A CST PUBLICATION

THE
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BYNAVKALA ROY
ILLUSTRATED BYSURENDRA SINGHRATHORE
DESIGNEDBYSUBIRROY
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6. Atomic clock-
the ultimate
timekeeper
5 Digital quartz
wrist-watch
1. Early man,
recording time by
observing shadows 2 Sundial
4. Portable
timepiece
T
Miniscule atoms vibrating at 23, 870, 129,
300 cycles per second. A radio frequency
charged to match their strength. Trapped in a
mass of pipes, pumps and tubes. The
result-an explosioh! Or so one would imagine.
All this is just to tell you the time. Time as
recorded by an atomic clock. And time so
accurate that if you were to go by it, you would
be late for school by only one second in
1,700,000 years!
The atomic clock has made man's powers
almost magical. Today we can record not only
every second but every nanosecond and
picosecond of any occurrence, even the
slowing down of the Earth.
Man's need for accuracy and perfection is
not new. Morethan 4000 years ago he began
to realize the importance" of measuring time.
Earlier, he spoke of events that happened so
many 'suns' or 'moons' ago or at the time of
the 'heavy snows' or the 'big flood'.
In ancient India, just as amonth was divided
into thirty days, a day was divided into thirty
muhurtas. (Day and night were taken together).
Distinctive names were given to each of the
muhurtas.
Both 'day' and 'night' appeared as natural
units of time in our earliest literary productions.
Expressions like 'many dawns and nights' or
'days subdue the nights' occur in the Rig Veda.
The 'ahoratra' (that is, day combined with
night) meant a duration of 24 hours.
Aryabhata, one of our greatest
mathematicians and astronomers, discusses
the units of time in his masterpiece, the
Aryabhatiya, written around 500 A.D. In the
-------------------0
chapter Kalakriya Pada, he talks about ayear
being divided into twelve months; a month into
30 days; a day into 60 nadis and a nadi into
60 vinadis. (A nadiwas equal to 24 minutes, a
vinadi to 24 seconds).
Meanwhile, Babylonian priests, fascinated
by mathematics, were making efforts to
achieve precise methods that would divide
each day into 24 hours and each hour into 60
minutes.
Those of you who are adventurous, take a
cue from King Alfred-the Saxon King who
invented the candle-clock.
Candles of the same size, he noticed, burn
down at the same rate. So, Alfred took a
handful of candles, each a foot long, and
The Babylonians noticed that the position of
a shadow changes during the day. So, they
fixed apole in a sunny place and observed its
shadow as it moved. The shadow, they
discovered, was long at sunrise and gradually
got shorter and shorter until it reached a certain
point when it began to lengthen again. At
sunset the shadow was as long as at sunrise
and at noon it was the shortest.
marked them with a number of bands. Each
band represented a certain division of time,
say, one hour. He could tell how much time
had passed by noting how many divisions had
burned away.
Similarly, the Indians who were studying the
movements of the sun, the moon and other
planets, developed several simple
astronomical instruments like the gnomon,
staff, are, wheel and the armillary sphere.
They cast the almanac, that is, a calendar
listing the days, weeks and months of the year,
calculated on the basis of the movements of
the sun, moon and other heavenly bodies.
Even as early societies measured the year,
the month and the day, they felt the need for
devices that would monitor and indicate time
precisely. Gradually, one development led to
another and, as with most things scientific,
literary or religious, it was an exchange of ideas
and achievements between India on the one
hand and West Asia and the Mediterranean
world on the other that produced the so called
'first' clocks.
Da Tim
The study of shadows led to the making of
shadow clocks and sundials.
Ashadow clock consists of a length of wood
with a crosspiece and a traverse bar whose
shadow marks the passage of the sun, while
a sundial is basically adial face with a pointer
in the centre. The pointer, also known as
gnomon, is a flat piece of metal which points
north in the northern hemisphere and south in
the southern hemisphere. Its upper edge slants
upwards at an angle correspondiAg to the
latitude or the distance that it is away from the
Equator. The shadow of the gnomon moves
across a scale around the dial as the sun
moves across the sky.
ight Time
Shadow clocks and sundials recorded time
during the day, provided, of course, it was a
clear, sunny day, but when night came they
were of absolutely no use. That was when
people thought of making water-clocks.
Awater-clock consists of a container with a
small hole at the bottom through which the
water can escape. The gradual fall in the level
of the water marks the passage of time. As the
level drops,. it exposes more and more of a
scale marked with the hours. To ensure that
the water drops steadily, the container must
have sloping sides.
The Greeks and Romans used water-clocks
for limiting the time of speeches in the law
courts. The amount of water put into the
container at the start of a speech depended
on the importance of the case to be argued!
Alas! If the winter happened to be too severe,
the water froze and these clocks could not
operate.
Th and Of T"m
As the world progressed, a better method of
measuring time had to be thought of. A
reasonably accurate and reliable timekeeper
developed was the hourglass.
An hourglass is a particular kind of
sand-glass or 'ghantika yantra' as it was
known in India. It consists of two glass bulbs
joined by a narrow neck and set in a stand.
One of the bulbs contains very fine, dry sand.
To measure the hour, the glass is inverted so
that the sand-filled bulb is on top. Gradually
the sand drains into the bottom bulb and after
exactly one hour the top bulb is empty. The
sand drains at a steady rate, no matter how
much is left in the top bulb. This method was
quite successful and very soon sand-glasses
were made in groups of four. There was a 1/4
hour, a 1/2 hour, a3/4 hour and an hourglass.
That, incidentally, was the origin of the
expression, 'the sands of time are running out'
Shadow clock Water clock Hourglass

.-.
If you look at the flowers carefully, you will
notice that some open at 6 a.m., some at 7 a.m.
and others at 8 a.m. Similarly some flowers
close early and some late. So it was that in
19th century England, flowers were laid out in
beds in the form of a clock face. The blooming
or closing of each bed depicted the hour of the
day.
Ding-Dong
While the sun, the sand, shadows and water
helped man record the hours, there was still
no sign of a clock that ticked.
The exact date of the invention of mechanical
clocks is unknown. The earliest examples,
apparently, go back to about 1250A.D. These
were based on the massive clock-work models
that had been devised by astronomers and
mathematicians to study the heavenly bodies.
They were made of wrought iron and were
used atop cathedrals and other buildings. The
regulation of these clocks was clumsy and they
were as much as one hour wrong each day.
By 1389, however, clocks had improved
greatly. They had bells to ring not only on the
hour but at every quarter as well.
Strictly speaking, a clock is an instrument
that has a bell and strikes the hours and
sometimes the quarters too though we tend to
call any instrument that measures the passage
of time a clock. Other kinds of time-measurers
should be called timepieces.
It was not until the 16th century that clocks
small enough for the. house were developed.
The first movable clocks became possible
when weights were replaced by the spring
drive. Clocks became the newest and most
expensive toy in the royal courts. Princes and
noblemen took great delight in organising their
day by it. A banquet would be arranged to
begin at 8 o'clock instead of at sunset and
people spoke in terms of a place being five
hours away instead of half a day. That was also
when 'appointments' were first made.
The clock incidentally was the first complex
mechanical device to enter the home.
Around 1660 the pendulum came into use.
It was the Italian astronomer, Galileo who
contributed largely to the discovery of the
pendulum. In 1581, during an earth tremor,
Galileo is said to have timed the swings it
caused in a hanging lantern in Pisa against the
beats of his pulse. He found that beginning
from a central point, the lantern swung the
same distance to the left as to the right, in the
same length of time. From this he formed the
theory of isochronism or things performed in
equal times.
In 1641 Galileo started applying this theory
to timepieces. He died in the following year.
His son Vincenzio continued his father's work
and made drawings for pendulum timepieces
in 1649. But he too died without completing a
clock.
Finally in 1656, a Dutchman, Christian
Huygens designed the first practical pendulum
clock.
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Despite the discovery of the spiral spring and
the pendulum, some clocks continued to be
weight-driven. They were cumbersome and
ugly. So someone thoughht of enclosing the
weights and cords in acupboard-like case. Lo
and behold! the grandfather clock was born.
And what astately clock it turned out to be!
Even today grandfather clocks are specially
designed for those who like to use it as a
c1ock-cum-furniture piece and bring a bit of
old-world charm into their homes.
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, pro" Tim'
By this time the value of a clock was
beginning to be realized by more and more
people. They wanted timepieces small enough
to be carried about.
It was a German, Peter Hele, who made this
possible. He invented the coiled spring which
formed the foundation of all future spring-
driven clocks and watches. But the power of
a spring becomes less as it uncoils. So Hele's
timepieces, though unique, were no good as
timekeepers. A few years later this problem
was overcome by the incorporation of a device
known as the fusee and spring which enabled
more reliable small clocks to be made.
By and by further improvements were made
as people the world over worked on various
methods of keeping time.
Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur was
motivated by a strong desire to set up highly
efficient, modern observatories for producing
accurate astronomical data. With the result,
during the early 18th century a large number
of giant instruments, including the Samrat
Yantra (Sundial) were constructed in stone.
This was the first time that sundials were set
up in India. Jai Singh constructed several
observatories. The one at Jaipur is the most
famous. It has a huge masonry gnomon or
sundial pin, whose shadows showthe hour of
the day perfectly. New Delhi's 'Jantar Mantar'
(observatory) is a big draw.
Jaipur observatory
Chronometer designed by John Harrison

,
Ocean navigations were still controlled by
calculations based on the position of the sun,
moon and stars. This inaccurate method
invariably produced navigation errors because
every minute lost by mistiming could put a ship
as much as 15 kilometres off course.
John Harrison of England spent many years
designing aclock for sailors. His fourth attempt
proved successful and in 1761 a chronometer
accurate to half a minute ayear was produced.
A chronometer keeps time in all variations of
temperature and tells people at sea exactly
how long they have been plying east or west.
The world gets its time from the sun-a day
being recorded from noon to noon. But, owing
to the rotation of the earth on its axis,
noontime would differ from place to place. To
avoid this confusion the world has been
divided into 24 time zones by imaginary lines,
known as meridians. Each time zone is
15 degrees apart and represents a difference
of one hour.
At Greenwich Observatory, England, is the
prime meridian, where Greenwich Mean Time
(G.M.T.) is recorded. This is the absolute
standard of time, on which all other times are
based.
When the sun is directly over the prime
meridian, it is 12 noon at Greenwich. At
In scientific technological work, G.M.T. has
now been replaced by Coordinated Universal
Time (UTC) which is based on data collected
by Bureau International de I'Heure (BIH),
Stockholm, in the next zone east, it is past
1 o'clock. On the other hand the time zones to
the west of Greenwich are hours behind. New
York, for instance, is five hours behind G.M.T.
If we were to strictly follow the one hour
difference between each time zone,
especially in a country like India, which
occupies more than one zone, we would have
to adjust our watches while travelling from
Bombay to Calcutta!
Indian Standard Time (I.S.T.) is based on
the meridian which passes through Mirzapur
in U.P. and is 82.5 E of Greenwich. That is
how we in India are 5-1/2 hours ahead of
G.M.T. I.S.T. is maintained and disseminated
by the National Physical Laboratory in Delhi.
Paris. BIH collects data from atomic clocks
around the world and provides an international
atomic time scale which is more accurate than
G.M.T.
165 80
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3 4 5 6
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9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Meridians showing 24 time zones
'po zo EI eric ff c ' o nd
It was in 1900 that the possibility of
transmitting electrical impulses from a central
source to drive clocks was developed. Electric
clocks were made in 1918 by Henry Ellis
Warren, an electrical engineer from
Massachusetts.
The French brothers, Pierre and Paul
Jacques Curie, had identified the 'piezo
electric effect' in 1880, which meant that
certain crystals vibrate at aconstant frequency
when acontrolled alternating voltage is applied
across them and also that bending or striking
the crystals produces an electric charge.
In 1929, Warren Alvin Marrison of New
Jersey was the first to apply quartz crystals to
electric clocks.
With this it became possible to measure time
spans of a few thousandths of a second.
Today with the atomic clock being used in
high-speed calculations, all one seems to be
doing is catching up with time!
Day after daytime moves on-not asecond
slower or faster than the previous day!
Howdoes this happen? What is it that makes
the hands ofthe clock go round so accurately?
Let us take an ordinary mechanical clock and
turn it inside out.
The first thing you do is to wind the clock.
When you do this, you are actually winding a
coiled spring or the mainspring within the
clock. One - two - 'three - four - round and
round goes the coil until it is tight. But
remember, easy does it. For, an extra turn
and-snap-the spring goes!
So, you have wound the mainspring just
enough and left it. Nowwhat? The coil at once
begins to unwind. In this way it releases a
certain force which drives all the wheels that
actually make up a clock.
But if these wheels just went round and
round merrily, it would serve no purpose. Their
movement has, therefore, to be regulated.
2 _ .....-+-
3

4
5
Inside a clock
1. Winding key 2. Mainspring 3. Centre wheel
4. Escape wheel 5. Escapement 6. Hairspring
7 Balance-wheel
6
7
The heart of the c10c is the part known as
the regulator. This is a devicethat controls the
rate at which a clock keeps time. There are
different kinds of regulators. The balance-
wheel is one that is commonly used in most
mechanical watches. This is a delicate wheel
with a pivot at the centre which is connected
to a very fine spiral spring called a hairspring.
The hairspring turns the balance-wheel. But
again, not round and round. Its movement is
arrested by a lever called a rocker which has
two pallets. Whichever way the balance-wheel
turns, the rocker stops it and the hairspring
immediately pulls it back the other way. Thus
the balance-wheel is kept twisting a half turn
one way, a half turn the other way. And this is
repeated over and over again. Once the
balance-wheel is set in motion it will move to
and fro in the same length of time.
The balance-wheel is connected to a device
known as the escapement which, in turn, is
The rocker engages one tooth of
the escape wheel and the clock
goes 'tick'
The Escapement
1. Hairspring
2. Balance-wheel
3. Rocker
4. Escape wheel
The rocker engages the next tooth
of the escape wheel and the clock
goes'tock'.
~
connected to the mainspring through a main
wheel, known as the driving wheel. (I hope you
are counting the wheels!)
The escapement consists of atoothed wheel
known as an escape wheel and the rocker (the
same as the one mentioned earlier). It has two
jobs. One is to ensure that power 'escapes'
from the mainspring. The other, that it
'escapes' at the rate laid down by the regulator,
so that eventually the hands of the clock can
turn accurately. How does it do this?
We said earlier that when the balance-wheel
turns, its movement is arrested by arocker and
immediately the hairspring pulls it back. This
movement is exactly in step with the
movement of the escapement. For, when the
balance-wheel takes a half turn one way, one
of the pallets of the rocker releases atooth of
the escape wheel and allows it to rotate till it
is stopped again by the other pallet. The time
taken by atooth of the escape wheel to push
aside the first one and then the other pallet of
the rocker is the time taken by the clock to go
first 'tick' and then 'tock'. Thus the clock
moves in a series of jerks controlled by the
escapement and the regulator.
Now we have a perfect, isochronic motion
going. This means, a movement that goes to
and fro in the same length of time constantly.
This movement has to be transmitted to the
hands of the clock.
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The hour, the minute and the second hand
must necessarily go round at different speeds.
For this reason their movements are controlled
by gear wheels.
Gear wheels, as you may know, are discs
with teeth cut out of them. These teeth link
together with the teeth from other wheels so
that, when one wheel turns, the others also
turn-but in the opposite direction.
If two gear wheels of the same size are
interconnected, they would rotate at the same
speed. If one of the wheels is half the size of
the one that it is connected to, the smaller
wheel will go round twice in the same time as
the big wheel would take to go round once.
The arms of the clock work on this principle.
They are thus connected to gears of different
sizes so that they can go round at different
speeds.
___________________G
Falling weights were used to power the
earliest clocks, especially the grandfather and
grandmother clocks. They worked through a
series of wheels driven by a falling weight on
a cord. The pendulum, which acted as the
rocker, regulated the rate at which the wheels
turned. The pendulum and escapement
together produced the 'tick' or forward jerk in
the clock. This was transmitted to afinger that
showed the time.
A pendulum is a very good regulator. This is
because the swings or oscillation:;; of a
pendulum are regular and steady. You can see
this for yourself if you tie a weight on a piece
of string and allow it to swing back and forth.
The Pendulum
4
3
5
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1. Rocker 2. Escape wheel
3. Pendulum rod 4. Bob
5. Weignt
E c ron" CI c
While the method of working remains the
same for all modern clocks, the material used
varies. For instance, in research laboratories
and for astronomical observations two
extremely precise kinds of electronic clocks
are used today. They are the quartz crystal
clock and the atomic clock.
Quartz is one of the commonest minerals.
Sand is made up almost entirely of small grains
of quartz. Usually it is milky white or has shades
of various colours, but sometimes it is as clear
as glass. This form is called rock crystal. In
bulk form quartz is crystalline.
. Pure quartz has interesting electrical
properties which make it suitable for regulating
the mechanism of a clock. When an electric
current is passed through a quartz crystal, the
crystal vibrates at an almost perfectly constant
rate. The rate of the vibration depends on the
thickness of the crystal. The thinner it is, the
faster it vibrates. The faster it can be made to
The front of a quartz
crystal clock
-------------------G)
The atomic clock is the most accurate
time-keeping machine to date. It can measure
time intervals of a millionth of a second. It uses
the vibrations of either ammonia or caesium
atoms as a regulating device. These atoms
vibrate very regularly and rapidly-thousands
of millions of times every second..
The principle of the atomic clock was
worked out in 1946 by the American physicist,
Dr. Willard Frank Libby. The first such clock
was made two years later at the National
Bureau of Standards in Washington D.C. In
1969the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory built
an atomic clock, counting the oscillations of
the ammonia atom. The National Physical
Laboratory at New Delhi, has five caesium
atomic clocks.
To look at, the atomic clock is nothing like
an ordinary clock. It is a complicated mass of
tubes, pipes, pumps and electronic gadgets.
A radio frequency is charged to match the
vibrate, the smaller is the time interval that can
be measured.
In aquartz clock the crystal is made so thin
that it vibrates 1,000,000times a second. This
makes it possible to measure time intervals of
a few thousandths of a second.
At major sports tracks events are filmed and
a quartz-crystal timing mechanism in the
camera runs all through the race. It directs the
figures through a prism on to the film to give
split-second timing of the finish.
A quartz crystal clock can have a dial or
digital face. The battery makes the crystal
oscillate at its natural rate. A divider circuit in
the watch converts the natural vibration rate to
one pulse per second. A motor converts these
vibrations into one-second 'ticks'. These are
transmitted to the clock face again by aset of
wheels.
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The atomic beam chamber of a caesium atomic clock

strength of the atom that is used. The radio
frequency (maintained at the correct rate by
constant electronic checking) makes the clock
advance one second after the number of
vibrations has been counted off electronically.
Atomic clocks are used for high-speed
navigation calculations an9 by advanced
research scientists and astronomers.
For the rest of us there are a variety of clocks
available these days. Aside from mechanical
clocks there are those that run on electricity.
Some of them merely use electricity as a
source of power to drive the clock mechanism.
In some battery-operated ones, the electricity
powers a small electric motor which rewinds
the mainspring of the clock every few minutes.
In large public clocks electricity is used to
power a motor which winds up a weight driving
the clockwork.
The most common electric clocks, however,
use electricity not only to power them but also
to regulate them. They are called synchronous
clocks. In these clocks the motor driving the
mechanism keeps in step with the rapid
alternation of the electric current.
And if you attempt to listen to the 'ticks' in
an electric clock, you will not be able to hear
them, because an electric clock has no
'tick-tacks'. It has no rocker and no hooks. A
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Electric clocks
small electric motor turns the wheels and the
wheels turn the hands. As the electric motor
always runs at the same speed the hands of
the clock point to the right time without the
'tick-tack' sound.
tTl Do
Many of us have come across deligh ful
clocks that chime or say 'cuckoo' and
wondered how they work. At times one has
even been tempted to go behind the 'cuckoo
clock' and see if there is a real bird in there!
There are actually two whistles that make
the 'cuckoo' sound. Little boxes, called
bellows, blow air through the whistles. If you
listen carefully, the first 'coo' is shorter than
the second. The two whistles tooting, one after
the other, make the 'cuckoo' sound.
At one o'clock the clock 'cuckoos' one time.
At two o'clock two times and so on. What
makes the clock 'cuckoo' the right number of
times?
Acatch flips out of a notch in a special wheel
when it is time for the clock to 'cuckoo'. The
wheel turns a short way, the little door pops
open, the bird comes out and bows and the
whistles go 'cuckoo'! As long as this wheel
turns, the clock 'cuckoos' over and over again.
The wheel turns when the catch is out of the
notch. The catch slides on the edge of the
turning wheel. The wheel stops when the catch
falls into the next notch. With that the 'cuckoo'
sound also stops.
Acuckoo clock
'cuckoos' on the
hour
Fromthe moment the alarm clock wakes us
up we know it is one mad rush-to catch the
bus, to school, to work, to get back home, to
play and to sleep. All this must be done within
the 24 hours we have allotted ourselves each
day.
It is not surprising then that people discard
their watches to counteract the pressure of
work when they want to go away to a quiet
place on a real holiday!
When we say a clock has jewels, what
exactly does it mean?
The moving parts of a watch, that is, the
escape wheel, the balance-wheel and so on
turn in bearings often made of jewels. Such
bearings, called jewelled bearings, are used
because they are hard and can withstand year
after year of constant use. So next time you
see a watch that claims 17 jewels, don't look
puzzled!
This book, one of a series of information
books, introduces the child to a variety of
clocks-ancient and modern. It explains in
a simple manner how the clock works.
Others in this series include:
TheTelevision
TheTelephone
The Mator Car
The Aeroplane
The Ship
The Railway Train
The Computer
@by CBT 1988
Reprinted 1990, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2006.
Published by Children's Book Trust, Nehru House,
4 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi-11 0002 and
printed at its Indraprastha Press. Ph: 23316970-74
Fax: 23721090 e-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.childrensbooktrust.com
- -------- ----- ------ --- --- ---
ISBN 81-7011-398-9
788170113980