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ASA Powerplant

powerplant book

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5K views764 pages

ASA Powerplant

powerplant book

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ccoyure
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© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Aviation Maintenance Technician Series DALE CRANE ye Aviation Maintenance Technician Series Date CRANE Terry MICHMERHUIZEN Technical Editor Coryrastoxn AVIATION SERVICES ‘The AviaTion Drvistow oF Connerstonr CoLLece Gran Rapms, MIcHiGaN Pat BENTON Technical Editor AsststaNT PROFESSOR ScHOOL oF AVUXHION ScuNCES Wesrran Micsican Untversiry Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. ‘NewcastLe, WASHINGTON Powerplant Aviation Maintenance Technician Series: Powerplant Aviation Supplies & Academies, Tne. ‘7005 132nd Place SE [Neweastle, Washington 980523 3 © 1996 ASA All rights reserved, Published 1996, (Thied printing 2000.) Printed in the United States of America 03 02 1 00 9876 Cover photo © Gary Gladstone/The Image Bank Photo credits: p,6—Pratt & Whitney Division, United Technologies Corp. p. UI ‘The General Eleetic Company; p. 46 —Teledyne-Continental Motors; pp. 201, 205,210, 213, 223—Bendix Electrical Componeuts Division; p. 488 Champion Aviation Products ‘Division; p, $20—Tnstrument Technology, Ine. pp. 321, $22—Machida, Incorporate: . 530 —Milbar Specialty Tools; p. $32—Howell Instruments, Ine p. 601 —-Sundstrand Corporation; p. 679—The General Electric Company: p. 690-—TEC Aviation Division CCermicrome is a registered trademark of Engine Components, Ine Cermistee! and CermilNil are trademarks of Engine Components, ne All other trcemarks are registered with their respective owners ISBN 1-56027-410-7 ASA-AMT.P Library of Congress Caralogingn-Pabcation Doro Crane, Dale ‘Avlation maintenance techoicia series. Powerplant / Dale Cranes ‘Terry Michmeshuizen, tohnical editor P. cm. Includes inde. ISBN 1-560027-151-, 1. Airplanes — Motors—Mi rnance and repair. 1. Michmerhui- zen, Terry. I. Tile ‘TLID15.C725 1995 620,120390088 20 9s sor cp ii Aviation Manvrtnayer Ticinician Series POWERPLANT ©ovroanaon 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 CONTENTS Preface v Acknowledgments vii Development of Aircraft Powerplants Reciprocating Engines Theory & Construction 15 Lubrication Systems 87 Fuel Metering & Induction Systems 119 Ignition Systems 193 Exhaust Systems 239 Cooling Systems 253 Starting Systems 263 Operation & Maintenance 275 Turbine Engines Theory & Construction 337 Lubrication & Cooling Systems 417 Fuel Metering Systems 447 Ignition & Starting Systems 479 Exhaust Systems 507 Operation & Maintenance 513 Powerplant Auxiliary Systems Instrument Systems 541 Electrical Systems 587 Fire Protection Systems 609 Propellers 631 Glossary 703 Index 739 AvIATION Surnuins & Acabeutcs,Ine, Contents iii iv Aviation Manviance Tecunteran Stars PovtseLanr PREFACE Aviation maintenance technology has undergone tremendous changes in the past decades. Moder aircraft, with their advanced engines, complex flight controls and environmental control systems, are some of the most sophisti- cated devices in use today, and these marvels of engineering must be maintained by knowledgeable technicians. ‘The Federal Aviation Adminis- vation, recognizing this new generation of airerafl, has updated the require- ments for maintenance technicians and for the schools that provide their training. The FAA has also instituted an Aviation Maintenance Technician ‘Awards Program to encourage technicians to update their training. New technologies used in modern aircraft increase the importance for maintenance technicians to have a solid foundation in such basie subjects as ‘mathematics, physies, and electricity. The Aviation Maintenance Technician Series has been produced by ASA to provide the needed background infor- ‘mation for this foundation and to introduce the reader to aircraft structures, powerplants and systems. ‘These textbooks have been carefully designed to assist a person in preparing for FAA technician certification, and at the same time serve as valuable references for individuals working in the field, The subject matter is orga- nized into categories used by the FAA for the core curriculum in 14 CBR Part 147, Aviation Maintenance ‘Technician Schools, and for the Subject Matter Knowledge Codes used in the written tests for technician certification. In some eases in the ASA series, these categories have been rearranged to provide a more logical progression of learning. ‘This textbook is part of the ASA series of coordinated maintenance techni- cian training materials. The series consists of the General, Airframe, and Powerplant textbooks with study questions, the Fast-Track Test Guides for Aviation Mechanics, exam software for computerized study for the Aviation Maintenance Technician tests, the Oral and Practical Exam Guide, The Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, and the Aviation Mechanic Handbook. Continued [Avanos Surruts & Acaptanes, Ive vi To supplement this fundamental training material, ASA reprints the FAA Advisory Cireular Acceptable Methods, Techniques, and Practices— Aircraft Inspection, Repair, and Alteration (ASA-AC43,13B), and semian- nually updated excerpts from the Federal Aviation Regulations that are ap- plicable to the aviation maintenance technician, Dale Crane Aviation Manvninance Tecunicran Seuss PoweRrLaNT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A series of texts such as this Aviation Maintenance Technician Series ‘could never be compiled without the assistance of modern industry. Many individuals have been personally helpful, and many companies have been ‘generous with their information, We want to acknowledge this and say ‘thank you to them all, ACES Systems—TEC Aviation Division, Knoville, TN ‘Acro Quality International, ‘Stamford, CT ‘Acto-Mach Labs, Ine., Wichita, KS Aeroquip Corporation, Jackson, MI Airborne Division, Parker Hannifin Conporation, Hiyria, OF Allied Signal Aerospace, Phoenix, AZ Allison Engine Company, Indianapolis, IN ASCO Aeronautical, Columbus, OH Aviation Laboratories, Inc., Houston, TX Barfield, Inc. Ailanta, GA Beech Aireralt Corporation, Wichita, KS Bendix Electrical Components Division, Sidney, NF Cessna Aircraft Company, Wichita, KS (Chad\wick-Helmuth Company, Inc., El Monte, CA (Champion Aviation Products Division, Liberty, SC Dowty-Rotol, Inc., Cheltenham, England Dynamic Solutions Systems, Inc, San Marcos, CA Engine Components, Inc. Sian Antonio, TX General Electric Company, Cincinnati, OFF Gulfstream Aerospace, Savannah, GA Hamilton Standard Division of United ‘Technologies, Windsor Locks, CT Howell Instruments, Ine, Fort Worth, TX Machida Incorporated, Orangeburg, NY McCauley Accessory Division Cessna Aircraft Company, Vandalia, OF Milbar Corporation, Chagrin Falls, OH NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, OH Pratt & Whitney Canada, Longueuil, Quebec, Canada Precision Airmotive Corporation, Everett, WA Aviation SuPPLEs & Arabia, Ie, Quan-Tech, Flanders, NT Ram Aircraft Corporation, Waco, TX Saft America, Inc, Valdosta, GA Slick Aircraft Products, Division of Unison, Rockford, IL Standard Aero, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Stanley-Proto Industrial Tools, Covington, GA Stead Aviation Corporation, Manchester, NH Sundstrand Corp., Rockford, IL Superior Air Parts Ine., Addison, TX Teledyne-Continental Motors, Mobile, AL Textron Lycoming, Williamsport, PA ‘TRW Hartzell Propeller Products Division, Pigua, OH ‘TW, Smith Engine Company, Inc, Cincinnati, OH UE Systems, Ine., Elmsford, NY United Technologies, Pratt & Whitney, East Hartford, CT ‘Welch Allyn Imaging Products Division, Skaneateles Falls, NY vii viii AvIATION Manrevance Trcsmictan Stes PowavLaNT DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT POWERPLANTS The Principie of Heat Engines «3 External-Combustion Engines 3 Internal-Combustion Engines 4 Aircraft Reciprocating Engines 4 Aircraft Turbine Engines ‘Study Questions: Development of Aircraft Powerplants 13 Answers to Chapter 1 Study Questions 14. Devevomioxr oF Aumcearr PoweRoLants Chapter 1 ‘Aviation Manvrexance Tecsbucuw Sirs Powunpavr DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT POWERPLANTS ‘The first man-carrying flights were made in hot air balloons swept along by air currents and without means for the pilot to control the direction of flight. Aircraft had little practical utility until the development of engine-driven propellers. This development of the powerplant has made aviation the vital ‘factor that it is today in the economic world. The Principle of Heat Engines All powered aircraftare driven by some form of heat engine. Chemical energy stored in the fuel is refeased as heat energy that causes air to expand. The expansion of this air is what performs useful work, driving either a piston or a turbine. ‘There are wo basic types of heat engines: external-combustion and in- ternal-combustion, External-Combustion Engines External-combustion engines are most familiar to us as steam engines. Energy released in coal- or gas-fired furnaces or in nuclear reactors is transferred into water, changing it into steam that expands and drives either a piston or a turbine, Steam engines were used to power experiments in flight made during the late 1800s. Dr, Samuel Langley of the Smithsonian Institutionin Washington, D.C. used small steam engines to power a successful series of unmanned machines he called Aerodromes. In 1896, Dr. Langley made a number of powered flights with these models. ‘The most successful had tandem wings with a span of 14 feet, weighed 26 pounds, and was powered by a one- horsepower steam engine. It was launched from a catapult atop a houseboat inthe Potomac river, and flew for 90 seconds, traveling more than half'a mile, There was one successful but impractical aircraft steam engine devel- oped in America in 1933 by the Besler brothers, manufacturers of logging locomotives. This 150-horsepower engine, using an oil-fired boiler and having a total installed weight of approximately 500 pounds, was used to power a Travel Air 2000 biplane. Davevomar oF Anecxav PoWEROLANIS powerplant, The complete installation of an ireraftefigine, propeller, and al aecessories needed for its proper Function heat engine. A mechanical device that ical energy in a fuol into heat and then into mechanical energy. in Which the fuel and air mixture is burned inside the engine. cexternal-combustion engine, hbeat engin in which the fuel releases its energy outside ofthe engine A form of piston. The movable plug cylinder ofa turbine. A wheel fitted with vanes oF tirfols radiating out from a central disk. Used to extract energy from a stream of moving fluid, ‘Aerodrome. The name given by Dr Samuel Langley to the flying machines built under his supervision between the yeas of 1891 and 1903 Chapter 1 3 Otto cycle of energy transformation. The four-stroke, five cycle of energy transformation used in a i constant-volume reciprocating engine. ‘gas turbine engine, An internal combus- tion engine that bums its fuel in a constant pressure eyele and uses the expansion of the air to drive a turbine whieh, in tr rotates a compressor. Energy beyond that needed to rotate the compressor is used t0 produce torque or thrust turhojet engine, A ges turbine engine that produces thrust by accelerating the mass of air flowing through it turbo engine in which len angine. A type of gas turbine thened compressor or turbine blades accelerate air around the turboprop engine. A turbine engine in which energy extracted from the acceler fled gases is used to deive a propeller turboshaft engi which energy extracted from the accoler fated gases is used to deve helicopter rotors, generators, or parmps, A turbine engine in reciprocating engine. A type of heat engine that changes the reciprocating (back-and-forth) motion of pistons inside the eylinders into rotary motion of a crankshaft Drake horsepower. The actual horse power delivered to the propeller aircraft engine cylinder. The component of a eeiprocat ing engine which houses the piston, valves, ‘and spark plugs and forms the combustion chamber Internal-Combustion Engines ‘The conceptof releasing energy from fuel directly inside anengine toheatand expand the air has challenged engineers since the late 1700s. The expanding air can drive reciprocating pistons or spin turbines. Coal dust, gunpowder, and even turpentine vapors have been exploded inside cylinders, but it was not until 1860 that the French engineer Etienne Lenoir actually built a practical engine that could use illuminating gas as its fuel, In 1876, Dr, Nikolaus Otto of Germany made practical engines using the four-stroke cycle that bears his name, and itis the principal cycle upon which almost all aircraft reciprocating engines operate, This cycle of energy transformation is discussed in detail in Chapter 2, Gas turbine engines in the form of turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and turboshaft engines have revolutionized aviation, and their principle of opera- tion is discussed in Chapter 10. Aircraft Reciprocating Engine: Throughoutthe history of aviation, progress has always been dependent upon the development of suitable powerplants. Aviation as we know il today was born at the beginning of the 1900s with powered flights made by Wilbur and Orville Wright. The Wright brothers approached the problems of flight in a sensible and professional way. They first solved the problem of lift with kites, then the problem of control with sliders, and finally by 1902, they were ready for powered flight. First they painstakingly designed the propellers and then began their search for a suitable engine. Their requirements were for a gasoline engine that would develop 8 or 9 brake horsepower and weigh no more than 180 pounds. No ‘manufacturer had such an engine available, and none were willing to develop one for them. Their only recourse was to design and build it on their own, ‘The engine, builtto their design by Mr. Charles Taylor, had four cylinders in-line and lay on its side, It drove two 8/4-foot-long wooden propellers through chain drives and developed between 12 and 16 horsepower when it turned at 1,090 RPM, Tt weighed 179 pounds. On December 17, 1903, this engine powered the Wright Flyer on its historic flight of 59 seconds, covering a distance of 852 feet on the wind- swept sand at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Because of Dr. Langley’s success with his Acrodromes, the U.S, government. gave him a contract to build « full-scale man-carrying machine. ‘The steam engines used in the models could not be effectively sealed up to power this aircraft, so a better means of propulsion had to be found. Charles Manly, Dr. Langley’s assistant, searched without success, both in the United States and Europe, fora suitable powerplant. The best he found ‘was a three-cylinder rotary radial automobile engine built by Stephen Balzer Aviamion Manvrexance Tecibciay Sexes Powenrt. AN in New York. This engine was not directly adaptable to the Aerodrome, but ‘Manly, building upon Balzer’s work, constructed a suitable engine for it. The Manly-Balzer engine was a five-cylinder, water-cooled static radial engine that produced 52.4 horsepower at 950 RPM and weighed 207.5 pounds complete with water. ‘On October, 1903, the full-scale Aerodrome with Manly as the pilot was Iaunched from atop the houseboat. As the aircraft neared the end of the catapult, it snagged part of the launching mechanism and was dumped river, But Manly’s engine, which was far ahead of its time, fun properly and was in no way responsible for the failure of the Aerodrome to achieve powered flight. Glenn Curtiss was a successful motoreycle builder and racer from western New York state, The use of one of his motorcycle engines in a dirigible in 1907 got Curtiss interested in aviation, and as a result, he became involved in furnishing the powerplants for Dr. Alexander Graham Bell’s Aerial Experi- ‘ment Association. A number of successful aircraft, including the first aircraft to fly in Canada, came from this group. Curtiss's own company designed and built some of the most important ‘engines in America in the periods before and during World War and up until 1929, when the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation merged with the Wright Aeronautical Corporation to form the giant Curtiss-Wright Corporation. World War, between 1914 and 1918, was atime of rapid growth in aviation, ‘The British, French, Germans, and Americans all developed aero engines. One of the most popatar configuration of engines builtin this era was the rotary radial engine. With this engine, the crankshaft was attached rigidly to the airframe, and the propeller, crankcase, and cylinders all spun around, Clerget, Gnome, and Rhone in France, Bentley in Britain, ‘Thulin in Sweden, and Oberutsel, BMW, Goebel, and Siemens-Halske in Germany all built rotary radial engines. These engines had 5, 7,9, 11, or 14 cylinders and produced between 80 and 230 horsepower. ‘The Germans used some very efficient 6-cylinder in-line water-cooled engines built by the Mercedes, Maybach, BMW, Benz, and Austro-Daimler companies. Some of these engines developed up to 300 hp. ‘Some of the most popular V-8 engines of this time were the French-built 150)to 300-horsepower Hispano-Suizas, These engines were also built under license agreements in Great Britain and the United States. There were only two aircraft engines designed and built in quantities in the United States during this time, and both were V-engines, Glenn Curtiss’s ‘Company built the 90-horsepower, water-cooled V-8 Curtiss OX-5 enginein great numbers, and various automobile manufacturers built the 400-horse- power water-cooled V-12 Liberty engine. Devevoener oF AincRarr PowEReLANTS divigib than fying machine from balloons in that they are powered and canbe steered, A lange, cigar-shaped, lighter rotary radial engine. A fon cating engine in which the crankshaft is rigidly attached tothe airframe and the cylinders revolve with propeller of recip. crankshaft, The central component of reciprocating engine. This high-strength alloy stel shaft has hardened and polished bearing surfaces tht ride in bearings in the crankcase, Offset throws, formed on the crankshaft, have ground ad polished surfaces on which the connecting rods ide, The connecting rods change the in ‘and-out motion ofthe pistons ino rotation ofthe erakshatl cramkease. The housing that encloses the crankshall, camshaft, and accessory deive gears of engine. The eylinders are mounted on the Sea ees airframe by the erankease inders are arranged in two banks, Tho banks are separated by an angle ‘of between 45° and 90" Pistons in two eylinders, one i hank, are connected to each throw of the ‘crankshaft Chapter 1 5 Cartiss Jenny (Cur iss IND). A World War training airplane powered by a Cuntss OX-5 engine. It was widely available after the war and helped Introduce aviation tothe general public Standard J-1. A World War | training airplane powered by a Curtiss OX-5 engine Defaviland DH-4. An English desi observation sitplane built i quantities in America during World Wat L After the war, surplus DF-4s were used for carrying the U.S. Mail (tatic radial). A form of ‘engine in which the eylinders radial engi ut from a small central erankease ‘The pistons in the cylinders drive a central nkshaft which in turn drives the propeller Rigure 1-1. The Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major, with 28 air-cooled eylinders weighed 3,670 pounds and produced 3,800 horsepower. This engine, with four rows of soven eylinders, was the largest Practical aircraft reciprocaling engine. ‘The years between World Wars Land Il are called the golden years of aviation ‘because of the tremendous strides made during this era, Powerplant develop- ment was largely responsible for this progress. At the end of hostilities in 1918, the aviation market was flooded with surplus Curtiss Jennies and Standard J-Is, with their Curtiss OX-5 engines and DeHaviland DH-4 airplanes with Liberty V-12 engines. These airplanes and engines, while limited in utility, were so abundant and cheap that ‘manufacturers were discouraged from developing new engines until these were used up. Aviation did not become a viable form of transportation until a depend- able engine was developed. Beginning in about 1923, Charles Lawrance built 4 9-cylinder radial engine that was developed by the Wright Aeronautical Corporation into their famous Whirlwind series of engines, the most famous of which was the 220-horsepower WrightJ-5. Thisis the engine that powered Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis on its successful 33-hour nonstop flight from New York to Paris in May of 1927. About two weeks later, Clarence Chamberlain, flying a Bellanca, also powered by a Wright J-5 engine, flew nonstop from New York to Germany in 43 hours. Small 3-, 5-, and 7-cylinder radial engines powered the light airplanes of the 1930s and 1940s, and 7-, 9-, and 14-cylinder radial engines powered the faster private and business airplanes, as well as military and airline aircraft During World War TI the radial engine was the most popular configuration in the United States. Some fighter airplanes used liquid-cooled V-12 engines, but most aircraft were powered by 9-, 14-, and 18-cylinderradial engines, and by the end of the war, by a popular 28-cylinder engine. ‘The point of diminishing returns in reciprocating engine development was reached during World War IT by the Lycoming XR-7755, a 5,000- horsepower 36-cylinder liquid-cooled radial engine, Fortunately the turbine engine became functional at about this time. Horizontally opposed engines first became popular as powerplants for very light aireraft in 2- and 4-oylinder models of less than 40 horsepower. This configuration has the advantage of smooth operation, small frontal area, light weight, and dependability, Recanse of these characteristics, they have been widely produced with 4, 6, and even 8 cylinders, with power output of up to 520 horsepower or more. Horizontally opposed engines have replaced radial engines for almost all reciprocating engine-powered private airplanes and are in the mid 1990s, the only configuration of FAA -certficated reciprocating engines produced in the United States. Avianion Maneisance Tecamatcan SisussPovwinvLaN Private aviation in the United States has undergone drastic changes since the 1960s. The cost of private aircraft ownership skyrocketed because of the proliferation of product liability lawsuits, and commercial manufacturers virtually stopped producing reciprocating-engine-powered private aitcraftin the 1980s. By the mid 1990s, changes in tort reform Taws encouraged some ‘manufacturers to re-enter the private aircraft field, People still want to fly, and therefore the number of amateur-built or ‘homebuilt aircraft has increased dramatically. Much of the emphasis with amateur-built aircraft has changed from the ultra simple machine built without complex tooling and at minimum of cost, to aircraft on the cutting exe of technology. Freedom from some of the FAA constraints under which production aircraft are built and the accompanying reduction of the threat of product liability lawsuits allow private builders to exploit the limitless advantages of composite construction. ‘Amateur-built aircraft do not require FAA-certificated engines, and as a result, thereisa strong movement in the conversion of automobile engines for aircraft use. Some converted automobile engines are truly state-of-the-art powerplants, with electronic ignition and fuel injection. The safety record for these engines is excellent, and itis quite possible that this will continue to be a viable means of developing engines for private aircraft in the future. As aviation begins its second century, the gasoline reciprocating engine, spite of its inefficiency, continues to be used, but not without competition Practically all airline and military aireraft are turbine powered and will continue to be. Air-cooled, horizontally opposed gasoline engines will continue to be used, but the advantages inherent with liquid cooling are sure to be exploited, Rotating combustion (RC) engines, developed from the Wankel engine, promise good results and will likely continue to be developed. A cam engine with pistons moving in axial cylinders, driving the crankshaft with rollers pressing against a sinusoidal cam, has already been certificated by the FAA and will possibly see more development, Diesel engines have been tried in aviation for years without any notable success, butnew developments have led to more research in this fuel-efficient reciprocating engine, ‘Duveronsusyr oF Amcuarr Powenitants amateur-buill alreralt, Airraft built by individuals as a hobby rather than by factories as commercial products Amateur-built or homebuilt aircraft do not fall under the stringent requirements imposed by the FAA on commercially built aiera 1z combustion (I&C) engine. A of internal combustion engine ia Which a rounded, triangulat-shaped rotor With sliding seas at the apexes forms the combustion space inside an hourglass ‘chamber, Expanding gases from the burning Fuel-air mixture push the rotor cared driveshaft in its center. The RC engine was conceived in ny by Felix Wankel in 1955. Chapter 1 7 turbosupercharger. A centrifugal air compressor driven by exhaust pases flowing trough a turbine. The compressed air is used to increase the power produced by a reciprocating engine at altitude centrifugal compressor. An sir compres: sor that uses serall-type impeller. Airis taken into the center ofthe impeller and sung outward by centrifugal force into a diffuser where its velocity is decreased and increased, its press Figure 1-2 highlights the progress made in aircraft reciprocating engines. In only 40 yeats, engines progressed from almost 15 pounds per horsepower to slightly more than one pound per horsepower. ‘Manufacturer and Namo Year Configuration Weight Wright Fiver 190841. +70 Manly-Balzer 1903 SRL 207 Curtiss 0X5 ss10 0 aL 400 Le Ahone J 1916 SoA 323 Lbery V2 1918 WVL 400 ‘900 Wright 5 1925 ORA 220 510 Pratt & Whitney P1830) 1932 14RA 1,200 1.487 Wright Turbocompounet 1940 1BRA 3,700 279 Pratl & Whitney F-4960 194 28RA 4,300 9,600 Engines for Private Alreraft | Continental 65 1938408 65 Lyooming TIGO-541 1959 GOA 450 Inino, = Radial, V = V, Ro Rotary, = Horentay oppaead L = Liquid coated, Figure 1-2. Progress made in airraft reciprocating engines Aircraft Turbine Engines The principle of using aturbineas a source of power has been known formore than 400 yeats, since the days of Leonardo da Vinci. Wind-driven turbines in the form of windmills have converted much of the arid wasteland in the western United States into profitable farms and ranches. Water-

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