UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF CONCRETE

Structure
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 Introduction
Objectives

Basic Concepts of Concrete

Types of Concrete Grades of Concrete Proportioning of Materials of Concrete Importance of Concrete Advantages of Concrete Disadvantages of Concrete Selection of Material Reinforcement in Concrete
1.10.1 1.10.2 1.10.3 Workability Freedom from Segregation Freedom from Bleeding

1.10 Properties of Concrete in Plastic Stage

1.11 Properties of Concrete in Hardened Stage 1.12 Process Diagram of Concrete 1.13 Concrete Operations
1.13.1 1.13.2 1.13.3 1.13.4 1.13.5 1.13.6 1.13.7 1.13.8 Storage Batching Mixing Transporting Placing Compaction Curing Finishing

1.14 Summary 1.15 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete is the most widely used material in construction industry. In this unit, you shall be studying definition and importance of concrete, properties of concrete in plastic and hardened stage and process diagram of concrete and concrete operations.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

identify the ingredients of concrete, describe the importance and properties of concrete, draw the process diagram of concrete, and explain different operations of concrete along with their sequence. 5

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1.2 TYPES OF CONCRETE

Concrete plays very important role in construction industry as a construction material. It is a stone like hard material obtained by mixing cement, sand (fine aggregate), coarse aggregate and water in some specific proportions. The concrete can be mould in any desired shape in plastic stage. The chemical reaction between cement and water binds the aggregate into a solid mass. Concretes strength increases with age. Cement, sand (fine aggregate) and water combine to form mortar, which fills the voids in coarse aggregate to form concrete. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) has considerable strength in compression but it has very little strength in tension. Hence, the use of PCC is normally restricted to situations, where high compressive strength and weight are of the primary requirements. PCC is, therefore, used in the construction of bed blocks, massive gravity dams, dock-walls, columns, arches and gravity retaining walls, etc. As concrete is weak in tension, steel bars (reinforcement) are used in concrete. Such a concrete is called as Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). Steel reinforcement is generally placed in the tension zone of the member before concreting is done. Sometimes to reduce the size of concrete member or if the concrete member is subjected to reversal of stresses then steel reinforcement may be provided in compression zone also. Cement concrete can be defined as a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water in some specified proportion. Sometimes special ingredients known as Admixtures are also added to improve some properties of concrete. The fresh mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water in plastic stage are called as Fresh Concrete. As time passes, the mixture of ingredients of fresh concrete gets hardened which is called as hardened concrete.

SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Define concrete and state the ingredients of concrete. What is meant by PCC and RCC? Differentiate between PCC and RCC. What do you understand by fresh concrete and hardened concrete? Differentiate them properly. What role does cement play in concrete? Fill in the blanks Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and __________ in certain proportion. Sometimes, special ingredients added in concrete to improve its some of the properties are called as __________________.

1.3 GRADES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is graded according to its compressive strength. In this classification the concrete is designated by M followed by a numerical number; letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified characteristic compressive strength of 15 cm 15 cm 15 cm cube at 28 days curing expressed in N/mm2. The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. Generally, the concrete upto grade M15 is used for plain concrete works. Minimum grade of concrete for RCC is M20 (as per IS : 456 - 2000). M5, M7.5 grades are generally used for lean concrete bases and simple foundations for masonry walls. Grades M15 and M20 are used for normal reinforced concrete works. Grades lower than M40 cannot be used in pre-tensioned pre-stressed concrete and lower than M30 cannot be used in post-tensioned concrete.
Table 1.1 : Grades of Concrete
Designation M5 M7.5 M10 M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 M45 M50 M55 M60 Designed Mix Proportion 1 : 5 : 10 1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4 1 : 1 : 3 1:1:2 Characteristic Compressive Strength in N/mm2 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 High Strength Concrete Standard Concrete Ordinary Concrete Group (as per IS : 456 - 2000) Lean Mix

Basic Concepts of Concrete

SAQ 2

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

What do you mean by M20 grade concrete? Define characteristic strength. Which are the concrete grades generally used for lean concrete? Which are the concrete grades used for normal RCC? Which grade of concrete do you prefer for column? State any two situations where lean concrete is useful.

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1.4 PROPORTIONING OF MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

Concrete must be satisfactory in two states namely, plastic and harden. The choice of proportion is governed by both these conditions. In general cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water should be so proportioned that the resulting concrete has the following properties: (a) (b) (c) While fresh it is workable enough for economical and uniform placement, but not excessively fluid. When hardened, it has sufficient strength and ability for its purpose. Involves minimum cost for material and labour.

Once the quality of cement and aggregate is selected next is to decide the proportion of cement : fine aggregate : coarse aggregate. The proportioning of cement, sand and coarse aggregate is also termed as mix design; while proportioning these and water cement ratio, it must be kept in mind that the fresh concrete be workable enough for uniform placement and once hardened has sufficient strength and durability. Factors governing the choice of mix proportion are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Strength of concrete. Quality control. Durability and workability. Water cement ratio. Aggregate cement ratio. Grading and type of aggregate. Maximum and minimum size of aggregate.

There are various methods of mix design but there are also methods which give rough proportioning used in day-to-day works. Table 1.2 : Mix Proportion
Sl. No. 1. Type of Construction Mass concrete foundation Mix Proportion (by Volume) 1 : 6 : 12 1 : 5 : 10 1:4:8 2. 3. 4. 5. Mass concrete in superstructure All normal reinforced concrete works such as beam, column, slab, etc. Impermeable construction and heavy concrete works Long span arches, heavily loaded structure 1:3:6 1:2:4 1 : 1 : 3 1:1:2

1.5 IMPORTANCE OF CONCRETE

Concrete is the most important basic construction material because it is difficult to get another versatile and mouldable material like concrete at such a low cost. Concrete has following important characteristics : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) It has good compressive strength. It has good durability. It has required impermeability. It has good fire resistance. It has abrasion resistance.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

Concrete is weak in tension. The weakness of concrete in tension can be overcome by providing reinforcement and pre-stressing techniques. Following are the important projects in Civil Engineering where we use the concrete as a basic construction material. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Roads, Bridges, Buildings, Railways, Airports, Dams, etc.

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

The advantages of using concrete are : (a) (b) (c) (d) It is quite strong; durable and fire proof. It is further economical in long run compared to other materials; requires less maintenance if used properly. It can be moulded to any shape and size for architectural and decorative purposes. It is quite strong in compression and along with steel as reinforcing material to resist tension, concrete has unlimited structural uses. These two materials have approximately same coefficient of expansion, and develop very good bond with each other. Concrete can be used as grouting material to fill up cracks. It can be pumped, hence places where spaces for material storages are not available it can be transported through pipe line.

(e) (f)

SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) What do you mean by proportioning of concrete? State five structures where concrete plays an important role. State the advantages of concrete. 9

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(d)

Tick the correct word. (i) (ii) Concrete is more strong in tension/compression. Concrete can be moulded/cannot be moulded in any shape.

(iii) Reinforcement is present/not present in RCC.

1.7 DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

It has hardly any disadvantage if constructed properly; further some deficiencies can be overtaken by using some admixtures. Following are the disadvantages of concrete. (a) It has low tensile stresses hence surface cracks develop which lead water to penetrate and cause corrosion of steel. But this drawback can be minimized by using steel bars and meshes. It shrinks on drying and expands on wetting. Provision of expansion joints is made which minimizes it. Concrete further expands and contracts, hence expansion joints provided take care of it. Concrete subjected to sustained loads causes creep. Concrete cannot be made impervious hence water soluble salts cause efflorescence which gives bad appearance to concrete. This further reduces life of electric fittings, etc. Concrete is liable to sulphate attack and alkalies attacks hence deteriorates and disintegrates with time. Concrete itself is a brittle material.

(b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

1.8 SELECTION OF MATERIAL

The quality and characteristics of concrete mainly depends on the quality of materials used. Materials selected for concrete must conform to required specifications depending on strength of concrete. Fresh cement of approved quality should be used and stored properly to prevent deterioration. Aggregate used should be well graded, free from silt, organic matter and other undesirable impurities. Water to be used for concreting should be potable, free from all impurities. Many times admixtures are used to improve various properties of concrete. Admixture selected should be such that it should not have any adverse or deteriorating effect on other materials and on concrete as a whole.

SAQ 4
(a) (b)

State the disadvantages of concrete. Fill in the blanks. (i) One bag of cement is __________________ litres.

10

(ii)

Strength of concrete depends upon quality of its ____________.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

(iii) One bag of cement is _______________ kg. (iv) __________________ is lubricant in concrete mix. (v) (c) (i) (ii) Compressive strength of concrete is measured in ___________. Aggregate used for concrete should be well graded/poorly graded. Quality of concrete depends/not depends on quality of aggregates. Tick the correct word.

1.9 REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE

Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension. Steel is equally strong in tension and compression but for long steel bars, it cannot resist equal amount of compressive force due to its buckling. Thus, the combination of steel and concrete is made to take up the stresses. Such combination of steel and concrete is called as reinforced concrete. Following are the grades of steel reinforcement. (a) (b) Mild steel (Fe250) : Grade I is known as mild steel (m.s.) High Tensile Deformed Steel : It is further classified as follows : (i) (ii) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Grade Fe 415 Grade Fe 500.

Following are the advantages of steel reinforcement. It has high tensile strength. It can develop good bond with concrete. It is easily available. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is nearly equal to that of concrete. It is easy to cut, bend, bind or weld. Concrete is not producing any harmful effect on the embedded steel.

The various forms in which steel is used as reinforcement in RCC work are round bars, deformed bars, twisted bars, square bars and flats. Sometimes expanded metal fabric or fabric made by welding or weaving steel wire in the form of oblong or square mesh are also used as reinforcement in slabs, shells and concrete roads. For works of large dimensions like massive foundations, etc. sections like rolled steel beams, channels or angle iron are also used as reinforcement. Mild and medium tensile steel bars of round section are most commonly used in RCC work. The diameter of round bars used in normal building are 6 mm, 8 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm, 16 mm, 18 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm, 28 mm, 32 mm, 36 mm and 40 mm. Bars of greater diameter, i.e. 45 mm and 50 mm are only used in exceptionally heavy foundations, large girders or counterforts, etc. With the introduction of deformed bars and twisted bars, the use of plain round bars is gradually reducing. Deformed bars or high yield strength deformed bars 11

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(HYSD) are furnished with lugs, ribs or other form of surface deformations for the purpose of increasing their bond strength with concrete. It is seen that the process of twisting a plain or deformed bar results in the increase in yield stress, tensile strength and bond strength. Twisted plain or deformed bars not only have high yield stress but also have strength that is 40 % more than that of plain round bars. On account of increased bond strength such bars do not need end hooks and require reduced length for overlaps, etc. thereby leading to reduction in the cost of reinforcement and labour.

SAQ 5
(a)
(b) (c)

State types of reinforcement. Differentiate between mild steel and tor steel. What are the advantages of steel reinforcement? What is the function of ribs present on steel?

1.10 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE IN PLASTIC STAGE

The reaction between cement and water is called as hydration of cement. The extent of hydration of cement and the resultant microstructure of hydrated cement affects the physical properties of concrete. Cement when mixed with water forms hydrated compounds of very low solubility. The reaction of cement with water is exothermic in nature. The reaction releases a lot of heat which is called as heat of hydration. Different compounds of cement hydrate at different rates and liberate different quantities of heat. The following properties of fresh concrete are of significance.

1.10.1 Workability
The ease with which the concrete can be placed on the forms and compacted is called workability of concrete. It can also be defined as the amount of internal useful work required to fully compact the concrete to optimum density in the mould. The workability of concrete depends upon water content, shape, size and grading of the aggregates, ratio of coarse and fine aggregates and the use of admixtures, if any. Workability is generally measured by the slump test.

1.10.2 Freedom from Segregation

The separation of cement water paste from the rest of the material is called as segregation. It is an undesirable property which should be prevented in all circumstances as it is very harmful to concrete properties. Segregation makes a concrete weak in hardened stage. Segregation can be avoided by proper grading, proper proportioning, use of optimum quantity of water, optimum compaction, proper handling, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing. 12

1.10.3 Freedom from Bleeding

The appearance of water on the surface of concrete after compaction is called bleeding. Bleeding indicates the presence of excess water in concrete or deficiency of fine material or too much finishing. Bleeding disturbs the uniformity of the surface and makes it dusty, porous and weak. Bleeding can be reduced by using proper mix, constant water-cement ratio, richer concrete, air entraining agents and fine sand. It is harmful to the concrete and it reduces the strength of hardened concrete.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

SAQ 6
(a) (b) Enlist properties of concrete in plastic stage. Define the following terms. (i) (ii) (c) (d) Workability Segregation

(iii) Bleeding Enlist factors affecting workability. State true or false. (i) (ii) Segregation is essential for good concrete. Bleeding gives more strength to the concrete.

(iii) Workability of concrete increases with the increase of cement content. (iv) Segregation is the property of concrete in plastic stage (e) Fill in the blanks. (i) (ii) The sand used should be fine in order to prevent __________. Workability is the property of concrete in ___________ stage.

1.11 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE IN HARDENED STAGE

The following properties of hardened concrete are of significance :

1.11.1 Strength
The ability of concrete to bear loads is called its strength. The strength of hardened concrete mainly depends upon water-cement ratio, quality of cement, degree of compaction and curing. The strength is further classified as : (a) (b) (c) (d) Compressive strength. Tensile strength. Bond strength. Shear strength. 13

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Compressive Strength High compressive strength is the most important property of the concrete. Therefore, concrete is used to resist compressive stresses. The strength of concrete is measured in N/mm2 (MPa). The compressive strength of concrete is affected by water-cement ratio, degree of compaction, type and quality of cement, type and texture of aggregate, curing, temperature at which the concrete is hardened, time of hardening, etc. Tensile Strength Concrete has low tensile strength. It is only 10 percent of the compressive strength. Due to low tensile strength, concrete is not used to resist tensile forces. In reinforced cement concrete works, reinforcement is provided for bearing tensile stresses. The tensile strength is of great importance in resisting cracking due to change in moisture content or temperature. The measurement of tensile strength of concrete is very difficult. The most practical method is to measure the tensile strength in bending which is usually called flexural strength. Bond Strength The property of adhesion between concrete and steel reinforcement is called its bond strength. Bond strength of concrete depends on its compressive strength and the surface characteristics of the steel bars. Bond strength is more for bars in compression than bars in tension. The bond strength can be increased by using deformed bars instead of plain bars and by decreasing the water cement ratio. Shear Strength Shear strength is about half of the compressive strength. Shearing of concrete is always accompanied by tension and compression due to bending. Concrete fails in shear due to diagonal tension.

1.11.2 Durability
Durability of concrete is its resistance to disintegration under the forces of environment such as weathering, chemical attack, fire and corrosion of steel, etc. Generally, dense and strong concretes have better durability in extreme weather conditions. Durability of concrete depends upon the quality of materials used and optimum water cement ratio. Generally, sound cement, durable aggregates, dense grading of aggregates, careful batching, mixing, placing, compaction and long periods for curing give concrete of better durability.

1.11.3 Impermeability
The resistance provided by concrete to the flow of water through it is called impermeability. Excess water during manufacturing of concrete leaves a large number of continuous pores leading to permeability in concrete. Impermeability is important specially for exposed and water-retaining structures. Impermeable concrete can be obtained by using low water cement ratio, dense and well graded aggregate, full compaction, sufficient curing, etc. Concrete can also be made impermeable by covering the surface by special gasoline-proof members, plastic films, etc. 14

1.11.4 Dimensional Changes

The dimensional changes of concrete depends upon (a) (b) (c) (d) Elasticity Concrete is not truly elastic material but has an approximately linear compressive stress-strain curve within the range of normal working stresses. The value of modulus of elasticity is not constant for all stresses. It measures the stiffness of concrete members. The modulus of elasticity depends upon the strength, moisture content, type of aggregate and age of concrete. The modulus of elasticity for concrete is defined as the ratio of unit stress to unit strain and varies from 30,000 to 50,000 N/mm2. It is assumed to be constant for design purposes. Shrinkage During hardening and dryings of concrete, there is slight reduction in its volume which is known as shrinkage. The shrinkage is higher with higher cement or water content. Average coefficient of total shrinkage for cement concrete may be taken as 0.003. The extent of shrinkage depends upon the efficiency of the curing arrangements, water absorbed by the formworks, types of cement, richness of mix and amount of water. The mineral character of the aggregate also affects shrinkage of concrete in which it is used. Concrete shrinks due to the chemical action of the colloids produced by water when it reacts with cement and due to physical drying out of concrete. Shrinkage can be reduced by using low water cement ratio, saturating aggregates, designing the concrete mix properly, non-absorbent formworks and reducing the height of fall of concrete during placing operations. The advantage of shrinkage in concrete is that it grips the reinforcement tightly and help in preventing its slipping. It is the main cause of bond between reinforcement and concrete. Creep The continuous and permanent deformation of concrete under sustained loading is known as creep or time-yield or plastic flow. Creep is the permanent deformation. It is due to closure of internal voids, viscous flow of cement water paste, crystalline flow in aggregates. The shrinkage and creep occur simultaneously and they are assumed to be additive for simplicity. The deformation which occurs immediately after the application of the load is called as instantaneous deformation. The deformation beyond instantaneous strain is creep. Creep is a function of time. Creep occurs both in compressive and tensile loading and it is assumed that the magnitude of the creep is the same in both the cases. It has been determined that strain due to creep is three times the strain that occurs when the load is first applied. Sometimes, creep is desirable in RCC structures as it helps in uniform distribution of stress. It relives the concrete stress and adds to the steel stress. It reduces the development of cracks. Elasticity, Shrinkage, Creep, and Thermal expansion.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

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The rate of creep depends upon the following factors : Strength Increase in strength causes reduction in creep. Proportion of Mix Creep decreases as the water cement ratio and volume of cement paste decreases. Aggregate Creep increases as the aggregate becomes finer and is greater with porous aggregates. Curing Creep decreases as the hydration of cement proceed. Age The rate of creep decreases with the increase in time. Type of Cement Fineness of cement affects the strength development at early ages and this affects creep of concrete. Thermal Expansion The expansion of concrete takes place due to rise in temperature. The thermal expansion in concrete causes considerable deformation and cracks. It is controlled by providing special expansion joints in big concrete structures. The value of the thermal coefficient varies a little with the richness of mix and the amount of water present in the mix. It is not uniform throughout the mass of concrete. Thermal expansion depends largely on the cement content and type of aggregate used. Concrete prepared from siliceous aggregate expand more than those concretes which are prepared from calcareous aggregates. The expansion of cement paste is more than that of aggregate.

SAQ 7
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Enlist the properties of concrete in hardened stage. What do you know about strength of concrete? Define bond strength. What do you mean by durability of concrete? What are the factors affecting creep of concrete? State the practical example where impermeable concrete is required. What do you mean by shrinkage of concrete? State true or false (i) (ii) Durability is the property of concrete in hardened stage. The resistance provided by concrete to the passage of water through it is called creep.

(iii) Creep is temporary deformation. 16

(h)

Fill in the blanks. (i) (ii) Thermal expansion depends largely on ______________. Strength of concrete ______________ with age.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

(iii) ISI has specified the strength of concrete for ________ days. (iv) A rich mix of concrete provides ___________ strength of concrete. (v) The resistance provided by concrete to the flow of water through it is called _________________.

(vi) The expansion of concrete takes place due to _____________ in temperature.

1.12 PROCESS DIAGRAM OF CONCRETE

Procurement of Ingredients of Concrete Mixing of Ingredients Storage and Handling of Ingredients Batching of Ingredients

Transporting of Concrete

Placing of Concrete

Curing of Concrete

Compaction of Concrete

Finishing of Concrete

Testing of Concrete

Process diagram of concrete as depicted above consists of following operations in sequence: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) Procurement of ingredients of concrete. Proper storage and handling of ingredients of concrete. Batching of materials for making concrete. Mixing of ingredients in proper proportion. Transporting the fresh concrete to the required place or site. Placing the fresh concrete in moulds or formwork. Compacting the concrete in formwork. Curing of concrete. Finishing of concrete to get good appearance. Testing of concrete in plastic and hardened stage 17

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SAQ 8
(a) (b) Draw process diagram of concrete. State the different operations of concreting.

1.13 CONCRETE OPERATIONS

To obtain good quality concrete not only materials and their proportions are important but the concreting operations also play a very critical role. Concreting operations include storage of materials, proportioning and batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, finishing and curing. The concreting operations affect the strength and other properties of concrete can be achieved as per requirements by using suitable controls on various concreting operations.

1.13.1 Storage
The cement should be stored carefully. It may absorb moisture from the atmosphere and may become useless for the structural work if not properly stored. Absorption of one to two percent of moisture has no appreciable effect on quality of cement but if it exceeds five percent, the cement becomes useless. Hence, when cement is to be stored for a long period, it should be stored in airtight containers. If moisture is kept away from cement, it is found that cement will maintain its quality for large period. It is advisable to avoid storing of cement in jute bags for a period longer than three months. If it is unavoidable, the cement should be tested to check its quality. The loose cement may be stored indefinitely in airtight containers. The cement bags are stacked in piles. It is economical to form a pile of 10 bags of cement. A distance of about 30cm should be kept between the piles of cement bags and exterior walls of building. The distance between two piles should be about 90 cm. For long storage, the top and bottom of piles should be covered with waterproof paper or tarpaulins. The cement, which is finely ground, is more active and consequently it absorbs moisture rapidly from the atmosphere. Hence, more precautions should be taken to store finely ground cement. When cement bags are to be removed from piles of sufficient height, the steps should be formed by taking out two or three bags from front piles. It is also advisable to remove cement in order of its storage period, i.e. cement which is stored previously should be taken out first. Cement is easily affected by water and even atmospheric humidity. Cement should be stored in dry condition. It should be protected from moisture. Aggregate should be stored in such a manner that its size and grading is not disturbed as it does not get mixed with deleterious impurities. 18

1.13.2 Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. There are two methods of batching volume batching and weigh batching. Volume Batching In volume batching, materials are taken in litres. If proper care is taken it gives good results. Aggregates are measured by containers of volume of 35 litres. Water is measured in litres. Volume batching is preferred for minor works and where quantity is very less. Weigh Batching In weigh batching, materials are measured in kg. It gives accurate results. Cement should always be measured in kg.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

1.13.3 Mixing
Thorough mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in colour and consistency. There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete. Hand Mixing In this method, ingredients are mixed in dry state three times on a watertight platform to avoid loss of water from the mix. Then water is added in correct quantity and wet mixing is done thoroughly till concrete becomes uniform in colour and consistency. Generally, 8 to 10 % extra cement is added for hand mixing. Machine Mixing It ensures a better and uniform mixing of concrete ingredients. It produces concrete of better quality at a faster rate and at less cost more efficiently. Now-a-days, concrete mixers are very common. Even for small jobs mixers are preferred. Following are the types of mixer. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Drum type Pan type Paving mixer Transit mixer Tilting type 85T, 100T, 140T, 200T. Non-tilting type 200NT, 280NT, 340NT, 400NT, 800NT. Reversing 200R, 280R, 340R, 400R.

Number indicates the quantity of materials in litres in one batch.

1.13.4 Transporting
Concrete can be transported by a variety of methods and equipment. The precaution to be taken while transporting concrete is that the homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing should be maintained while being transported to the final place of deposition. Selection of methods depends on type of work and site situation. The methods adopted for transportation of concrete are : 19

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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Mortar Pan Wheel Barrow, Hand Cart Bucket and Rope Way Truck Mixer and Dumpers Belt Conveyors Chute Skip and Hoist Pumps and Pipe Line.

1.13.5 Placing
It is not enough that a concrete mix is correctly designed, batched, mixed and transported, it is of utmost importance that the concrete must be placed in a systematic manner to yield optimum results. Concrete is invariably laid as foundation bed below the walls or columns. Before placing the concrete in the foundation all the loose earth must be removed from the bed. Any root of trees passing through the foundation must be cut, charred or tarred effectively to prevent its further growth and piercing the concrete at a later date. The surface of the earth, if dry, must be just made wet, so that the earth does not absorb water from concrete. On the other hand if the foundation bed is too wet and rain-soaked, the water and slush must be removed completely to expose firm bed before placing concrete. If there is any seepage of water taking place into the foundation trench, effective method for diverting the flow of water must be adopted before concrete is placed in the trench or pit. The precautions to be taken and methods adopted while placing concrete in the under-mentioned situations will be discussed. (a) (b) (c) Placing concrete within earth mould. (Example : Foundation concrete for a wall or column.) Placing concrete within large earth mould or timber plank formwork. (Example : Road slab and airfield slab.) Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutters. (Example : Mass concrete in dam construction or construction of concrete abutment or pier.) (d) Placing concrete within usual formwork. (Example : Columns, beams and floors.)

1.13.6 Compaction
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the concrete. In the process of placing and mixing of concrete, air is likely to get entrapped in the concrete. If this air is not removed fully, the concrete losses strength considerably. 5 percent voids reduce the strength of concrete by about 30 percent and 10 percent voids reduce the strength by over 50 percent. Therefore, it is imperative that 100 percent compaction of concrete is one of the most important aim to be kept in mind in good concrete-making practices. 20

In order to achieve full compaction and maximum density, with reasonable compacting efforts available at site, it is necessary to use a mix with adequate workability. It is also of common knowledge that the mix should not be too wet for easy compaction, which also reduces the strength of concrete. For maximum strength driest possible concrete should be compacted 100 percent. The overall economy demands 100 percent compaction with a reasonable compacting effort available in the field. The following methods are adopted for compacting the concrete : Hand Compaction (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Rodding Ramming Tamping Internal vibrator (Needle vibrator) e.g. column, beam, slab, footing. External vibrator (Formwork vibrator) e.g. column, thin sections. Table vibrator e.g. cube testing. Platform vibrator e.g. pre-cast units. Surface vibrator (Screed vibrator) e.g. concrete roads, industrial flooring.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

Compaction by Vibration

Compaction by Pressure and Jolting e.g. blocks, tiles, etc. Compaction by Spinning e.g. cement pipes.

1.13.7 Curing
The process of hardening the concrete mixes by keeping its surface moist for a certain period after compaction is called curing of concrete. It is one of the important factors for obtaining better strength. Curing must be organized immediately after concrete is placed and compacted. The concrete hardens because of hydration, i.e. the chemical reaction between water and portland cement. The chemical actions, which accompany the setting of concrete, are dependent on the presence of water. Although there is sufficient water at the time of mixing yet it is necessary to ensure that the water is retained to enable the chemical action to continue till the concrete is fully hardened. Properties of concrete such as strength, water-tightness, durability, wear resistance and volume stability improve with the passage of time. Three gallons of water are required approximately to hydrate one bag of cement. If the loss due to evaporation is more from newly placed concrete, the hydration process will stop and concrete will shrink thus creating tensile stresses at the drying surface. The development of these stresses will result into the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks. Thus, curing is important. It improves properties of concrete such as watertightness, wear resistance, strength, volume stability and durability. Methods of Curing (a) (b) (c) Water curing Membrane curing Application of heat 21

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(d)

Miscellaneous

1.13.8 Finishing
Finishing operation is the last operation in making concrete. Finishing in real sense does not apply to all concrete operations. For a beam concreting, finishing may not be applicable, whereas for the concrete road pavement, airfield pavement or for the flooring of a domestic building, careful finishing is of great importance. Surface finishes may be grouped as under : (a)
(b) (c)

Formwork finishes Surface treatment Applied finishes

SAQ 9
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Enlist different concreting operations. What is batching? Differentiate between volume batching and weigh batching. State methods of transporting of concrete. What is curing? Enlist methods of curing. What is compaction? State types of compaction. State true or false. (i) (ii) All concrete ingredients are measured by volume batching only. Weigh batching is more accurate than volume batching.

(iii) Cement should be protected from moisture. (iv) The chemical reaction between water and cement is called as hydration of cement. (g) Fill in the blanks. (i) (ii) Vibration of concrete should be penetrated in _________ direction. The measurement of materials for making concrete is called as ______________.

(iii) In volume batching, materials are measured in ____________. (iv) In weight batching, materials are measured in ____________. (v) (h) (i) (ii) Compaction is the process adopted for expelling the ________. Hand mixing/machine mixing should be used for large work. Compaction increases/decreases the density of the concrete. Tick the correct word.

(iii) The process of hardening the concrete mixes by keeping its surface moist/dry for a certain period after compaction is called curing of concrete. (i) 22 (j) What precaution should be taken before placing of concrete? State different types of vibrator.

Basic Concepts of Concrete

1.14 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied definition of concrete, grades of concrete, importance of concrete, properties of concrete in plastic and hardened stage and process diagram of concrete. Now, in the next unit, you will study about manufacturing process of cement, chemical composition of cement, physical properties of cement, types and uses of cement, field tests of cement, etc.

1.15 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic listed in the section Further Reading given at the end of the booklet to get the answers of SAQs.

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