Welding Innovation Vol. XX, No.

1, 2003
Repair and Maintenance Procedures
for Heavy Machinery Components
A version of this paper was published
at the 50th WTIA Annual Conference
held in Sydney, Australia, 26-30
August 2002.
Introduction
Heavy machinery components are
subjected to severe destructive condi-
tions of environmental wear. The
hardfacing process is a cost-effective
tool that can minimize wear and
increase service life of heavy machinery
components.
Types of Wear
The OECD (Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and
Development) defines wear as: The
progressive loss of substance from the
operating surface of a body occurring
as a result of relative motion at the
surface [1]. Commonly recognized
wear categories and their respective
estimated shares of heavy machinery
wear [2] are shown in Figure 1.
Usually, there are several wear mech-
anisms that act simultaneously on
heavy machinery components. The
two most common types are abrasive
and metal to metal wear.
Metal to Metal Wear
Metal to metal wear occurs when two
metallic surfaces slide against each
other under the pressure. True metal
to metal wear is the most often found
under nonlubricated or dry conditions.
Archards Metal to Metal Theory has
been widely accepted since the rela-
tionship established between the wear
volume (V), sliding distance (L), nor-
mal load (N) and hardness (H) is con-
sistent with experimentally observed
results:
V=(KxLxN)/H (1)
K is coefficient of wear.
When shear stresses overcome the
cohesive strength of the metal matrix,
cracks and voids can be nucleated
and wear particles can form [4].
Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear occurs when non-
metallic materials slide or roll, under
pressure, across a metallic surface.
This type of wear is determined by:
The properties of the wear material,
The properties of the abrasive
material, and
The nature and severity of the
interaction between the abrasive
and wear material.
Abrasive wear can be classified as (a)
gouging abrasion, (b) high stress
grinding abrasion and (c) low stress
scratching abrasion or erosion. In
abrasive wear, there are two extreme
mechanisms of material removal, one
in which plastic deformation plays a
dominant role, and the other in which
fracture with limited plastic deforma-
tion dominates. According to the sim-
plified abrasion wear theory, equation
2, volume loss, Q, is proportional to
the applied load (N) and is inversely
proportional to the hardness (H) of the
abraded surface [5].
Q = N/H (2)
Figure 3 illustrates the mechanism of
abrasive wear.
Figure 1. Illustration of the ratio of
different wear categories in industry.
Figure 2. Alloy content as a function
of wear. [3]
By Milo Dumovic
Manager, Welding Technology Centre
The Lincoln Electric Company Australia
Impact
16%
Corrosive
10%
Metal
to
Metal
22%
Abrasive
52%
Welding Innovation Vol. XX, No. 1, 2003
Figure 3. (a) Idealized representation of abrasive wear resulting from mechanical
application of force to an abrasive particle. (b) Idealized representation of abrasive
wear resulting from kinetic application of force to an abrasive particle.
Table 2. Engineering methods for surface hardening of steel. [7]
Table 3. Hardnesses of the most common materials used in hardfacing [8]
Table 1. Typical properties of selected
materials. [6]
Impact Wear
During service, heavy equipment
components can also be subjected to
impact wear. Toughness can be regard-
ed as the capacity of a material to
absorb energy by deforming plastically
before fracture. Toughness is indepen-
dent of the strength and ductility of the
material and is measured by Charpy
and Izod tests. Table 1 gives the impact
toughness of selected materials.
Hardfacing
Hardfacing is a surfacing process used
to improve the wear resistance of
heavy machinery components without
affecting the interior of the component.
Hardfacing is a process of applying, by
welding, a layer, edge or point of wear
resistant metal onto a metal compo-
nent. Table 2 illustrates engineering
methods for surface treatment of steel.
Selection of Hardfacing Wires
Selection of hardfacing wires
is based on:
The wear mechanism acting on the
component;
Tribological conditions: load, temper-
ature and impact;
Comparison with prior experience;
Compatibility with substrate materials;
Requirements for heat treatment
and machining after welding;
Availability of materials, equipment
and skilled personnel; and
Cost.
Table 3 gives the hardnesses of the
most common materials used in hard-
facing wires.
(a) (b)
LAYER ADDITIONS
HARDSURFACING
Fusion hardfacing (welded overlays)
Thermal spray (bonded overlay)
COATINGS
Electrochemical plating
Chemical vapour deposition
Thin films (physical vapour deposition)
Ion mixing
SUBSTRATE TREATMENT
DIFFUSION PROCESS
Carburising
Nitriding
Carbonitriding
Nitrocarburising
Boriding
Titanium-carbon diffusion
Toyota diffusion process
SELECTIVE HARDENING METHODS
Flame hardening
Induction hardening
Laser hardening
Electron beam hardening
Ion implantation
Selective carburising and nitriding
Austenitic
(11-13%Mn) Steel 200-250 140
Austenitic
(6% Mn) Steel 200-250 30
Cast
Martensitic Steel 400-600 15-25
Wrought
Martensitic Steel 300-550 20-70
Cast Pearlitic
Steel 250-420 5-10
Alloy White
Cast Irons 600-900 2-5
Impact
Toughness
(J)
Material
Hardness
HV
Material Formula Hardness HV
Ferrite Alpha-Fe 70 200
Pearlite (nonalloyed) Alpha Fe + Fe3C 250 320
Pearlite (alloyed) Alpha Fe + Fe3C 300 460
Austenite Cr- alloyed Gamma- Fe 300 600
Austenite low alloyed Gamma- Fe 250 350
Nickel Ni 560
Bainite Alpha Fe + Fe3C 250 450
Martensite Alpha Fe + Fe3C 500 1010
Cementite Fe3C 840 1100
Chromium Carbide CrxCy 1330 1700
Titanium Nitride TiN 1800
Tungsten Carbide WC 1900 2000
Vanadium Carbide VC 2300
Titanium Carbide TiC 2500
Boron Carbide B4C 2800
Welding Innovation Vol. XX, No. 1, 2003
Design and Selection of
Hardfacing Consumables
The design and selection of welding
consumables for build-up and wear-
resistance applications is based on the
following principles:
Addition of carbon;
Addition of alloys;
Providing hard particles in a soft
weld metal matrix.
Table 4 shows the influence of alloying
elements on the properties of weld
deposits.
The influence of carbon and percent-
age of martensite (cooling rate) on the
hardness of steel weld metal deposits
[7] is shown in Figure 4. The influence
of alloying elements on the microstruc-
tures of weld metal deposits is given in
Figure 5 [9].
Repair Procedures
Preheating
Generally, weld metal and parent metal
properties such as chemical composi-
tion, hardenability, joint geometry and
restraint determine the desired proper-
ties for a repaired component. One of
the widely adopted approaches for
determining weldability is to review the
hardenability of the material. The car-
bon equivalent (CE) formula was
developed to indicate how the chemical
composition would affect hardenability.
The maximum interpass temperature
for the repair of austenitic manganese
castings is 260C. Table 5 gives guide-
lines for preheating temperature as a
function of carbon equivalent [10]. The
carbon equivalent formula is given in
equation 3 [13].
CE=C+(Mn+Si)/6+(Cr+Mo+V)/5+(Ni+Cu)/15
(3)
Table 5. Guideline preheat tempera-
tures as a function of carbon equivalent
(CE).
Special precautions should be taken
on applications that are crack sensi-
tive, such as high carbon or alloy
steels, previously hardfaced parts and
highly stressed parts. The repair (hard-
facing) of heavy cylinders, massive
parts and parts having complex
shapes are all examples of applica-
tions producing high internal stresses
that may result in delayed cracking
(Figure 7). These applications may
require one or more of the following:
Higher preheating temperatures 150
to 260C (Figure 6).
Higher interpass temperatures up to
480C. In general this high interpass
temperature will not cause a drop in
the hardness of weld deposit.
Establishing interpass temperatures
should also take into consideration
the previous heat treatment history
of the component.
Controlled, slow cooling between
passes.
Table 4. Influence of alloying elements on the properties of weld deposits.
Figure 5. Map of alloying elements
and properties of build-up and wear-
resistant weld deposits.
Figure 6. Preheat of massive part.
Figure 4. Influence of carbon content
and % martensite (cooling rate) on the
hardness of steel weld metal deposits.
CARBON
Reduces ductility
(increases brittleness)
Increases tensile strength
Increases hardness
Increases hardenability
NICKEL
Increases strength &
toughness
Prevents grain growth
Lessens distortion
Increases hardenability
MANGANESE
Increases hardness
Promotes a finer grain size
Acts as deoxidiser
Minimizes sulphur,
hot cracking
MOLYBDENUM
Increases tensile strength
and toughness
Increases resistance
to creep
CHROMIUM
1-2% increases the hardness and
toughness without loss of ductility
4-6% increases resistance
to tarnishing
Above 11% becomes corrosion
resistant
Promotes carbide formation
VANADIUM
Increases tensile strength
Increases resistance to fatigue
Resistant to high stresses
Carbon Equivalent Suggested preheat (C)
Up to 0.45 Optional
0.45 to 0.6 95 to 210
Above 0.6 210 to 370
Welding Innovation Vol. XX, No. 1, 2003
A soaking time of 1 hour per 25 mm of
cross section at the recommended
temperature is required in order to
obtain maximum benefit from preheat-
ing. The maximum interpass tempera-
ture for the repair of austenitic
manganese castings is limited to
260C.
Postweld Heat Treatment
The iron based hardfacing alloys are
among the few engineering alloys that
can be heat treated in order to vary
their mechanical properties. Heat
treatment can be applied to a steel not
only to harden it but also to improve its
strength, toughness, ductility, decrease
the stresses caused by welding and to
avoid undesirable microstructures in
the heat affected zone. The various
heat treatment processes can be clas-
sified as : a) annealing; b) normalising
hardening; c) tempering; d) stress
relieving.
A summary of the influence of stress
relieving temperature on the hardness
of weld deposits resistant to metal-to-
metal wear is illustrated in Figure 8
[11], while a summary of the influence
of annealing on the hardness of weld
deposits resistant to metal to metal
wear is illustrated in Figure 9 [12].
Figures 10 and 11 [12] summarize the
relationship between the percentage
of carbon and alloying elements and
as quenched hardness of hardfacing
weld metal deposits.
WIRE CHARACTERISTICS
Typically less than 0.3%C, less than 6% alloy
(Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni);
Pearlitic/Ferritic weld deposit
Hardness up to 35 HRc;
Two distinct applications;
Provide high compressive strength to support
a harder top layer Build-up layer;
Final surface for metal to metal wear.
Figure 7. Transverse crack of the
repaired idler.
Figure 9. Influence of annealing on the
hardness of iron based weld deposits
[12].
Figure 11. Relationship between total
content of alloying elements (Cr, Mo,
V and W) and as hardfacing quenched
hardness of iron based hardfacing
deposits [12].
Figure 12. (a) Idler rebuild; (b) Worn internal surface of dragline chain;
(c) chain repaired.
(a) (b) (c)
WELDING PROCEDURE
Preheat 50-210C;
Maximum interpass can run as high
as 370-430C;
Stringers or weave are acceptable;
Unlimited number of layers;
Slow cool to avoid cracking;
Hardness will depend on the cooling rate.
Figure 8. Summary of influence of
stress relieving temperature on hard-
ness of weld deposits resistant to
metal-to-metal wear (see Table 3).
Figure 10. Relationship between car-
bon content and as quenched hard-
ness of iron based weld deposits [12].
Typical Application of a Build-up Product
Examples
Welding Innovation Vol. XX, No. 1, 2003
Summary
Although wear of machinery parts rep-
resents a significant economic cost to
the owners and operators of heavy
equipment, the option of using hard-
facing products to restore worn materi-
al is a very cost effective alternative to
parts replacement. In many cases, the
hardfaced deposit will wear better than
the original part. The hardfacing solu-
tion is successful when the type of
wear is properly identified, and the
optimal material is selected for the
application. Care should be taken to
ensure that adequate ventilation
and/or local exhaust is used to control
operator exposure to welding fumes
and its constituents per the material
safety data sheet for the consumables
being used. Finally, regardless of the
hardfacing material selected, the
material must be properly deposited to
ensure that it performs as intended.
REFERENCES
[1] Yumaguchi Y. TRIBOLOGY OF PLASTIC
MATERIALS, Elsiver 1990, pp 92-102
[2] WTIA TECHNICAL NOTE 4. The industry
Guide to Hardsurfacing for the Control of
Wear
[3] D.J. Kotecki and J.S. Ogborn, Abrasion
Resistance of Iron Based Hardsurfacing
Alloys, Welding Journal, August 1995, pp
269-278
[4] Suh N.P., THE DELAMINATION THEORY OF
WEAR, Wear, 25 1973, pp 111-124
[5] ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 10, 8th Edition,
1975, pp 134-153
[6] Mutton P.J. ABRASION RESISTANT MATE-
RIALS, AMIRA, 1988, pp 15-44
[7] ASM Metals Handbook, Vol. 4, Heat Treating,
1991
[8] Askeland D.R., THE SCIENCE AND ENGI-
NEERING OF MATERIALS, PWS
Engineering, Boston, 1985, pp 510-550
[9] Kotecki D. Hardfacing Benefits Maintenance
and Repair Welding, AWS Welding Journal,
November 1992, Volume 71/Number 11
[10] W. F. Newell, Jr, Understanding and Using
Carbon Equivalent Formulas, AWS Welding
Journal Sept. 1995.
[11] M. Dumovic The effect of stress relieving on
the hardness of iron based weld deposits
resistant to metal to metal wear,
Australasian Welding Journal, Volume 45,
Third Quarter, 2000
[12] M. Dumovic Effect of annealing and quench-
ing on the hardness of iron based weld
deposits resistant to metal to metal wear,
Australasian Welding Journal, Volume 46,
First Quarter, 2001
[13] AWS D 1.1/D1.1M:2002 Structural Welding
Code - Steel, Annex XI
Figure 13. Shaft repaired using spread arc technique.
Figure 14. Repaired austenitic manganese steel casting; no preheating applied; maximum
interpass temperature was kept below 260C by immersing component in water bath.
Typical Metal to Metal Wear Application
Typical Manganese Repair
Typical Abrasion and Impact Application
WELDING PROCEDURE
Preheat 150-315C is recommended;
Max. interpass can go as high as 370-430C;
Stringers or weaves are acceptable;
Usually limited to 3-4 layers maximum;
Slow cool to prevent cracking;
Post weld heat treatment required to toughen
and soften weld/component after welding.
WIRE CHARACTERISTICS
Typically less than 0.4%C and 6% total alloy;
Hardness typically 35-45 HRc;
Low alloy martensitic weld deposit;
Austenite transforms to martensite below 371C;
Hardness doesnt depend upon cooling rate
unless extremely slow;
Main application is metal to metal wear, especially
sliding; also abrasion from softer materials (dirt,
limestone).
WELDING PROCEDURE
No preheat required on austenitic base metal;
Preheat 148-204C on carbon and low alloy
to steel to prevent pullout;
Limited heat build up to 260C maximum to avoid
embitterment due to Mn-carbide precipitation;
Unlimited layers;
No post weld heat treatment required.
WIRE CHARACTERISTICS
Suitable for severe impact applications;
Typically 0.4 to 0.6 %C, 13 to 20% alloy, mainly
manganese;
Typically 20 to 25 Rockwell C as-welded, work
hardens rapidly to 45 to 55 HRC;
High dilution on mild steel will be martensitic.
Non-magnetic alloys.
Figure 15. Bucket sides protected with hardfacing.
WELDING PROCEDURE
No preheat on austenitic substrate;
Preheat at 204C on carbon steel, low alloy steel,
or cast iron;
First run several beads fast enough to establish
tight check crack spacing (6.0 to 19.0 mm) may
require 1000 mm/min travel speed;
For a single layer, use heavy overlap (about 70%)
to get primary carbides dilution can lead to
primary austenitic or near eutectic structure which
has inferior abrasion resistance.
WIRE CHARACTERISTICS
2 to 6%C, 14 to 35% total alloy content,
mainly chromium;
Typically 58 to 63 HRC;
Used primarily to resist abrasion, abrasion &
impact shovel and bucket lips, conveyor screws,
blast furnace bells, coal crushers, asphalt mixers etc.