

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In effect, these states were the ones put on the stack while recognizing x, y, and z, and no
longer serve any useful purpose. After popping these states, a state is uncovered which was
the state the parser was in before beginning to process the rule. Using thisuncovered state,
and the symbol on the left side of the rule, perform what is in effect a shift of A. A new state
is obtained, pushed onto the stack, and parsing continues.
The reduce action is also important in the treatment of user-supplied actions and values.
When a rule is reduced, the code supplied with the rule is executed before the stack is
adjusted. In addition to the stack holding the states, another stack, running in parallel
with it, holds the values returnedfrom the lexical analyzer and the actions. When a shift
takes place, the external variable yylval is copied onto the value stack. After the
return from the user code, the reduction is carried out. When the goto action is done, the
external variable yyval is copied onto the value stack. The pseudo-variables $1, $2,
etc., refer to the value stack.
8.5 Arithmetic Expressions and Ambiguity:
A set of grammar rules is ambiguous if there is some input string that can be structured in
two or more different ways. For example, the grammar rule
expr : expr '-' expr
is a natural way of expressing the fact that one way of forming an arithmetic expression is
to put two other expressions together with a minus sign between them. Unfortunately, this
grammar rule does not completely specify the way that all complex inputs should be
structured. For example, if the input is
expr - expr - expr
the rule allows this input to be structured as either
( expr - expr ) - expr
or as
expr - ( expr - expr )

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(The first is called left association, the second right association).
Yacc detects such ambiguities when it is attempting to build the parser. It is instructive to
consider the problem that confronts the parser when it is given an input such as
expr - expr - expr
When the parser has read the second expr, the input that it has seen:
expr - expr

matches the right side of the grammar rule above. The parser could reduce the input by
applying this rule; after applying the rule; the input is reduced to expr (the left side of the
rule). The parser would then read the final part of the input:
- expr
and again reduce. The effect of this is to take the left associative interpretation.
Alternatively, when the parser has seen
expr - expr
it could defer the immediate application of the rule, and continue reading the input until it
had seen
expr - expr - expr
It could then apply the rule to the rightmost three symbols, reducing them to expr and leaving
expr - expr
Now the rule can be reduced once more; the effect is to take the right associative
interpretation. Thus, having read
expr - expr
The parser can do two legal things, a shift or a reduction, and has no way of
deciding between them. This is called a shift / reduce conflict. It may also happen that the

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parser has a choice of two legal reductions; this is called a reduce / reduce conflict. Note that
there are never any ``Shift/shift'' conflicts.
When there are shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts, Yacc still produces a parser.
It does this by selecting one of the valid steps wherever it has a choice. A rule describing
which choice to make in a given situation is called a disambiguating rule.
Yacc invokes two disambiguating rules by default:
1. In a shift/reduce conflict, the default is to do the shift.
2. In a reduce/reduce conflict, the default is to reduce by the earlier grammar rule (in the
input sequence).

Rule 1 implies that reductions are deferred whenever there is a choice, in favor of
shifts. Rule 2 gives the user rather crude control over the behavior of the parser in this
situation, but reduce/reduce conflicts should be avoided whenever possible.
Yacc always reports the number of shift/reduce and reduce/reduce conflicts resolved
by Rule 1 and Rule 2.
As an example of the power of disambiguating rules, consider a fragment from a
programming language involving an ``if-then-else'' construction:
stat : IF '(' cond ')' stat
| IF '(' cond ')' stat ELSE stat
;
In these rules, IF and ELSE are tokens, cond is a nonterminal symbol describing
conditional (logical) expressions, and stat is a nonterminal symbol describing statements.
The first rule will be called the simple-if rule, and the second the if-else rule.
These two rules form an ambiguous construction, since input of the form
EXAMPLE:

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IF ( C1 ) IF ( C2 ) S1 ELSE S2

can be structured according to these rules in two ways:

IF ( C1 ) {
IF ( C2 ) S1
}
ELSE S2

or

IF ( C1 ) {
IF ( C2 ) S1
ELSE S2
}
The second interpretation is the one given in most programming languages having
this construct. Each ELSE is associated with the last preceding ``un-ELSE'd'' IF. In
this example, consider the situation where the parser has seen

IF ( C1 ) IF ( C2 ) S1
and is looking at the ELSE. It can immediately reduce by the simple-if rule to get
IF ( C1 ) stat

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and then read the remaining input,
ELSE S2
and reduce
IF ( C1 ) stat ELSE S2
by the if-else rule. This leads to the first of the above groupings of the input.
On the other hand, the ELSE may be shifted, S2 read, and then the right hand
portion of
IF ( C1 ) IF ( C2 ) S1 ELSE S2
can be reduced by the if-else rule to get
IF ( C1 ) stat
which can be reduced by the simple-if rule.
Once again the parser can do two valid things - there is a shift/reduce conflict. The
application of disambiguating rule 1 tells the parser to shift in this case, which
leads to the desired grouping.
This shift/reduce conflict arises only when there is a particular current input symbol,
ELSE, and particular inputs already seen, such as
IF ( C1 ) IF ( C2 ) S1
In general, there may be many conflicts, and each one will be associated with an
input symbol and a set of previously read inputs. The previously read inputs are
characterized by the state of the parser.
stat : IF '(' cond ')' stat
Once again, notice that the numbers following ``shift'' commands refer to other
states, while the numbers following ``reduce'' commands refer to grammar rule
numbers. In the y.output file, the rule numbers are printed after those rules
which can be reduced.


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8.6 Variables and Typed Tokens
There is one common situation where the rules given above for resolving conflicts are
not sufficient; this is in the parsing of arithmetic expressions. Most of the commonly used
constructions for arithmetic expressions can be naturally described by the notion of
precedence levels for operators, together with information about left or right associatively.
It turns out that ambiguous grammars with appropriate disambiguating rules can be used to
create parsers that are faster and easier to write than parsers constructed from unambiguous
grammars.
The basic notion is to write grammar rules of the form
expr : expr OP expr
and
expr : UNARY expr
for all binary and unary operators desired. This creates a very ambiguous
grammar, with many parsing conflicts. As disambiguating rules, the user specifies
the precedence, or binding strength, of all the operators, and the associativity of
the binary operators.
This information is sufficient to allow Yacc to resolve the parsing conflicts in
accordance with these rules, and construct a parser that realizes the desired
precedences and associativities.
The precedences and associativities are attached to tokens in the declarations
section. This is done by a series of lines beginning with a Yacc keyword: %left,
%right, or %nonassoc, followed by a list of tokens.
All of the tokens on the same line are assumed to have the same precedence level and
associativity; the lines are listed in order of increasing precedence or binding strength.
Thus,
%left '+' '-'
%left '*' '/'

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describes the precedence and associativity of the four arithmetic operators. Plus and
minus are left associative, and have lower precedence than star and slash, which are
also left associative.
The keyword %right is used to describe right associative operators, and the keyword
%nonassoc is used to describe operators
%right '='
%left '+' '-'
%left '*' '/'
%%
expr : expr '=' expr
o | expr '+' expr
o | expr '-' expr
o | expr '*' expr
o | expr '/' expr
o | NAME
o ;
might be used to structure the input
a = b = c*d - e - f*g
as follows
a = ( b = ( ((c*d)-e) - (f*g) ) )
When this mechanism is used, unary operators must, in general, be given a
precedence. Sometimes a unary operator and a binary operator have the same
symbolic representation, but different precedences.

o An example is unary and binary '-'; unary minus may be given the same
strength as multiplication, or even higher, while binary minus has a lower
strength than multiplication. The keyword, %prec, changes the precedence
level associated with a particular grammar rule. %prec appears

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immediately after the body of the grammar rule, before the action or closing
semicolon, and is followed by a token name or literal.

o It causes the precedence of the grammar rule to become that of the following
token name or literal. For example, to make unary minus have the same
precedence as multiplication the rules might resemble:

%left '+' '-'
%left '*' '/'
%%
expr : expr '+' expr
| expr '-' expr
| expr '*' expr
| expr '/' expr
| '-' expr %prec '*'
| NAME
;
A token declared by %left, %right, and %nonassoc need not be, but may be, declared by
%token as well.
The precedence and associatively are used by Yacc to resolve parsing conflicts; they
give rise to disambiguating rules. Formally, the rules work as follows:
1. The precedences and associativities are recorded for those tokens and literals that
have them.

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2. A precedence and associativity is associated with each grammar rule; it is the
precedence and associativity of the last token or literal in the body of the rule. If
the %prec construction is used, it overrides this default. Some grammar rules
may have no precedence and associativity associated with them.
3. When there is a reduce/reduce conflict, or there is a shift/reduce conflict and
either the input symbol or the grammar rule has no precedence and associativity,
then the two disambiguating rules given at the beginning of the section are used,
and the conflicts are reported.
4. If there is a shift/reduce conflict, and both the grammar rule and the input
character have precedence and associativity associated with them, then the
conflict is resolved in favor of the action (shift or reduce) associated with the
higher precedence. If the precedences are the same, then the associativity is
used; left associative implies reduce, right associative implies shift, and
nonassociating implies error.

Conflicts resolved by precedence are not counted in the number of shift/reduce and
reduce/reduce conflicts reported by Yacc. This means that mistakes in the specification of
precedences may disguise errors in the input grammar; it is a good idea to be sparing with
precedences, and use them in an essentially ``cookbook'' fashion, until some experience
has been gained. The y.output file is very useful in deciding whether the parser is actually
doing what was intended.
Recursive rules:
The algorithm used by the Yacc parser encourages so called ``left recursive''
grammar rules: rules of the form
name : name rest_of_rule ;
These rules frequently arise when writing specifications of sequences and lists:


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list : item
| list ',' item
;
and
seq : item
| seq item
;
In each of these cases, the first rule will be reduced for the first item only, and the
second rule will be reduced for the second and all succeeding items.
With right recursive rules, such as
seq : item
| item seq
;
the parser would be a bit bigger, and the items would be seen, and reduced, from right to
left. More seriously, an internal stack in the parser would be in danger of overflowing if a
very long sequence were read. Thus, the user should use left recursion wherever
reasonable.
It is worth considering whether a sequence with zero elements has any meaning, and if
so, consider writing the sequence specification with an empty rule:
seq : /* empty */
| seq item
;

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Once again, the first rule would always be reduced exactly once, before the first item was
read, and then the second rule would be reduced once for each item read
RUNNING BOTH LEXER AND PARSER:
The yacc program gets the tokens from the lex program. Hence a lex program has be
written to pass the tokens to the yacc. That means we have to follow different procedure
to get the executable file.
i. The lex program <lexfile.l> is fist compiled using lex compiler to get lex.yy.c.
ii. The yacc program <yaccfile.y> is compiled using yacc compiler to get y.tab.c.
iii. Using c compiler b+oth the lex and yacc intermediate files are compiled with the
lex library function. cc y.tab.c lex.yy.c ll.
iv. If necessary out file name can be included during compiling with o option.

Examples
1. Write a Yacc program to test validity of a simple expression with +, - , /, and *.
/* Lex program that passes tokens */
%{
#include "y.tab.h"
extern int yyparse();
%}
%%
[0-9]+ { return NUM;}
[a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]* { return IDENTIFIER;}
[+-] {return ADDORSUB;}
[*/] {return PROORDIV;}
[)(] {return yytext[0];}
[\n] {return '\n';}
%%
int main()
{

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yyparse();
}
/* Yacc program to check for valid expression */
%{
#include<stdlib.h>
extern int yyerror(char * s);
extern int yylex();
%}
%token NUM
%token ADDORSUB
%token PROORDIV
%token IDENTIFIER
%%
input :
| input line
;
line : '\n'
| exp '\n' { printf("valid"); }
| error '\n' { yyerrok; }
;
exp : exp ADDORSUB term
| term
;
term : term PROORDIV factor
| factor
;
factor : NUM
| IDENTIFIER
| '(' exp ')'
;
%%

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int yyerror(char *s)
{
printf("%s","INVALID\n");
}

/* yacc program that gets token from the c porogram */

%{
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
%}
%token NUMBER LETTER
%left '+' '-'
%left '*' '/'
%%
line:line expr '\n' {printf("\nVALID\n");}
| line '\n'
|
|error '\n' { yyerror ("\n INVALID"); yyerrok;}
;
expr:expr '+' expr
|expr '-' expr
|expr '*'expr
|expr '/' expr
| NUMBER
| LETTER
;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();

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}
yylex()
{
char c;
while((c=getchar())==' ');
if(isdigit(c)) return NUMBER;
if(isalpha(c)) return LETTER;
return c;
}
yyerror(char *s)
{
printf("%s",s);
}

2. Write a Yacc program to recognize validity of a nested IF control statement and
display levels of nesting in the nested if.
/* Lex program to pass tokens */
%{
#include y.tab.h
%}
digit [0-9]
num {digit} + (. {digit}+)?
binopr [+-/*%^=><&|= =| != | >= | <=
unopr [~!]
char [a-zA-Z_]
id {char}({digit} | {char})*
space [ \t]

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%%
{space} ;
{num} return num;
{ binopr } return binopr;
{ unopr } return unopr;
{ id} return id
if return if
. return yytext[0];
%%
NUMBER {DIGIT}+
/* Yacc program to check for the valid expression */
%{
#include<stdio.h>
int cnt;
%}
%token binopr
%token unop
%token num
%token id
%token if
%%
foo: if_stat { printf(valid: count = %d\n, cnt); cnt = 0;

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exit(0);
}
| error { printf(Invalid \n); }
if_stat: token_if ( cond ) comp_stat {cnt++;}
cond: expr
;
expr: sim_exp
| ( expr )
| expr binop factor
| unop factor
;
factor: sim_exp
| ( expr )
;
sim_exp: num
| id
;
sim_stat: expr ;
| if
;
stat_list: sim_stat

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| stat_list sim_stat
;
comp_stat: sim_stat
| { stat_list }
;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yyerror(char *s)
{
printf(%s\n, s);
exit(0);
}

3. Write a Yacc program to recognize a valid arithmetic expression that uses +, - , / , *.
%{
#include<stdio.h>
#include <type.h>
%}

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% token num
% left '+' '-'
% left '*' '/'
%%
st : st expn '\n' {printf ("valid \n"); }
|
| st '\n'
| error '\n' { yyerror ("Invalid \n"); }
;
%%
void main()
{
yyparse (); return 0 ;
}
yylex()
{
char c;
while (c = getch () ) == ' ')
if (is digit (c))
return num;

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return c;
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s", s);
}

4. Write a yacc program to recognize an valid variable which starts with letter followed
by a digit. The letter should be in lowercase only.
/* Lex program to send tokens to the yacc program */

%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
%%
[0-9] return digit;
[a-z] return letter;
[\n] return yytext[0];
. return 0;
%%

/* Yacc program to validate the given variable */

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%{
#include<type.h>
%}
% token digit letter ;
%%
ident : expn '\n' { printf ("valid\n"); exit (0); }
;
expn : letter
| expn letter
| expn digit
| error { yyerror ("invalid \n"); exit (0); }
;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s", s);

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}

/* Yacc program which has c program to pass tokens */

%{
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
%}
%token LETTER DIGIT
%%
st:st LETTER DIGIT '\n' {printf("\nVALID");}
| st '\n'
|
| error '\n' {yyerror("\nINVALID");yyerrok;}
;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}

yylex()
{
char c;
while((c=getchar())==' ');
if(islower(c)) return LETTER;
if(isdigit(c)) return DIGIT;
return c;
}

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yyerror(char *s)
{
printf("%s",s);
}

5.Write a yacc program to evaluate an expression (simple calculator program).
/* Lex program to send tokens to the Yacc program */
%{
#include" y.tab.h"
expern int yylval;
%}
%%
[0-9] digit
char[_a-zA-Z]
id {char} ({ char } | {digit })*
%%
{digit}+ {yylval = atoi (yytext);
return num;
}
{id} return name
[ \t] ;
\n return 0;
. return yytext [0];

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%%
/* Yacc Program to work as a calculator */
%{
#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
%}
% token num name
% left '+' '-'
% left '*' '/'
% left unaryminus
%%
st : name '=' expn
| expn { printf ("%d\n" $1); }
;
expn : num { $$ = $1 ; }
| expn '+' num { $$ = $1 + $3; }
| expn '-' num { $$ = $1 - $3; }
| expn '*' num { $$ = $1 * $3; }
| expn '/' num { if (num == 0)
{ printf ("div by zero \n");

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exit (0);
}
else
{ $$ = $1 / $3; }
| '(' expn ')' { $$ = $2; }
;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s", s);
}

5. Write a yacc program to recognize the grammar { a
n
b for n >= 0}.
/* Lex program to pass tokens to yacc program */
%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
[a] { return a ; printf("returning A to yacc \n"); }

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[b] return b
[\n] return yytex[0];
. return error;
%%

/* Yacc program to check the given expression */

%{
#include<stdio.h>
%}
% token a b error
%%
input : line
| error
;
line : expn '\n' { printf(" valid new line char \n"); }
;
expn : aa expn bb
| aa
;
aa : aa a

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| a
;
bb : bb b
| b
;
error : error { yyerror ( " " ) ; }

%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s", s);
}

/* Yacc to evaluate the expression and has c program for tokens */

%{
/* 6b.y {A^NB N >=0} */

#include <stdio.h>

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%}
%token A B
%%
st:st reca endb '\n' {printf("String belongs to grammar\n");}
| st endb '\n' {printf("String belongs to grammar\n");}
| st '\n'
| error '\n' {yyerror ("\nDoes not belong to grammar\n");yyerrok;}
|
;
reca: reca enda | enda;
enda:A;
endb:B;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yylex()
{
char c;
while((c=getchar())==' ');
if(c=='a')
return A;
if(c=='b')
return B;
return c;
}
yyerror(char *s)
{
fprintf(stdout,"%s",s);
}

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7. Write a program to recognize the grammar { a
n
b
n
| n >= 0 }
/* Lex program to send tokens to yacc program */

%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
[a] {return A ; printf("returning A to yacc \n"); }
[b] return B
[\n] return yytex[0];
. return error;
%%
/* yacc program that evaluates the expression */
%{
#include<stdio.h>
%}
% token a b error

%%

input : line
| error

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;
line : expn '\n' { printf(" valid new line char \n"); }
;
expn : aa expn bb
|
;
error : error { yyerror ( " " ) ; }

%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s", s);
}

/* Yacc program which has its own c program to send tokens */
%{
/* 7b.y {A^NB^N N >=0} */


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#include <stdio.h>
%}
%token A B
%%
st:st reca endb '\n' {printf("String belongs to grammar\n");}
| st '\n' {printf("N value is 0,belongs to grammar\n");}
|
| error '\n'
{yyerror ("\nDoes not belong to grammar\n");yyerrok;}
;
reca: enda reca endb | enda;
enda:A;
endb:B;
%%
main()
{
yyparse();
}
yylex()
{
char c;
while((c=getchar())==' ');
if(c=='a')
return A;
if(c=='b')
return B;
return c;
}
yyerror(char *s)
{
fprintf(stdout,"%s",s);

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}

8. Write a Yacc program t identify a valid IF statement or IF-THEN-ELSE statement.

/* Lex program to send tokens to yacc program */

%{
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
CHAR [a-zA-Z0-9]
%x CONDSTART
%%
<*>[ ] ;
<*>[ \t\n]+ ;
<*><<EOF>> return 0;
if return(IF);
else return(ELSE);
then return(THEN);
\( {BEGIN(CONDSTART);return('(');}
<CONDSTART>{CHAR}+ return COND;
<CONDSTART>\) {BEGIN(INITIAL);return(')');}
{CHAR}+ return(STAT) ;
%%

/* Yacc program to check for If and IF Then Else statement */


%{
#include<stdio.h>
%}

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%token IF COND THEN STAT ELSE
%%
Stat:IF '(' COND ')' THEN STAT {printf("\n VALId Statement");}
| IF '(' COND ')' THEN STAT ELSE STAT {printf("\n VALID Statement");}
|
;
%%
main()
{
printf("\n enter statement ");
yyparse();
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s",s);
}

/* Yacc program that has c program to send tokens */

%{
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
%}
%token if simple
% noassoc reduce
% noassoc else
%%

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start : start st \n
|
;
st : simple
| if_st
;
if_st : if st %prec reduce { printf (simple\n); }
| if st else st {printf (if_else \n); }
;
%%
int yylex()
{
int c;
c = getchar();
switch ( c )
{
case i : return if;
case s : return simple;
case e : return else;
default : return c;
}

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}
main ()
{
yy parse();
}
yyerror (char *s)
{
printf("%s", s);
}
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. give the specification of yacc program? give an example? (8)
2. what is grammar? How does yacc parse a tree? (5)
3. how do you compile a yacc file? (5)
4. explain the ambiguity occurring in an grammar with an example? (6)
5. explain shift/reduce and reduce/reduce parsing ? (8)
6. write a yacc program to test the validity of an arthimetic expressions? (8)
7. write a yacc program to accept strings of the form anbn , n>0? (8)