Plant and Animal Cells

Biology as a science is built on three simple but very important ideas. These three ideas form the cell theory. The cell theory states that 1. All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products. 2. The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes. 3. All cells come from other cells; they do not come from non-living matter. All living things are made up of cells, but these cells may be very simple or very complex. The simplest organisms are archaea and bacteria. These simple, single-celled life forms are called prokaryotes (Figure 1(a)). The cells do not have a nucleus. More complex cells can exist as single-celled organisms or multicellular organisms. The cells of these organisms, known as eukaryotes, have a more complex internal organization, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes include all protists, fungi, animals, and plants, from the tiniest Amoeba to the longest whale and the tallest tree (Figure 1(b) to (d)). The cells of eukaryotes are much larger than the cells of prokaryotes: tens to thousands of times larger. There are even some eukaryotesbeyond the scope of this unitthat are made up of one huge cell with very many nuclei.
ORGANISM
without a nucleus with a nucleus

2.1
cell theory a theory that all living things are made up of one or more cells, that cells are the basic unit of life, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells

prokaryote a cell that does not contain a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles eukaryote a cell that contains a nucleus and other organelles, each surrounded by a thin membrane

READING TIP Making Connections When trying to make connections with a text, use prompts or questions such as: This example reminds me of This graph makes me ask why Are these facts correct? Have I read about this before?

prokaryote (e.g., E.coli ) one cell single-celled organism

eukaryote many cells multicellular organism

(a)

(e.g., Amoeba )

animal (e.g., whale)

plant (e.g., pine tree)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 1 The relationship between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The bacterium (a) is a prokaryote. The Amoeba (b), the whale (c), and the pine tree (d) are all eukaryotes.

Cell Structure

Your body is made up of many specialized organs that carry out all the processes needed to live. In the same way, a eukaryotic cell also has specialized parts, called organelles, that carry out specific functions necessary for life.
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organelle a cell structure that performs a specic function for the cell 2.1 Plant and Animal Cells 29

Structures Common to Plants and Animal Cells

All cells have to perform the same basic activities to stay alive: use energy, store materials, take materials from the environment, get rid of wastes, move substances to where they are needed, and reproduce. Each organelle has a specific function within the cell. Just as workers in a factory or a hospital coordinate their efforts to achieve a purpose, the various organelles of a cell work together to meet the needs of the celland the whole organism. Figure 2 shows the organelles in a typical plant cell and a typical animal cell.
ribosome chloroplast cell wall cell membrane vacuole cytoplasm nuclear membrane ribosome mitochondrion endoplasmic reticulum nucleus Golgi body cytoplasm cell membrane mitochondrion vacuole

nucleus

endoplasmic reticulum

nuclear membrane

Golgi body

(a) Plant cell

(b) Animal cell

Figure 2 Plant and animal cells have many of the same organelles, but there are some differences.

CYTOPLASM

All the organelles inside the cell are suspended in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is mostly water, but it also contains many other substances that the cell stores until they are needed. Many chemical reactions take place within the cytoplasm, which can change from jelly-like to liquid, allowing organelles to be moved around.
Figure 3 This TEM image of a cell highlights the cell membrane in green.

CELL MEMBRANE

The cell is surrounded by a flexible double-layered cell membrane (Figure 3). The function of the cell membrane is both to support the cell and to allow some substances to enter while keeping others out. For example, water and oxygen molecules can easily pass through the cell membrane, but larger molecules, such as proteins, cannot. Because of this ability, the cell membrane is called a semi-permeable membrane. A similar membrane also surrounds most organelles in a eukaryotic cell.
NUCLEUS

Figure 4 The large nucleus is easily visible inside this starsh cell.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) the material in the nucleus of a cell that contains all of the cells genetic information 30

The nucleus is a roughly spherical structure within the cell (Figure 4). The nucleus contains genetic information that controls all cell activities. This genetic information is stored on chromosomes. Chromosomes contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the substance that carries the coded instructions for all cell activity. When a cell divides, the DNA is copied so that each new cell has a complete set of DNA.
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Chapter 2 Cells, Cell Division, and Cell Specialization

MITOCHONDRIA

Cells contain many mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) (Figure 5). Mitochondria are sometimes called the power plants of the cell because they make energy available to the cell. Active cells, such as muscle cells, have more mitochondria than less active cells, such as fat-storage cells. Cells store energy as a form of glucose (a sugar). The mitochondria contain enzymes that help to convert the stored energy into an easily usable form. This process is called cellular respiration and requires oxygen. The waste products of this reaction are carbon dioxide and water. glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + usable energy Cells in which cellular respiration has to happen very fast, such as muscle cells and cells in the liver, have many mitochondria. In contrast, cells that are fairly inactivethat do not have to respire quicklytend to have very few mitochondria. Fat cells may have only one or two mitochondria.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Figure 5 The mitochondrion (17 000 3) is the large, reddish, oval structure in this TEM image.

The endoplasmic reticulum is a three-dimensional network of branching tubes and pockets (Figure 6). It extends throughout the cytoplasm and is continuous from the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. These fluid-filled tubes transport materials, such as proteins, through the cell. Endoplasmic reticulum is important in many types of cells. In the brain it assists with the production and release of hormones. In the muscles the endoplasmic reticulum is involved with muscle contraction.
GOLGI BODIES

Figure 6 The endoplasmic reticulum (5 500x), coloured brown in this TEM, transports materials throughout the cell.

Golgi bodies collect and process materials to be removed from the cell (Figure 7). They also make and secrete mucus. Cells that secrete a lot of mucus, such as cells lining the intestine, have many Golgi bodies.
VACUOLES
Figure 7 Golgi body (30 0003)

A vacuole is a single layer of membrane enclosing fluid in a sac. The functions of vacuoles vary greatly, according to the type of cell. These functions include containing some substances, removing unwanted substances from the cell, and maintaining internal fluid pressure (turgor) within the cell. (The special role of plant vacuoles is explained below.) Animal cells may have many small vacuoles that are often not visible. Mature plant cells usually have one central vacuole that is visible under a microscope. Some animal cells can change their shape to wrap around and surround smaller objects to bring them inside the cell. Amoeba do this to obtain food. Some white blood cells engulf bacteria to kill them. During the engulfing process, a portion of the cell membrane turns inside out and forms a vacuole inside the cell until the engulfed object is digested. Then any waste material is ejected from the cell as the vacuole again joins up with the cell membrane.

(a)

Organelles in Plants Cells Only

Plant cells and animal cells have many structures in common, but there are also some differences. Plant cells have some organelles that animal cells do not have (Figure 8).

(b)
Figure 8 Plant cells (a) have a cell wall, large vacuoles, and chloroplasts (5 5003). Animal cells (b) do not (2 5003).
2.1 Plant and Animal Cells 31

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CELL WALL

The cell wall is found just outside the cell membrane of a plant cell. It is a rigid but porous structure made of cellulose. This cell wall provides support for the cell and protection from physical injury. This tough material may hold together long after the plant has died. The paper in this book is composed mostly of cellulose from the cell walls of trees.
VACUOLE

Plant cells usually have one large vacuole, which takes up most of the space inside the cell. When these are full of water, turgor pressure keeps the cells plump, which keeps the plants stems and leaves firm. If the water level drops, however, the vacuoles lose turgor pressure and the cells become soft. The plant stems and leaves become limp and droopy until the water is replaced.
CHLOROPLASTS

Many plant cells that are exposed to light, such as the cells of leaves, have structures called chloroplasts (Figure 9). Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and give leaves their green colour. More importantly, chloroplasts absorb light energy. This light energy is used in photosynthesisthe process of converting carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
Figure 9 Chloroplasts in plant cells (2503)

carbon dioxide + water + energy (sunlight) glucose + oxygen Photosynthesis allows plants to obtain their energy from the Sun so that they can make their own food. Plant cells rely on mitochondria to metabolize glucose, just as animal cells do.

IN

SUMMARY
Eukaryotic cells contain organelles that carry out specific life functions. The cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, and vacuoles occur in both plant and animal cells. Structures found only in plant cells are chloroplasts, a large vacuole, and the cell wall.

The cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells, the cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes, and all cells are reproduced from other cells. The simplest single-celled organisms, including bacteria, are prokaryotes. More complex organisms, including multicellular organisms, are eukaryotes.

CHECK

YOUR LEARNING
6. Not all plant cells contain chloroplasts. What is the most likely reason for this? K/U 7. Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall. What is the function of this structure? K/U 8. Plant cells can make their own foodglucose. Why do plant cells have mitochondria? K/U
A

1. Summarize the cell theory in your own words. K/U 2. Are your cells prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Explain. K/U 3. What is the most obvious difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? K/U 4. How does the nucleus coordinate cell activities?
K/U

5. When you exercise, you breathe harder and faster. Using your knowledge of organelles, explain why this happens.

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Chapter 2 Cells, Cell Division, and Cell Specialization

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