NOTES

U N D E R S TA N D I N G G R O U N D R E S I S TA N C E T E S T I N G SOIL RESISTIVITY
Why Measure Soil Resistivity?
Soil resistivity measurements have a threefold purpose. First, such data ar e used to make sub-surface geophysical surveys as an aid in identifying e or locations, depth to bedr ock and other geological phenomena. Second, esisr tivity has a direct impact on the degr ee of corrosion in under ground pipelines.A decrease in resistivity relates to an incr ease in corrosion activity and therefore dictates the protective treatment to be used. Thir d, soil resistivity directly affects the design of a gr ounding system, and it is to that task that this discussion is dir ected. When designing an extensive gr ounding system, it is advisable to locate the ar ea of lowest soil r esistivity in or der to achieve the most economical gr ounding installation.

Effects of Soil Resistivity on Ground Electrode Resistance

Soil resistivity is the key factor that determines what the esistance r of a grounding electrode will be, and to what depth it must be driven to obtain low ground resistance. The r esistivity of the soil varies widely thr oughout the world and changes seasonally . Soil r esistivity is determined lar gely by its content of electr olytes, which consist of moistur e, minerals and dissolved salts. A dry soil has high r esistivity if it contains no soluble salts (Figur e 1).

Soil Ashes, cinders, brine,waste Clay, shale,gumbo, loam Same, with varying proportions of sand and gravel Gravel,sand, stones with little clay or loam

Resistivity (a pprox), -cm Min. Average Max. 590 340 1,020 59,000 2,370 4,060 15,800 94,000 7,000 16,300 135,000 458,000 FIGURE 1

Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity

Two samples of soil, when thor oughly dried, may in fact become very good insulators having a r esistivity in excess of 1 09 ohm-centimeters. The r esistivity of the soil sample is seen to change quite rapidly until appr oximately 20% or greater moisture content is reached (Figure 2).

Moisture content % by weight 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 30

Resistivity -cm Top soil >109 250,000 165,000 53,000 19,000 12,000 6,400 Sandy loam >109 150,000 43,000 18,500 10,500 6,300 4,200 FIGURE 2

NOTES

The resistivity of the soil is also in uenced by temperatur e. Figure 3 shows the variation of the r esistivity of sandy loam, containing 15.2% moistur e, with temperature changes from 20 to -15C. In this temperatur e range the resistivity is seen to vary fr om 7200 to 330,000 ohm-centimeters.

Temperature C F 20 68 10 50 0 32 (water) 0 32 (ice) -5 23 -15 14

Resistivity Ohm-cm 7,200 9,900 13,800 30,000 79,000 330,000 FIGURE 3

Because soil resistivity directly relates to moisture content and temperature, it is reasonable to assume that the resistance of any grounding system will vary throughout the different seasons of the year. Such variations are shown in Figure 4. Since both temperature and moisture content become more stable at greater distances below the surface of the earth, it follows that a grounding system, to be most effective at all times, should be constructed with the ground rod driven down a considerable distance below the surface of the earth. Best results are obtained if the ground rod reaches the water table.

FIGURE 4

Seasonal variation of earth resistance with an electrode of 3/4 inch pipe in rather stony clay soil. Depth of electrode in earth is 3 ft for Curve 1, and 10 ft for Curve 2

In some locations, the resistivity of the earth is so high that low-resistance grounding can be obtained only at considerable expense and with an elaborate

NOTES

grounding system. In such situations, it may be economical to use a ground rod system of limited size and to reduce the ground resistivity by periodically increasing the soluble chemical content of the THE EFFECT OF SALT* CONTENT ON soil. Figure 5 shows the THE RESISTIVITY OF SOIL substantial re- duction (Sandy loam, Moisture content, 15% by weight, Temperature,17C) in resistivity of sandy Added Salt Resistivity loam brought about by (% by weight of moisture) (Ohm-centimeters) an increase in chemical 0 10,700 salt content. 0.1 1,800 Chemically treated soil is also subject to considerable variation FIGURE 5 of resistivitywith temperature changes, as shown in Figure 6. If salt treatment is employed, it is necessary to use gr ound rods which will resist chemical corr osion.
*Such as copper sulfate, sodium carbonate, and others. 1.0 5 10 20 460 190 130 100

THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RESISTIVITY OF SOIL CONTAINING SALT*

(Sandy loam, 20% moisture. Salt 5% of weight of moisture)

Temperature (Degrees C) 20 10 0 -5 -13

Resistivity (Ohm-centimeters) 110 142 190 312 1,440 FIGURE 6

Salts must be EPA or local ordinance approved prior to use.

SOIL RESIS T IVI TY ME ASUREMEN TS

(4-Point Measurement)
Resistivity measurements are of two types; the 2-point and the 4-point method. The 2-point method is simply the resistance measured between two points. For most applications the most accurate method is the 4-point method which is used in the Model 4610 or Model 4500 Ground Tester. The 4-point method (Figures 7 and 8), as the name implies, requires the insertion of four equally spaced and in-line electrodes into the test area. A known current from a constant current generator is passed between the outer electrodes. The potential drop (a function of the resistance) is then measured across the two inner electrodes. The Model 4610 and Model 4500 are calibrated to read directly in ohms.

4AR 1+ 2A (A2 + 4B2) 2A (4A2 + 4B2)

NOTES

Where: A = distance between the electr odes in centimeters B = electrode depth in centimeters If A > 20 B, the formula becomes: = 2 AR (with A in cm) = 191.5 AR (with A in feet) = Soil resistivity (ohm-cm) This value is the average r esistivity of the gr ound at a depth equivalent to the distance A between two electr odes.

Soil Resistivity Measur ements with the Model 4500

Given a sizable tract of land in which to determine the optimum soil resistivity some intuition is in order. Assuming that the objective is low resistivity , preference should be given to an ar ea containing moist loam as opposed to a dry sandy area. Consideration must also be given to the depth at whichesisr tivity is required. Example After inspection, the ar ea investigated has been narr owed down to a plot of ground approximately 75 squar e feet (7 m2). Assume that you need to deter mine the resistivity at a depth of 15 feet (450 cm). The distance A between the electrodes must then be equivalent to the depth at which averageesisr tivity is to be determined (15 ft, or 450 cm). Using the mor e simpli ed Wenner formula ( = 2 AR), the electr ode depth must then be 1/20th of the electrode spacing or 8-7/8 (22.5 cm).

FIGURE 7

FIGURE 8

NOTES

Lay out the electrodes in a grid pattern and connect to the Model 4500 as shown in Figure 8. Proceed as follows: Remove the shoring link between X and Xv (C1, P1) Connect all four auxiliary o r ds (Figure 7) For example, if the r eading is R = 15 (resistivity) = 2 x A x R A (distance between electr odes) = 450 cm = 6.28 x 15 x 450 = 42,390 -cm

GROUN D ELECTRODES
The term ground is dened as a conducting connection by which a cir cuit or equipment is connected to the earth. The connection is used to establish and maintain as closely as possible the potential of the earth on the cir cuit or equipment connected to it.A ground consists of a gr ounding conductor ,a bonding connector , its grounding electr ode(s), and the soil in contact with the electrode. Grounds have several protection applications. For natural phenomena such as lightning, gr ounds are used to discharge the system of curr ent befor e personnel can be injur ed or system components damaged. For for eign potentials due to faults in electric power systems with gr ound returns, grounds help ensure rapid operation of the pr otection relays by providing low resistance fault current paths. This pr ovides for the removal of the foreign potential as quickly as possible. The gr ound should drain the for eign potential befor e personnel are injured and the power or communications system is damaged. Ideally , to maintain a reference potential for instr ument safety , protect against static electricity , and limit the system to frame voltage for operator safety , a ground resistance should be zer o ohms. In reality , as we describe further in the text, this value cannot be obtained.
, OSHA Last but not least, low gr ound resistance is essential to meet NEC and other electrical safety standar ds.

Figure 9 illustrates a gr ounding rod. The resistance of the electr ode has the following components: (A) the resistance of the metal and that of the connection to it. (B) the contact resistance of the surr ounding earth to the electr ode. (C) the resistance in the surrounding earth to current flow or earth resistivity which is often the most signi cant factor. More specically: (A) Grounding electr odes are usually made of a very conductive metal (copper or copper clad) with adequate cr oss sections so that the overall esisr tance is negligible.

(B) The National Institute of Standar ds and Technology has demonstrated that the resistance between the electr ode and the surrounding earth is negli gible if the electr ode is free of paint, gr ease, or other coating, and if the earth is rmly packed. (C) The only component remaining is the r esistance of the surrounding earth. The electrode can be thought of as being surrounded by concentric shells of earth or soil, all of the same thick ness. The closer the shell to the electrode, the smaller its surface; hence, the gr eater its resistance. The farther away the shells ar e from the electrode, the greater the surface of the shell; hence, the lower FIGURE 9 the resistance. Eventually, adding shells at a distance from the grounding electr ode will no longer noticeably af fect the overall earth resistance surrounding the electr ode. The distance at which this ef fect occurs is referred to as the ef fective resistance area and is directly dependent on the depth of the gr ounding electr ode. In theory , the ground resistance may be derived fr om the general formula: R= L A Length Resistance = Resistivity x Area

NOTES

This formula illustrates why the shells of concentric earth decr ease in resistance the farther they ar e from the ground rod: R= Resistivity of Soil x Thickness of Shell Area

In the case of gr ound resistance, uniform earth (or soil) e rsistivity throughout the volume is assumed, although this is seldom the case in natur e. The equations for systems of electr odes are very complex and often expr essed only as approximations. The most commonly used formula for single gr ound electrode systems, developed by Professor H. R. Dwight of the Massachusetts Institute of T echnology , is the following: R= 2L x {(ln 4L) -1} r

R = resistance in ohms of the gr ound rod to the earth (or soil) L = grounding electrode length r = grounding electrode radius = average resistivity in ohms-cm.

NOTES

Effect of Gr ound Electrode Size and Depth on Resistance

Size: Increasing the diameter of the r od does not materially r educe its resistance. Doubling the diameter educes r resistance by less than 10% (Figur e 10).

FIGURE 10

Depth: As a ground rod is driven deeper into the earth, its esistance r is sub stantially reduced. In general, doubling the od r length reduces the resistance by an additional 40% (Figur e 11). The NEC (1987, 250-83-3) requires a minimum of 8 ft (2.4 m) to be in contact with the soil. The most common is a 10 ft (3 m) cylindrical r od which meets the NEC code.A minimum diameter of 5/8 inch (1.59 cm) is required for steel r ods and 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) for copper or copper clad steel r ods (NEC 1987, 250-83-2). Minimum practical diam eters for driving limitations for 10 ft (3 m) ods r are: 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) in average soil 5/8 inch (1.59 cm) in moist soil 3/4 inch (1.91 cm) in hard soil or more than 10 ft driving depths

FIGURE 11

NOTES

FIGURE 12 Grounding Nomograph

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Select required resistance on R scale. Select apparent resistivity on P scale. Lay straightedge on R and P scale, and allow to intersect with K scale. Mark K scale point. Lay straightedge on K scale point & DIA scale, and allow to intersect with D scale. Point on D scale will be rod depth required for resistance on R scale.

G R O U N D R E S I S TA N C E VA L U E S
NEC 250-84 (1987): Resistance of man-made electr odes: A single electr ode consisting of a r od, pipe, or plate which does not have a resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less shall be augmented by one addition al rod of any of the types speci ed in section 250-81 or 250-83. Wher e multiple rod, pipe or plate electr odes are installed to meet the r equirements of this section, they shall be not less than 6 ft (1.83 m) apart.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) states that the r esistance to ground shall not exceed 25 ohms. This is an upper limit and guideline, since much lower resistance is r equired in many instances.

How low in resistance should a gr ound be? An arbitrary answer to this in ohms is dif ficult. The lower the gr ound resistance, the safer; and for positive protection of personnel and equipment, it is worth the fort ef to aim for less than one ohm. It is generally impractical toeach r such a low resistance along a distribution system or a transmission line or in small substations. In some

NOTES

regions, resistances of 5 ohms or less may be obtained without much ouble. tr In other regions, it may be dif ficult to bring r esistance of driven gr ounds below 100 ohms. Accepted industry standar ds stipulate that transmission substations should be designed not to exceed 1 . In distribution substations, the maximum recommended resistance is for 5 ohms or even 1 ohm. In most cases, the buried grid system of any substation will pr ovide the desired resistance. In light industrial or in telecommunication central of fices, 5 is often the accepted value. For lightning pr otection, the arrestors should be coupled with a maximum ground resistance of 1. These parameters can usually be met with the pr oper application of basic grounding theory . There will always exist cir cumstances which will make it difficult to obtain the gr ound resistance required by the NEC or other safety standards. When these situations develop, several methods of lowering the ground resistance can be employed. These include parallel rod systems, deep driven r od systems utilizing sectional ods, r and chemical treatment of the soil. Additional methods discussed in other published data are buried plates, buried conductors (counterpoise), electrically connected building steel, and electrically connected concr ete reinforced steel. Electrically connecting to existing water and gas distribution systems was often consider ed to yield low gr ound resistance; however , recent design changes utilizing non-metallic pipes and insulating joints have made this method of obtaining a low e r sistance ground questionable and in many instances unr eliable. The measurement of ground resistances may only be accomplished with specially designed test equipment. Most instruments use the fall-of-potential principle of alternating current (AC) circulating between an auxiliary electrode and the ground electrode under test. The reading will be given in ohms, and represents the resistance of the ground electrode to the surrounding earth. AEMC has also recently introduced clamp-on ground resistance testers. Note: The National Electrical Code and NEC are registered trademarks of the National Fire Protection Association.