SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

System of particles and Rigid Body:

Every object can be imagined to be made up of a large number of particles or simply, system of particles. A rigid body is a system of particle, in which the inter particle distance will be a constant even under the application of an external force. Every system of particles that we consider in this chapter are rigid bodies.

Various Motions Possessed by a Rigid Body:

A rigid body possesses different types of motion. For example: Translational motion Rotational motion Combination of translational and rotational motion Translational Motion

The motion of the block sliding down an inclined plane is translational motion. All the particles of the body move together i.e, they have the same velocity at any instant of time.

Rotational Motion

If we fix the rigid body shown in the above figure along a straight line, then the body will undergo rotational motion. The examples of rotational motion are motion of a ceiling fan, a potters wheel, a merry go -round, etc.

In rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, every particle of the body moves in a circle, which lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis. Combination of translational and rotational motion The motion of a rigid body, which is not pivoted or fixed in some way, is either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation figure (b). The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation .

Centre of Mass:
It is the point of a rigid body where the whole mass of the system of particles is assumed to concentrated.

Centre of Mass of System of two Particles Let us consider a system of two particles having mass m1 and m2. Let the distances of two particles be x1and x2 respectively from some origin O. The centre of mass of the system is that point C, which is at a distance X from O, where X is given by,
1

If m1 = m2 = m, then

Centre of Mass of a System of n Particles

If the origin of the coordinate axes lies at the centre of mass, then X = 0, in such a case, the above equation becomes

Position vector of Centre of mass:

Consider a two particle system with masses m1 and m2 and with position vectors r1 and r2 . Now, the position vector of the centre of mass of the system of particles is given by,

Motion of Centre of Mass and Linear Momentum of a system of particles

Consider a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3, , mn. Suppose that

are the position of

vectors of the n particles with respect to the origin of the coordinate axes. Then the position vector the centre of mass of the system is given by,

Where, M = m1 + m2 + m3 + +mn is the total mass of the system Differentiating both sides of equation (i) with respect to t, we obtain

Then,

the velocity of the centre of mass

And, system

are the velocities of the individual particles of the

(iii) Again differentiating both sides of equation (iii) with respect to t, we obtain

Then,

, the acceleration of the centre of mass

And, are the accelerations of the individual particles of the system Substituting these values in equation (iv), we obtain

Where, are the forces acting on the individual particles of the system If is the total force on the system, then

From equations (v) and (vi), we obtain

The force

includes the external forces

and internal forces

. Thus,

The internal forces between the individual particles of a system cancel out, provided the forces are central in nature.

This implies that the centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if all the mass of the system is concentrated at the centre of the mass and all the external forces acting on the system are applied directly at this point. Conservation of Linear Momentum of a System of Particles: Consider a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3 mn moving with respective linear velocities . Suppose that a total external force acts on the system. Total linear momentum of the system of n-particles,

According to Newtons second law of motion,

The above equation describes the law of conservation of linear momentum for a system of n particles, which states that if no external force acts on a system, then the total linear momentum of the system remains constant.

Vector Product of Two Vectors

The magnitude of the vector product of the two vectors magnitude of the vectors and

and

is defined as the product of the

and sine of the smaller angle between them.

(i) Where is the unit vector perpendicular to both and

The cross product of the two vectors and is a vector, which is at right angles to both points in the direction in which a right-handed screw will advance. The vector product of two like vectors is zero. Let and be two vectors.

and

and

Then,

Properties of Vector product o The cross product of a vector with itself is a null vector.
o o o

The cross product of two vectors does not obey commutative law. The cross product obeys the distributive law.

Angular Velocity, its Relation with Linear Velocity and Angular Acceleration

Angular Velocity It is defined as the ratio of angular displacement to the time taken by the object to undergo the displacement. It is denoted by av.

Relation between Linear and Angular Velocities Consider an object moving with uniform angular speed along a circular path. Let, t Time at which the object is at point A t + t Time at which the object reaches point B Angular speed of the object

Also, As t is very small, circular arc AB can be taken equal to or .

If v is the instantaneous velocity of the object at time t, then

Angular Acceleration It is defined as the ratio of change in angular velocity of the object to the time taken to undergo the change in angular velocity. It is denoted by .

Torque

): The turning effect of a force about the axis of rotation is called moment of a force or torque due to the force. The torque about an axis of rotation is measured as the product of magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between line of action of force and axis of rotation. Consider a particle P in x-y plane with position vector r. Let a force F is acting on the particle by making an angle 0 with respect to r then torque is given by = force x perpendicular distance. = F x OA = Fr in vector form,

= r x F . (14) Special cases: Case (i): if

= 900; then = rF

i. e when the force is perpendicular to the radius vector (position vector),the torque is maximum. Case (ii): if = 00 or1800 then; = 0
i. e no turning effect is produced when the force is parallel or anti parallel to position vector. Case (iii): if r = 0, then = 0 i. e there will be no turning effect when the force is applied at the axis of rotation. Torque is a vector quantity with s1 unit Nm (new ton-meter) and dimension ML2T2 Angular momentum (L): Angular momentum of a rotating particle about an axis of rotation is the moment the linear momentum of particle about the axis. It is measured as the product of linear momentum and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the linear momentum and axis or rotation. Consider a particle of mass m with the position vector r and has a linear velocity v undergoing ro tational motion, then L = p x OA L=pr i. e when but v = r = 900 , L = r p = m v r thereforce, L = mr2 .. (16) L = r x p (15)

Angular momentum is a vector quantity Relation between L and : From equation (15) , L = r x p Differentiating both sides of the above equation with respect to t; dL/ dt = d/dt (r x p) = (dL/dt) x p = r x (dp/dt) But we have, dr/dt = v, the velocity and p = mv i. e dL /dt = (v x mv) + r x d (mv) /dt = 0 + r x m (dv/ dt)m (Since v x v = 0) 6

dL/dt = r x ma = r x F i. e dL/dt = .(17) i. e torque acting on a particle is equal to the rate change of its angular momentum. This is the second law of motion for rotation. Conservation of angular momentum: When the net torque acting on a sutem of particle is zero, then eqn (17) becomes; dL/dt = 0; i. e L is a constant. That is the angular momentum of a system of particles is conserved if the net torque acting on the particle is zero. EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY: (a) Translational equilibrium If the net force acting on the body is zero, then the body will be in translational equilibrium. The condition for translational equilibrium is, =0 (b) Rotational equilibrium: If the net torque acting on the body is zero, then the body will be in rotational equilibrium. The condition for rotational equilibrium is, =0 A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if it is in both translational and rotational equilibrium. i. e in mechanical equilibrium the body has neither linear acceleration nor angular acceleration. Principle of moments A ideal lever is essentially a light rod pivoted at a point along its length. This point is called fulcrum. Two forces F1 and F2 parallel to each other acts on the lever at distances d1 and d2 from the fulcrum. If the system is in mechanical equilibrium, R = F1 + F2 i. e, R- F1 F2 = 0

Now the torque acting on the body are

1

= F1 d1 and

2 = - F2 d2 (torque producing clockwise rotation is taken as negative while the torque producing anticlockwise rotations taken as positive). If the body is in rotational equilibrium, the net torque acting will be zero. i. e, 1 + 2 = 0; F1 d1 F2 d2 = 0 The force F1 is called the load, the distance d1 is called the load arm, F2 is called effort and the distance d2 is called the effort arm. Then from the above equation, F1 d1 = F2 d2 ..(18) That means, load x load arm = effort arm. Equation (18) is called the principle of moments foe a lever. The mechanical advantage of a lever is the ratio of load to the effort. That is, Mechanical Advantage (M.A) = F1 / F2 = d2 / d1 Centre of gravity: It is the point where the total gravitational torque on the body is zero. A rigid body can be balanced by giving a support at the centre of gravity. 7

Basically centre of mass and centre of gravity are two different concepts. C M depends only on the distribution of masses. But they coincides when the gravity is zero or uniform. Moment of inertia (I): The property by which a body opposes the change in rotational motion of a body about an axis is called rotational inertia or moment of inertia of the body about the axis. It is the rotational analogue of the mass in linear motion. The moment of inertia not only depends on the mass of the particles of the system, but also on the distribution of the particles about the axis. We have the kinetic energy in translational motion, K.E =( ) mv2 But v = r , i. e K.E = () mr2 2 ..(19) In eqn (19) is the rotational analogue of v. but instead of m, in rotational motion it is mr2 which is defined as moment of inertia (I). i. e I = mr2 Thus, the moment of inertia of a particle is defined as the product of mass and square of the perpendicular distance between the particle and axis of rotation. There fore, the kinetic energy of a particle in rotational motion, K.E = () I 2. Moment of inertia of a system of particles : Consider a system of n particles of massages, m1 m2,, mn. At distances, r1 r2,,rn , from the axis of rotation, then the moment of inertia of system of particles is given by, l= Radius of Gyration (k): The radius of gyration of a body about an axis is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a mass point whose mass is equal to the mass of whole body and the moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the body about the axis. The moment of inertia in terms of radius of gyration is given by, l = m k2 ..(22) Theorem of perpendicular axes: The moment of inertia of a planer body about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body. lz = lx + ly Theorem parallel axes Moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes

1y = 1x + Ma2, where M is the total mass of the body.

ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS: K.E of a rotating body : We have KE = () mv2 But v = r , i. e K.E = () mr2

Or K.E = () I 2 , where 1 is the moment of inertia Moment of inertia: If the rotation is about a fixed axis, the will be uniform in the motion; then, v = r Linear momentum p = mv = mr Angular momentum L = r x p = r mr = mr2 = I i. e L=I .(23) Equation 23 is similar to the eqn p = mv in translational motion. From equation (17) = dL/ dt = d/dt (I ) = (d /dt) i. e =I (24) Equation (24) is the rotational analogue of equation F = ma. Conservation of angular momentum: We have, when torque is zero, the angular momentum is a constant. i. e L = I = a constant But 1 = mr21 where is the radius vector. So, if the radius of rotational motion increases, moment of inertia also increases. Therefore, to conserve the angular momentum the angular velocity should decreases, if the net torque acting on the particle is zero. Kinematies of rotational motion: Equation for translational motion are; v = u + at; x = x0 + ut (1/2) at2 ; v2 = u2 + 2 a (x- x0);

to get the equation of motion for rotational motion, substitute the rotational analogue of the quantities as . = 0+ t = 0 + 0t + (1/2) t2 . (25) 2 = 02 + 2 ( 0) equation (25) gives the eqns of motion for rotation. ROLLING MOTION: A rolling motion is a combination of translational and rotational motions. There for the kinetic energy of rolling motion is the sum of KE of rotation and KE of translation. We have, And There for = (1/2) mv2 cm = () I 2 where vcm = R is the velocity of centre of mass during the translation. where 1 = mk2 is moment of inertia and k is radius of gyration. (1/2) mv2 cm + (1/2) I 2 = (1/2) mv2 cm + (1/2) m k2 2 = (1/2) mv2 cm + (1/2) m k2(v2 cm / R2)

i. e

= (1/2) mv2 cm [ I + ( k2 / R2)] (26)

Equation (26) gives the kinetic energy of a rolling body

Comparison between Translation and Rotational Motion

Translational Motion 1. Linear Displacement S 2. Linear velocity v 3. Linear acceleration a 4. Mass m 5. Linear Momentum p = mv 6. Force F = ma 7. Kinetic Energy = () mv2 8. Work = F.s 9. Power = Fv Rotational Motion 1. Angular Displacement 2. Angular velocity 3. Angular acceleration 4. Moment of Inertia I 5. Angular momentum L = I 6. Torque = I 7. Kinetic Energy = () I 8. Work = 9. Power =
2

10. (dp / dt) = F

10. (dL / dt) =

10