Ethiopic Grammar

Ancient Language Resources

K. C. Hanson, Series Editor

Arno Poebel Fundamentals of Sumerian Grammar/ Grundzge der Sumerischen Grammatik A. H . Sayce Assyrian Grammar Samuel A. B. Mercer Introduction to Assyrian Grammar The Student's Concise HebrewEnglish Lexicon of the Bible Heinrich Ewald Syntax of the Hebrew Language the Old Testament S. R. Driver A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew M. H. Segal A Grammar of Mishnaic

J. Payne Smith Compendious Syriac Dictionary William Jennings Lexicon to the Syriac New Testament Eberhard Nestle Syriac Grammar Theodor Nldeke Compendius Syriac Grammar Theodor Nldeke Mandaean Grammar / Mandische Grammatik August Dillman and Carl Bezold Ethiopic Grammar William W. Goodwin A Greek Grammar William W. Goodwin Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb Ernest D. Burton Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek J. B. Smith Greek-English Concordance New Testament

of

Hebrew

William B. Stevenson Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic Carl Brockelmann Lexicon Syriacum

to the

Ethiopie Grammar
Second Edition August Dillmann

Revised by

Carl Bezold
Translated by

James A. Crichton

scanned by dukesson

Wipf& Stock
P U B L I S H E R S Eugene, Oregon

ETHIOPIC GRAMMAR Second Edition Ancient Language Resources Copyright 2005 Wipf & Stock Publishers. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf & Stock, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.

ISBN: 1-59244-145-9

The Library of Congress has cataloged an earlier edition of this book as follows: Dillmann, August (1823-1894) [Grammatik der thiopischen sprache. English] Ethiopic grammar / by August Dillmann. 2nd edition enl. and improved (1899) by Carl Bezold. Translated by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate, 1907 xxx, 581 [1] p. ix fold tab. 24 cm. 1. Ethiopic languageGrammar. I. Title. II. Bezold, Carl, 1859-1922. III. Crichton, James A., tr. PJ9021 .D52 1907 42040768

Manufactured in the U.S.A.

Series Foreword
The study of languages forms the foundation of any study of ancient societies. While we are dependent upon archaeology to unearth pottery, tools, buildings, and graves, it is through reading the documentary evidence that we learn the nuances of each culturefrom receipts and letters to myths and legends. And the access to those documents comes only through the basic work of deciphering scripts, mastering vocabulary, conjugating verbs, and untangling syntax. Ancient Language Resources brings together some of the most significant reference works for the study of ancient languages, includeing grammars, dictionaries, and related materials. While most of the volumes will be reprints of classic works, we also intend to include new publications. The linguistic circle is widely drawn, encompassing Egyptian, Sumerian, Akkadian, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Hattic, Hittite (Nesite), Hurrian, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, Greek, Coptic, Latin, Mandaean, Armenian, and Gothic. It is the hope of the publishers that this will continue to encourage study of the ancient languages and keep the work of groundbreaking scholars accessible. K. C. Hanson Series Editor

Foreword
August Dillman (1823-94) was born at Illingen, Wrttemberg, and educated at the seminary in Schnthal (1836-40), and then at the University of Tbingen, where he was a student of Heinrich Ewald. He was an assistant pastor at Sersheim, Wrttemberg (184546), but his passion was for the study of Semitic languages. He traveled to Paris, London, and Oxford, studying Ethiopic and cataloging manuscripts in the British Library and the Bodleian Library. He died in Berlin on July 4, 1894. Dillmann is considered the father of modern Ethiopic studies. He became a renowned Semitist, producing catalogs of Ethiopic manuscripts, an edition of the Bible in Ethiopic, the Ethiopic edition of 1 Enoch, an Ethiopic lexicon, and a Ethiopic reader (chrestomathy). He taught at the universities of Tbingen, Kiel, Giessen, and Berlin. In 1875-76 Dillmann was the Rektor of the University of Berlin, and in 1881 he was the President of the International Congress of Orientalists. The select bibliography that follows will hopefully aid the reader to find additional resources for the study of Ethiopic. K. C. Hanson

Select Bibliography
Chine, Marius. Grammaire thiopienne. Rev. ed. Beyrouth: Catholique, 1938.

Dillmann, August. Ascensio Isaiae, Aethiopice et Latine: Cum prolegomenis, adnotationibus criticis et exegeticis, odditis versionum latinarum reliquiis. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1877. . Biblia Veteris Testamenti Aethiopica. 5 vols. Leipzig: Vogel,
1853-61.

. Das Buch Henoch bersetzt und erklrt. Leipzig: Vogel, 1853.

. Chrestomathia Aethiopica. Leipzig: Vogel, 1866. Reprint Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1974. . Codices Aethiopici. 2 vols. Oxford: Academic, 1848-51.

. Lexicon Linguae Aethiopicae. Leipzig: Weigel, 1865. Reprint New York: Ungar, 1955.

. Liber Henoch, Aethiopice: Ad quinque codicumfidemeditus, cum variis lectionibus. Leipzig: Vogel, 1851. . Liber Jubilaeorum: Versione Graeca deperdita nunc nonnisi in Geez lingua conservatus nuper ex Abyssinia in Europam
allatus. Killae: VanMaack, 1859. Hammerschmidt, Ernst. Anthologia Aethiopica. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1893. Reprint Hildesheim: Olms, 1988.

Knibb, Michael A. Translating the Bible: The Ethiopic Version of the Old Testament. Schweich Lectures 1995. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Lambdin, Thomas O. Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Ge'ez). Harvard Semitic Studies 24. Missoula, Mont.: Scholars, 1978.

Leslau, Wolf. Comparative Dictionary of Ge 'ez (Classical Ethiopic): Ge 'ez-English / English-Ge 'ez with an Index of the Semitic Roots. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1987.

. Concise Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic). Wiesbaden:

Harrassowitz, 1988. Ludolf, Hiob. Grammatica Aethiopica. Edited by Burchardt Brentjes and Karl Gallus. Wissenschaftliche Beitrge. Halle: MartinLuther-Universitt Halle-Wittenberg, 1986.

Mercer, Samuel A. B. Ethiopian Grammar with Chrestomathy and Glossary. Rev. ed. New York: Ungar, 1961. Miles, John R. Retroversion and Text Criticism: The Predictability of Syntax in an Ancient Translation from Greek to Ethiopic. Septuagint and Cognate Studies Series 17. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press. 1985. Praetorius, Franz. thiopische Grammatik: Mit Paradigmen, Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar. Porta Linguarum Orientalium 7. Leipzig: Reuther, 1886. Schneider, R. L'expression des complements de verbe et de nom et la place de l'adjectif pithte en guze. Paris: Champion, 1959. Tropper, Josef. Altthiopisch: Grammatik des Ge 'ez mit bungstexten und Glossar. Elementa Linguarum Orientis 2. Mnster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2002.
Weninger, Stefan. Ge 'ez: Classical Ethiopic. Languages of the World: Materials 1. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1993.

. Das Verbalstem des Altthiopischen: Eine Untersuchung seiner Verwendung und Funktion unter Bercksichtigung des Interferenzproblems. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2001.

TRANSLATOR'S P R E F A T O R Y NOTE.
The renewed interest taken in Semitic studies in general within these recent years, and in particular the continued issue from the Press of numerous and important Ethiopic texts, encourage the hope that an English .edition of the leading Ethiopic Grammar may prove not wholly unwelcome to English-speaking students at the present time. Few competent judges will challenge the claim of DILLMANN'S Grammar to be thus described. No doubt a long time has elapsed since its first publication, and much investigation has been applied to the language during the interval; but it may be questioned whether any of the essential principles laid down in DILLMANN'S work have been affected by these labours, otherwise than by way of confirmation, or whether any facts of really fundamental grammatical importance have been added to our knowledge. Accordingly, although some useful smaller Grammars now exist,notably the excellent manual published in 1886 by PEOE. P E A E T O E I U S , the serious student of Ethiopic must still have recourse to DILLMANN'S work, particularly in the form given to it in the second edition (of 1899) by PEOE. BEZOLD . I t is from that edition that the present translation has been rendered. .
1 1

I t is not contended, in the light of recent research, that was invariably happy in his frequent excursions into the fascinating but treacherous field of Comparative Semitic; but even when his conjectural etymologies seem farthest astray, they are always stimulating and ingenious. I t has been thought right, however, in this connection, to append here and there a cautionary footnote, when the author appears to give play too freely to his imagination. Farther, DILLMANN'S criticisms of the results obtained by his great predecessor LUDOLF are often severe, seldom generous, and occasionally unfair and even inaccurate. Several instances are pointed out in the footnotes. But, with all due deduction
DILLMANN

VI

TRANSLATOR'S PREFATORY NOTE.

made for such blemishes, DILLMANN'S work remains a monument second only to his 'Lexicon',of his genius, industry and special erudition. I t may be relied on as a safe guide through the mazes of a difficult speech; and as an institutional work, the foremost in its department, it is entitled to a high rank among the leading Semitic Grammars. Little or no alteration has been made on the text in the course of translation. I have ventured only to cite a few additional examples, in the Syntax, from some of the more recently published Ethiopic works, inserting them either tacitly in the text itself, or avowedly in the footnotes. The somewhat meagre Table of Contents, given in the German edition, has been considerably expanded; and the details have been applied marginally, in their proper places, throughout the book. A few additions have been made in the first of the appended Tables of Forms; and an Index of Passages has been drawn up and placed at the end of the volume. As far as possible, the supporting-passages have been re-verified. I n particular the quotations adduced from the important text of Henoch, as edited by DILLMANN , have been compared with the corresponding passages in FLEMMING'S more recent and more accurate edition; and the differences, when of any importance, have been pointed out in footnotes ( ). This course was considered preferable to applying in the body of the work the improved readings presented in FLEMMING'S edition, or the suggestions made by DUENSING in his careful discussion of FLEMMING'S Henoch, contributed to the "Gelehrte Anzeigen", 1903, No. 8 (Gottingen).
1

I t would be difficult to exaggerate my indebtedness to the distinguished scholar who prepared the last German edition, PROF. BEZOLD of Heidelberg. From the first he took a lively interest in the version. I t was submitted to him in manuscript, and his suggestions were attended to. He had the great kindness also to incorporate, at that time, numerous illustrative passages
(*) Just as these lines go to the Press, another edition of the text of Henoch, by PROF. CHARLES, is announced as immediately forthcoming. DR. CHARLES has already done excellent work in this field,witness his elaborate translation and commentary: The Book of Enoch?, Oxford 1893. I am sorry to have missed seeing his edition of the text, in time to compare, in the following pages, as occasion might arise and grammatical interest demand, the readings of this new edition with PLEMMING'S readings.
l

TRANSLATOR'S PREFATORY NOTE.

VII

from his admirable edition of the very important text of Kebra Nagast, then passing through the Press, and to enrich the version farther by adding many most useful philological and bibliographical footnotes. I have also to express here my sincere gratitude for the unfailing courtesy and patience with which he lent his invaluable assistance in the reading of the final proofsheets. PROF. BEZOLD'S direct contributions are enclosed in square brackets, both in the text and in the footnotes,with the exception that I am responsible for a few bracketed words of a purely explanatory nature, which occur here and there in the text. My own footnotes are marked by square brackets enclosing the letters ' TR'. I have also to thank the staff of the DRUGULIN house for the successful accomplishment of their difficult task in printing this edition. J a m e s A. richton.

P R E F A C E T O T H E F I R S T EDITION.
A fresh treatment of Ethiopic Grammar had for a long time been urgently required; and, so far as known to me, none of the older qualified scholars seemed disposed to supply the want. I n these circumstances I readily responded to an invitation addressed to me by the publishing firm in the summer of 1855, to undertake this business, one quite as laborious as remunerative. I was aware indeed that, if only a larger number of texts had been thoroughly investigated and settled, and greater progress had been made with the deciphering of the Himyaric monuments, many details would have allowed of more certain and complete recognition and acceptance. Seeing however that the accomplishment of these tasks lay still in the distant future, I did not think it wise to wait for it; and, even as it was, a rich field, ripe for cutting and gathering in, already lay before me. The terms of my arrangement with the publisher restricted, to some extent, the time available for work, and also the compass of the volume. Still, I have endeavoured to satisfy, as far as possible within the prescribed limits, those requirements of a grammatical work which are insisted on by our advanced philology. The material of the language has been thoroughly gone over afresh, in all its parts and on every side; and many new observations, of which LUDOLF had no presentiment, have been the result, as every single section of the book will show. I n explaining the phenomena of the language and duly ranking them in its system, I was still more completely left to my own enquiries, as foregoing labours in this department have been much more scanty. Many things here are, of course, matter of grammatical theory previously adopted, so that others, who profess a different theory will attempt a different explanation. Many things, in the views given of Pronunciation and Accent for instance, must per-

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

IX

haps always remain uncertain and obscure, because the historical information, which alone could decide, is wanting. Many things too had to be set down without being fully demonstrated, because space was not obtainable for their proper discussion. I n the references mentioned, it is but desirable that other scholars should now speak out, and take up the discussion of these more difficult and obscure questions. Science, to the service of which alone this book is devoted, would be a gainer. But every one who peruses my book will be convinced, I trust, that Ethiopic grammar, which has been neglected so long, sheds quite as much light on the grammars of the other Semitic languages as it receives from them. Perhaps some justification is required for the great length at which, in the Phonology, I have sought to authenticate by examples the Sound-transitions between Ethiopic roots and those of the other Semitic tongues. I know from experience the perplexing effect, which is produced upon one who approaches Ethiopic from the side of the other Semitic languages, caused by a host of expressions and roots; and therefore I wished to clear the way for a more thorough insight, by discussing a number of etymologies, and by analysing the Sound-changes upon which this phenomenon rests. Much here is, of course, merely matter of conjecture and must long remain so, in fact until dialectic phonetic interchange is more strictly investigated by Semitic philologists, and traced back to sure principles. However, even the danger of falling into error here and there in detail, did not prevent me from tackling the matter. I n the Syntax I was obliged to compress my work, seeing that the space allowed was already more than exhausted. Accordingly it was only what was peculiar and remarkable in Ethiopic that I was able to treat with any thoroughness; while I could merely touch upon what had become familiar from the other Semitic languages. I n the arrangement of the Syntax I have adhered almost entirely to the order adopted in EWALD'S 'Hebrew Grammar', which seemed to be the most accurate and suitable. Altogether this part of the work, for wdiich LUDOLF did almost nothing, claims to be no more than a first draught, which still awaits much filling in by means of farther studies. A few paragraphs I would gladly have altered, if the manuscript had not by

PEEFAOE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

that time left my hands. Then too, the Sections turned out somewhat unequal in extent; but, on account of the constant references backwards and forwards, it had become exceedingly difficult to make any alteration in this respect. The supporting-passages I have taken, as far as possible, from the Bible in print, and in this I have founded upon PLATT'S edition of the New Testament, LUDOLF'S of the Psalms, LAURENCE'S of 4 Esra, and my own edition of the Octateuch and the Book of Henoch. Quotations are occasionally made from Manuscript sources in the case of the other Biblical Books, as well as in the case of the Book of Jubilees, (Kufale), Vita Adami, (Gadla Adam), L i turgies, Organon, Hymnologies of the British Bible Society, Abyssinian Chronicles and Salota Reqet. I t is hoped that every foreigner will kindly excuse, and every German approve of, my having written the book in German: to write a Grammar in Latin is restricting and troublesome, and to read it is pain. I t seemed to me unnecessary in itself to add an Index of Words and Subjects, and it was besides precluded by my having already exceeded the limits allowed the book. K i e l , 15 April, 1857. The A u t h o r .
th

P R E F A C E T O T H E SECOND EDITION.
The highly honouring proposal was made to me on the part of the Publishing firm, at the suggestion of PROF. NOLDEKB , and with the sanction of the Author's representatives, to prepare a second edition of the present work. A wish which had been cherished for many years by the Author, who has been removed from us, was thereby to be fulfilled. PROF. DILLMANN had gathered together a large number of notes in his own interleaved copy of the Grammar with a view to a revised edition, and had continued the process till shortly before his death. A foundation was thus laid for the present edition, which, at the express desire of the representatives, takes, upon the whole, the form of a reproduction of the original work, with the author's numerous additions and relatively few emendations. I n consequence of the restriction thus laid upon me in the work of revisal, the original character of the book has been absolutely preserved. But another consequence of course was, that it became impossible for the new editor to undertake any thoroughgoing alterations in individual passages. PROF. DILLMANN himself, if it had been permitted him, would doubtless have undertaken a much more vigorous recasting or regular revision of the book. Beyond trifling alterations of expression, and the tacit correction of manifest errors of the Press, I have merely rectified certain mistakes, proved by facts to be such, and which DILLMANN would at this time of day have acknowledged. The entire responsibility, as well as the entire merit, accordingly remains with the Author, even in this second edition. My contributions in the way of correction of the original work and addition of a few notices of the literature of the subject are marked by square brackets. I thought I might venture upon greater liberty in the use made of the Author's Manuscript additions. I n particular, the

XII

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

lengthy and frequently recurring extracts from later writings, which DILLMANN had entered in his copy, manifestly for his own readier guidance, have been replaced by mere references to the works concerned: other material too, especially all that seemed to lie beyond the scope of an Ethiopic grammar, has been left out of account. On the other hand I considered that I was acting in the spirit of the Author in endeavouring to extend, support and adjust the. lists of examples, often very briefly stated by him, and in many cases consisting of a single Ethiopic word, a labour which was facilitated, and in many cases in fact made possible, only through DILLMANN'S ''Lexicon Linguae Ethiopicae\ Occasionally, instead of a long series of supporting-passages I have given a direct reference to the 'Lexicon . The now antiquated second Table of the first edition, with the "older Forms of Ethiopic writing", has been set aside for various reasons. A few additions, marked " NOLDEKE ", originated in the course of reading the proof-sheets, which PROF. NOLDEKE revised at my request on account of the extensions of the new edition springing out of DILLMANN'S copy. Of course the distinguished scholar just named does not thereby incur any responsibility for my performance. But, beyond an honest endeavour to restore as well as I could the work of the much revered dead, it was his lively interest in this work and his continual assistance with head and hand, which alone gave me the needful courage to undertake the task and to conduct it to its close. For this service I hope he will kindly accept here my heartfelt thanks.
1

Lugano, 25 April, 1899. C . Bezold.

th

NOTE ON T H E E N G L I S H E D I T I O N .
I t is with great pleasure that I avail myself of the opportunity, here afforded me, of expressing my thorough approval of DR. CRICHTON'S translation of DILLMANN'S work, which will form a worthy companion-volume to his recent edition of PROF. NOLDEKE'S Syriac Grammar'. The clear and idiomatic English, into which DILLMANN'S rather difficult German has been rendered, testifies once more to DR. CRICHTON'S ability and skill in such translation, as well as to the minute and conscientious accuracy, combined with sound scholarship, with which he has undertaken and brought to a successful completion his laborious task. I venture to hope and believe that DILLMANN'S book will henceforth appeal with effect to a still wider circle of readers, and increase yet farther the interest taken in Ethiopic Grammar among English-speaking students of Semitic.
l

H e i d e l b e r g , November 1906. C. Bezold.

CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.

G E N E R A L R E M A R K S ON T H E E T H I O P I C L A N G U A G E .
Page

1. Sketch of the History of the Language 1 Its Name 3 2. Origin and Character 3 3. Close Affinities with Arabic:Resemblances and Differences . . 4 4. Development of the Language 7 5. Changes in its Phonetic System and Vocabulary 9 6. Ethiopic Literature. Modern Investigations 11

PART FIRST.

ORTHOGRAPHY AND

PHONOLOGY.

I. ORTHOGRAPHY.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Minao-Sabaic Origin of the Alphabetic Characters Number of the Consonants Names of the Consonants Order of the Ethiopic Alphabet Form of the Script. Direction of Writing Vowel Denotation. 12. Vowel Denotation incorporated with Consonantal Script . . . 13. Short a assumed as present in Consonantal Ground-form . . . Discussion of the Indication of Short Vowels other than a, and of the Absence of a Vowel . 14. Forms of the Consonants to indicate the Presence of the five Long Vowels severally Forms indicating the Presence of a Short Vowel other than a, or Absence of a Vowel 15. Development of the ^/-containing Letters, and their several Forms 16. Interpunctuation-marks. Numerical Signs 23 26 26 27 29 31 32 15 16 17 18 . 21

XVI IL

CONTENTS.

PHONOLOGY.

I. T H E SOUNDS ( O E L E T T E E S ) O F T H E L A N G U A G E . 1. V O W E L S .
Page

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Preliminary Observations. Short Vowels other than a The Ground-vowel, Short a Long a Short, indeterminate c % and u e and o Pronunciation of fugitive c, 2. CONSONANTS.

. . . .

34 35 36 37 39 39 41

23. Preliminary Observations 24. Gutturals (Aspirate-) 25. The firmer Gutturals (Palatal-) 26. The 77-containing Gutturals 27. Dental-Lingual Mutes 28. Labial Mutes . 29. No distinction recognised between an Aspirated (or Assibilated) and an Unaspirated pronunciation of Mutes 30. Sibilants 31. Fluctuation and Interchange of Sibilants 32. The Liquid and Softer Letters: Nasals; Linguals; and Semivowels

42 44 48 50 54 56 59 59 61 65

II.

MEETING

OF L E T T E E S THE

IN T H E S Y L L A B L E AND IN WOED.

General Rules of the Syllable. 33. 34. 35. Constitution of the Syllable Beginning of the Syllable Termination of the Syllable OE LETTEES CONSEQUENT LETTEES. 67 68 70 ON T H E G E N E E A L

CHANGES

E U L E S OP T H E S Y L L A B L E , O E ON T H E L E M E E T I N G W I T H OTHEE

1. V O W E L S .
(A) I N F L U E N C E OF T H E S T R U C T U R E OF T H E S Y L L A B L E AND T H E W O R D ON T H E V O W E L S .

36. 37. 38.

Shortening of Long Vowels. Lengthening of Short Vowels Weakening and reducing of Vowels Treatment of Short e, under change of Syllabic Conditions Treatment of Short e, at the end of Nominal Stems

. .

. 71 73 . 73 74

CONTENTS. (B) M E E T I N G O F V O W E L S . \ '

XVII

Page

39. Contraction and Coalescing 40. Hardening of Vowel into Semivowel 41. Interpolation of Separating Consonant one Vowel by another 42. Displacing Meeting of of the u of Z7-containing Gutturals with certain Vowels
(C) M E E T I N G O F V O W E L S

77 79 81 82 82

AND CONSONANTS, AND T H E I R I N T E R CHANGES.

(a) Influence of Aspirates on the Vowels. Close relation of Vowels and Aspirates Aspirate must have a Vowel directly next it 44. Preference of Aspirates for the a-sound 45. Reduction of a of open Syllable preceding Aspirate, to e in certain cases 46. Lengthening of Vowel preceding Aspirate in the same Syllable . 47. Occasional Disappearance of Aspirates 48. Aspirates and the Word-Tone . . Yy passing into a Semivowel (j3) The Voivels I and U and the Semivowels. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. Hardening of i and u, as 1* Radicals, into Semivowels . . . Vowel-Pronunciation of i and u as 2 Radicals Hardening of i and u as 3 Radicals . . Radical t or u meeting with Formative Vowel J or . . . . Rejection of u (and i)
n d r d

43.

83 84 85 86 87 90 91 92

93 94 95 97 99

2. CONSONANTS. Doubling of Consonant as Result of Assimilation Doubling of Consonant, to make up for shortening preceding Vowel Doubled Consonant always written in Single Form 56. Giving up the Doubling Occasional Compensation for Loss of the Doubling 57. Exchange of Consonants. Transposition 58. Interpolation or Rejection of individual Consonants Softening of Consonants into Vowels 54. 55. 101 104 104 105 106 107 108 109

I I I . T H E WORD AND T H E T O N E O F T H E WORD.

59. The Tone of the Word, and its Adjustment 60. Vocalisation of the Word, as influenced by the Tone . . . . 110 112

P A R T SECOND.

MORPHOLOGY.

A. ROOTS:THEIR C L A S S E S AND T H E I R FORMS.

61. Interjections 62. Pronominal Roots:Demonstratives 63. Interrogatives
B

114 115 118

XVIII
64. 65. 66. 67.

CONTENTS, Page

68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73.

Pronominal Roots:Relative Pronouns Personal Pronouns Conceptional Roots.General Description Tri-radical Roots:Strong Roots Weak Roots Roots med. gem Roots med. inf. Vowel-sided Roots : Vowel-beginning Roots Vowel-ending Roots Doubly Weak Roots Certain Strong Ethiopie Roots compared with corresponding but Weak Roots in kindred Languages Multilateral Roots : (a) Originating in repetition of Individual Rads., or of the whole Root M. R. : (b) Originating in Interpolation of Firm Letter after Is* Rad. M. R. : (c) Derived from Triliteral Roots and Words, by External Application of Formative Letter

119 120 122 125 125 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 134 135

B. F O R M A T I O N O F WORDS.
74. Methods followed generally in Word-Formation. Division of Words into:1. Verbs; 2. Nouns; 3. Particles . 138

FORMATION OF VERBS. I. STEM-FORMATION O F V E R B S .

75. General Description of Verbal Stems 1. S T E M - F O R M A T I O N O F T R I - R A D I C A L ROOTS. 76. 77. 78. 79. Scheme of Stems. 1. Ground-Stems :1. The Simple Stem. . . Transitive and Intransitive Forms . . . 2. The Intensive Stem 3. The Influencing Stem I I . Causative Stems: '1. Causative of the Simple Stem 2. Causative of the Intensive Stem 3. Causative of the Influencing Stem I I I . Reflexive-Passive Stems: 1. R . - P . of the Simple Stem 2. R . - P . of the Intensive Stem 3. Reflexive of the Influencing Stem:Stem of Reciprocity . I V . Causative-Reflexive Stems: Causative-Reflexive Stems 1 & 2 Causative-Reflexive Stem 3 2. S T E M - F O R M A T I O N O F M U L T I L I T E R A L ROOTS. 85. Scheme of Stems I . Ground-Stem 161 161 141 142 143 146 148 148 150 150 151 151 153 154 156 158 159 140

80. 81. 82. 83. 84.

CONTENTS. I I . Causative Stem I I I . Passive-Reflexive Stems I V . Causative-Reflexive Stems V . Second Reflexive Stem

XIX
Page

86. 87.

162 163 164 164

I I . F O R M A T I O N O F T E N S E S A N D MOODS.
88. 89. 90. 91. General Remarks.Uses of the Perfect Uses of the Imperfect Derivation of the Moods from the Imperfect Tense General Rules of Formation in the Perfect and Imperfect Tenses Older Form of Imperfect Tense used as the Subjunctive Mood.Fuller Form as the pure Imperfect ( = the Indicative Mood) Tense and Mood Formation in1. Simple Ground-Stem.Transitive and Intransitive Pronunciation T. and M. Formation of Aspirate Verbs T. and M. Formation of Weak Verbs:Verbs med.gem. . . . Verbs prim. voc. . . . Verbs med. inf. . . . Weak Verbs continued:Verbs tert inf. Verbs Doubly Weak Tense and Mood Formation in 2. Intensive Ground-Stem . . T. and M. Formation in3. Influencing Ground-Stem . . . . I I . T. and M. Formation in Causative Stems I I I . T. and M. Formation in Reflexive Stems I V . T. and M. Formation in Causative-Reflexive Stems . . Tense and Mood Formation of Multiliteral Verbs: . . . . I . I n Ground-Stem I I . I n Causative Stem I I I . T. and M. Formation in Reflexive Stems of Multiliteral Verbs I V . I n Causative-Reflexive Stems V. I n Second Reflexive Stem 166 169 173 174

176 177 178 180 180 181 183 184 185 186 187 191 195 197 198 199 200 200 200

92.

93.

94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99.

100.

I I I . FORMATION O F PERSONS, G E N D E R S AND NUMBERS.

101. , General Remarks 1. Personal Signs of the Perfect 2. Personal Signs of the Imperfect(Indicative and Subjunctive) 102. Attachment of Personal Signs in the Perfect 103. Attachment of Personal Signs in the Imperfect(Indicative and Subjunctive) 201 202 203 205 209

XX

CONTENTS.

FORMATION OF NOUNS. A. FORMATION OP NOUNSIN T H E NARROWER SENSE OP T H E TERM.

I. S T E M - F O R M A T I O N " 104. O F XOl'N'S.
Puge

Classes of Nouns, and Methods of Stem-Formation 1. S I M P L E N O M I N A L STEMS.

212

105. 106.

107. 108.

109.

1. First and Simplest Formation,with accented Short Vowel after 1'* Radical 2. Second Formation, with accented Short Vowel orTone-long Vowel after 2nd Radical: (1) Conceptional Words derived as Verbal Nouns from the Imperfect (Subjunctive form): . . io) With original Transitive & after 2nd Radical, but now with Fem.-ending at, and Accent on the 1st Syllable . . (ft) With Intransitive a after 2nd Radical (2) Descriptive Words derived as Verbal Adjectives and Participles from the Perfect: (a) With in 2nd Syllable \h\ W i t h 7 in 2nd Syllable (c) With ft in 2nd Syllable 3. Third Formation.with Vowels lone from the first: . . (a.) With a after 1st Radical (and c after 2nd) (&' With (7 or i after 2nd Radical (and a after 1st) . . .

215 220 220 220 222 225 22U 22 227 22!* 229 230

2. N O M I N A L S T E M S FROM 110.

FORMED

B Y DOUBLING

OF R A D I C A L S . OK

D E R I V E D V E R B A L STEMS AND

M U L T ! L I T E R A L ROOTS.

111.

112.

1. From Simple Tri-radical Verbal Stems: (a; Attributive Words, formed by doubling 2nd Rad.. with Tone-bearing a after 2nd Rad.. and a after 1st . . . Adjectives formed by Reduplication of both the last Rads., with 7 (or a) in the last Syllable and a in the other two 2. From Derived Verbal Stems: (a) Conceptional Words. (a) from 2nd Ground-Stem,with a after 2 Rad., and strongly accented Fcm.-ending a From Reflexive-Passive Stems,with r 7 after 2nd Rad.. the 1* Syllable being formed by ta closed by l Rad. (b) Ojialifying or Descriptive Words from Derived Stems, with u after 2nd R a 3. From Multiliteral Roots: (a) Simple Conceptional Words and Names of Things: ia) When both Syllables have short r (3) When both Syllables have short a iY ; When the last Syllable has u. and the first either a or ?
n d at a ; %

231

232

232 234 23 23H 237 237 237

CONTENTS.

XXI
Page

(b) Descriptive Words, and Substantives derived from them 238 (c) Stronger Conceptional Words (Nomina Actionis), with a in the last Syllable, and a in the preceding one .. . . 239

3. NOMINAL STEMS OF O U T E R F O R M A T I O N . (a) Forms reached by means of Prefixes. 113. With the Prefix J | With the Prefix ma, (1) in Participles from Derived Active Stems, Part. Act. having e in last Syllable, and Part. Pass, a: Participial formation with ma,(a) from St. I , 2 . (6) from St. 1,3 (c) from St. I I , 1 (d) from St. 11,2 (e) from St. I V , 1,2,3 . . . . ,, (/) from Active Stems of Multiliteral Verbs Prefix ma, (2) in the formation of Names of Things, (a) to express the Place of the Action (b) To express the Implement or the Products of the Action, or the Action itself: (a) Formation with a in 2nd Syllable (P) Formation with e in 2nd Syllable (Y) Prefix ma reduced to me in 1 Syllable, with d, a or e in 2nd Syllable
st

239 240 241 242 242 242 242 243 244 245 246 247 248

114.

115. 116.

(b) Forms reached by means of Affixes. 117. Denominative Nouns:1. Adjective-Formation: (a) with termination i\ , 249 (a) With i attached to Nouns of the Type gabbdr, or from any of the Derived Stems 250 (,3) With i attached to Participles formed by means of ma, turning them into Nomina Agentis 251 (Y) With I attached to Proper Names and a few Personal Words and Names of Things 252 Adjective Formation: (b) with termination awl, in the derivation, from Substantives and Adjectives, of New Adjectives and Words indicating Persons 253 Shorter Ending di, alternating with awl, at least in Numeral Adjectives 254 2. Abstract Nouns formed from Words with these Adj .-Endings, by appending Fern.-Sign; (a) as it,sometimes as ut . . 254 (b) Oftener as et or e: Abstracts in et\ Conceptional Words in e, from Verbal Stems 255 (c) Forms, chiefly Infinitives, in accented ot and o. . . . 257 (d) Nouns of Circumstance and Condition in Tone-bearing at 258 (e) Abstract Forms in an or on, and na 259 No special Form for Diminutives; nor any true Compounds . 261

118.

119.

120.

121. 122.

XXII

CONTENTS.

PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES.

Page

Participles: General Remarks.Comparative Failure of Regular Participial Forms 262 Compensated partly 1.By the Gerund; 2By Periphrasis in a Finite Tense 263 Infinitives: Distinction between Nominal Infinitive and Verbal Infinitive or Gerund 263 124. Certain Abstract Forms sometimes employed for the Nominal Infinitive 265 Formation of the Infinitive Proper: 1. The Gerund in the several Stems 265 125. 2. The Nominal Infinitive in the several Stems 268

123.

I I . F O R M A T I O N O F G E N D E R S AND NUMBERS.
1. G E N D E R S O F NOMINAL STEMS. 126. 127. The two Genders: Masculine and Feminine. Signs of the Feminine 271 Feminine Endings and the Mode of their Attachment in the case of 1. Substantives: (a) Ending at 274 (6) Ending a 275 (c) Ending e 277 (d) Closely attached and Consonantal Ending ^ . . . . 277 2. Feminine of Adjectives and Participles: (a) By Interpolation of a in the Stem 279 (6) Outer Formation by the Ending ^ 281 The Gender-usage in Ethiopic 283

128. 129.

130.

2. NUMBERS O F NOMINAL STEMS. 131. Numbers of Nominal Stems.Faint Traces of a Dual . . . . 1. Contrast between Class-Word and Word denoting an Individual of the Class (Generalis and Nomen Unitatis) . . . 2. Contrast between Singular and Plural (Owe and More than One) Special Uses of certain Plurals (a) Outer Formation of the Plural. 132. Masculine Plural Ending in an; Fem. in at 290 1. Personal and Descriptive Words taking Outer Plural Ending an. Detailed Rules and Exceptions (ag) 291 2. Substantives taking Outer Plural Ending at: (a) Certain Masc. Personal Names 294 (6) Singular Fem. Forms taking at in Plural 295 fc) Many Masc. Singular-Stems taking Outer Plural Ending at (aY) (d) Nominal Stems with Prefix TD, which sometimes take the Outer Formation in the Plural 299
2 9 6

286 287 288 289

133.

134.

CONTENTS.

XXIII
P a g e

(b) Inner Formation of the Plural 135. General Account of the Inner Plural or Collective Form . . . 299 136. I . Collective Words from Singular-Stems of the Simplest Formation from Tri-radical Roots 301 1. Collective-form, Type *7fl (gebar) 301 2. Collective-form, Type 137.

&*7flG (agbdr)
<

302 304 305 305

3. Collective-form, Type K*7fl*C (agbiir)

4. Collective-form, Type X 7*flC (dgber) 5. Collective-form, Type hKlCH* (agbert) 138. I I . Collective Words from certain longer Singular-Stems of Triradical Roots,the Collective-form being of the Type i f l C ' f * {gabdrt) 139. I I I . Collective Words from longer Stems of Triliteral and Multiliteral Roots, Type f f l C G {gabarer): 1. Collective-forms from various Nominal Stems of Multiliteral Roots 2. Collective-forms from Nominal Stems which have Prefixes (a-c) 140. 3 Same Formation occurring with many Nom. Stems of Trirad. Roots which have a long Vowel after 1 or 2 Rad., or have a Vowel-termination (ac) I V . Traces of a Collective Formation, contrived by applying Abstract Terminations proper to Fem. Sing
st n d

307 308 309 310

311 314 314

141.

(c) Plurals of Plurals.

I I I . FORMATION O F CASES.
142. 143. 144. 145. 1. The Nominative and Vocative 2. The Accusative:Usual Marking. When such Marking is not exhibited 3. The Genitive Relation:(a) The Construct State . . . . (b) Periphrastic Indication of the Genitive by Prefixing Rel. Pron. to Determining Word 317 320 324 326

B. PRONOUNS A N D N U M E R A L S .
I. P R O N O U N S . 146. I . Pronouns:1. Demonstrative Pronouns 147. 2. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns 148. 3. Personal Pronouns.(a) The Third Pers. Pron (b) The Second Pers. Pron (c) The First Pers. Pron 149. Formation of the Accusative and Genitive in the Pers. Prons. . Suffix Pronouns 150. Expression of the Ace, Gen. and Nom. of a Pers. Pron., on which a Special Emphasis rests, (a) Emphatic Acc.-form of Pers. Pron. (b) Emphatic Gen.-form of Pers. Pron. (c) Emphatic Nom.-form of Pers. Pron. a n d Reflexive use of Cftfl W t i w i t h S u f f P r o n

328 332 336 338 338 338 339 341 342 343
3 4 5

XXIV
151.

CONTENTS. Page

152. 153. 154.

155.

156.

Attachment of Verbal Suffixes. Binding-vowel 1. Attachment when Pers. Forms of the Verb end in a Consonant 2. When they end in 3. Attachment when Pers. Forms end in formative-ie . . . 4. When they end in Fem.-formative-^ 5. When they end in Special Cases of the Attachment of Verbal Suffixes . . . . Attachment of Nominal Suffixes. Binding-vowel 1. Attachment of Suffixes to Plural Forms 2. Attachment of Suffixes to Singular Forms: (a) To Nominal Stems ending in , e or (b) To Nominal Stems ending in a Consonant; (a) when these Stems stand in the Accusative . . . . () When they stand in the Nominative (c) To Nouns ending in i id) To certain Short and Old Words 3. Suffixes often attached to Singular Stems in the Plural fashion, and to Plural Stems in the Singular fashion; (a) l * case when the Sing. Stems are similar in form or meaning to Plurals (6) 2nd ase, when the PI. Stems may be conceived of as suggesting Unity 4. Suffixes applied to the Infinitive Use of the Suffix in certain cases, equivalent to Apposition .
8 C

345 347 347 348 348 349 349 351 352 354 354 356 356 357

358 359 359 359

I I . PRONOMINALS.
157. I I . Pronominals: l. Compounds of Pronouns and Conceptional Words taking the place held by Pronominals in other Languages 2. Conceptional Words, used only when compounded with Suff. Prons 361 361

I I I . NUMERALS.
158. I I I . Numerals:1. Cardinal Numbers 2, Derived Numerals:(a) Ordinal Numbers (b) Number of the Day of the Week or Month (c) Multiplicatives (d) Abstract Numerals (e) Numeral Adverbs ( / ) Fractional Numbers (g) Distributives (h) Expressions for npTO'J, levrspov, rp'no'j 364 369 370 371 372 372 373 373 375

. . . .

FORMATION

OF WORDS

OF RELATION.

I. ADVERBS.
1. A D V E R B S D E R I V E D F R O M PRONOMINAL ROOTS. 160. 1. Adverbs of Demonstrative Meaning; (a) Particles of Demonstrative force (b) Independent Adverbs of Place and Time 375 377

CONTENTS.

XXV
Page

161.

162.

2. Interrogative Adverbs and Adverbs of Relative Meaning: (a) Interrogative Adverbs (6) Relative Adverbs 3. Negative, Affirmative, Exclamatory and Restrictive Particles, together with certain Enclitics WORDS.

378 380 380

2. A D V E R B S D E R I V E D PROM C O N C E P T I O N A L 163.

1. Adverbs of Place and Time (Acc. of Noun)-, of Kind and Manner (Acc. of Adj.)', and Adverbs formed by prefixing Prepositions to Substantives or Adjectives, instead of taking Acc 2. Other forms of Adverbs, being originally Nouns, with or without inflection, or with special terminations 3. Adverbial Notions expressed by Verbs 4. Adverbial Indication of the Language in which anything is spoken or written

383 385 387 388

I I . PREPOSITIONS.
164. General Account of Prepositions (a) The Prepositions in most frequent use: 1 . fl . . 388 . 389 391 394 399 404 406

2. 165. 166.

. . .

3. T\9**l 392
[b) The other more frequently used Prepositions (410) . Prepositions (Class b) continued (1123) (c) Words occurring as Prepositions, but less frequently (24-38) Attachment of Suffixes to Prepositions

167.

III.
168.

CONJUNCTIONS.
410 411 414 417 420

169. 170. 171.

General Account of Conjunctions 1. Copulative, Disjunctive, Adversative and Restrictive Conjunctions (19) 2. Inferential, Causal and Final Conjunctions (110) . . . 3. Conjunctions expressing Conditional and Temporal Relations (110) Prevalence and Force of Prefix- and Affix-Particles in Ethiopie

PART THIRD.

SYNTAX.

A. L E A D I N G WORD-GROUPS O F T H E S E N T E N C E .
I. P E R I P H R A S I S O F T H E A R T I C L E . 172. 173. Subject and Predicate. I . Periphrasis of the Article: 1. Methods of indicating Definiteness in the Noun . . . . 2. Methods of indicating Indefiniteness in the Noun . . . . 423 426

XXVI

CONTENTS.

II. GOVERNMENT OE T H E VERB.

1. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS I N S U B O R D I N A T I O N TO T H E V E R B . (a) The Verbal Object expressed by the Accusative. Accusative of an associated Nomen as determining the idea of the Verb. 1.Accusative of Determination-. (a) Adverbial Accusative of Kind and Manner (b) Accusative of Place and Time (c) Accusative of Measure 175. 2.Accusative of Purport or Reference: (a) Emphatic Acc. of Derived Noun, or Noun of Kindred Meaning (b) Acc. of Related Noun, with Verbs of Plenty and "Want &c. (c) Accusative of Relation or Limitation 176. 3.Accusative of the Object Proper, with Verbs of various meaning (ah) 177. 4.Double Accusative [ag). Triple Accusative 5.Accusative after Reflexive Verbs, and after the Passives of Verbs which govern two Accusatives Accusative after Verbs of Being, Becoming &c 178. 6.Suffix Pronoun used as a Secondary Accusative or a Dative of Special Reference 179. (b) Subordination of Nouns and Pronouns by means of Prepositions 2. V E R B I N S U B O R D I N A T I O N TO T H E V E R B . 180. 1. Second Verb determining (a) Kind and Manner, Circumstances or Time of the action of the First: (a) By the two Verbs being set side by side without (D ({3} By the Verb of Principal Action being subordinated in the Acc. of the Inf. to the Verb of Circumstance or Time Second Verb expressing (b) more exact Determination of Time, Circumstance &c.:(a) By the Gerund By the Imperfect without ffl (Y) Qualifying Verb being introduced by Conjunction, such as ft*}!! &c (5) When the Qualifying Verb is represented by the Subst.-Inf. of Principal Verb 2. Second Verb determining the Contents of the Leading Verb: (a, a) I n the form of the Acc. of the Subst.-Inf. of Subordinate Verb j (P) in the form of a Finite Verb introduced by a Conjunction (b) Forms adopted by Second Verb to express intended Result or Aim of Principal Verb:(a) Subst.-Inf. with ft prefixed; (p) Subjunctive without Conjunction (Y) Subjunctive with Conjunction . (8) Usage with Verbs of Beginning and Ceasing . . . . 448 448 174,
P a g e

430 431 432

432 433 434 435 438 440 441 442 445

449 450 451 452 452

181.

182.

453

456 457 457

CONTENTS.

XXVII
Page

183.

3. Second Verb as Remote Object, specifying Direction, Purpose or Consequence of Principal Action:(a) I n the I n finitive 458 (b) I n the Subjunctive without Conjunction 458 (c) I n the Subjunctive with \{O0 459 4. Second Verb subordinated as Subst.-Inf., with the help of Prepositions 459

I I I . COMBINATION O F NOUNS W I T H ONE ANOTHER.

1. S U B O R D I N A T I O N O F NOUNS. (a) The Genitive Relation. 184. (a) The Genitive Relation:1. The Construct State (a) Relation of Possession (6) Genitive of Limitation (c) Genitive denoting Material or Origin (d) Genitive indicating other Determinations of Condition Rules observed in the use of the Constr. St. Relation . . . . 2. Periphrastic Indication of the Genitive: (a) By means of % fcft (6) By means of
c

185. 186.

459 460 461 462 463 464 468 470 471

ft . . . .

( ) By ?IJF*VJ t express the Partitive Genitive

(b) Subordination through the Accusative or through Prepositions. 187. (b) Subordination through the Acc. or through Preps.: 1. Infinitives and Certain Descriptive Words governing an Accusative 2. Conceptional and Descriptive Words, supplemented by Noun governed by intervening Preposition 3. Prepositions employed in intensifying and comparing Qualitative Conceptions , 2. C O - O R D I N A T I O N O F NOUNS. 188. 189. 1. Co-ordination and Concord of Substantives and Demonstrative Prons., and of Substantives and Adjectives . . . . 476 2. Substantives in co-ordination with Substantives . . . . 480 3. Apposition-forms in the case of the Subject or the Object of a Sentence: (a) When the Word in Apposition is a simple Substantive 481 (b) When the Word in Apposition is an Adjective . . . 482 (c) When an entire Clause is in Apposition 483 (d) Co-ordination of Predicate-Object with immediate Object, after Verbs of Perceiving, Declaring &c.:1. As an Accusative of the Participle 483 2. As an Accusative of the Gerund, with or without Suffix . 484 3. As a Finite Clause introduced by ft*JH> and equivalent to the Participle 484

472 473 474

190.

XXVIII

CONTENTS. Page

191.

4. As an Independent Clause, subordinated directly to the Verb of Perceiving, without any Conjunction. Attraction. . . 5. As a Clause subordinated by 6. Predicate-Object expressed by Finite Verb in the Subjunctive, with or without f\tW, after Verbs of Causing or Making Addendum: Union of Numerals and Nouns. 1. Cardinal Numbers 2. Ordinal Numbers

485 485 486 486 489

B. S T R U C T U R E O F T H E S I M P L E S E N T E N C E .
192. 1. The Subject (a) Indefinite Mode of Expression (b) Impersonal Mode of Expression (c) Passive Construction 2. The Predicate 3. Union of Subject and Predicate: (a) Connecting-words when Predicate is a Noun of some kind Personal Pronoun as Copula Use of OiifD and fa^p as Connecting-words (b) Agreement of Predicate with Subject in Gender and Number, when Predicate is a full Verb or an Adjective (c) Arrangement of the Sentence: (a) Usual Order (P) Alteration of Usual Order, for Purposes of Emphasis (Y) Other Determining Motives 490 491 492 494 495 497 498 499 500 502 503 504 507

193. 194.

195. 196.

C. S P E C I A L K I N D S O F S E N T E N C E S .
1. N E G A T I V E , I N T E R R O G A T I V E , AND E X C L A M A T O R Y S E N T E N C E S . 197. 1. Negative Sentences.-(a) With (&) With Ml fa 508 509
5 1 0

(?) WithftAfl
198. (d) Various Negative Phrases . . . 2. Interrogative Sentences.[a) Independent Interrogation . . (b) Dependent Interrogation . . (c) Disjunctive Interrogation. . (a) Strengthening Particles in Interrogation, and Particles of Reply (e) Definite Interrogative Words: 97r"t others 3. Exclamatory Sentences.(a) With a single Noun . . . . (6) With the Imperative in Affirmative Charges, and the Subjunctive in Prohibitions (c) Entire Sentences forming the Exclamation (d) Special Words in Exclamation (c) Optative Expressions ( / ) Various Exclamatory "Particles
a n d

512 513 515 515 516 516 518 518 519 520 520 521

199.

CONTENTS.

XXIX

2. CONNECTED S E N T E N C E S . (a) Copulative Clauses.

Page

200.

1. Copulative use of 01 and Jt*J|f> d some other Particles 521 2. Adversative Clauses, Restrictive and Intensifying Additions to the Sentence 525 3. Causal and Inferential Expressions 527 [b) Attributive Relative Clauses.

a n

201.

202.

1. Presence or Absence of Introductory Relative Pronoun . (a) When Rel. Pronoun is present, Supporting-Noun is sometimes merely understood (b) Usages when Supporting-Noun is expressly mentioned. Attraction of Noun 2. Expression of Case-relations of the Rel. Pronoun within Rel. Clause, (a) By supplementing Rel. Pron. by a Pers. Pron. attached as SurT. to Noun concerned Or by prefixing necessary Prep, to Suff. Pron (b) By prefixing Prepositions and Signs of Case to the Rel. Pron. itself (c) By longer Prepositions placed after the Rel. Pron. which they govern 3. Relative Construction as Periphrastic Substitute for Participles and Adjectives 4. Position of Words in a Relative Clause (c) Conjunctional Relative Clauses.

527 528 529 530

531 532 532 533 534 536

203.

1. Subject or Object expressed by an entire Clause: (a) Declarative Clause introduced by ff (b) Supplementary
}lt\(JV &c

536 ftlTD,
537

Object-Clause

introduced

by

204.

(a) After Verbs of Perceiving, Recognising &c ((3) Saying, Declaring &c (y) ,, Fearing and Guarding against. . . (8) Beginning and Leaving of . . . . (e) Ability, Understanding &c. . . . 2. Remote ObjectDesign, Consequence, Cause &cexpressed by an entire Clause: (a) Final Clauses (b) Consecutive Clauses (c) Causal Clauses 3. Comparative Clauses 4. Temporal Clauses

537 538 539 539 540 540 540 541 542 542 544

XXX

CONTENTS.

3. R E C I P R O C A L S E N T E N C E S AND WORDS. (a) Conditional Sentences.

y

'

Page

205.

General Description. Particles and Tenses employed in Protasis and Apodosis 546 1. I n Simple Conditional Sentences . 548 2. I n Unreal Conditional Sentences 551 (b) Correlated Clauses and Words.

206.

Various Formulae of Correlation ADDITIONS AND C O R R E C T I O N S

554 556 559

I N D E X OF PASSAGES

TABLES.
Characters of the Ethiopic Alphabet The Formation of Verbs : The Formation of Pronouns The Attachment of Verbal Suffixes The Gender- and Number-Formation of Nominal Stems Table I IIV VI VII VIIIIX

INTRODUCTION. GENERAL REMARKS ON T H E ETHIOPIC LANGUAGE.

1. The beginnings of the great Abyssinian kingdom stretch sketch ot back to pretty early times, which cannot now be more exactly determined. I t emerged into the light of history immediately upon s ^its conversion to Christianity in the third century, and with increasing clearness on to the seventh; and from that time forward, all through the Middle Ages and up to the commencement of the seventeenth century, it occupied an important position in the midst of the bordering populations of Africa and Arabia. I n that kingdom once flourished the language commonly called Ethiopic, and it is to the description of that language that the present work is devoted. Originally one only of the manifold dialects into which the Arabic-African branch of the Semitic tongue split up, though one of the noblest among them, it gained, through the tribe by which it was spoken, the position of being the leading speech in the kingdom, starting as it did from their country of Tigre and its chief town Axum, and keeping pace with the development of the kingdom, while the modes of speech native to other tribes in the land lived on alongside of it merely as vulgar dialects. Farther, by means of the numerous writings, chiefly of Christian contents, which were speedily composed in it, it became bound up in the most intimate manner with the life of the Church and the whole culture of the people. I n this position it maintained itself, as long as the centre of gravity of the kingdom remained in Tigre and Axum. I t is true that when the South-Western provinces grew into importance, and the seat of government was transferred to the district south of Takazze toward Lake Sana, another dialect,
na

1-

the Amharic, came into fashion as the ordinary speech of the court and of the officials of the country; hut Ethiopic even then continued to retain its full importance as the literary language, in which all books and even official documents were written; and the three centuries of this period may be regarded indeed as the age of the second bloom of the Ethiopic speech. I t was only when the Gralla tribes pressed into the country after the close of the sixteenth century, and thus shook and loosened the entire kingdom, that the language received its deathblow. The kingdom was broken up; the several parts were dissevered from the whole; civilisation yielded to a rapid recrudescence of barbarism; Christianity was pressed hard and partly supplanted by Islam, and in itself it degenerated into the merest caricature of a Christian faith. Along with the power, culture and literature of these lands the venerable speech died out also. To be sure it has remained the sacred language and the ecclesiastical language up to the present day; and, as late even as last century, books, especially the annals of the country, were still composed in i t ; but it was understood by the educated priests only and perhaps by a few of the nobles, and even such men preferred to write in Amharic. Now-a-days even among the priests, only a few probably are to be found who possess some scanty acquaintance with the Ethiopic tongue^). The dialects of the several tribes and provinces,most of them being no doubt of Semitic origin, but containing a strong admixture of elements from the adjoining African tonguesare now flourishing there in motley variety and rank luxuriance. The most widely extended among them is the Amharic ( ), which in
2

( ) For Ethiopic Bibliography cf.; G . FUMAGALLI, 'Bibliografia Etiopica. Catalogo descrittivo e ragionato degli scritti pubblicati dalla invenzione della stampa fino a tutto il 1891 intorno alia Etiopia e regioni limitrofe\ Milano 1893; [and L . GOLDSCHMIDT, 'Biblioteca Aethiopica, vollstaendiges verzeichnis und ausfuehrlicke beschreibung saemmtlicher Aethiopischer druckwerke , Leipzig 1893, as well as the "Litteratura Aethiopica" in PRAETORJUS' 'Aethiopische Grammatik\ Berlin 1886, p. 21sqq.', and 0 . CONTI ROSSINI'S 'Note per la storia letteraria abissina : Rendiconti della R. Accademia dei Lincei, Classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche, Vol. V I I I (Roma 1900), p. 197 sqq.]. ( ) Europeans have been made better acquainted with this language through ISENBKRG'S 'Dictionary of the Amharic Language', London 1841, and ' Grammar of the Amharic Language , London 1842. [V. now also PBAETOBIUS, Die Amharische 8prache\ Halle 1879; GUIDI, 'Grammatica elementare della
1 1 2 1 l

2-

manifold forms is spoken, or at least understood, in Shoa and in all the district lying between Takazze and Abawi. On the other hand the language spoken in the Tigre country has retained the nearest resemblance to Ethiopic ( ). The name, Ethiopic Language, which the old national speech its Name, of Abyssinia commonly bears among us now, is derived from the classical denomination given to the inhabitants of these regions, and has been taken over from the Greek by the Abyssinians themm selves. Accordingly they called their kingdom }\J)r fc$, and the national tongue hjl*?*^?' The original native appellation for the people, however, and farther for their speech, is "IdH, literally "roaming", then as a national designation, in the sense of "the Roamers", "the Free"; and thus comes A f l i * *7dTf "the tongue of the Free" ( ). 2. I n origin and essence Ethiopic is a pure Semitic speech, origin and transplanted by people who migrated from Yemen to Abyssinia. In its sounds and laws of sounds, in its roots, inflectional expedients and word-forms, in all that is reckoned the structure and essence of a language, it bears throughout a genuine and uncorrupted Semitic stamp ( ). A l l its roots may be pointed out as recurring in the other Semitic languages, especially in Arabic, although often diverging greatly in form, or preserved merely in a fragmentary condition. From the indigenous languages of these African regions only a very few names of plants and animals have been taken; while the names of the months,which Ludolf imagined to have come from the same stock,appear to be of decidedly Semitic origin. True, the Ge ez people learned a few stray things, about matters so external as writing, from the Greeks, with whom the Abyssinians had dealings in times even before Christ, and with whom they continued in uninterrupted intercourse
x s 2 C h a r a c t e r 3 r

lingua Amarina\ Roma 1889; D'ABBADIE, 'Dictionnaire de la langue Amarihna , Paris 1881 and GUIDI, 'Vocabolario amarico-italiano\ Roma 1901.] ( ) [Cf. E . LITTMANN, 'Die Pronomina im Tigre': Zeitschr. f. Assyriologie X I I , pp. 188 s^g-.; 291 sqq.; 'Das Verbum der Tigresprache\ ibid. X I I I , p. 133sqq., X I V , p. lsqq. ; and NLDEKE, 'Die semitischen Sprachen , 2 ed. Leipzig 1899, p. 71 sq.] ( ) V . LUDOLFI 'Mistoria Aethiopica'', lib. I , cap. 1, 4, & cap. 15, 3 . ( ) PRAETORIUS tries to point out Hamitic elements in the Ethiopic
1 1 1 N D 2 3

Lexicon: Z D M G X L I I I , p. 317 sqq. 1*

3-

up to the Mohammedan conquest of Egypt. From the Greeks also they borrowed several names and several terms of art, which passed into the flesh and blood of the language. I n a similar way a number of pure Aramaic and Arabic words were adopted into it through intercourse with the Arabs, Jews and Aramaeans. But the entire sum of these contributions does not exceed the ordinary proportion of borrowed words which prevails in other languages maintained otherwise in purity. Ethiopic, from its very start, was protected against such a considerable infusion of foreign elements as we see in Syriac, by the superior richness of its vocabulary, and by the long-continued activity of the faculty of formation possessed by the language, which enabled it to produce equivalent Ethiopic expressions for notions of every kind, however abstract they might be. On the other hand the language kept itself at the same time, as regarded its structure, quite free from Greek influences. Even its Syntax, which in its flexibility, variety and marvellous faculty for co-ordinating and subordinating long phrases in one whole, so remarkably resembles Greek syntax, proves on closer investigation to be founded merely upon a very rich development, and skilful handling, of original Semitic grammatical expedients and formative tendencies. I t must, of course, be granted that this peculiar leaning in the Ethiopic language to grandiose periods and bold arrangements of words was confirmed by the familiarity of Abyssinian authors with Greek (*) works, and was thereby stimulated to a more manifold development of its several tendencies.
close AffiArabic^ KesemTalances and Differences, 3. Of Semitic languages Arabic is the one with which Ethiopic has the most numerous and close affinities ( ). Nothing j i ( j have been expected, when regard is had to the derivation
2 s e c o u

of the Abyssinian Semites from Southern Arabia, and to the active intercourse which they long maintained with it. This relationship is at once and clearly betrayed by marks like the following:in the alphabetical systemthe division of the old Semitic
( ) V., however, PRAETORIUS, 'Grammatik der Tigrinasprache\ Halle 1871, p. 2, Bern. ( ) V., on the other hand, HAUPT, 'J. Am. Or. Soc.\ Vol. X I I I , p. CCLIIsg^., according to whose opinion Ethiopic, of all the Semitic languages, stands nearest to Assyrian.
2 x

3-

n and S each into two separate sounds; in the structure of words and inflectionsthe frequent endings in a short vowel, the greater multiplicity of conjugational forms in the Yerb, and the fuller development of Quadriliteral and Multiliteral roots,the Inner Plural or Collective formation in the Noun, the regular distinguishing of the Accusative, as also of the Indicative and Subjunctive in the Imperfect, the capability of attaching two Pronominal suffixes to one verb, and a host of other scattered and subordinate phenomena; in the vocabularyan unmistakeable array of roots which are elsew here developed or preserved in Arabic only, and not in the more northerly Semitic languages. And yet Ethiopic is far from being a mere dialect of Arabic, especially if we understand by that the ordinary Literary or Middle Arabic. I n fact the vocabularies of the two present a very peculiar contrast, in respect that Ethiopic usually employs altogether different words and roots from Arabic, for the expression of precisely those notions and objects which are most frequently met with in common life( ), while vice versa the words and roots, usual in Arabic in such cases, are found in Ethiopic in scattered traces only. Then the most of the Prepositions and Conjunctions are quite different in the two, with the exception of a few which are common to all the Semitic tongues. I n the structure of its syllables Ethiopic has not developed the richness in Yowels which characterises Arabic, or else it has lost it again: in this respect it comes nearer to Hebrew. As regards its roots, it has, in opposition to all the other Semitic languages, very strongly-marked phonetic changes and transpositions, and it occupies quite a peculiar and unique position in the Semitic family through the evolution of the it-containing Gutturals and Palatals. Ethiopic never attained to the copious wealth of Forms possessed by Arabic, although it is certain that it had a greater number of forms in earlier times. I n particular, Diminutives and AugmenT 1

(*) Compare the words for:God, Man (HOMO), Man, Woman, Body, Sight, Earth, Land, Town, King, Animal, Sun, Moon, Day, Mountain, Valley, good, 6ad, big, little, much, rich, poor, remaining; farther for:to go, to reach, to turn back, to follow, to send, to forsake, to fall, to sit down, to dwell, to flee, ,to carry, to will, to call, to command, to write, to seek, to finish, to find, to repeat, to conquer, to say, to tell, to act, to rejoice, to love, to burn, to build &c.

3.

tatives are altogether wanting, as well as the Emphatic state I t farther took a different course from Arabic in the formation of the Imperfect, as well as in Case-formationwith the exception of the Accusative. I n the sensitiveness of its vowels to the utterance of a guttural ( ) it ranges itself with Hebrew rather than with Arabic. I t has gone farther than the rest of the Semitic languages in evolving strong roots out of weak ones; and it has developed the formation of the Conjugations in certain directions with more consistency than Arabic itself. And in various other things ( ) it has kept to a more antique stage than the rest of the Semitic tongues. Ethiopic has no Article, but it has preserved an originality and a fulness in the department of the Pronouns, unmatched by its sister languages. Then it has a host of pronominal particles, of which not a trace is now left in Arabic, while in the perfecting of Enclitics it has followed out an original Semitic bent with a thoroughness which is found nowhere else. In framing Sentences and Periods it has brought into many-sided use expedients and devices, which have long been given up in Arabic, but are still hinted at in Hebrew as belonging to the ancient Semitic speech. As regards its treatment of the Gender of Nouns, it seems to transfer us quite to the original condition of the language, when the settlement of Gender was still in process, and all as yet was fluctuating; nor has it gained any iixity on this point, even in its latest stages. And finally, we come upon many expressions in the vocabulary, which have disappeared from Arabic, at least in the meaning concerned, although they belonged to the original Semitic common-stock ( ).
2 3 4

(*) According to D. H . MLLER, Epigraphische Denkmler aus Abessinien\ Vienna 1894, p. 72 = 'Denkschriften d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., phil.-hist. Classe X L I I I , IIIthese conditions are to be explained by the influence of the Hamitic tongues upon Ethiopic.
1

( ) Cf. KNIG, Neue Studien ber Schrift, Aussprache und allgemeine Formenlehre des Aethiopischen\ Leipzig 1877, p. 137. ( ) KNIG classes along with these (ibid. p. 87 s^.) the Imperfect-form Adjectives like
3

JW7IT> the endings jl, JfJ^, in the Verb, and the Feminine formation of fh-3.fl, rMift; v. infra 92, 129, 13B.

(*)
(D ns),
s

(*), bb (V?), Ml? (1%), mM (nn;) (^ts), 9* fttsh), S P T ^ (pii), ^ A J P " fron), ^ I M *

4-

A l l this leads to the conclusion that Ethiopic, after its separation from the Northern Semitic, pursued a common course with Arabic for some time longer, but parted company with i t at a pretty early date and at a time in fact when Arabic had not yet attained to its present luxuriance in forms, nor yet to its strictly regular, inflexible, stiff monotony. Ethiopic in this way saved a good deal of the old Semitic, which Arabic suffered to decay, and it also developed a portion of it in a wholly different manner from Arabic. The most of its force, however, subsequent to its severance from the rest of the Semitic languages, was applied to the elaboration of a multiplicity in the methods of conjoining and arranging words in a sentence,answering to the multiplicity existing in the possible modes of thought and discourse,and to the development of the pronominal section of the roots which specially conveys the more subtle relations and conditions of thought. 4. I n contrast, however, with the antique character of Develop Ethiopicin various respects truly remarkable,stand a large language number of decidedly later modes of formation and expression, in which we see it coinciding with languages that have reached an advanced stage of development, like Aramaic. I n this reference we attach no particular importance to the softening of the pronunciation of one or two Semitic sounds, such as Gutturals and Sibilants, inasmuch as that process appears to have predominated only in the course of the Middle Ages, and is a phenomenon illustrated contemporaneously in other Semitic dialects, though it has gone farthest in Amharic. But our statement is borne out by the fact that Ethiopic has given up, or replaced by external formations, many old forms and inner formations, which once it must have had, as well as by the fact that, alongside of the old forms and formations which it retains, it has admitted several new and more external ones, mainly with the view of attaining thereby to a greater freedom in the structure of its periods. I t has entirely given up the Dual both in Verb
(nee), otic dap, htihjt i ( ?o)> rthn W ) ; -iif A (*B), VlUA ( t o ^ r p ) . <dK fcA<* (TS), OISD), (I3i), (DdfD (rrr), fcfl>rtn (a^in) ( ^ J p , m&O Op;?), <SP (rnS) mf4* (pH) ( j ! J ) , and several others.
D,

0 a D

4.

and Noun, just like Aramaic. Towards the formation of Nouns and Inner Plurals it has manifestly at one time possessed a greater number of forms, but owing to a certain economy, abundantly noticeable too in other matters, it has put many of them aside as being unnecessary. Even in the Verb this frugality is shown, so that only a few verbs make use of more than four Conjugations (Stems), while the most of them do not use even so many. A special Passive voice is no longer met with; and its place is supplied by the Reflexive, just as in Syriac. The Active Participle, in the simple Conjugation (Stem) at least, has almost disappeared: in the derived conjugations it is more frequently formed to be sure, but still not regularly, and it is very often lengthened by an external Adjectiveending. Upon the whole the place of the Participle is taken either by Conjunctional Periphrasis or by some other grammatical device. The simple Adjective-formation has greatly decayed. Gn the other hand the formation of words by external addition through prefixes and suffixes, and the formation of derived Substantives and Adjectives, have gained ground. Ethiopic, as we know it, has the capacity of forming Adjectives from all possible Nouns by means of added terminations, of deriving many Abstracts by means of endings, and of advancing Collectives to be Nouns of bulk by means of external plural-endings. Even from Nouns that had been formed by means of external increase, it derives new Verbs, still preserving the additions found in the Nominal formation, and it has allowed the external formation strongly to affect the Infinitive also. To express the Genitive relation it has developed, alongside of the old Construct state, the indication given by an external Genitive sign, just like Aramaic. The roundabout expression of the Genitive and Accusative relations by means of a pronoun appended to the governing word, followed by a preposition having reference thereto,is quite as often met with in Ethiopic as in Syriac, and at the same time it serves in most cases to compensate for the Article. The use of a pronoun affixed to the verb, with a dative signification, has become very common. Then along with the early Semitic form and method of conjoining words in the sentence, ample occupation has been found for Prepositions and Conjunctions in this endeavour. And, to come back once more to the sounds of the language, the disappearance of the short i and it, and the dissolving of all

5-

the short vowels, except a, into the most undefined and characterless of all the vowels, viz. the short e, constitute a phenomenon not indeed original, but still very ancient, in the Ethiopic speech. Consequently much that is old and much that is new lie here together, sometimes strangely mingled: Things which in other languages are allotted to different stages of growth or to different dialects are met with in Ethiopic side by side. We may therefore conclude that Ethiopic, as i t presents itself to us in its literature, has a long period of development behind it, and that the people who once spoke it attained in early times to a high degree of culture. Moreover the people who produced such an admirable and majestic style of sentence with the implements of Semitic speech must have been endowed with great intellectual genius and logical gifts. 5. I t would be a highly desirable advantage for us of changes in its JPliO course, to be better acquainted with the language during the time . when i t was thus coming into being, and to be able to follow i t
n e t i cS y g t e ma n d

Vocabu-

up throughout its various stages of development. But just as in iary. most other languages, so also in this, such an advantage is denied us. The most ancient of the larger monuments of Ethiopic which we have, viz. the two long Axumite inscriptions, made known by E. BtiPPELL ( )barely reach back to the end of the 5 century of our era. Certainly other shorter inscriptions from Axum and other places exist, and have been to some extent noticed already in books of travel( ), being of still older date than those firstmentioned,to judge from the form of their letters: they are, however, both too short and too inaccurately copied to enable us to deduce much from them. Lastly, the Minao-Sabaic monuments, which in quite recent times were discovered in great quantities, exhibit to us a language that, in spite of the agreement in alphabetical character, diverges greatly from Ethiopic, and furnish us
x th 2

( ) I n the Supplement to his 'Travels' printed 183840; v. notice of

the work in Z D M G V I I , p. 3 3 8 ^ . [V. also D . H . M L L E R , 'Epigraphische

Denkmler aus Abessinien\]

()
2

V . the

Travels of SALT AND LORD V A L E N T I A :

One

of

the I n -

scriptions mentioned there has been republished in ISENBERG'S 'Dictionary of the Amh. Lang., p. 209. [V. also C . CONTI ROSSINI 'L'iscrizione dell' obelisco presso Matar: Rendiconti della R. Accad. dei Lincei Vol. V (Roma 1896) p. 250 sqq.]

10

5.

with a proof that the last-named language parted company in very early times with its sister languages of Southern Arabia. Thus it comes that we have not the means of acquainting ourselves with the condition of the Abyssinian national speech in times anterior to the conversion of the country to the Christian faith. And it is only from stray internal evidence, as for instance from the occasional appearance still, with the Noun, of the Suffix Pronoun of the 1 Pers. Sing, i , instead of a later (e)ya,from the retention of e (itf) in a few Interrogative Particles, or the Negative en and such other things,that we are able to conclude that Ethiopic in its earliest period of development had a much closer affinity with Hebrew than appears in the later form of the language. For this very reason we need not wonder that the deciphering of the Minao-Sabaic inscriptions yielded many remarkable analogies between that dialect and Hebrew.
s t

Altogether Ethiopic appears at the beginning of its last thousand years of existence as already a full-grown language, which experienced only a few alterations as time went on. The principal changes which it underwent during that period concern on the one hand its phonetic system, particularly in the pronunciation of its vowels, and on the other its vocabulary, and the continuance in use, or the falling out of use, exhibited by one or two Word-forms. I n the first reference we hold that not earlier than during that period can the softening of the pronunciation of many Consonants have become so marked and so general, that many peculiarities in the relation of Gutturals to Vowels are of comparatively late origin,and that many words and forms have exchanged a fuller and more original Towel-pronunciation for one more faint and faded. We cannot, it is true, obtain proof for what has been advanced, from a comparison of the Inscriptions with the later literary language, because these inscriptions have themselves only defective and occasionally fluctuating vowel-signs (*) ( 12sq.); but the most ancient Manuscripts which we possess, dating from the 13 and 14 centuries onwards, place in our hands evidence of every kind to support those propositions; and we may infer that if we ever came upon Manuscripts belonging
th th

( ) [This view, however, is not confirmed by the accurate copies which we now possess: The Axumite Inscriptions are fully vocalised.]

6.

11

to any of the six or seven earlier centuries, such evidence would flow in upon us still more copiously. The details of these questions will he explained farther on, in the Grammar itself. As regards the other point, all truly careful investigation of old Texts, up to the oldest, and their various readings, proves that many forms and words, and meanings of single words, though in use in earlier days, fell into disuse as time went on, and were replaced by new ones,also and specially, that Arabic words, which were rarely employed in the language of literature, but were quite intelligible to the people, streamed in again more abundantly in the days of lively intercourse with Arabic-speaking populations and tribes, or through the medium of books translated from Arabic ( ). 6. The language was cultivated for literary purposes Ethiopia mainly in the service of religion and of the Church. The large Modem inmaiority of the extant writings are of ecclesiastical character. x veatl a
J J

tions.

These had their basis in the versions of the Books of the Old and New Testaments, in the widest acceptation of the word, which versions were followed forthwith by the translation, or even the independent elaboration, of a series of theological and liturgical works. Beyond question all native authors, in their methods of thought and statement, were dependent more or less on Scripture models. After the Mohammedan conquest of Egypt, and following the cultivation of an Arabic Christian literature, it was in their turn these Arabic models by which Ethiopic authors let themselves be swayed. The language at that time found varied application in setting forth historical, legal, chronological and mathematical material. Many original works of the most diverse kinds were produced in the latest period of prosperity enjoyed
( ) I n neither of these points referred to has much been done hitherto for the investigation of Ethiopic. LUDOLF paid no attention whatever to such historical examination of the language, and represented many things which are ancient and divergent as being mere copyists' errors. So too
THOMAS P E L L PLATT, in the edition of the N . T. which he prepared for the
x

English Bible Society (London 1830) [reprinted at Leipzig 1899], disregarded this point of view. As for myself I have devoted special attention to this matter in my editions of Texts, as the Apparatus Criticus found in them will <how, but I must express the wish that others who edit Texts would do the ame thing.

12

6-

by the speech and the nation, namely from 1300 to 1600 A . D., among which incontestably the most important are the great native Chronicles. Mohammedan Magic-books also, and writings on Astrology and Medicine, gained entrance among the people about the time when barbarism and darkness crept over them. Poetry was always cherished by the Ethiopians with special predilection, but almost exclusively in the service of religion, so far as we yet know. The great Service Hymn-books of the seventh and following centuries are fine poetical productions, but constructed very decidedly on the model of the Psalms. Later on, Sacred Poetry degenerates into an innumerable quantity of Encomia of Saintsmen and women,and proportionately sinks in intrinsic value. Unfortunately this department of Ethiopic literature has hitherto been very little enquired into; yet this much we can even now see,that an artistic Metric had never been developed in i t ; the farthest that was reached in the evolution of orderly form was the articulating of verse in symmetrical strophes, accompanied with rhyme,for the matter of that often enough very imperfect. The Ethiopic language has never had native grammarians, as far as yet known; and this circumstance sufficiently explains why one or two phenomena-in it,like, for instance, the Conjugational-formation (Stem) and Imperfect-formation of several derived Conjugations (Stems), or the treatment of the Gender of Nouns, continued to the last so fluctuating and irregular, Attempts at Ethiopic-Amharic Dictionaries were made in abundance, it is true, about the time the speech was dying out, but they are all very crude, and do not occupy themselves with the grammatical part of the language. I n Europe people began to interest themselves in Ethiopic, in the 16 century. Besides the Abyssinian TESEA-ZION and his associates, who published the N . T. at Rome in 1548,and to some extent even before him,it was JOHN POTKEN of Cologne,
1
TH

MARIANUS VICTOEIUS of Reate, Jo. SCALIGER, T H . PETRAEUS

and

J. G. NISSELIUS, JAC. WEMMERS at ANTWERP , and lastly EDMUND CASTELL , who rendered meritorious services to Ethiopic in various degrees, partly by printing some of the shorter Texts, and partly by grammatical and lexical endeavours ( ). A more comprehensive
x

( ) Cf. also: 'Chaldaeae seu Aethiopicae linguae Institutiones: nunquam

6.

13

and exact acquaintance with the tongue we owe first, however, to the immortal services of JOB LUDOLF (*) , who published the first edition of his 'Orammatica Aethiopica\ 4 , in 1661, and the second edition, folio, in 1702, the latter being still useful. A second and indispensable help was added in his 'Lexicon Aethiopico-Latinum\ the second edition of which, folio, was printed at Frankfort-onthe-Maine in 1699. Inasmuch as LUDOLF in his labours had the advantage of being tutored by a born Ethiopian, G R E G O R Y , at a time when Ethiopic was still tolerably well understood in Abyssinia, we must take his facts as the groundwork for all which relates to Pronunciation. I t deserves to be kept in view, however, that the facts referred to, justify conclusions merely for the pronunciation of Ethiopic common in later times, and are not to be relied upon throughout. I n every other point the labours of LUDOLF have long outlived their sufficiency. Judged from the present position of philology they can no longer be regarded as satisfactory in any single part. During the 150 years that have elapsed since LUDOLF'S day, the furtherance of our knowledge of Ethiopic has been almost wholly neglected both in Germany and in the rest of Europe. A t the most a few printed texts have been revised or simply re-issued, and an occasional reference to Ethiopic has been made here and there in Hebrew Grammars and Dictionaries ( ). I n 1825 H . H U P F E L D gave( ) a certain impulse
T0 2 3

antea a Latinis visae, opus utile ac eruditum. Item, Omnium Aethiopiae regum qui ab inundato terrarum orbe usque ad nostra tempora imperarunt Libellus: hactenus tarn Graecis quam Latinis ignoratus, nuper ex Aethiopica translatus lingua . And at the end: 'Impressit omnia quae in hoc libro con1

tinentur, ex primatum licentia VALERIUS DORICUS BRIXIEN, opera ANGELI D E

OLDRADIS. Romae. Anno natali Christi M.D.L.IL 4. [For the first printed text of the Psalms (in 1513), and of the N. T. v. also GUIDI, 'La prima stampa del Nuovo Testamento in Etiopico fatta in Roma nel 15481549', in Vol. I X of the Archivio della R. Societ Romana di Storia patria, Rome
1886.]

( ) [Cf. J . FLEMMING, 'Hiob Ludolf: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der orientalischen Philologie' in Beitrge zur Assyriologie, Vol. I , 1890, p. 537 sqq, and Vol. I I , 1894, p. 63 sqq.] ( ) The 'Grammatica Aethiopica conscripta' a Jo, PHIL. HARTMANNO, Prankfort a. M . 1707, 4 is a poor epitome of LUDOLF'S work; nor has learning been advanced by J . G . HASSE'S 'Handbuch der arabischen und thiopischen Sprache , Jena 1793. ( ) In a paper written in early youth 'Exercitationes Aethiopicae
2 t 0 1 3 1

14

6.

to the resumption of grammatical labours in the field of our language, without, however, this start having been followed up either by himself or others. Some valuable contributions to Ethiopic phonology have been furnished by H . T U C H C ) ; and many excellent hints on isolated phenomena in the Ethiopic language are found in the latest edition of EWALD'S 'Ausfhrliches Lehrbuch der hebrischen Sprache' ( ).
2

Lips. 1825, 4. The chief merit of this paper lies in pointing out the true distinction between the first and the second Conjugations (Stems) of the Yerb, which LUDOLF had entirely mistaken. As to what HUPFELD has advanced about the Ethiopic pronouns in his treatise 'Semitische Demomtrativbildung' in the 2 vol. of the Zeitschr. f. d. K. d. Morg., it appears to me in many respects untenable. DEECHSLER'S work 'De Aethiopicae linguae conjugationibus', Lipsiae 1825, has complicated rather than amended LUDOLF'S theory of Stem-formation: the sole value it possesses belongs to its collection of supporting-passages for a series of verbal forms.
U D

( ) I . 'Commentatio de Aethiopicae linguae sonorum proprietatibus quibusdam', Lips. 1854; I I . 'De Aethiopicae linguae sonorum sibilantium natura et usu\ Lips. 1854. ( ) [ V . now, particularly A . DILLMANN'S 'Lexicon linguae Aethiopicae cum indice Latino', Lips. 1865, as well as F. PRAETORIUS' Aethiopische Grammatik mit Paradigmen, Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar' = 'Porta linguarum Orientalium'.inchoavit J . H . PETERMANN, continuavit HERM. L . STRACK Pars V I I , Leipzig 1886.]
2

PART FIRST. O R T H O G R A P H Y AND PHONOLOGY.

As the Ethiopic alphabetic Character differs completely in form and in kind from that of the other known Semitic tongues, the subject itself invites us to begin with a description of that Character.

I . OETHOGRAPHY.
7. The Ethiopic Character has been fashioned, by a series Miuaoof more or less important alterations, from the Minao-Sabaic ^ " character, or one resembling it, and together they represent the Alpha0 { t h e

betic Oha* raoters.

Southern branch of the alphabetical systems, into which the original Semitic alphabet was very early divided. The opinion of earlier scholars, that the Ethiopic Character was of Greek origin^), must now be regarded as completely set aside. The characters of the Abyssinian Inscriptions are either identical with the MinaoSabaic, or so like them that there can be no manner of doubt about their derivation ( ). The changes which the Minao-Sabaic
2

(*) Y . on this point HPFELD, Fxercitationes Aeth. p. 14 and K O P P , 'Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit'. LUDOLF too inclined to this view, but still he thought that the 'inventor' had had an eye also on the Samaritan alphabet, therein showing a correct apprehension of the Semitic origin of this Character (Hist. I Y , 1. Comment, p. 60, 555). ( ) As to the literature, cf. E . KNIG, 'Neue Studien ber Schrift, Aussprache, und allgemeine Formenlehre des Aethiopischen, aus den Quellen geschpft, comparativ und physiologisch erlutert'. Leipzig 1877 [in what follows,
2

quoted as "KNIG"].

Farther, SCHLOTTMANN in RIEHM'S H W B p. lA2Qsqq.[;

DERENBOUEG, 'Journ. as.' V I I , 19, p. Slbsqq.; E E D R . M L L E E , 'lieber den Ur-

sprung der himjarisch-thiopischen

Schrift', Vienna 1869 [and D . H . MLLER,

16

8.

Number of the Consonants.

form of writing has undergone in Abyssinia are manifold, and will be farther described by-and-by; but they are not so marked as to prevent us from recognising without difficulty the ancient Minao-Sabaic characters in the ordinary Ethiopic ones, independently even of the intervention of the Ethiopic Inscriptions (cf. Table I ) . The character, like the speech itself, and even more decidedly, has kept to a very antique stage. Both in print, and as a rule in Manuscripts, it is inscribed with large, firmly impressed strokes; and the older the manuscripts, the more pronounced is this feature. ft g j yi ^he other Semitic forms of writing, the
# t a

Ethiopic is originally consonantal. The number and the order of these consonants are not the same, however, in this language as in the others. Farther, the names given them are here and there peculiar. (1) I n Number the Ethiopic Consonants are six-and-hventy, -four more than in the Northern Semitic tongues. Two of these four are accounted for by dividing, in two cases, a sound that once was single into two modes of pronunciation. The strong Guttural fi was divided, just as among the Arabs, into the two sounds di ( ^ ) , and * 1 f ( ^ ) ; and in the same way the sibilant 2 was divided into ft {yc) and 0 i^o)- Other divisions, peculiar to the Arabs, of sounds originally one into two, viz. n into ^ and T into and j , and tD into and Jfc, are unknown to the Ethiopians, though perhaps the Minao-Sabaeans had them. On the other hand the Abyssinians possess two additional sounds, which were not admitted into Arabic, viz,a hard, peculiarly-formed Labial (28) & = p\ and one that answers more to the usual p,that is T, mostly employed in foreign words. Besides these 26 characters, Amharic letters appear, it is true, in Ethiopic books, when foreign words
'Epigraphische Denkmler aus Abessinien', p. 69 ; M . LIDZBARSKI, 'Ephemeris fr semitische Epigraphik I , p. 109sqq., I I , p. 23sgg.; and PRAETORIUS, Z D M G L V I I I (1904), p. 715sqq.]. On the earlier theory of the connection of the Ethiopic alphabet with the Indian, cf. SALT, ' Voyage to Abyssinia (1814), p. 415; LEPSIUS, 'Zwei sprachvergleichende Abhandlungen (1836), p. 76 sq. and
1 1 1

DEEKE, Z D M G
1

X X X I , p. 598;

on the

opposite side, DOWSON, J.

1

Roy.

As.

Soc. X I I I (1881), pt. 1.Completely astray is the account given in J . BIRD'S 'Sur Vorigine de l'alphabet Himiarite et de Valphabet thiopien in 'Nouvelles annales des voyages , Paris 1845, T o i . I I , p. 196sqq.
1

9.

17

or native proper names from the various Abyssinian dialects have to be written with greater exactness, but these do not concern us here^). 9. (2) The Names of these alphabetical characters and N a m e s of sounds are essentially the same as among the other Semites, and ^nu ' have manifestly been taken over along with the alphabet ( ). Some of them have been so far altered as to conform to the Ethiopic expression or word in use, without the original sense of the Name being affected; a few others remain only in a corrupt form and without any clear meaning. I n particular, Alf, Bet, Geml, Kdf, ^Ain directly coincide with the old names: Qdf is to be understood for Qdf according to 18; Tait and Sadai rest upon the resolution of the diphthong e into ai: Rees is the ordinary Ethiopic word for "head", Mai, for "water": the old name Yod was not available, because the Ethiopic word for "hand'' was rather Ji% and it was accordingly replaced suitably by Yaman "right hand": for a like reason Nun "fish", which word is not in use in Ethiopic, has been exchanged for a word of like meaning Nahds "serpent"; in this way in the last two cases the starting sounds y and n have been properly preserved. But when the Ethiopians exchanged Pe "mouth" for Af which is their word for "mouth", then the general rule,according to which the commencing sound in the name must be the same as the sound of the character,was set at nought, and a clear proof was given at the same time that the Ethiopic name is not the original one. Eor Waw and Taiv the Ethiopians, in accordance with 38, say Waive, Tawe. Eor Set they prefer to use an Arabic word, but of the same meaning, Haut
nS n

and for its sister-sound they have created a new name of Din) "hedge" ( ).
3

like meaning, Harm

On the other handifai,

(*) [For the benefit of students, however, these letters have been added on Table I . TE.] ( ) On the names of the Ethiopic Consonants among the Abyssinians of to-day, consisting each of an Ethiopic word, which starts with the sound designated, e. g. ^ 1 " M l ^ , 0 0th> cf. PRAETORIUS, Amhar. Spr.' 1 6 and ZDMG- X L I , p. 687. [Cf. farther, on the names of the Ethiopic Letters, NOLDEKE, 'Die semitischen Buchstabennamen' in 'Beitr, z. Semit, SprachivissenschafV, Strassburg 1904, p. 131 sqq, TR.] ( ) [NOLDEKE ('Beitr. z. semit. SprachwS p. 133) rejects this explanation
1 3 2

18

Dent (v. GESENIUS, 'Thes. p. 727, and infra 32) and still more strongly Laive, properly Laiv,seem to have been corrupted from ZainC), -Ofl^ and Lamed respectively: These three names have no longer any meaning in Ethiopia Hoi is just as obscure a name as He, with which it appears to be identical. The most obscure names, however, continue to be Saut and Sat instead of Shin and Samech: the most probable explanation is that they are imitations of the outward form of the names Hatd and Bet, to the characters of which their own present a resemblance. Sappa{ ) (originally
2

Dappd) I compare with "a bolt", which is quite appropriate to the ancient form of the character. Bait is a name formed in imitation of Tait, next to which it stands in the Alphabet; and Pa is the Greek Pi: Moreover, the name of the last-mentioned character was once given with a slight sibilation, Psa. order of the 10. (3) Of more importance, however, than its divergence Alphabet. fro the Northern-Semitic Alphabet in the Names of the Consonants, is the divergence of the Ethiopic alphabet in the Order in which they stand. The Hebrew order of the characters is, as we know, very ancient; but we do not know how ancient the Ethiopic order may be, nor even whether the Minao-Sabaeans had the same order. We are not justified in contending right off that the Hebrew order is the original, and the Ethiopic the derived one. I t may, on the other hand, with some reason be thought that during the times which followed the invention and spread of the Alphabet different orders of the letters came into vogue, being definitely arranged in different ways in different regions. And in fact, on closer investigation of the order of the Ethiopic Alphabet, one peculiarity in it appears to yield the inference that that order may well be very ancient, and other orders compared with it be decided innovations ( ). The Northern-Semitic alphabet, as is well
m 7 3

of the name Harm, remarking that f,j~L begins with ^ and not with and does not mean "hedge '. He says the name rather suggests a connection with lQ0D't "a small stroke", TR.] (*) Although it should be noticed that the Greeks have no nasal sound either, in the name of their letter Xfira (v. HUPF. p. 2 ) . ( ) Certainly not an imitation of Kappa, as GESENIUS in 'ERBCH und GRBER'S Encyclopdie' would have it.
1 gl m 3

()

Cf. BHMER, Z D M G X V I , p.

579.

478

188.

an Adjective in the Plural masculine, or feminine. But all other Plurals, particularly those of inner formation (Collective forms), may again be conceived of as compact collective notions, and therefore as Singulars, and either masculine or feminine, following in fact the same fluctuation which prevails in the Gender of the Singular. I n these cases a Plural may just as readily be associated with an Adjective in the Singular masculine or feminine, as with an Adjective in the Plural m. or f. (v. 135). We meet with 4 ) 0 7 ) ^ 7 Mark 2, 15; ftjMHl *nYkl Mark 3,20; h(\C i (DhOhlC i Hen. 1,6; Oft.?* s
(D^h-t * M-t
0

Hen. 5,4; 00) : - n H ^ Hen. 32,3; h A M * :

t

h(hlC Mark 4, 36;but also with -\*h9^'i ' Oh\ <Dfl(Nh> Hen. 36,4; ^a^ }^ : oy?^ Hen. 67,13; hMtl ' Gen. 24, 53; -flff-i s fcAHfl Gen. 17,4; m - f c * : ?W Hen. 13,10; U j * *t ' Matt. 9,17; : - f l t M Ps. 92, 6; r i d ^ ' I t may be given as a general observation, that any Plural, whatever be its form, may be joined to an Adjective in the Plural in that gender which belongs to the word in the Singular,but also that any Plural, or even Plural of Plurals ( 141) may be conceived of too as a Singular,in which case it usually takes to itself the Adjective in the Singular and in the readiest gender, the Masculine, although it may also be in the Feminine. But, on the other hand, words which are Singular in form,if they are either essentially the expression of collective notions, or even have merely a collective meaning in the particular passages concerned, are joined to the Plural of the Adjective, and that too in the Gender which properly belongs to the individual components of the collective idea: -fllKV} : fl-flfc Mark 4 , 1 ; A l M l : ffW Gen. 14,5; Deut. 9,2; fl'ttth't * Od P'l* "great splendours" ('great magnificence') Hen. 65, 12; A H t f 8 7 i : "Thfl^Afc" C'lb^'i "for distant future generations" Hen. 1, 2( ); and even 0(B f<f* : OflJ&i' Hen. 85, 6 ; cf. also OflJK.'Th s 11^9 with 0 f l . f : TJtf 1 Esr. 2, 49. An Adjective which admits of an inner plural form, generally assumes it when the Noun, with which it is co-ordinated, has also the Collective form: O - f l C ^ ' O f l t f ^ Gen. 1,21; ^h9C O f l $ft Josh. 24,17 ; hfon-d 0 f l ^ < D 8 V n Josh. 23, 9; hftOf*
a a m

(*) [Instead of the last two words here, FLEMMING reads C/h]Hf*> the Fern. Sing, and does not, like DILLMANN, repeat *|"|D"AA
, TR

-1

20

ing occasioned the shifting of *h into the first row, and of JV into the second, through which arrangement the juxtaposition of the Gutturals in one and the same row was secured. On the other hand may have changed place with fl, only when it became necessary to attach -p to the Ethiopic alphabet, and then was finally placed at the end of the second row immediately before f. (3) When men had still a clear consciousness of the twofold division of the alphabet, the two Southern-Semitic sounds *V and 0 were added, one to each row, and in fact at the end of each row. I n consequence, the letter ft came to stand immediately before its sister-sound at the end; and, in accordance with the first of the points of view which are being noticed here, V was moved on to *V and in fact placed after it, to separate *1i from \\. (4) Then a regard to the similarity of the sounds operated as a last regulative point of view. People wanted to have similar sounds as close together as possible, and only separated them in the several instances by one letter of a different nature, in order that two which were similar might not directly clash together. I n this way *fi is brought up to U, but is separated from it by A; fi to IP but separated by ; ft to m , separated by |; while ft and 0 at one time did not resemble each other in sound so closely as they came to do later. Thus the first row,originally beginning with A and ending with f % contains the Liquids A 0 V and ^ , together with the two Sibilants ft and w, along with the three Gutturals 0 th **i and the three Mutes J >fl-f* (fl in place of original <{.); and the entire series begins with a guttural corresponding to the Alf. This row gives the most clear indications of purposeful arrangement. I n the second row, as compared with the corresponding Hebrew one, still more violent transpositions are to be noticed. I t is only ft (D fi f which present any likeness to the Hebrew succession. I n 7 n i A? however, we again meet with three Mutes placed together, and in fll A ft 0 with four Explosives. I have not up till now met with any deviation from the order developed here( ); yet it is to be noted that POTKEN inter!

C) An Ethiopic alphabet is met with in the MS. Add. 16240 of the British Museum; cf. DILLMANN, 'Cafalogus codicum nianuscriptorum Orientalium qui in Museo Britannico asservantur*; pars tertia, Londini 1847, p. 58, No. L X X I .

21
th

th

changed the positions of the 5 and 7 letters w and fl,an alteration which, provided it rest upon a historic basis, might easily be proved to be the better arrangement. 11. I I . With regard to the Form of the Ethiopic script, Form of it has already been mentioned that all the letters have been Direction*" fashioned out of forms presented by the Minao-Sabaic; only the &character T appears, like its sound, to have been derived from T (or II?). The letter *1i was at one time very like 0 and seems even to have sprung from it in Minao-Sabaic just by a slight alteration. Eor Zai the Abyssinians took the Minao-Sabaic character for Dsal, The origin of the character & is still obscure: it might be nearest the mark to recognise in it a new^ formation from Q or <{. (in its old form). By and by, however, there occurred with the Abyssinians an important alteration in the old mode of writing,for it gradually became the custom to ivrite from left to right. Among the MinaoSabaeans the writing as a rule ran from right to left, just as it did among the rest of the Semites, with the exception of the Babylonian-Assyrians; sometimes too the writing was /3ovarpo(f)yjh6u. A few of the older Ethiopic Inscriptions still indicate that the direction from right to left was at one time known also among the Abyssinians; but evidently the example of the Greek mode of writing, which was familiar to the Abyssinians even in preChristian times, and especially in Christian times, helped to bring about the gradual establishment of the direction from left to right ( ). The practice of writing towards the right had gained prevalence even in the age of RUPPELL'S pair of long Inscriptions; and in books it is met with exclusively.
of WritiD x

This gradual change in direction seems to have had no ulterior effect on the form of the characters themselves; the most of them suited either direction. The characters 7 J h lend themselves even more readily to the new direction of writing than to the old; only ^ , instead of its original curve from right to left, took
The common view, that the direction of Ethiopic writing to the right is a pure innovation of the Greek missionaries, cannot be maintained. If the opposite manner of writing had been the only one known and allowed before the Greeks brought their influence to bear, then it would be inconceivable how and why this complete reversal of the old method had been arrived at.

22

the opposite curve. On the other hand in still early times, when writing came into more frequent use, a different position with respect to the ground-line was assigned to several of the characters, in order to give them a more pleasing and symmetrical appearance^), viz., to ({, en*, w, *f* ft, farther, the character for *fi was reversed. Moreover, the essential and distinguishing lines of a few of the letters were brought more distinctly into prominence (as, for instance, with and 4 ), while in other cases unessential lines were given up (*1[ and <); and finally all were set at equal height. While sharp corners predominate in almost all the letters of the Minao-Sabaic and ancient Ethiopic script, the natural result of much writing and of consequent efforts to write with greater rapidity was to round these corners off. I n this way what took two, three, or more strokes of the pen in old times could be completed in one stroke (as in 0 rh 0 W 4* ft K U 0 f ft 1 m 9k 0) I t is only in characters which have broken lines that the sharper angles remain (J and in ({ and fl, because the rounding off of these might have led to their being mistaken for ft and ft. Even in EUPPELL'S Inscriptions we find this rounding off of the strokes carried out to some extent, although the angular style would have been easier on stone. Scarcely a start had been made towards binding individual letters into groups of letters. I n BUPPELL'S Inscription I I , 38, such a group appears to be met with( ); and in Manuscripts too, in the case of the Ethiopic name for God, we come upon the crasis of 7 and ff into |f, and upon the group for and upon for "Hf &c. But such interlacing is extremely rare and is evidently meant withal for abbreviation (cf. infra 15 N . 2; and 16 ad fin.). Then the peculiar mode of writing the vowels must have set itself against the prevalence of this device ( 13 sqq.). I t has thus remained a rule almost without exception, coming down from the most ancient times, that the several letters of a word be placed beside one another, but independently and without attachment, just as in other old modes of writing.
; 1 2

The notion of HUPFELD (p. 2),that the shape of the letters was affected by the Abyssinian style of housebuilding,is more ingenious than sound. I t can have no application in the case of f W 0O Q % ft 7 0, ( ) [This assumption is not continue I by BENT'S accurate copy.]
2

23

So much the more it became necessary to separate the several words from one another in some way, if confusion was not to arise. I n the Minao-Sabaic, and in the more ancient Ethiopic writing, a perpendicular stroke ( | ) , which is constantly employed in RUPPELL'S Inscriptions, had come into use as a word-divider. This stroke was transformed later on into two points standing the one above the other (:), which bore the name "points" among the Ethiopians; they are quite regularly and indeed without exception placed after every complete word( ). And this method of separating the words,which prevents all coalescing of different words,has also made it possible to break up a word at the end of a line when there is no more room, and put the rest of it into the next line. The introduction of the so-called literae dilatabiles has therefore become superfluous ( ).
1 2

VOWEL DENOTATION. 12. I I I . This mode of writing, inherited by the Ethiopians Vowel Deand farther developed in the way pointed out, was originally con- ooSorat^d sonantal. like all the other Semitic systems except the Babylonianw i t h Oon

sonantal

Assyrian. The vowels m Semitic word-iormation are exceedingly changeable and shifting; the consonants are the firm, unalterable portion of the word. I t was therefore a subtle conception, suited to the genius of the Semitic tongue that, provided the firm and, so to speak, visible and corporeal portion of the word were written, the spiritual and mobile portion might remain without outward sign. Meanwhile it is well-known that none of the Semitic modes of writing adhered to this their first and simplest stage. I n consequence of the want of any vowel-marking, obscurity in many cases supervened, and an endeavour was made at a second stage
( ) [In the more recent printing of Ethiopic these points () are kept strictly to the function of separating one Ethiopic word from another. For instance they are not usually employed now after an Ethiopic word which stands alone, nor even after the last word of an Ethiopic group, TR.] ( ) On the Abyssinian method of writing the vowels, v. now also HALVY, 'Journ. as. V I I I , 6, pp. 248sqq., 273 and D . H . MLLER, 'Epigr. Denkm.\ p. 69 sqq.
2 : x

script,

24

of development to remedy this defect by employing the semivowels (and finer gutturals) as vowel signs for certain long vowels and diphthongs. Then at a third and last stage all vowels were marked by placing various points and strokes above or below the line. Among the Ethiopians also this advance from defectiveness to greater clearness in the writing was gradually effected; but in their case all that concerns this matter was evolved in a quite independent and quite peculiar manner; and the final result was a most complete and accurate system of vowel-marking, which differs entirely from the other Semitic systems, and in some measure resembles more the Indian system. I t is true that the employment of the semivowel characters to make up for long I and ii, or for diphthongs compounded of i or w, was not unfamiliar to the Southern-Semitic tribes; but, compared with the Northern-Semitic systems, the usage was less common. I t was only diphthongs that were with comparative regularity written by means of w and y, while these letters were not usually employed to indicate u or I except at the end of a word( ). Such is the case in the Minao-Sabaic Inscriptions, as well as in the two or three words of the oldest Ethiopic Inscriptions which one can read from existing copies. No proof has yet been given that the finer Gutturals ever came to be used in the South as Yowel signs; and such a use is peculiarly improbable in Ethiopic. The Ethiopians appear never to have advanced to any more frequent employment of (D and f to denote u and I. I n the I n scriptions of EUPPELL, which indeed have many other vowel signs,we nowhere find them used with this object, not even in cases where % and u belong to the root; ft. is written ft; 0h] li'P'P, Via*']?, and so on( ). Only, Diphthongs proper were continually written with a (0 or a ?: and even after the introduction of the new Yowel signs, this style of writing them
J 2

(*) Already pointed out by EWALD in HOFER'S 'Zeitschrift fur die Wissenschaft der Sprache I , p. 302, and by OSTANDER, ZDMG X , p. 35sq. ( ) [The recent copies of these Inscriptions show, however, that they carry out thoroughly the ordinary vocalisation; cf. above p. 10, N. (1).] If in I , 1 and I I , 2 *flftflf is met with for the later that has no bearing upon vowel writing; it merely shows that the construct state of ' *flft/i had at one time a fuller sound.
1 2

25

continued in vigorous use, but yet in such fashion that Oh and were with greater accuracy set down instead of the more general CD and f . I n all other cases, however, the Ethiopians entirely abandoned this path, pointed out to them by the rest of the Semites, a path which, however thoroughly followed up, would never have brought them to their goal, and they struck out another path which rewarded their efforts far better, and gave a notable proof of their genius. Starting from the fundamental conception of Semitic writing,that the written consonant is a body in which inheres unseen a soul, a vowel, by which alone it becomes audible, they set to work to indicate the kind of vowel present in the particular consonantal character, by attaching to it small strokes or rings. This device was appropriate and sufficient, and being governed by very exact rules it brought about the development of the original consonantal script into a highly perfected syllabary, which for completeness and effectiveness leaves little to be desired. There are short Ethiopic inscriptions in which no trace of this new mode of denoting the vowels can be detected. In the Inscriptions of E U P P E L L it makes its appearance already, half-formed Its beginnings must therefore be referred to no later a date than about the fifth century of our era and may go even farther back. Foreign influences are not to be thought of in this matter ( ): the invention of the system was the work of the Abyssinian people.
2

O [Cf., however, above, p. 10, N. (1); and p. 24, N. (2).] ( ) DE SACY entertained the singular idea that the Greek vowel-signs somehow served as a model. Then the Syriac new vocalisation-system cannot have any relevance in this matter, seeing that not only is it quite different in its nature but also was just beginning itself to be formed at that remote time. W . JONES, KOPP, and LEPSIUS ventured^a guess at Indian influence, and the last-named would also have derived from the same source the right-hand direction of the writing; but the Indian vowel-writing resembles the Ethiopic only in taking in the short a, while in every other respect it is formed quite differently. Nor can I agree with "WEBER in what he advances about India borrowing the principle of the Ethiopic mode of denoting the vowels, in his essay " JJeber den semitischen Vrsprung des indischen Alphabets" (in 'Indische Studieri ). [Perhaps however, DILLMANN'S complete exclusion of the possibility of foreign influence in this matter has not been altogether justified, even by this Note.]
2 1


s h o r t a as 13.

26
of

tht Vuireh was

This

iw*c

mvtltod

dnuutixi)

carried
*

"
present ID CousoGroundform.
(

sl

out In detail us follows:

'

The trround-vowel. that is to s;iv short

^

Discussion of the I a d i c a t i o n of short vowels other than

(. predominates in Ethiopic just as it does in ancient languages generally. It is to be pronounced in every case except where some other vowel is expressly indicated, and accordingly it needs no special sign. The ground-form of a consonant is conceived as containing the vowel it, and therefore it has always to be pronounced with a. exactly as in the Sanskrit mode of writing. All the more on this ground, however, it became necessary
. . . . . , . . '

to give some indication ot every other vowel, as well as ot the ] f vowel from a consonant. The vowels, other than a.
) s e i i c e 0 a alK le sn01

8enceof'a

a, ami which are found in Ethiopic speech, are the long vowels d. 1, a, ^ *' 't is which originally inclined sometimes rather vowei. { \ sometimes to d (v. 17j. Of these the five long vowels were esteemed so important and essential that it appeared necessary to indicate each of them by a special sitm. < )n the other hand the short vowel c appeared to stand beneath d in value and in weight, and to be undeserving of a mark of its own. And so, both in cases where is, and in cases where no vowel at all had to lie given, one sign indicated that here d was not to lie used; but whether is, or no vowel at all icun to be used. had to be determined by the reader's own knowledge. This system, fashioned by and for those who were familiar with the language, might well suffice for Abyssinian readers; and doubtless only a few cases would present any difficulty to them as to the proper reading. But foreigners, who are not masters of the language, and who are just proceeding to acquire it from this very writing, find here 110 small defect. It is well known how inconvenient in Hebrew writing is the coincidence of the sign for the absence of a vowel and the sign for the weakest vowel-sound, in the Sh'rui ). The same inconvenience is met with in Ethiopic writing. But take along with this the following:It is impossible that i and n should originally have been wanting in any language; and thus we are easily led to suppose that the Abyssinians. like others,
0 a n t 1

( ) [This weakest and most rapid vowel-sound, often called by the Germans ~ Voca/anstoss' and corresponding generally to the Hebrew Sh'va Cambridge 1890. mohile, has been spoken of by B I C K E I . L as "a volatilized Vowel'': cf. AVRIUHT, Lectures on the Comp. G-ramm. of the Semitic Languages', It might perhaps be designated 'the fugitive vowel', T R . ]

27

distinguished the use of i and it. in pronunciation at all events though not in writing, while in writing they threw together in one sign the absence of a vowel and these vowels, as being along with a the more trifling ones. But i f that had been the case, the Ethiopic mode of writing would have had the farther inconvenience of obliterating the distinction in pronunciation which lias been referred to. and we moderns would be faced with the grievous difficulty, in the absence of farther information, of being no longer able to say in the several cases, whether / or it or e was the vowel used in speech. Meanwhile the following is worth consideration: I f , when this system of vowel-writing was formed, the distinction of ii (6) and / (e) had been still as full of life, and as important for the sense and meaning of a word, as perhaps it was in Arabic or even in Hebrew, then it would lie inconceivable that this distinction could have been left unindicated in writing. But the case is otherwise i f the then existing speech, i. e. the Old Ethiopic, had already ceased to make use of this finer discrimination of the short vowels in word-formation and inflection: for then it was not a matter of essential importance, whether one said i or . Of course in these circumstances there was no longer any need to attend to the distinction of these short vowels in pronunciation: and the way was clear for the gradual blending of all the short vowels into one indeterminate c, which sometimes leant rather to i. sometimes to it. sometimes to a. We do not know how far this decay in the pronunciation of the shortvowels had advanced, but assuredly it spread more and more in later times: and in the 10 and 17 centuries the short vowel was very generally rendered as a colourless
th th

14. I n the actual designation of vowels, six different cases Forma of had to be distinguished. L?toZ (a) The sign for n consists in propping the letter with a small perpendicular .stroke, which is meant to give support and f continuance, as it were, to the ti contained in the letter! ). This , '
l l i c a t e t h e 0 1 L u u g Vo

ela aever-

prop is usually applied to the right side of the letter (by way of distinction from </). (1) I f the letter is closed above, and runs out below into two or three unconnected limits, the pro]) is attached
()
l

aiiy.

Cf. the fact that in the Devanagari system long a,a double mora

sa it were.is expressed by adding the stroke T. A somewhat remoter resemblance is presented by the Greek sign for the acute accent.

28

to the right limb with the effect of lengthening the same; but, in order to prevent the letter from stretching over the base-line, it is made smaller in size, and so presents the appearance not of having the right limb lengthened, but of having the left limb or limbs shortenedthus A <h *l fl h U H % 1 ft (2) I f the letter has only one foot, this ought properly to be lengthened; but to avoid passing over the base-line, this prolongation turns off at a right angle towards the left (by way of distinction from t), $r p p ^0(3) I f the letter is rounded underneath, then it is propped underneath on the right side '/ < * 7 "/ i ?; only (D has the prop in the centre P. (4) Of the two letters which have a horizontal line below, one& forms its sign for long a by assuming a more upright position and by lengthening its middle stroke, 4*, while the other, <, breaks off its horizontal line in an upward direction and attaches the prop to this In. (5) Finally, lets the lower portion of its broken line stand for prop, and completes itself by assuming a new line above, (b) The sign for u, or for % consists in a horizontal stroke applied to the right side of the letter, which may be considered as indicating a divergence in the pronunciation,a turning aside from the straight, open ft-sound. The distinction between the signs for u and for l is made patent by applying the stroke to the lower end of the letter to denote I, and to the centre of it to denote w( ). (1) The sign for u is in all cases attachable without farther difficulty: Only, in the case of the lower line again has to be broken off, but this time in a downward direction, so that the vowel-line, as distinguished from that lower line, may readily catch the eye ^ ( ): I n exactly the same way 4* must be understood. (2) The sign for I is also of easy attachment to most of the letters: only, in the case of % \ \ %, the ground-forms of which are rounded below, the attachment is effected by means of a small auxiliary line. With ^ and & the divergence in the pronunciation is signified by the turning upwards of the lower line;
8 4 t k

( ) As LUDOLF, in fact, incorrectly supposed was the case. ( ) The hook, attached thereto is not an essential part of the letter or sign, but is a mere flourish both here and in other similar cases. ( ) And yet the reverse proceeding would be more natural, for u is the deeper sound, and i the higher. ( ) Very deserving of notice, however, is h, = ru in the Inscriptions.
2 3 4

14.

29

and with f, the -sign is applied,perhaps to obviate confusion with ft,by means of an auxiliary line in the centre of the letter, ft. (c) The sign for e is a development of the i-sign. The horizontal line, which represents % is bent upwards and back into the letter, thus forming a small ring^), to represent e = a + i = i-\-a ( 40). The mode of attachment is exactly the same as with the stroke for l\ only, in <J, and ^ it is simpler than in that case( ). (d) The sign for b is twofold. According to one conception o was an Ablaut of a, and so was at first marked like a; but a distinction was speedily introduced, according to Avhich in the case of d the prop was attached to the left side ( r h f l n f r i ? / f l fl* # P)i i the middle (*f V); with *p the same is to be signified by slanting the foot, y . According to another conception, however, which we meet with even as early as in the Inscriptions, d, on account of its origin from u and tv, has come to be denoted by a small ring applied to the upper part of the letter,a sort of small CD, (if $ ) ; with ft it is attached to the centre (though, in the Inscriptions, to the top( )). But in the case of f, to avoid attaching two rings together, a simple stroke put at the head (a kind of higher-placed w-sign) appeared to be sufficient {g*); and similarly it seemed enough in the case of "J to place a stroke perpendicularly on the upper line, which stroke, it may be, was originally meant to carry the small circle ()). Manifestly writers at one time wavered between these two methods of designating o; but the first seems to have gained the upper hand, and it was only in cases where it could not well be applied that the second method obtained a firm footing. (e) The signs for short vowels other than a, and for the want of a vowel, meet in a single sign( ), as has already been mentioned, the^rfe2 T r , 1 , o r 1 1 3 F o r m s in 4

(*) This ring might also be explained as an abbreviated f = ^ , particularly as the ring more than once denotes % in the Inscriptions. ( ) LAURENCE'S Isaiah-Manuscript frequently gives 0 as well as e. g. capp. 22, 20; 27, 4; 37, 35. ( ) [In the earliest MSS., and down to the 15 century, the characteristic form of lo is JS ; cf. W . WRIGHT, 'Catalogue of the Ethiopic Manuscripts in the British Museum, London 1877, p. X.] ( ) The view that this sign signified at first the weakest vowel-sound, and only in the second line the absence of a vowelis defended by KONIG, p. 58.
2 3 th 4


ence of a ei other than a, or Ahsence of a vowei.

30

This also, like the sign for o, varies with different letters and has sprung from different conceptions,a circumstance which is the i ^ ^ wondered at here, seeing that the sign has a different
e s s

'

value in different cases. I n one division of the letters we find an upright line in the letter either broken, or bent in, whether above or below (\) v C *h Yl 1T ^ T)? set in a sloping position (ft), by which devices the complete breaking off of the direct pronunciation, or, in other words, the virtual absence of the vowel, is probably indicated. With other letters, however, a sign, like the one for u and t,that is, a horizontal stroke by the side of the letterhas become established, The one sign must originally have had a like signification with the other, and certainly had been meant to indicate a divergencea bending awayfrom the a-souncl. By way of distinction from the signs for u and % , however, it was, as a rule, attached to the left side of the letter, either at the top or in the middle (rh 4* ih ?i Tf, 9" *fl), but in other cases to the right at the top of the letter (0* A" X); with 0, and f it was transformed into a perpendicular line, to save space; and in the case of it was drawn right under the letter. The alphabet was shared between these two methods of designation; and the grounds which led to the one method being adopted in the case of one letter, and the other method in the case of another, were to some extent merely fortuitous, for with fl, for instance, the same marking might have been looked for as with h- But after the vocalisation had become established, the meaning was quite the same, although the sign used might have sprung from the one or the other conception. I n this way seven permanent forms were gradually evolved for every one of the 26 letters, out of very irregular and fluctuating beginnings. I n the alphabetic summary the Abyssinians themselves have brought these forms, of seven different kinds, into a definite succession, as is set forth in Table I . Correctly enough they put in the first position the ground-form which is to be pronounced with a and which they called *7d*lf i* e. the nature or plan of the rest, from which they were developed. The remaining six forms take their names from their order, 7iA*fl Second (Form), *f AA Third &c. The order which in this way they have arranged has, to be sure, little to recommend it. I t seems particularly inappropriate to put the form, which indicates e or the want of a
o r

 15.

31

vowel, in the sixth place and before the o-form. But perhaps the sixth and seventh forms were assigned their places at the end on historical grounds, because in fact it was known that both these forms were of composite growth, being each of them derived from diverse principles of designation, and that they were the last of all to be reduced to fixed rule. 15. (f) But alongside of these seven forms, possessed by neveiopeach of the 26 letters, there grew up farther in the case of 4 of u-containthe letters 5 new forms for each. As will be explained farther on s
in L tters

and their

( 26), a special mode of pronunciation was developed with the several letters ^ *| h 7? according to which, when they have to be pronounced " with an a- or an i-e-sound, a u in certain cases thrusts itself between the consonant and the leading vowel. For this it-containing pronunciation of the gutturals the perfection of the system demanded special signs. These were developed out of the ordinary designation of the u (i. e. by a horizontal stroke placed at the side) by attaching in a special way to the it-stroke the sign for the leading vowel. To indicate lie a perpendicular stroke is placed upon the it-sign V- Irf* 7*); for ul the i-sign is rather attached beneath, the perpendicular stroke reaching over the horizontal line ft*. 7*); when compounded with the signs for a and e on the other hand the it-stroke is shifted to the foot of the letter qua, que & c ) ; to indicate ua, the li-sign is closed at its end into a ring (fcc.^ ). I n a later age the itd-sign, originally contrived for these four letters, was now and again appended in the signification of wa to other letters, namely t o f l ^ A ^ r t ^ * * . ; and P., for example, was written for f]*p, &c. ( ). I n this way a new kind of grouping of letters is produced, by compressing two written characters into one (cf. supra 11). The difference of these vowel-signs from one another in their seven respective forms is patent and clear with most of the letters;
r o r m s r 1 2

( ) For Vi,, ' \ &c. VL? 'jk is often written in manuscripts, e. g. 0D\^ Trt't* [ d ui seems to be written for ue in certain instances in MS. P (14 century) of the Kebra Nag.; v. ibid., Introd. p. X V and Note 1 j. ( ) V. the signs originating in this way in MS. 16240 of the British Museum, referred to above, p. 20, Note (1), and in ISENBERG'S 'Grammar of the Amharic Language , p. 4.
an th 2 1

32

16.

but one or two forms become very like each other through the attachment of certain of the vowel signs, and so may easily be mistaken in reading and in writing, viz:4* and ^ and <{, and *i and % Oh and OK, f ft S\, 4 and & and <, 9 and <p, and AO), fl and 7, ft and J., 9 and fP( ). This comparatively early development of a complete vowel-system, which was soon adopted generally in books, gives a great advantage to Ethiopic, as compared with other Semitic languages and modes of writing ( ), and greatly facilitates the acquisition of the language from the writing, as well as the comprehension of the books themselves. A t the same time we must keep in view that not even with the Abyssinians did such a system of Vowel-writing come into existence all at once, fully and symmetrically formed, but that it was perfected only in the course of a considerable length of time. This may farther be proved by manifold errors in the vocalisation of a number of words, especially of proper names which have been established and handed down in the Texts of the Bible from ancient times ( ). Such errors can be explained only on the supposition that in the case of several words the vowel-marking was either entirely wanting, or was somewhat fluctuating and irregular in the use made of the various signs, interpret. 16. Apart from, consonantal characters and vowel-marks marks" Abyssinians did not farther develop any special written signs. Numerical The distinction between the aspirated (or assibilated) and the unaspirated pronunciation of certain Mutes seems to have been unknown to them. Nor do they ever indicate the doubling of a consonant by any special mark,although, like the most of
2 8 4 t n e

( ) [E. g. in the very old Cod. Aeth. 32 of the Bibliothque Nationale; v, HACKSPILL in Zeitschr. fur Assyr., Vol. XT, p. 368, N. 1.] ( ) ^ for "C is met with in D'ABB. 55 in Hez. 1, 26; 10, 1; M . Faus (MS. X I , last page ftCy); Herma tfD'/^EA-Ancient and peculiar vowel signs are exhibited by the Cod. Laur. of the Twelve Minor Prophets, in the Bodleian Library. [Cf. DILLMAKN, 'Catalogus codicum manuscriptorum Bibliothecae Bodleianae Oxoniensis , Pars V I I , Oxonii 1848, p. 10sq. No. V I I I . ]
2 1 f

( ) [But the same, of course, must be said of the Babylonian-Assyrian writing, inasmuch as the signs for simple syllables are recognised as being used in this way.] ( ) I n my own editions of Bible Texts I have drawn attention to such ancient errors in many passages.
4

33

the other Semites, they write every double consonant once only, except when the two sounds are separated by a vowel. There is therefore a slight defect in their writing in this respect: it is only from the rules of formation or from tradition, that we can determine when a letter must be pronounced as a double one, and these aids do not always suffice. The sign of the close of a sentence is [called by the Ethiopians i1**fl "drop" or "point", ortogether with .;: and a = s 9d*Q "pause" or "sign of pause"],a doubling of the ordinary word-divider (v. 11). When this sign has to serve at the same time as a section-mark, it is generally amplified into or doubled as n = : : , after which a new line is frequently commenced. Smaller marks of division are not employed, as a rule; 1, however, serves this purpose; in enumerations I is very frequently placed between the several words (e. g. Henoch 10, 20; 15, 11). I n later manuscripts \ :: are oftener employed, but mostly in the wrong place through the ignorance of copyists. The Abyssinians borrowed their Numerical Signs from the Greeks. Whether they ever possessed any of their own,in particular whether they used their own letters as numerical signs, we do not know. The Greek signs appear already in the I n scriptions; but an attempt was made, wherever possible, so to fashion the foreign sign that it should come to resemble the character for some Ethiopic letter or syllable: thus Q was formed so as to resemble the sign of $d, 9 * i g of ha, g the ancient sign of ru &c. I n this way the ciphers given in Table I were finally evolved. I n order that they might be more easily recognised as numerical signs, and might not be mistaken for letters of the alphabet, a small horizontal stroke was applied to them both above and below. I n the manuscripts the separating points are usually omitted after ciphers, and g and o, as well as % and are frequently interchanged ( ).
n e s n 1

For T "10" D'ABB.55has the sign Tc Jer. 48, 1. 2. 8. I n like manner 7-ofl)g is met with for Tfllg M S . Jul. M . a. I X . 14 (Genzat), foil. 30, 110; M S . Berol. PETERM. I I , Nkchtr. X X V I I I (Gadla Abba Garima), foil. 39, 61, 63, 64 &c. [An exceptional way of expressing "100" is i Kebra Nag. 141 a 18.] On the Minao-Sabaic numerical signs cf. Z D M G X X V I , p. 748 sqq. and 'Journal as.' V I I , 1, p. 511 sqq. 3
n

34

The Ahyssinians have no Abbreviation-marks. I n Texts in which a word is repeated very often, it is of course frequently shortened, but this shortening consists merely in giving no more than the initial letter or the two opening letters of the word and then adding the word-divider, e. g. : for 4*^fl Standing abbreviations are not met with (but cf. 11). h.tl*Kfo. is written g'AA in many manuscripts, as i f it had been a compound of bp* tiuenty and fr,A- I n like manner numerals, even when they do not appear in their pure ground-form, although they are frequently written in ciphers, have yet one syllable,a suffix, it may be, of the ground-form,attached in letters, e. g. %lfa*>* i. e, J l A k l f m*. I n Oenzat fol. 13 (Cod. Tub. M . a. I X . 14) we read for 'Hallelujah' occurring thrice: VA i s fo : fcf s u cf. ibid. foil. 20, 36, 37 &c.C).
x

I I . PHONOLOGY.
I. T H E S O U N D S ( O E L E T T E R S ) O F T H E LANGUAGE.

1. VOWELS.
Preliminary 17. "When a glance is cast over the stock of vowels in SOM!short ^ Ethiopic language, as it is exhibited in the system of vowel voweis writing, consisting of short vowels a e, of long ones din and of
e

other than

a.

mixed sounds e d, the attention is arrested by a peculiar phenomenon, viz. that i and u, which next to a are the two chief vowels in all ancient tongues, are wanting in their shorter forms, though represented in their respective long forms, while a sound of the second rank, e, comes forward to take the place of such shorter forms. This cannot possibly be original. The pure sounds u and % must once have existed in the speech; and the circumstance that both of them gave place to the more general and indeterminate
(*) [In Cod. Mon. 11 the Divine name is frequently abbreviated:

ft*7 H.K'flfk or ft7 f t M l or ft*? nh

or fc7 ft. or ft*7; it is in that case

mostly written with red ink and without the final points (i); so too, hCft'PK !?!< for h^ll is met with in Kebra Nag. 113, Note 14; 159, Note 18; 164, Note 26. ft* ' or ft^ : for A4^ Laodicea, and *} s for 0<lfl<g is found in Brit. Mus. Or. 2263, fol. 6.]

35

sound e, may be regarded as a sign of the early inroads of decay on the vowel-pronunciation. We have, it is true, no express information to guide us as to the age of this decay. But we have already (p. 26 sq.) concluded from the nature of the vowel-writing, which has no distinctive sign for it or i, that even in the time of the formation of that system of writing, the practice of distinguishing u and % can no longer have exhibited much life, though it might still perhaps be said to exist. The same inference may be drawn from other indications. Nowhere in the language is a different meaning of the word or form bound up with a different pronunciation of the vowel of the sixth class. On the other hand we come upon cases in which an originally short i or u was prolonged into a long i or u, to preserve the sound, because it was of importance for the meaning. Forms too, in which the u is most essential in all Semitic tongues, like the Passive or the Imperfect of the first Conjugation (Stem) and its Infinitive, have even in the oldest Ethiopic known to us either been completely given up, or have made way for new forms in which the missing sound of short u has had its place supplied by other sounds and devices. A l l this seems to justify the conclusion that even in very early times not merely was the short i already pronounced like e, but also,which is still more remarkable,the short u w^as on the point of fairly disappearing, and was altered into il or y wherever it could not be lengthened with the help of the tone, and even farther into e (*), so that in the end the two sounds lost themselves in the indeterminate e. I t may be that in some words this e was once spoken rather like an i, and in others rather like a u( ), but this distinction can no longer have been of importance, and at last it was quite given up. But there is at least one remnant of the original short u which has been preserved in many cases, namely after the four u-containing consonants, so that e. g. still has the sound ofty**CS\!rquerbdn in Ethiopic (v. on this point 26). 18. (1) The fundamental vowel a has still a great predom- The inance in Ethiopic, and is very largely employed in word-formation both as a short and as a long vowel. The short a was cerT 2

C) Compare e. g. Hebr. DAK or ( ) Cf,

2

from attum, Mm. 3*

uillf.

36

18.

Long

tainly spoken at one time with a pure and unmixed sound, and in most cases must have been preserved in all the greater purity for the reason that otherwise i t would have been confused with the other two short vowels, and a leading means of formation would thus have been lost to the language. I t occurs with great frequency in distinction from e to convey a special signification of a word {cf. e. g. 1*(IC "servant" and *7*flG "business"). A t the same time i t shows a tendency even at an early period to take the duller sound of the less pure e (*)less frequently in an open syllable, as for instance, with and 11*19 "barley", but more frequently when it is attracted by two syllable-closing consonants, so that in forms like 9ch "spear", a is often changed into e C9(h (v. 105). This transition into e became specially active under the influence of gutturals ( 45). Besides, a is thickened into e when i t is lengthened to make up for the doubling of a consonant ( 5 6 ad fin.). Then too it often stands in foreign words for r s, e. g. hSfah 'lyjGovg. Again, the softening of the pronunciation of d increased considerably in the course of the Middle Ages: I n LTJDOLF'S time it was generally pronounced d( ), except when it formed a diphthong with a following Oh, or had to be spoken after one of the five Gutturals or ^ or 4*? (II, > ( )> in which case it was kept purer through the guttural (0 ha, not lid). Fortunately this decay did not make its way into the writing; and therefore wherever a is written, it is better that we pronounce it a. The long a, on the other hand, continued even in popular speech to retain the pure sound of a. The fact that in many foreign words d stands for tj, s , e. g. A/PG?"fl Liberius, should not lead us to infer that was pronounced like e, but rather that the less pure e-sound was often replaced in Ethiopic by the purer sound of ( ). Very often d springs out of by Tone-lengthening and by the influence of a following guttural without a vowel ( 46) or by the contraction of + a ( 39); but still more freh

Q-) Cf. the like phenomenon in other Semitic languages, e. g. in Assyrian: ZIMMERN, 'Zeitschr. f. AssyrS V , p. 396. V . also KNIG, p. 59. ( ) "Sonus hujus vocalis tarn obscurus est, ut parum a murmur e ab sit, haud aliter ac si quis obscure loquens infantes terrere velit".LUDOLF.
2

( ) Cf. TRMPP, Z D M G X X V I I I [in what follows quoted as TRUMPP],

p. 519. ( ) V., on the other hand, KNIG, p. 62.

4

37

quently it is original, and sustains the sense and meaning of a definite word-form (e. g. t\(h*\'(\ "nations", from fhU-fl "nation"). Farther it often stands, as in Arabic, for the mixed sound o, particularly in several words of early Semitic, like ^1p( )> 111, *}A? thty (v. infra 105) ( ); so also in foreign words y& l i'l* l^olaa^o). Of native word-formations in Ethiopic the form of the 3 Conjugation (Stem) must be referred to here, for J'flJi compared with'Mlh* "congregation", and of a fewQuadriliterals, e. g. 7ffi for 1ffi, in the Participle Passive <n>*fl*>. 19. (2) The short, indeterminate e is of very frequent oc- short, in. currence. I t makes its appearance as the. shortest and most g. colourless of vowels:(1) where a vowel or a slight vocal effort (Vocalanstoss, or Sh va mobile) must be resorted to in order to facilitate pronunciation, e. g. J&*7flC, JiJPJ; (2) in the sinking of the fore- and after-tone, before or after a long-toned vowel, e. g. ftTfl/h "morning", jP /* <Pd "altar", ^"th* "resurrection", ^T ?i "sinner", 'feVftrA. "foxes". As being the short form for u and i, it springs out of these vowels, when they are shortened, e. g. IfrC "made", in the Femin. ^ - f l G ^ , av&T mayyet (and mait) for tfD/P? and it is employed in word-formation in all cases in which %, u or tonelengthened e, o are found in the kindred tongues: t\9^ "he believed" tMd "be was honoured" flUC J^^l frdttl j i s l i i , -}1C v L j i i h ? ^ * ^ "you" ^ a t A ? "law" ph( ), hTf? "ear" jjfc, A-flA "clothing" ^ J ( ) .
x 2 a t rd n a t e e , , 4 3 4

I n several forms e is softened out of a ( 18); more rarely it is shortened from an original e:ftg "how?" nb'W, hlffl? " I may not" 13 j ^ . I n foreign words it may stand for all short vowels, and even, after shortening has occurred, for long vowels of every kind: jmvGTyjptov yPf^'m.C- civlav ft^M, Mamacyj 9^h and avqfa,
Q-) [Better to regard Assyrian qulu.]
()
3
2

a s

Assyrian qalu, but

as J j j j

Cf

KONIO, p. 67.

( ) [But v. infra ( 25), where a preferable derivation by NOLDEKE is referred to.] ( ) On a like weakening of a into i in the dialect of the Banu Tamim
4

v. R.ODIG-ER, Z D M G X I V , p. 4 8 8 ; cf

FLEISCHER,
L

'Beitr.

St. 2, pp. 275, 317;

STADE, 'Morgenl. ForschS p. 212 [and HUBER, Meisir\ p. ISsq.].

38

Bsviajui'v HTf^ %, airoyyo; Xu&ctp \l"tC, Qeohoopog -ftp &Gtl, Lucia BaaXijm both n ^ A 9 and fl^A.? &cI t would seem that the pronunciation of this vowel resembled for the most part our fugitive or obscure e, but sometimes i t rather approximated an i, sometimes an The older grammarians are not quite agreed about its pronunciation. POTKEN represents it by o,which, however, must be wrong, according to the evidence of LUDOLF'S tutor: WEMMERS taught.that the sound was very short, fluctuating between e and 6: LUDOLE rendered it by y in the first edition of his grammar, and by s and e in the secondas did MARIANUS VICTORITJS before him. I t is very remarkable that after short i and u had quite disappeared at a very early stage, the same sounds appeared again from another quarter, as the pronunciation encountered farther change in the lapse of time. I n point of fact when Oh and constituted a syllable by themselves at the beginning of a word, they were pronounced u and i by the later Abyssinians( ),thus, for instance, HHV-Jt ulud, J&1flC igaber. This pronunciation is now generally diffused, and seems to have come into vogue in comparatively early times ( ); but still it cannot be original( ), and indeed it was always given up again whenever a somewhat closely connected preposition or conjunction was prefixed to the word, e. g. htthfcR, ti*tyf ( ). We shall accordingly transcribe ffh and JE. in all cases by we and ye. A t the end also of a word, according to TRUMPP, p. 519 sq. Oh and JE, are pronounced u and i, when a precedes them, or when u stands before J&, or when e precedes them, which e then must take the tone. When Oh follows a consonant without a vowel, i t is spoken like u. Also in the middle of a word 0h and j&, preceded
0 2 3 4 5

( ) I n MS. Berol., Cod. B, PETKEM. I I . Nachtr. 55 T 0 " is generally written ff)*(9'J^7 manifestly on account of the ( ) LUDOLF, 'Gramme Lib. I , 5,just as the Hebrews render ) "and", here and there by 1, and the Syrians Yudh in the beginning of a word, by % . The Abyssinians, however, do not appear to be consistent in their pronunciation of these half-vowels: cf. TRUMPP, p. 520. ( ) I conclude this from the fact that even in more ancient manuscripts a negative is here and there wrongly inserted before the 3 pers. m. of the an Imperf. (e. g. ^J&l'flC f 7'flC)> error which can be explained only on the supposition that was pronounced i. ( ) HAUPT, 'Beitr. z. Ass? I , p. 17, is of another opinion. ( ) "Where they neither said la-ulud nor laulud.
2 3 r d r 4 6

20. 21.

39

by e, are pronounced e-u, e-i, in which cases however e has the tone, only when this is fundamental in the form. With a foregoing a, Oh and JK. regularly form the diphthongs au and ai. 20. (3) The long vowels I, u mainly appear (1) in forms * and a. from roots, of which one of the radicals is a vowel; (2) in the Pronoun and in Formative syllables of pronominal origin; (3) in various Inner Nominal forms, mostly tone-lengthened out of an original short vowel: 1Q.C, *"k&/J, Mfr, " I A U M " * "tfl-C, K<Vfc& among others. Farther I appears occasionally instead of a short i founded in the form, only for the purpose of preserving the ^-sound in greater purity, e. g. wVUfo. "a fuller" (for <w>VTA) "house of prayer'' tX^uLo, for the rest a foreign word. I n some few cases it is thinned down from fuller sounds e, a, e. g. "not", from ptf, % "what?" from n$, JlD; but regularly it proceeds, in processes of formation, from e as the more simple sound, where e is shortened, e. g. 1/b& "guilty" from " i f f , t / P * B "captivity" from %fDfD. Where % is shortened, i t becomes e ( 19). I n many words it is shaded off into the somewhat longer e ( 21). I t is met with frequently in foreign words, not merely for long and short i, but also for v, fl.flf| "Byssus", tUCf^ Kvpiafcog; for yj (in so far as this i was pronounced) ffh'Tt r^/avov, j f / ^ r t l . C /JLVGTYjpiov, and even for the diphthongs ai and o/, as a result of fusing these diphthongs into one sound, h/fr?*fc? Ai&iOTTtoc, \\Z
" i C A f - f t xoipoypvKkiog?).

The vowel u is already fairly in course of transition to o ( 21). I n formative processes it makes its appearance, where an original 6, or an a that has arisen out of d ( 18), is shortened: "tArhih "mingling" from -f-tlth, 4-Jlfl, "cohabitation" from ^.hfl. Where u is shortened, it passes over into e ( 19). I n foreign words it corresponds to y, as well as to u, u, e. g. thfik (and Ufl&O vaawirog. Besides, i and u are hardened into their semi-vowels J&' and
Oh ( 40).

21. The vowels e, o are in their origin mixed sounds, e and o. sprung from ai and au by fusing the diphthong into a single sound. Their origin is still very clear in Ethiopic, for in by far
()
x

Of. KONIG, p. tesqq.

40

21.

the greatest number of cases they arise here from the blending of an i or a u with an a to which it becomes joined ( 39sq.); and, having this origin, they are susceptible of being analysed back into their constituent parts, and of passing thus into ay and aw (av) Less frequently they arise from the lengthening of shorter vowels or from i and u by thickening and lengthening. I n particular e may be lengthened into e through the influence of a following soft Guttural, for Ch> flA* for JR*flD/V" ( 46); and, without any sufficient grounds of this nature, e arises from e through the mere dwelling upon the pronunciation, e. g. 9X9> (Sir. 27, 20) for lopKag, th& "hip" for I n other cases e is thickened out of a or a; thus from a, and at the same time to take the place of doubling in the Imperfect of the Intensive conjugation (stem), f^&Jfcy* yefesem for yefassem ( 95, 2), and from a in a few cases, ft A > "table" alongside of 8*A> Ck%Tf "South" I n several words e has become established in place of an i fundamental to the form, as being a somewhat fuller sound, e. g. /JflC and /Jfl.G T i n , V",V1A and "nothingness", flf?A "bean" ^j'lj( ). I n foreign words it corresponds most frequently to e, yj and s/( ): 'frf A"'?A &soX6yog, kip*} Xeyew, "Ifrfafr Mr/o^X, frflT'&ft TriariK^g, ft/flA;** hs(3XaM, A,ft,jf^fl ^sbsKiag; and sometimes to v, 'fl&A BypvXXog, '"LCi jLiupov, and to at, gh% A.yyatog. The sound b is produced with great regularity, in certain forms, out of u by compression; thus in the Feminine endings bt and b from ut and u (e. g. I'dC, Id.G'V, ftAA", ^ A h ^ &c), probably also in ahfa^av* and in the Suffix pronoun lf<n>-; farther, very commonly in words of foreign formation: yjj 7T 'lr'
3 p y 1 ff 2

f l o l & A jhfl^ "ark" g^LS*, MTf "oven" ^ y / j

AhC "sugar"

y+, H#"> "olive-plantation" ^yHiy A . ^ A "realm of the dead" ^ o i i bW, ?~X "coffin" Jisof, "rock" ^ L i or I n foreign words it stands for o and w; the Greek termination /o
( ) [Just as the Guna sounds are resolved in Sanskrit, TB.] ( ) It is a different thing when copyists confound e and I,an occurrence which is very common. ( ) Cf. KNIG, p. 68, who assumes for si, however, the pronunciation 1, and then the compression of the I into e.
2 3 x

22. accordingly C$&9*h vavrvjg. When 8 22.

a

41

sounds f -ft; or it corresponds to ov C?flA. ov[3r/\, "MercuHus", or to y $kCh K-Vftpog, or to av T i h ^ ' g b and e are shortened, they pass into u and i ( 20). A l l these vowels, once they appear in a word, are as
_ _

Pronunciation of

a rule held firmly and tenaciously, and accompany the word with- fugitive e. out change throughout all its farther forms and augmentations. No trace is met with here of the manifold alterations of sound exhibited by the Hebrew of the Masora as a result of altered conditions in the Tone. I n the matter of tenacity and constancy in the vowels of a word Ethiopic ranges itself rather with Arabic. Whether Ethiopic possesses, besides its seven vowels, additional fugitive vowels as they are called, half-vowels, or voweltouches (Vocalanstbsse), is a question, which may easily enough be put. But it is a question difficult to answer, partly because too little is known about the mode of pronunciation of words in ancient times, and partly because the questionwhat is a halfvowel?, andwhat is a short vowel?is not so easily answered. I t is well known that Arabic has a short vowel in all those cases in which Hebrew has merely a Sh va (Vocalanstoss). Other languages less rich in vowels, such as the Aramaic, tolerate groups of consonants also, and give utterance to a fugitive vowel-effort, only where incompatible consonants meet together. Upon the whole, Ethiopic is something like Hebrew in vowel resources: and indeed in its short indeterminate e in cases like yi<{F*)h, *7flC; KJl*f*1"fl<'5 it possesses a sound quite resembling the Hebrew 8h va mobile; and this shortest and most fugitive kind of e may always be compared with the 8h va. Other cases, in which an entirely fugitive vowel of this kind has to be resorted to in order to help the pronunciation, will be described farther on. That the e was no longer pronounced here like a vowel, but rather like a mere half-vowel, seems to be evidenced by the fact that in the cases named, wherever it was applied just on account of the nature of the coinciding consonants, the later pronunciation fell into the way of wholly suppressing any intermediary sound,as in kramt . (v. on this point 34). Now between the complete disappearance of .the vowel in this position and the utterance of a full vowel, such as we have in Arabic, there must certainly intervene as an intermediate stage the uttering of what was a half-vowel and
e , e e

42

23.

nothing more. This question, however, is not important for the phonology or the morphology. I t will be enough to notice when we should pronounce an e as a sound quite short and fugitive, as cases occur. 2. CONSONANTS. preiimin 23. The consonants found in Ethiopic have already been ary obsei- indicated in a general way in the account that has been given of vations. . the characters. With the exception of the dull j>sound, they are the same with those wdiich constitute the stock of the NorthernSemitic Alphabet, increased by two new Arabic letters. I t might seem from this that as regards the consonants of the language there has not been much of a special nature developed in the Abyssinian abodes of the Semites. And yet a comparison of Ethiopic roots with those of the rest of the Semitic languages reveals that while Ethiopic has often retained softer and more slender sounds, or developed them out of harder ones, it exhibits much more frequently harder and duller sounds, in place of the softer sounds of the other tongues. Such preference for rougher sounds is specially declared in the transcription of foreign words. Of still more importance is the fact that Ethiopic has created several types of rougher sounds peculiar to itself. One example is presented in the dull p which in one or two roots, and also in foreign words takes the place of an original b or p. Farther, the Abyssinians have transformed into rough gurgling sounds the four Semitic gutturals ~\ 1 h in a way peculiar to them, by fetching them more deeply from the throat, and joining with them an obscure w-sound, which in that very process loses its vowel character and stiffens into the consonantal sound. This rougher pronunciation of the four gutturals has, to be sure, in no respect become general, in the sense of supplanting their usual pronunciation: on the contrary, the latter has kept its ground in by far the greater number of roots; but the rougher pronunciation is nevertheless very widely extended. While, however, these phenomena reveal an impulse in the language towards the development of rougher sounds, such as well befits the mountainous nature of the country, another series, on the other hand, of peculiarities in the pronunciation of the consonants indicates a
T

23.

43

certain struggle to simplify the multiplicity of sounds,(a feature we found also in the vowel-system)accompanied with an appearance of effeminacy and degeneracy. We find in fact that the three hardest of the five Gutturals (Aspirate-) had their pronunciation gradually softened: 0 became like ft, *\ like rh, and the last tw o together like 0- So too we find that among the Sibilants IP came to be like ft (s like s), and 0 d like &(*) s. Thus the Abyssinians first gave up **i and 0,sounds which had been developed in Arabia and been brought with them from that country,just as they had in much earlier times given up the lisping transitional letters o 6 Jo- As regards the Sibilants in particular it comes about that Ethiopic prefers decided Mutes, and, still more strongly, decided Sibilants to the transitional letters, and it is precisely on that account that 0 reverted to J\. Among the Gutturals Ethiopic could bring about again the coincidence of **i and rh all the more readily, after it had contrived the rougher 7 out of *\ ( ^ ) . The giving up of s for s shows the same striving after simplification. On the other hand the gradual weakening of 0 into ft and of rh and *\ into 0 is a decidedly enfeebling process as well; and as the language had formerly made abundant use of these letters in its formation, the process led to many inconveniences, and can only have become general about the time the speech died out. I t is so much the more remarkable, when we see Ethiopic striving, at other points, after the rougher sounds; but yet, along with the simplifying endeavours which have been mentioned, it finds an analogy in the phonetic development of other and even non-Semitic languages. I n fact a certain easy-going pronunciation, which gives up whatever causes any trouble, and keeps only the absolutely necessary and essential sounds, frequently prevails in popular dialects. I n the other Abyssinian dialects, particularly in Amharic, all these phenomena are displayed, and even in a much more decided fashion.
T

With these preliminary observations we proceed to describe the various Consonants, their phonetic value, their significance and their mutual interchange. We group them together according
( ) According to HAUPT'S statement ('Zeitschrift f. Assyr? I I , p. 264), the Abyssinians pronounce 0 as a Fricative its), while ft is a Fricative with a firm break. [TRUJIPP is also of this opinion : v. TRUMPP p. 578. TR.]
x

44

24.

Gutturals (Aspirate-),

to the organs of speech by which they are produced, and also according to the j)eculiarities which they exhibit in j)ractice. 24. (1) Of Gutturals (Aspirate-) there are in all, five, j, ^ ^ Qf ^ jy ] ^ ^ ^ j pl
fl y t h e g e a n ( a r e t i eo l d e s t s m e s t

sounds, and are present in other languages as well as in the Semitic: 0 and th are of comparatively later origin: *\ is the youngest of all. ft is properly just that gentle breathing which must precede every vowel when uttered separately, and must really follow also a long final vowel,answering thus to the Spiritus lenis of the Greeks. 0, having more strength and body in it, is our h,the Greek Spiritus asper. 0 is connected with ft as a breathing of similar character, which of necessity requires a vowel before or after it, to become audible; but it is harder than ft and is formed by a firmer compression of the throat-orifice. With 0 are associated, first, d\, corresponding to , like a stronger h (Ji) uttered more deeply from the throat, and next, *Tf, ^-( ), produced by friction of the u|yper part of the throat, and therefore inclining rather to I:, cli or Mi (Ji). ft and 0 are the weakest and softest Gutturals: in certain circumstances they may completely coalesce with a vowel immediately preceding them (cf. infra 47).
2

The (Aspirate-) Gutturals represent a double step-ladder of stronger and weaker breathings, one end of which borders, with ft and 0, upon the vowels, and the other, with 0 and *\, upon the consonants, and first upon the Palatal-Gutturals. This intermediate position of theirs between the vowels and the consonants explains also their wide extension in the Semitic languages. They make their appearance with considerable frequency in root-formation, when roots, of which one of the radicals is a vowel, endeavour to acquire a third consonantal sound. I n that case the weaker sounds, which were in the root at first, are condensed into the harder breathings, mainly through the influence of the other two radicals. I n fact this is particularly clear in Ethiopic roots: and those which contain Gutturals are accordingly exchangeable

i ) EWALD, 'Ausf. Lehrbuch der hebr. Sprache , 6 ( ) LUDOLF has noticed that * \ corresponds to are spoken just like h; v. TRUMPP p. 518. ^~
2

th

ed. p. 74.
T

Now -a-days 0 Al * 1 l

24.

45

with those in which vowels appear in the corresponding positions On the other hand these breathings are also found originating from firmer consonants, especially from the Palatal-Gutturals and Mutes, by such consonants giving up their firm consonantal element and retaining only the breathing as the remains of it. Thus ft often stands in Ethiopic as first radical in place of Kaf: ftfl,C "old Avoman" alongside of y^S, while the pronunciation h'il^i in Ethiopic bears rather a sjnritual (figurative) sense, ft^7 "to be old", beside ^j^> ftAft "to gather", with j j . ? ' '-y&\ farther in several Ethiopic words r h , *lf are very commonly exchanged for
h , e. (j. r h O r t and hfljfl "to stir", f t r h and <tfA "to be un-

clean", V r h ' J r h and YrflXl "to shake", T i l f l C a n d H ^ C "monument", rt/V/flh a n d f l A j i "cassia"; HlH "river" belongs to f/WhH thl "to lie in"to i l C / " , rhflfl) "to tell a lie"to n D C^U*). More rarely r h or *\ corresponds to a Geml: Ax^^i "snow"to iX+z* (in contrast with which d\0f "ashes" belongs to j U X ) ,

ayWtlH- "vat, pit"to 33, v l * i , r V J - n C ^ "navel" to rh'J'flC'fl**. "scab"to ^ys*. Still more frequent is the substitution of the rougher gutturals for Qaf, e. g. *^ft "to be short" -isp yc3 (yCL2>)i th&jv "to rake up" p p , psp (but in Arabic also), ffrjh? "beard" }p|, <J?JjJ "swamp" ^U^S, 0 m J "to fumigate with incense" Iftp, in!?, JCi', ^Sos- On the other hand the simplification of a sibilant into a mere guttural breathing is not so common in Ethiopic, though perhaps <h "to go", may be ranged with the Arabic ^ L * ( ) , and l?VO "to be straight" with j | t ( ); the language in other cases prefers to keep by ft and d\. even where other tongues admit y in place of them. Farther, the Gutturals are subject also to active interchange with one another, just as in the rest of the Semitic tongues; and upon the whole it is impossible to fail to notice that here the harder letters
2

10

( ) I t is universally recognised that the harder sounds of an original form pass into the softer, and vice versa, under the influence of a softer or a harder consonant in the root, e. g. rhHfl alongside of thfld (influenced by the fl).
( ) EWALD, p. 74.
2

( ) Vice versa,

"to revile" is probably related to *)in.

46

24.

seek to dislodge the softer. I t is true that Ethiopic in many cases retains ft and 0 even where they pass into harder sounds in other languages; as, for instance, ftOA "limb" into (Ju), hiM*? ring" into ijsn, d i l ;
us a s

"to fear",

"to withdraw"

^D1> J ^ ^ j J t farther it has no 0 in the formative syllables of the Causatives, but an ft; yet the harder letter more frequently appears for the soft one of other languages, e. g.\ 0 T A "to full", Jof and J ^ ; 0*)C "town", probably for 13 0 ; 0ft* "a court", J^sf and Jua, and so in several roots that begin with 0 ( 70 ad fin.)-, "IfA "stag", JL|; /h**"/ "guilt", DtfKa n c 1

jL;l (^=>); 'flrh "to make gain by usury", ni, iJ^*ft "to drive" appears also in harder form as iJtrh; retire",
"ItliW

"to

; Arh<. "to be troubled", ujLgJ; rhT^A "to perish'', $'\(D "to be jealous".

tf>n, dSst] f}i'hi\i\ "to grow mouldy",

^g.=*; ft/*"VC'V "new-moons", ^S^P ( W > ^ ^ 1 ) I n a number of instances also 0 answers to a ft of other languages: Oaol "injustice", DBrji; llffl'O "to meditate", rPfc?; f*'/*'0 "to be insatiable" belongs in the last resort to the root nti^, J^^-y On the other hand Ethiopic frequently has dx or *\ for j? of the other tongues: CVfl "to be hungry", 3JJ1, v^*i^; "to dip in", i>32, J?3tt, 1 ^ ; K'AJ^ "cedar", j J L * ; jOrh "to be on the watch", >*,jj; fl^Prh "to scarify", ; tf A,*Wh'l* "cheek, jaw", mjJFi^D, Both modes of exchange show that different languages altered in different ways the softer gutturals into the harder. The keenness with which the stronger sounds in Ethiopic for some time sought to dislodge the weaker ones, may best be gathered from the fact that in this tongue 0, *^ and *h have pushed their way even into several pronominal particles ( 62, l b ) , while in the other tongues this department at least has been kept free from them. Even the Greek Spiritus lenis and Spiritus asper are expressed not merely by ft and 0 (ftft^.foA, ftA4, %GR ft&fc, K<iC?, y.&%Ptl), but also by 0, -\ and Ax so that, in names of Hebrew origin, Ethiopic in several cases again coin( ) EWALD p.
L

347,

24.

47

cides with the Hebrew pronunciation (fl-fl/J-'g, rhVJ,?, rh/P">, <*y&\ "Irene") 0 . Of course even when the language was endeavouring to develop harder gutturals, the softening of the harder ones was not impossible, although it was of comparatively rare occurrence: thus, for instance ftfiH "to command, to rule" seems to have been formed at a very early time from OttH "to be strong" w, j ^ , by the gradual smoothing down of the 0 into ft in the more frequently used sense of "to command". But in a later age, when the language had long been fully formed, a tendency in the pronunciation of the gutturalsthe very reverse of what had hitherto prevailed, and arising from causes which are not yet proj)erly cleared upgained a very notable predominance ( 23). The hard sounds were gradually softened; "\ was reduced to the level of gf\, and both together to that of !/, and 0 to that of ft ( ); and the entire way that had been traversed hitherto was retraced, until the starting-point was reached, at which the Semitic tongue had nothing but ft and 0. I t is possible that, besides the influence of Amharic, the frequent intercourse, which took place with populations speaking non-Semitic languages, helped forward this smoothing process in the hard sounds. The retrogression took effect at first in pronunciation only, and not in written character; but gradually the deterioration invaded the written character also; and then, in many cases, ft and 0 on the one hand, rh and *\ on the other, and less frequently *h, "*i and 0came to be exchanged for one another without the slightest distinction. The latest manuscripts go much farther in this direction than the more ancient ones( ); and yet the deterioration never became so general as to permit the alternative use of the harder or the softer letters at pleasure in every single word. For example, the ft of the Causative Conjugations (Stems), or that of the Pronounsft*3"f*,ftA", or that of the roots and words V f t , fl-llft, -flftA., *TfPft, ft'llH, fthf, fthA &c, is never written 0 in the better class of manuscripts; nor is the 0 ever written ft in A0A, 9dO, i\/\0 OflP, fl^O, l\0(D, 0lfl, OJE.'J and so on. and d\ are oftener
2 3

O
2 3

Cf. KONI&, pp. 64, 66.

( ) Just as in Samaritan and Mandaean. ( ) [V. the Introduction to the "Kebra Nag: p. X I V . ]

48

25.

exchanged; but yet in certain words they are more irmly retained, e. g. (IH*V iV/xth and so forth. Properly speaking, it is only in the latest manuscripts that we find fa or ^ written for 0; and in certain words like Itf} }, *fl!A, lffM> VdW it is not so written, even in them; but, on the contrary f) is rather frequently employed for rh or "\ ( ). Thus the deterioration in pronunciation could never have become quite universal; and the correct form has often held its ground still more tenaciously in writing. I n poems, however, ft rhymes with 0, and 0, rli and *\ rhyme with one another. The firmer 25. 2. (2) The firmer Gutturals (Palatal-), with which f (pliatai-) * ^ reckoned, come next in order to the Aspirate-Gutturals. Of these there are three, the soft *},-always pronounced as g (hard), never as dj (dzh) , the hard \\ h, and the hollow-sounding 4 q. The first two may with equal justice be called Palatals, seeing they are formed on the boundary between palate and throat; but the last of the three is decidedly more of a throatsound or Guttural, being formed by a compression of the throat and a sharp breaking off of the stream of air (Explosive) ( ) and having a peculiarly Semitic character. I n foreign words the Ethiopians employ, as a rule, the hollow-sounding letter for A, e. g. 4 W , <\!,hm' /nVl'h ftCW-tl, and thereby again evidence their inclination for rougher pronunciation. I t is only in a minority of cases that they render A " by h, as e. g. in Yi %7' KVjuiyov, or by *\ even, as in *}*>^Vfc ILayodfCT]. They employ \\ oftener for %( ), as if h had to be more aspirated, in contrast with the pure explosive 4, e. g. tfojtift, "VlftA, A.ll> ft^h/*?, h"XAi 'J (though here and there also *V, as in tl*i,t cX? S)i for 7, by hardening it after their manner, as in tlAOJi'J galia nam". So too fill is found for %\KYiil\C rd avva^dpia, hC
0 1 s a s o 2 1 a 3 p V0 o r u

In Ethiopic itself the harder letters alternate in a few words with the softer ones: and fl)(Vl "to bend (the bow)", rhVh
Q) The more precise treatment of these questions belongs to the province of the Lexicon. Whoever wants to learn the language, must familiarize himself from the outset with these possible phonetic changes, both in using the Lexicon and in reading what has been written.
( ) ISENEERG, 'Gramm. Amh^ ()
3 2

p. 6, and W A L L I N , Z D M G I X , p. 10 sqq.

Cf, KONIG, p. 64.

and *h '}44 "to be anxious", 0 h and 0 ^ 4 * "to be friendly i t h " , i n which cases h appears to be the original letter; \ \ \ \ and %0 "raven". On the other hand h is now and then softened to *}, e. g. in frT and Afto-I- "street" (pitf, ^jy*)': and even 4 is found exchanged for 1 in = "necklace". Changes still more marked are exhibited, when Ethiopic roots are compared with the corresponding roots of the other languages i ). Ethiopic has often the harder pronunciation: *3f"C
1 1

"capital (of a pillar)",

0

j&h.; Mb "to be sleepy", ^ ^ i ;

Oft } "cream", ^ X x , 'ik\ All4* "to grow up, to become old", ribs, J ^ , 510,
41*

"to shut up", 1H3, lOJJ, ycS;

T 4

>

"to be warm", ; 'fcA'feA

or ^ft*A "to be unclean",

and

"to roll away", but at least quite as frequently it preserves the softer pronunciation: in fact h for p, e. g. in fljfj "emptiness", ptt, pp3, . j b ; 3flAJt "neck", 3 ^ i ( ) ; f | d r t " d u n g " , u k S ; Ahffl
UJ 2

"to become dull (of sight)", ary ^jyy,

>f

; AhP "to wrangle", &$ and UJ;

hoAf "to bear a surname or a by-name", ^ j j ' ; W*V"Th as a secondform of 4 i'"l* "sting", "point (of a spear)", nij$, HlIS', *ihYl also 1 for 3. e. g. 07*A "to perish", Tj^n, dUbe; "race", A7 "law", "groaning", pi, rntf, pKS; H C h f "to calumniate", "to be jealous",

12:; '}"?:'}'?* "to knock", t X f i f ; and 1 for p, 6. ph (but according to

XOLDEKE =

3s "a proof"); ft*77 "to be

lean", p i ; "Mlfr "Egypt", iols; flT-C- "leek", j ^ , e>S"; "street", p ^ , ^jyL. But the effort made by Ethiopic to reach stronger sounds is clearly revealed in the thickening of the Aspirate-Gutturals of other tongues into these hollow guttural forms. Thus 1 for K in

0 ) On the nature and pronunciation of 4* (R, 01) f- TKUMPP, p. 518;

HAUPX, 'Beitr. z. Assyr? I , p. 15; EDGAR A L L E K , 'Proc. Am. Or. Soc? 1888,

p. CVILTsgg.; on the relation of 4* to 'Tigrinagramm:

2

PRAETORIUS, 'Amli. Gram,: 45. c; p. 686; v. also ibid. X X X V I I ,

pp. 18, 100; ZDMG X L I ,

p. 449; and REINISCH, ' Bilinsprache' p. 12, No. 6.

( ) [But in Assyrian there is an answering word, 'fciSddu'.] 4


js.

50

26.

Q'jyo "left hand", ^ L i ; for n in ft7tfi "to be gracious" ('friendly') and R 7 f "to bloom", ; for n in 7 f l T "colic", ; J^T-mjR

"ox-goad", Don, -fel&.; ftlSP and tlH\9 "arrow" (Gadla Adam); fori) in ft*7fl "to be satisfied", "to f&C'l'i ) ^Lco; "to
1

ftq<?

"ostrich", ^L*>;

abandon", t \ i * (^<X>); JVT-G "hair", alongside of j

a n (

^ special frequency for : l * 7 "to run swiftly", -|iw>V

M 7 "to mock", g^Ly pn?; T.'TL "cloud", pollute",

; I f l "to be up betimes", |<Xe; I f f "to sin",

niJJ; 1 1 R "to tremble with terror", y o x &c. I n a similar manner h for n in j P t f ^ - f t "temple", ^ ( ) ; h i ' * 7 "tip (extrev 2 ,

mity)", ^S-IX; Vlh^Th "warm baths", Din;

h i * "in vain",

JlAA "to be giddy", JU>, ^H. Finally, 4 for n in *^f "obscurity", nib, ^JpliaJo;
w ,

"to rise (of the stars)", rnt, J j ^ > for J ^x

^ in 04*A "mule", j J b ; f*'"}4 2l "an insect (a moth)", from

"to buzz": for ^ in <wrn+ "to raise on high", (Jso); "to build", w. ^ 26. (3) But as i f the rough Guttural-Aspirate *1i and the hollow Guttural j* were still not enough, Ethiopic has increased the roughness both of these two, and of the other two Gutturals 1 and h , by pronouncing them with an obscure u- or o-sound immediately following, and yet in such a way that that sound is not fully formed into a vowel, but is interrupted in its formation and is turned merely into a means of roughening the consonantal sound ( ). These letters, like other consonants, must be supplied with a vowel, before they can be spoken: as to the formation of the vowels which come after them, see 41. We may call them the U-containing Gutturals (*). This peculiarly hoarse pronunciation
3

( ) V . KNIG, p. 65 sq.

( ) [But this is a mere transcript of the Arabic word, ^ being the ordinary, recognised equivalent of Jl, in such transcribed forms.] ( ) The Latin lingua, quaero &c. exhibit a similar sound, though not so rough. (*) On the nature and pronunciation of these letters cf. TRUMPP, p. 520; RKIQ, p. 41809.; on their origin from the Oushitic, BEINISCH, 'Die Bedauye3

26.

51

occurs only with the Palatal-Gutturals. participates in it merely as the strongest of the Guttural-Aspirates, hut does not assume it with anything like the frequency that the three other letters do. The cases which exhibit the development of the ^-containing pronunciation of the gutturals invite a short additional survey, and the following propositions are the result ( ). (1) I n the great majority of cases this rougher pronunciation is brought about by a ^-sound, which at one time was uttered after the guttural in the ground-form of the word, but which forthwith,either because of having to give place to another vowel in the course of farther alteration of the word, or independently of such cause,took refuge within the consonant, and clung to it irremovably as a roughening addition, (a) Thus, a u, o, or w in foreign words, making itself heard after *Tf, *|, h , or 4, makes its way into the consonant: fc'Jfll'feft'fc irsvTYjfCQGTrj; M'blhaxh dcvayvmryjg; %P %'i inayojuivrj; \tCf^^pioc/cog;
1 a

T ^ * } a proper-name; 'feflm'JfO.fft (Clysma, town near Mt. Sinai); Ancyra, and a host of others, (b) I n many Ethiopic words a u or o, grounded in the form, which has disappeared in the forms of other words unprovided with a guttural, has endeavoured to save itself by making its way into the guttural ( 17), e. g. 4*Cfl"> "offering (gift)" I 7 * 0 "threshing-floor", ft*; T^JJt "stem (of a tree)", 1#i; Hi<F "costus" (v. infra 105); fttfC "firstling", -yto|; hMt ^
9

"those" (as well as h\\l'P) from fcAYh; Yf"A/lh "kidney", Frequently too a radical u or ffh has thus made its way into the guttural that precedes i t : fti^ and W O H "brother"; A\ "hip", ^%*; ACT * "ornament", from flClOf ft*?* "street", from 5V7tfl (pltJO; VHrf-A "a rock" (for hAWA) from mo, "to be hard". Some other words leave it optional to exchange the full w-sound for the rougher and shorter ue, e. g. J&Yf*^ and for g/ftS} and YKJ; hVt-C "cities", and hVbC', 'iVF'fx and - f l ^ f f "scraped
Sprache (Vienna 1893), vol. I I , p. 26 sqq. MALTZAN has also heard these sounds in the Mehri; v. ZDMG X X V I I , p. 261 sq. (*) TUCH also deals with this subject in the first of the two Commentationes cited above, p. 14, Note ( ). His results agree for the most part with my own.
x 1

52

26.

together". I n other words too,particularly in those which were originally Passive Participles, but which have gradually become Substantives, the u has been permanently modified in this way: iht'C "raisin", for ghT'C] Vf**T "point", for flpiO &c. Even when a u fell to be made audible in the ground-form, not immediately after the guttural, but after another radical which preceded or followed the guttural, it has been attracted to this last: "cedar-wood", from through the softening of the b into w\

"abyss", L\ t f r l "jackal", b^W, adlxi; tnu ^OA "marrow", JUuo, nb; as well as fofl? "bridle", from an original ^Ls*; and ft"Vr "cedar", jJus. also invaded verbs and roots. (c) I n a similar way this u has Sometimes, when original roots
0

(middle u) received farther development, the u found refuge in the guttural: 'fe'pO "to loathe", trtp; so too *|.Vnm "to be slender"; 0fe "to wrap up",^U; e*feV "to hedge in", from , j L o , p; cold", up, *ng; rt'fe'fe "to covet another's goods", p-15J>; "to rot", ^.b, l i s ; rthf "to go astray", :f, tttf, mtf; hW "to judge (to establish)", )M3; fthtto-f* "to give thanks", J ^ a n d (with softening of the b into w>); T^^i'fe "to bend, to be distorted", ^jjyi, where u has made its way into both the gutturals, &c. I n ether cases the verbs have been derived from nouns which had a u in the formation: tit"" "to hold in check"; *feAH "to hew off"; *feftA "to receive a wound"; "to be oneeyed" (npj); h<kd(l, M-tC 7?f, -tCI"" , compare also f l ^ O "to be serviceable", with
0 0

"to be

(2) I n a few words and roots ua or ue is of onomatopoetic character, as in %b and "raven", "crow"; 7-5} and Tv* [and and 7*7* Zebra Nag.] "bittern"; ' f e C W W "frog"; T ^ C t "throat", "gorge"; M'fr>G1 "to murmur"; perhaps in 7"/**0
0

"erudavit", unless rather as derived from JijyL.,and "hurrah!".

in }%Tf^Sd

i ) [Better, however, to regard this word as a pluralis fractus =

Ja&.]

26.

53

(3) I n another series of words this roughening seems to have made its appearance because of the guttural having undergone a degree of softening from its original pronunciation, and to make amends, as it were, by a second hardening. Thus 1 appears to have come from h in OT-ti, Th, 1 from 0 in 3tf*C; 1 from 4 in fl^M*, h from 4 in Arhh, h-Af, Vf*V'ih; d h from rh, *V in JF'tf^'fl (*), tf"/hrt- A similar process may be noticed in another guise: thus, for instance, in ft^A, h*?"A"h & -> the 0 has first been softened into ft, and the hardness has been subsequently restored by means of the it-sound combined with *\. (4) By and by, however, this w-containing pronunciation proceeded to make its way into many words and roots, simply from a general preference in the language for such sounds, although we are not now in a position to indicate the special motives for its exercise, or, on the other hand, to show how the motives hitherto suggested have by no means brought about the same result in all the cases in which it was apparently possible. But the other phonetic relations of the word seem invariably to be taken into account in this matter. Roots altogether weak seek thereby to gain greater fulness of sound, e. g.: 7 f f "to flee"; 7*TJf% "to hasten" ; and in cases like Vf"rhrt this pronunciation is manifestly easier than \}(hft. I t is particularly common and in high favour before a (about thirty times in Ethiopic words), but less so before Aspirates. Before A it occurs about fifteen times, before V about twenty times, before A, I** some fifteen times, and before ft, 0 about ten times. Though more rarely, it still does occur before the other letters, with the exception of radical (D and fl (but yet it is found in the reduplicated conjugation fl'^vfl'Tr , while before
a n c < w 0

it appears only in Yf"4-C)- I t never occurs, however, before any one of the other three gutturals, except of course when the containing guttural is itself doubled, and the two forms of the doubled letter are separated by a vowel,in which case the rougher pronunciation is repeated. Farther, this pronunciation seems to have established itself in certain roots in order to distinguish them from others of a wholly different meaning, but which otherwise would have the same sound:compare 'fcA'fc [var. Kebra Nag.] with
0 ) [But v. p. 50, Note ( ).]
2

54

27.

"1A4; 1"feA*feA with K74>A4A: flfeA with n4A; rthf with A h f Finally, when two gutturals (though separated by another letter) occur in one word, the establishment of the ^-containing pronunciation in the one often brings about the same thing in the other: fyti'k, "Nh*fe; farther JtGVMrHh "door-hinge" (Fern, from ft"Gto*3fl> 'that, in which the door moves backwards and forwards'). I t must farther be noticed ( ), in conclusion, that many words and roots fluctuate between the ^-containing and the common pronunciation of the Guttural, or else do not employ the first throughout in every one of their several forms (compare *fe^0 and K 0 ; %<L and and the roots fejU, flfe^ and H ? M ) . Also, words which are in frequent use, like fl\t"\s, JiAInf"! ? endeavour by gradually shaking off that pronunciation to simplify themselves into Ufais, ftAhi* 27. (4) The Dental-Lingual Mutes ft, 4"> m- Through the co-operation of the tongue and the teeth, there are formed besides the Liquids, which we are not just now consideringthe soft letter ft d, and the hard letter f t. Ranked with these, just as 4* is with the Palatal-Gutturals, we find a hollow, explosive sound n i t, peculiar to Semitic languages, which is formed through the co-operation of the tongue and the palate, "by bringing the root of the tongue up to the back part of the hard palate" ( ). Precisely as 4* and h are employed in the Guttural class for k and % respectively in foreign words, so in this class the Greek r is usually rendered by m , e.g. g&5.flL?, A T C , 9^OUC, V?&*, while the Greek # or t& is given by e. g. A / W l T ^ v ^"tri ^Ai
x r 2 2

M - f T l f t , *fltf<e( ) These three letters are pretty sharply distinguished inEthiopic roots; and 4* and fli are but rarely exchanged, as in J4"V d VrtlV, J"3h0 and i f * 0 ( ) with somewhat different meanings: so too ' M l O "to be manly" and fll'flO "to be steadfast" (gS). I n the beginning of a word -f is frequently softened into ft ( 73).
"Infill,
a n 4

(*) V . TUCH, 'Comment: I , p. 1822. ( ) Cf. TRTJMPP, p. 518.On the emphatic consonantal pronunciation in Ethiopic there are various notices and theories, which however do not accord with one another: cf. MOORE, 'JProc. Am. Or. Soc' 1888, p. X X X sqq. ( ) \^f. Guim, Le traduzioni degli Evangelii in Ardbo e in Miopia)', Eoma, 1888, p. 34, Note.] (*) [ V . , however, 'Kebra Nag: 39, Note 29.J
2 3 l

27.

55

When compared however with the other Semitic languages, Ethiopic exhibits several changes in these letters. I t has somewhat rarely the softer ft for n, as in hftfr "to cover", ]fD, Qfi3, ^jctfC); and scured",
f o r

i n

Vft+ "to build", ytai;ft<wJ"to be ob-

^ J ^ ; ft'OC "mountain" nitD, TfilD; ftjPArt "to

(

quench, to blot out", ^Jo, j*wot>; *V^T

2

"a little", iaxka. ; also

J for t9 in M*A "to kill", ^{3, Jjjjf ( ); typd, "incense", rnitop, \ Uv;
'FiTip

"gnats", alongside of JjJo.

More frequently it perhaps in

shows the stronger and harder letters in place of the softer; thus probably for 1 in A+'f" "to investigate",
3

Kfl'lh'J "gift", alongside of Yni#; m for 1 in tfmV "to measure", Tt, J^o; V+*T "point" ( ), Tip}, kib'; fllfl+ "to adhere" (as by glue), p:n, (Jj-jJb; <DAfll "to alter, to exchange", J j u ; HflfTt "to exact compulsory service of", ia^x.; AflVir* "to rend'" fllVf "to make strict enquiry", bt> I I ; P ^ "strictness", m'i$ 'P "to
/ > J

be strict"; "to explore carefully", associated with p-i, J^a, p|, although ft44 also occurs often, in the meaning, "to be small";the same letter is used for n in tffllf "to raise on high", &o, ^ J O O ; j P T * ^ "sweetness", plilp, and XJila*; Afl1 "to mislead, to deceive", beside nftB; m^O "to sound" ('to wind the horn'), ypri. I n many of these roots Ethiopic possesses the fll in common with Arabic, and in opposition to the NorthernSemitic tongues. Farther ft often answers to 6, and m to Jo and
m<

e.

in

KAi Pftf "to accuse", 13^; flvti0 "to act unfairly, faithlessly", jJJd, ^ 4 ; (f\/.(Pfll+fl "to sew", "Pleiades", i j p ; K T ^ P "to acquire", | p ;

V.AAS'J

and i_4ffj and o U L J , although these

Arabic lisping sounds pass over, in other instances, into full sibilants ( 30). fn corresponds frequently to ^o: HTrh "to scarify",

O Cy. Assyr. nadnu 'to give , )Tti (between two w's), HAUPT, 'Sum. Fam.-Ges:, p. 43.
( ) V . HAUPT, J. c. p. 74.
2

( ) [Cf. supra, p. 52, Note ( ).]

56

28.

flj; fcm# "to gag", p, ^-Lo; T C A and 0Cfl "a molar tooth", m*70 "to adhere to", m<.C "vault", yL^.

Finally, in contrast with other languages, a marked substitution of Dental-Lingual Mutes in exchange for the corresponding Sibilants has to be noticed. Thus, they said Jtrhtl "to be lame, to limp" for dL&j; &90 "whispering", for < 0 "to hide", "to lay aside", for ^i>; farther ^Afl. "flax", probably equivalent to Qlrfr "bed", tsn.J?, jmyv, ^y&\ and, to conclude, fllCft "to cry" (along with &G*TD> \ya, ^yo,
>

rns;

4T4*ifTl and 4 jR"4ft "to grind, to bruise";fllJMI"soot", connected with yJiZj and y L o ; T 0 P "to be in health", \J& = ft'rhfl) On the converse side of this exchange v. 30. 28. (5) Labial Mutes fl, ft, T - The rest of the Semitic languages have only two Mutes formed with the lips, viz. the soft fl and the hard With the Northern-Semites each of the two letters is given, sometimes with an aspirated, sometimes with a hard, unaspirated utterance. The Southern-Semites [and the same is to be said of the Babylonian-Assyrians] know nothing of the distinction observed in such two-fold pronunciation, but give to fl the sound of h (or even utter it still more softly, like a v), and pronounce with aspiration, not however as ph, but as f: indeed to an Arabian mouth at least the pronunciation of a p is not possible^). The Abyssinians, however, have contrived to form this harder, unaspirated sound, that is to say, p; but as if they too had been, at least at first, unable to utter a pure p, they have done so in a peculiar phonetic fashion. Either the p is strongly and suddenly puffed forth by a vigorous effort of the vocal organs, constituting thus in the class of Labials an emphatic letter p ft( )
2

Lawai
Mutes.

( ) "WALLIN p. 23.

( ) The best description of this letter is given by ISENBERG, p. 8, where, speaking of ft as "the explosive letter of this class" he says "the breath puffs off" from between the lips, before the vowel is heard". V . in this reference "WALLTN p. 10: "in order to produce such an explosive sound,* one vocal organ must be pressed against another to form a closure, and by the sudden opening of the same the air enclosed behind it is expelled to articulate the explosive letter". V . also KNIG, p. 45sq.Compare the emphatic utterance of fi among certain Jews, 'Journ. as.' V I , 16, p. 517, and among the Syrians,
*Jomrn. as.'* V I , 18, p. 476 sqq.; N I D E K E , Z D M G X X X I V , p. 572.

28.

57

corresponding to the emphatic 4* and m in the two foregoing classes; or else i t is given with a slight sibilationp fas in the Greek ip. This view of T at any rate seems to follow from the old name Psa\ bnt at the same time it must be observed that L U B O L F and ISENBERG- expressly denote the pronunciation of T J that of our own p (*): it must accordingly have had the sound of p in later times at least. The first of these two letters,ft, was certainly developed independently of Greek for neither the character nor the name of the letter points to a Greek origin, and it is by no means in foreign words merely that it makes its appearance, but in genuine Ethiopic words and roots. I n such words i t originates as a rule out of a b made hard and hollow in sound:#ft
s
D

"to throw, to hit (to shoot)"belongs to

'> 4*Aft "to. catch

(^%S');

with the mouth something that has been thrown", to n^?3

^T'T'k "a quiver" (pharetrti), to JU*^.; ft*> "boot", to ^UuS'; TJftA "to pervert, to overturn", to ^X$, ^an. Yet it may also spring from fi:iOftOJ "to sever the limbs, to break", kJJ.au] Hft. ; "Yijft fcaXafittiTYjg, i l l L L . Of unknown derivation are the names 4*Kft "chamaeleon"; ftlftU'ft, ('name of a disease'). I n certain other words also, ? > seems to have assumed even in early times the form of a harder but less dull jp-sound; but i t was not until a new character for p had been introduced by the Greeks, that this harder pronunciation could be expressed in writing: U T A "to full", Jut, Jo^ ; and J^pT "ambuscade, snare", n|^, 35^, v?t>. The Greek it is now expressed sometimes by fl, sometimes by <,, and sometimes by ft and T <w"PI?ftAft> 4 f l / ^ , fH"< * ^Ofl,
(*) ISENBEEG also calk it P a merely, not Psa. ( ) Contrary to Ltmou?, The whole account of these letters given by LTJDOLF is unsatisfactory. He thinks that sr was at first rendered by f\ and and that later an endeavour was made to domesticate the p-sound as ft, from which there sprung however a 'novw and 'mirabilis sonus :that, still later, people learned the correct pronunciation of r and added the letter T, and often used it at that day. The words in which ft and f appear are mistakenly regarded by him a$ pure foreign words. The only thing that is true in this representation is, that in later times f is more frequently employed in foreign words; but often enough, even in later times, the other three labials are also used for jp, especially in the foreign words which were introduced through the intervention of Arabic.
2 1 1

 hWl

58

28.

GTToyyog, htl^M anvpfoa, fl-A^Cftft, rt^ftrM and rt^<hM> ft^f ^tvaTTi. On the other hand is used for (j), hut

also ft and f when a full vowel does not precede: f|ft.C ofaipa; tlTVC od7r(j)sipog. The other two letters fl and frequently exhibit mutual interchange, when we compare Ethiopic with the other tongues. An Ethiopic Q is confronted by a fi in the other languages,in the following words, for instance: fl^O "to be profitable" jPMfoU "bellows", mB, JlBi, ^ U , ^ a j ; flAH 'a kind of antelope' (also "a small flute"), y ^ y t l i O ; O'idH "to be drained, exhausted", probably o ^3- I n Vmfl "to drop", and Will*, "to filter", both the letters have been kept, though with different meanings. 2 corresponds to an Ethiopic in TH<(. "to be compact", v^A^, o y ^ ; *hl "to embrace", pnn,
V>A3J , V^AS*,

^J&2>,

^ 3 ^ ; WW. "to

become dry", 2X\

^ ^ d i ; ftO<f* "to cause offence",

oLar; A<(.R "to knead" (if not "to besmear"), alongside of AA "to knead", corresponding to and yd. But these Mutes border also upon the Semivowel 0) through fl; and, on this ground, changes not unfrequently occur in Ethiopic, just as in other languages, both within the language itself and when faced by other dialects: thus we have the expressions 0O>A "to be weak-limbed", and fl-flfl "to be weak"; 4"Jmft and ^'imO) C3BJ?) "to prick, to perforate". < D corresponds to a 2, u in thtitt) "to utter lies", 3D, v o j i l ?Afl> "to cover with", ^ls>; <DAO>A "to be irresolute", JuJb; fl to a ^ in ^CV 'fl "tip, sting", xyyThese exchanges appear also in proper names: AA4^P"A Sylvanius; A/PCf -ft and AflCP"A Liberius. A n exchange of like nature makes its appearance between the Mutes and the Nasal of this class ( ): QArh "to extricate", ; n e t "to be bald", rnfi (cf.fi^oa);rhCflft "to wallow in the
a

( ) [The meaning of this word is quite uncertain. And it may be proper to say here generally, that not a few of the comparisons, ventured upon by DILLMANN in this chapter, are very doubtful, if some of them be not demonstrably erroneous.] ( ) A n analogous phenomenon is met with in the Minao-Sabaic dialect; ZDMG X X I X , p. 6062.; X X X . P- 704sj.
3

 29. 30.

59

mire", j j ^ a . ; itffl "to forge (metals)", ^ ; i9C "tiger" becomes in Ambaric V"(IC- Conversely, O^ao "to be passionate" answers to ^ A A ; and W9 "to approve of", "to delight in", goes back in the end to ***Mh 29. I f we glance once more over the three classes of NO distinoMutes, we must observe that the distinction between an aspirated nUedbe-* (or rather assibilated) and an unaspirated pronunciation no more ^T^** found admission into Ethiopia than it did into Arabic. "We have (or Asnmseen, it is true, that \i often answers to and >f to $r, and may ^ ^ . conjecture accordingly that in foreign words h , f' and perhaps also P e r a t e d R

.
0

nunciation

other hard and soft letters, may have been spoken with an aspi- f Mutes, ration. But in the case of native words no such inference follows. As regards the hollow-sounding letters on the other hand; it is established that they can never stand for foreign Aspirates, unless the aspiration be falling away at the same time. Reciprocal exchanges between Mutes of different classes are exceedingly rare, and appear to be confined exclusively to the earliest formative stage of the language. Relatively the most common is the exchange between + or \\ and ; ID All "to add to" is *)p; ( < J ^ ) ; i'Cd. "to be left over", ^ y j , rnn; rh4f "shore", V_4Aj; kil&.. A very ancient exchange of f * and h appears in the Pronouns of the 1 and 2 pers. ( 65). 30. (6) The Sibilants,five in all,belong to the class sibilants, of Dental-Lingual letters. Among them H answers to ft, as the clear and soft letter (z of the French and English); the harder A (the firm s) to -i*; R, the emphatic Explosive Sibilant, to fli. And these three leading letters, at least, Ethiopic has always carefully distinguished. When comparison is made with Arabic, H is not only y but also < * > (as even the character H has come from the Minao-Sabaic character for o 11 (*)), unless it is rather < * > that slips back into ft ( 27); and ft is not merely ,jo( ), but also takes the place of Jb (with the like limitation, 27). Alongside of these three letters all the Semites have developed another sister-letter to A> somewhat rougher and more sibilant, namely
s t n d 2

O Of. also HOMMEL, ZDMG X L V I , p. 536. ( ) [Later, however, when ft had become affricata, \jQ was represented by A; v. LITTMANN, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr: X I V , p. 84, Note 1.]
2

60

30.

(tf, j i ) , and this is also met with in Ethiopic as u>C). The Southern-Semites alone produced ^ d over and above, by bending back the to the Mutes,which d the Ethiopians likewise took with them to Abyssinia in the form 0. So far that letter does not properly belong to this class: For the reason why it has been placed here, v. infra. In Greek words H corresponds oftenest to (H9? C ' ^AwV? fl&ht Zeno)\ A is also used for it, e. g. AA."? Zosima. A or IP answers to s, though here and there ft or 0 may be so used, and in that case such letter frequently coincides in a remarkable way, in words of Hebrew origin, with the Hebrew (R f *>, flfljt'h). ft is also often employed by the Ethiopians for the Greek r/, e. g.: A*}ftT XsvTiov: htflnj? Antiochia: oftener however we find *pf and ^ f , e. g. \ M T ^ t i f t Antiochns; M ^ H H "indidio".
, m

Outside of their own class these five letters border on the Mutes of the Dental-Labial Class. The perception of this relationship of theirs has been kept up in Ethiopic in an exceedingly lively way, by such a Mute passing into a Sibilant, when one

( ) LUDOLF had mistaken the correspondence of A with,D, tflD, and I P with at, by inverting the relationship; but HUPFELD p. 5, has already drawn attention to the real state of the case, and TUCH in the second of the "Commentationes", cited on p. 14, has given farther proof of this. I regard the matter as settled thereby, and merely refer to these two treatises. "What chiefly led LTJDOLF astray was his failure to notice the peculiar shifting of sound which prevailed among the North- and South-Semites between y*, fef, D, and Often enough, in fact, s in Arabic corresponds to the North-Semitic s, and s to the of the North-Semites; while Ethiopic in these cases "tooth"; generally followed Arabic, vntf, e. g. ^j-u/, ft*J

tfng, u-Jo, 4 A; fcna,

Ktw, U J ,

^UuJf,

fens,

j^jfhCf

and so on

(TUCH p. 5). But otherwise, when this process of letter-shifting is not in operation, A generally answers not merely to but also to D andfc?,whence it is clear again that A * equivalent to e. g. " t f t ^ , IDH-
s

Owing to this mistake, the orthography of the Sibilants, which is followed in LUDOLF'B Lexicon cannot be accepted as correct without being farther tested: it needs repeatedly to be put right. On the gradation of the Semitic Sibilants in general, cf. HATTPT, Z D M G X X X I V , p. 759 sqq. [and D . H . MULLEK,
l

Verh. VII. Or.~Congr Semit. Sect p. 229 sqq.].-

 31.

61

of the former, unattended by a vowel, comes upon one of the latter ( 54). I n roots and words also an interchange of Mutes and Sibilants may often be observed. For the manner in which this was effected in the case of the Demonstr. Pron. v. 62. I t has already been pointed out ( 27) that Mutes occasionally appear in Ethiopic in place of the Sibilants of other tongues. But the converse is much more frequent. I n those cases in which Aramaic has a Mute, Arabic a lisping Mute, and Hebrew a Sibilant, Ethiopic has a Sibilant too( ), e. g. Ivs^, ^yj, ntf AG;
x

3Bh,

flirtfl;

5J IH1A; J ^ J O J , ^ J S , nit, HWl;

s = fi> a n d i n t h i s w a y

V ^ J , ^ts, i s i , *SU; P P for the most part it gives Sibilants for the Arabic lisping Mutes, namely for ^generally e.g. ihiC "straw", 'i^JiL {^LL)\ *if*"lW "to sprinkle", U j , l^j, ntt; also A, e.g. rh^A "to plough", id^s*., Khrr, for j either if, e. (7. Hrh4* "to peel off husk, bark or skin", (J ^<i>, ^ - ^ ^ ^ (sheep, goat &c), ^JjtXc; o^fxhtD
o r

other examples v. supra), or A, e. g., ^ J ^ , "Hf; or ft, e. g. 0ft-4 "bough", J 6 ; and for So, ft (v. supra).

0Ajf "something variegated", ^ J L C ; "Vfhftft "a young male" "to fade",

But farther, in not a few cases, it has the Sibilant even where ordinary Arabic shows no transitional sound, and generally in fact the first and commonest Sibilant A> as for instance for % in ftfth "until" (from 64); A*fe "to pierce through", njPV, M "to. glow", ^jt>) (in Derivatives); 1A "to be up early", ItXc.; and for n, in A " ^ "South", Jj^ri, ^1S; AhA "to break off, to end", 1"DD, v^jCw, and tDj?^, Jaiu*,: then, t3 or is often passes into the hollow-sounding sibilant ft (0): *7*flX*, JOAS "Egypt"; flftlD "to fall
V

asleep", Ik?; 0 f t "to put on one's cloak",

oikc. V I I I , and
Muctuation and interchange of

in rare instances T or o, e. g. flftfD~A "prodigy", hke <X?. 31. But these Sibilants also fluctuate a good deal among themselves; and in no class of letters are exchanges between the individual letters so prevalent as in this ( ). We are still keeping out of sight here the special relation which holds between w and
2

(*) T U C H p. 8sqq.

( ) I n this feature Ethiopic quite resembles Arabic.

62

31.

ft on the one hand, and between ft and 0 on the other (which will be considered farther on), and are attending merely to the three stages ii ft, w\ ft, 0. (a) We frequently come upon the softest letter If as an alternative form for ft (ip) or ft, or else taking its place: rhAfl "to think, to suppose" and rhlffl; Afl "to shatter" and HfU in <nHflC; tw^aoC "a line" and ao^C, J^TfC "beer" and jFflG; f other cases v. 57; and similarly the root 0<n> "to bind" ("j&s, tX*-o) appears besides, with a slightly different meaning, as Iffwft. Cases are more common, in which Ethiopic has only H for the s or s of other tongues: e. g. for s
r

and 3 H f l m "to smite",

HOHJ "to meditate", n ^ ;

litlO

"to tattle", JSV ** and

H*fl*i "a skin, hide",

MAG "mat",

"border", y [ i ; T H A "to be thick", ^oc^; M f M f xLio^.; aonaoU

"to stroke, to rub", tftsto, yi-*, v*x, yoyo; more

rarely for s: HT>*J "something yellow", fyLo; ( U H "Morning-star", related to ^b, (jL?; A9'H "poison", Ifbn, ud+s, y^(b) The medial letter ft, w often answers to the softer f, 3 of the other t o n g u e s : " t o grow old", nn, 1 ^ , "to sprinkle", nji, 1^3, U J ; IDrtV "to determine, to fix Hmits", ( j v ^ ; ftihtlth "to agitate, to move backwards and forwards", y_% nnj, f>y, rtrtA "to depart", ^JK, J J J ; rtC9 "the flood", agreeing with the Arabic |y&> but contrasting with the Hebrew Dit (c/*. also the instances given in 30, where ft corresponds to a 6, t>, or 1). But in other cases ft or w has been retained where other languages already have 2 $ or ye:iA>rM> "to laugh", viJL-SP, pPIS and pnfc; r h c "to sweep up", "to hope", n w yiUa.; A / ^ r h "to rejoice", rres, wu|S; hftd.C "jaundice", ^Jo (v. H<6* supra); ft&jD 4"-flA "wound", J L ^ S , ^ | * ; MflftllA "to glitter", (jqj, (jamas', and in other Words within Ethiopic itself it exchanges with 0 : a n d 0<pA "breadth", ^Juo, fifiS; GAil "to be moist", and Cih0 "to sweat", prn, (jdi^, and (c) But certainly still more common is the appearance in Ethiopic of the hardest letter ft or 0 for softer ones present in other languages. For several cases, in which ft answers to 5 and o, v* 30. I t corresponds to in words like Kfti9 "beard", |j?t[?];

 31.
ft?fl)

63

"lizard", ^ y j ; A R (AA) Still more

and ft|p ( 25), \j*y A X ' * ^

"to knead", y j ; VXVh "to be pure", ^ 3 , with SJJ, frequently it stands overagainst a ^ "to stab", O L ^ J , pin,

or yi:9*1"?%. "to prick",

# A 0 "ulcer, wound", axJL,, but

XAfl^ "rocks", "caverns", S^D, ^ ^ L l and ^Lo; ftfl-f"to swim", ^ M * M ; ftT^C alongside of /*'AC^h "hair", answering to -tffcy, yuo; ft*7fl "to be satisfied (satur)", "to summon", s?|i#, ^ - ^ j hl&COR 5?nt^; ftfl*-0 "to leap", compared with

XAft "to hate", Uxo, Kit?; fl^SV "to rake together (the fire)", tfpa, v i ^ o ; ft/rO) "to smell", D^p, y&>[?]- I n Ethiopic itself A also appears as an alternative for ft in Ah")h and ft*?* "street" (pltJOC); and in 73 reference is made to an example of even the A of the Causative Conjugations being deadened into ft. Similarly too 0 has often originated from Jjj and y*,:*fe0^ (*feX^) "to confine, to conspire", l^p, yaJ; 0P9 "left hand", p L * & ; 0<w "to fasten", np, %<D<D "to take prisoner", rotf, I w , A % "worm", Bfy, atfi; "moth", DD, ^ ^ - 1 ; >?T*d "a rugged road",

From the survey that has just been made of the multiform phonetic interchange between the letters composing this class, i t becomes clear as regards the relation of A to w and of ft to 0( ), that A and ft are the chief letters of the second and third stages. They predominate throughout the language, and w and 0 appear much less frequently. Where the letter i* does make its appearance, i t answers generally to a Jjj or v>; yet even in that case i t is often supplanted by the simpler A:compare ACfl "to drink", A4A " weigh", Juui, JJu, H^d "to rend", mfc, >Xco; (Ml "to grow grey", yty, ^ L i ; and so too A/hOfl "to become mouldy", A-0 "tinder"; yu; farther A
2 t o

*MC> *fAm, 4* A^J flrt^ and many others, which either invariably, or nearly so, are written with A- As the speech more i ) This is more doubtful in A00
1
2

a n d

h9tl'

( ) According to KNIG, p. 47, ft and 0 are roughened utterances of what were originally Explosives, ts, d$.

64

31.

and more took this direction, the letter s gained such predominance that s gradually disappeared, and s was used instead C). I n poetry ft and IP rhyme together; and when Amharic began to be reduced to writing, consciousness of the original phonetic value of the character IP had been lost so completely, that a new character was invented to express the Amharic 8. Unfortunately this deteriorated pronunciation had such an effect on the writers of manuscripts, even in the case of the older manuscripts, that ft and I P were exchanged at the fancy of the scribe, and at the present moment we are in doubt about which is the more correct method of writing certain words, particularly those of comparatively rare occurrence. But yet there were several words, which this capricious confounding of the two letters was never able to affect, either because of IP still preserving a somewhat different pronunciation from ft, or because of the power of tradition, in the matter of writing, proving too strong for caprice. Roots, like V/^ft, Wti, hOOi V7w , hiv-fr, (Df^h and others, are never found Avritten with ft in the better class of manuscripts; and conversely, roots, like tVOfl, y<f|, aoftft, "VflV, dflf, <PM, 'fl?irt, (l90, rt^P, A"fl0, and others,are never written
T j

with I P . But farther, the Abyssinians soon lost the original pronunciation of 0 as a mute, as well as of I P , and suffered it to revert to the sound of ft, out of which it had sprung. Hundreds of years ago ft and 0 had come to have exactly the same pronunciation; and they rhyme together in poetry. Meanwhile we can no longer discover from the appearance of 0 in the individual words concerned, at what time this reversion of the pronunciation may have commenced. We still meet with a good many roots (v. supra), in which Ethiopic has 0 in place of a simpler sibilant in other tongues; but on the other hand we meet with not a few, in which already ^j, takes invariably the form of ft, e. g., ft^fl,
ftflfl> XT, SW.*, XhO, f t ^

When

too 0 and ft gave quite different meanings to several roots, which otherwise had the same sound, the confusion of the two characters in writing was never so marked. I t is only in one or two words
O Of. SCHRADEB, 'Monatsber. d. K. Prtuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin' 1877, p. IVsqq., and HAUPT, 'Sum. Fam.-GesS, 68..

32.

65

that such confusion occurs with any frequency. I t is curious to observe how Ethiopic sought gradually to revert to the original condition of the sounds of Semitic speech,the letters *V 0, w and 0 being undoubtedly of comparatively late origin,by ceasing, little by little, to distinguish between ^ and fa, 0 and ft, and 0 and ft. 32. (7) The Liquid and Softer letters, viz. the Nasals ao and V, the Linguals ^ and A, and the Semivowels flj and p: Of the Nasals the labial do is the more definite and therefore the firmer; the dental V is the more general, and as it borders on the Linguals it exchanges with them. I n their mutual relations, however, the one Nasal not infrequently passes over into the other. I t has already been shown ( 28) how ao exchanges with the labial Mutes. I t exchanges in the same way with the Semivowel ID: on the one hand instead of do Ml "to draw the bow", IDA^ is also used; on the other, an initial ID is hardened into do in <n*>G "honey"; tf0& "to counsel", yv\ jae^, IV, Tjji; and in the more Amharictf>tfV"to weigh" (Ge ez IDAV, 31), (*). I t is not often that the more definite do arises out of the general Nasal V: in WaofD "to commit fornication" (another form
c

being TJjtf-), b j , and in Rfaf* "beard", ^ i ' S , n certainly appears in all the other Semitic tongues; inftfJF*T0"to till the ground thoroughly", do seems to have come from n under the influence of m- On the other hand with comparative frequency m becomes n ( 57). The other Nasal, i is more liquid and fugitive. Thus it may disappear entirely, particularly in the end of a word '( 58), or enter with ease into a short syllable which has the tone, to strengthen it ( 58), or replace the first sound in any double-consonant whatever ( 58). I t also comes readily out of jP before a dental or lingual Mute, whether in native or in foreign words (57). Thus too it frequently replaces in roots the more definite do; "to fail", "to withdraw", ^ I V and V ; R.VID "to smell", a*9D,.jJi&[?]; AWh "bald", ^Js&o, nsfc, but also i t , ^ X l l ; 4VX "to leap", ya*S and yaJLa. On the other hand \ and the liquid lingual A pass, dialectically, the one into the other: fa!i
(*) More frequently has ID become ** in Amharic; ISBNBBR&, p. 38. 5

66

32. "to get off, to escape", J u J L ; and JTJJIA.

"to spread (housings) over", J^.y, ^OJ, J^>, J ^ ) 5 A l f l A "chain", n ^ # ,

"a cymbal", D^#2f, JL^JLoO; conversely ft Aft "to hate", *Ofc>, LL& ( ). The exchange between \ and does not so readily occur; and when it does occur, it may be regarded as brought about by the intervention of A; thus, no doubt, in Oflfi "to fumigate", (together with 4;*%) from nDJ?, y3, yks., and perhaps in ft*wTni "to repay", IDbS yC*i and Of. also "to stagger", yy>), and *H<7{J "rain", D * T t (c/*. also AGU); [contrast, however, Assyrian zananu, zunnu\ Of the two Liquid Linguals certainly inclines rather to the Aspirate-Gutturals; and although here it does not,as partly it does in Hebrew,share at all in the other peculiarities of the Gutturals, yet it often brings about the gurgling ^containing pronunciation in the Palatal-Gutturals which precede it ( 26), in which tendency it is followed by A (v. ibid.). In their mutual relations, and A frequently pass into one another, but only in root-formation. I n fact at the end of a word, A is a more favourite letter in Ethiopic than ^, thusf*>0A "to paint" ('to fashion'), I S j , J ; fl+A "to punish", 1Y$3; ftflA "member", "limb", jjjx>; rhAA "to burn", along with th "to be hot", ^a., Judik X I ( ).
8 2

V!0>

LU> J ^ ' J *fe*A "foliage",

yaj>.

and

In the interior of a word this exchange is found in

A<CAJ? "hammer", from the root us, VlB; *flCA"J "lentils", ^j^uJo: the harder 7G1< is found as a secondary form of galgala in Syriac also. A shares with J in the weakness of being capable
( ) Perhaps also Dent, the name of the 19 from Dalt.
2 2 x th

letter of the Alphabet,

( ) On the exchange of am and al (through the intervention of an) in the Arabic of Yemen, v. Mufassal , p. (at", 1. 8; on the modern Arabic popular pronunciation ^ L J O I (embdreh) "yesterday" (for ^ L J f ) v. TECMPP,

'Sitzber. d. philos. phUol'u. h. CI. d. Jc. b. Ah. d. Wiss: 1811, Part I I , p. 119. ( ) Thus too in foreign words, but mostly following the lead of the Septuagint, A exchanges with r and n, e.g.,
3

tfCflVA for tnCm*C, (?(liA>

A-4-4.A, ttf*aA, > ? A &c.

33.

67

of a complete disappearance in the end of a word ( 58), just as it exhibits the faculty also of bringing over to its own sound a "foregoing m or n ( 54). That r besides may pass into s seems to follow from *%\\ " i t is better", alongside of "%C "good", compare also ftjPflfl, y ^ x ^ and ^jo^ ). Finally, the two Semivowels ID and f are, along with ft, the softest and most liquid of all the letters, and they are constantly changed for the corresponding vowels (v. infra 4Qsqq.] cf. also on Oh and supra, p. 38 sq.). On the other hand they are much more definitely marked off from one another than in the other Semitic languages, and they maintain themselves ^tenaciously when they have once taken root,without to, for instance, passing into f , through the influence of an i, or f into ID, influenced by a u. I t has already been shown, how ID is softened out of other labials, or hardened into them (v. 28 and 32). As first letter of a root, it often corresponds to n of other languages ( 68) ; but this phenomenon is not to be explained as a softening of n into y or w, but as a variety of the root-form. As a Palatal, f borders upon *l and tr, at least J t Y l i s j F * "made an orphan" appears
1

to be connected with dl"l\ Compare also 0P9 with j * L i .

n. MEETING OF LETTERS IN THE SYLLABLE AND IN THE WORD.

GENERAL RULES OF T H E S Y L L A B L E . 33. The two kinds of letters, which have hitherto been ex- Constituhibited separately, appear in speech only in union with one syllable, another. Neither a single vowel nor a single consonant can by itself form a word or constituent part of speech: it is not until they are uttered in combination that words or portions of words are produced. I n this combined utterance it is always the vowel which gathers to itself one or several consonants and binds them
( ) EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.\ p. 66, has drawn attention to this fact. Meanwhile, }ftf) "to be small" has its own connection with i m m j , y j i 3 , and jyj. The word fU^fC and flh^VC, is derived from ro/tpm. 5*
X

68

34.

into one whole. A simple phonetic whole, of this nature, held together by one vowel, constitutes the Syllable. Every syllable must have one vowel; but no syllable can have more than one, unless it be two vowels which coalesce in a single vowel-sound or diphthong. One syllable even may by itself have the full force of a word, and thus constitute a word, like U "this", ,^A "word"; and Language has a host of monosyllables. By far the greatest number of words, however, contain several of these simple phonetic groups, one of which farther holds the rest round itself as a centre and bears the Tone of the word. Different languages show different dispositions and capabilities in the nature of these simple phonetic groups, according as they severally admit of a larger or a smaller number of consonants being gathered about the one vowel. Semitic languages, generally, do not tolerate the piling up of consonants in one syllable, for they are rich in vowels. Yet there are degrees of difference among them in this respect. Arabic has developed this Semitic tendency with most thoroughness; the Northern-Semitic languages are less rich in vowels; while Ethiopic, in this matter, as in many others, stands midway between these extremes. I n particular it resembles Arabic in allowing a short vowel to stand in an open syllable,that is, in a syllable which ends in a vowel,independently of its being supported by the Tone; and on the other hand, like the Northern-Semitic languages, it admits long vowels in closed syllables,that is, syllables which end with a consonant,and it even allows a word to conclude with a double consonant. Generally, however, open syllables outnumber closed syllables. Farther, Ethiopic evinces a peculiar leaning to the Northern-Semitic tongues, through its very short e-sound, which often takes the place of a full Arabic vowel. The rules of the syllable in detail are as follows ( ). of tnT** ^ Every syllable must begin with a Consonant. A Syuabio. vowel can never commence a word or syllable, for according to the Semitic conception of phonetic relations, every vowel, however audible in itself, must at least be preceded by a breathing, more or less vigorous. Accordingly in Ethiopic too, all roots which at first began with a vowel have had their initial vowel turned to the
1 8

(*) Compare with the following representations KONIG, pp. Hsqq., 92eq., 104, 118, 189?., and 1436$$.

34.

69

consistency of a consonant. The same thing is shown in foreign words, whenever they have to he transcribed in Ethiopic: ftA> d\(j)oi; #fc$Pfl Irenaeos; thf }? "kvaviag; d - f l ^ E/2p/o; fcflA. or <0PA Ex. 30, 13 (o being resolved into au = ua = wa) tifiokog; flHr^ffl oceanus] (D -A^/hA Glen. 28, 19; fh*5 'lovba/a. I t was only the later pronunciation that contrived a pure u or i in the beginning of the word in cases like OhfcR, J&'I'fK- ( 19)So when, according to the other rules of formation, two vowels would come together in the middle of a word and thereby bring two syllables into existence ( 33) in that form, this is not admitted of, and such a hiatus is avoided by contraction or blending into a double or mixed sound ( 39), or by the interpolation of a separating letter ( 41), or by the hardening of a vowel into its semivowel ( 40); and thus the phonetic conditions are reduced to the rule which has been enunciated. I t is the same in foreign words, e. g. Theodora is either transcribed ^hhRfa or
0 c

No syllable begins originally with a double consonant; and in those cases in which the consonant introducing the vowel of the syllable is preceded by a consonant unprovided naturally with a vowel, this consonant is uttered with the shortest vowel e, e. g. *7flC g -bdr. But such e is of a fugitive character, being little else than a half-vowel or vOwel-touch; and this is one of the cases in which the so-called vowel of the sixth order resembles the Hebrew sh va mobile ( 22). I n the later pronunciation of Ethiopic, however, when the nature of the consonants which came together permitted it,when, for instance, a liquid followed a mute, or a mute a sibilant,even that vowel-touch was no longer heard and 'PT 'lh was pronounced fnot\ flAA blcf; Yld9't hrdmt\ and farther even Afr Me for hel-e ( 47) (*): So in foreign words sfeng for sefeng, anoyyog; hCft-f A Chrestos. Not more than one consonant, however, can be prefixed in this way to the consonant which introduces the vowel of the syllable. When, therefore, by the rules of formation several vowel-less consonants come together before it, an auxiliary vowel must be applied to make i t possible to pronounce them. This vowel is generally e, no longer so fugitive as in the foregoing case, but a complete short vowel, e. g. *7flG yeg-bar- ^hVC^ te-mert.
e e

(*) LTJDOLF, 'Gramm.' I , 5.

70

35.

Meanwhile foreign words, commencing with three consonants, would often he much disfigured by the insertion of an auxiliary vowel in the group; and in this case a device, current in the other Semitic languages also, was adopted, namely the prefixing of a short vowel introduced by ft, to the whole group, e. g., hhti&'i esTfren, scrinium. I n fact this device for facilitating the pronunciation of vowel-less letters in the beginning of a word is frequently employed, even where only one vowel-less consonant precedes the consonant which introduces the vowel of the syllable. I n native words of Ethiopic formation the vowel prefixed is mostly e, ftjJ> "out of, from", from )D; htl0C) "for", "because"; ftflfr (in wish or entreaty) "0 that!"; "fofi&fr "vicissitude", from (Id?; ft*7ll.ft "Lord", for "MJi; perhaps ftA;Mr "under-garment" and ftyVfblD- "ancestor"; (onft">*7/J"foreigner", v. 137 ad fin.). I n Ethiopic words of earlier formation the vowel a is also used,ftX"fld*ih"finger", ^>\- I foreign words a appears more frequently than e, particularly in those which have reached Abyssinia through the Arabic: ftftm/.f Jl Stephanies; ft^A/T^I-Ml with the older tyW^I/nft Clemens; MCitl &povog\ hMh ! XWa\ ftft^Jt anvpiba; ft-flC^A Procla] h'(\\}tlA npd&g (Arab.).
0 n

Termma-

35. (2) The syllable may terminate either in a vowel or syuabie. consonant. I f it terminates in a vowel, the vowel may be either long or short: H ze; "^fl hdba; AJ&ao fassama; $a qorna; "lm metu. If it closes with a consonant, the vowel of the syllable may be short, as in 1flGYl gabarku; iflGYl" " gabarkemmu, or long, whether it has the tone, as is usually the caseftjJAVl amlah; ftm*-")^ emfmtuC); f J P h nomha; ^*jPAh tamlekor has not the tone, e. g. % T\\oT>* metkemmu; t/pfl* J > <CJf <F>or>~ &c.
h e a 0 a t , p

A syllable may end even in two consonants, but only in the termination of a word. Oases likeft*>^Mft"that" (fern.) are no

C ) I n the later pronunciation this ft is again rejected: the pronunciation is 8tna, sku, and so too ft fill "till" (which has had a different origin)
ska, LPDOLF I , 5.

( ) [But v. PRABTORIUS, 'Aethiop. Gramm.\ p. 23, wherefollowing TRUMPP, p. 548he puts the tone on the last syllable:emuntu. T R . ]

71

exceptions, for, even granted that it was pronounced Snt-Jcu, and not rather e*ntfkuC), this word must be regarded as a compound of two words, and must be estimated in the same way as jP"7^hV "what?"; tfo"}'?/*'^ "the kingdom also" &c. I t is mainly in feminine Nominal stems formed by the closely attached t, that a double consonant occurs in the end of a word. The vowel of such a syllable, owing to its being more compressed by the two closing consonants, must of necessity be short; and thus if it was originally a long vowel, it must be shortened: ^TC^h fetert; 'fr9tiC't temhert; h'Plfl'fl'ih kawakebt; ROG'fr sahdrt\ K<h4*A^" ahqelt. I t is only when the first of the two final consonants is a Semivowel or an Aspirate-Guttural, that the vowel of the syllable may be long (v. 36). There are, besides, other cases, in which a word ends in two vowel-less consonants (v. 38).

CHANGES OF LETTERS CONSEQUENT ON T H E G E N E R A L RULES OF T H E S Y L L A B L E , OR ON T H E I R M E E T I N G W I T H OTHER LETTERS. 1. VOWELS. 36. I n Ethiopic, as well as in all other Semitic languages, shortening the vowels are the letters most subject to alteration, as forming y ^ ^ the more mobile and subtle division of the sounds of speech. Lengthening of Short And yet this change among them is far from being carried out vowels, here as extensively as in Hebrew ( 22): it is only in a few directions that a comparatively frequent exchange of vowels prevails.
0

(A)

INFLUENCE AND

OF T H E STRUCTURE T H EWORD

OF T H E SYLLABLE

ON T H E VOWELS.

The most important phenomena in this reference are the Shortening of Long Vowels and the Lengthening of Short Vowels. I t is true that, in accordance with 35, Ethiopic may admit both long and short vowels in open as well as in closed syllables, and
( ) [TRTXMPP, p. 547, transcribes this word in the form enteku; P R A E rroRius, 'Aethiop. GrammS p. 28, follows TRUMPP, writing the word thus: Znieltu. TR.]
X

72

36.

that too, whether they have or have not the tone, the result being that exchange between long and short vowels is by no means carried so far in this language as it is in others. But still there are several cases in which this change occurs. I n a syllable ending in two consonants a long vowel is not admitted ( 35). Thus when a second vowel-less consonant (*) is appended to an ordinary closed syllable, a must be shortened to and u and z to e. Accordingly p^<p "dealer" forms in the Fern. i#fp (for iPtf f*^ 54)); iMft, ft^fc, - ^ - ^Afl^* AWify; the very common form *7flC becomes in the Fern, *7*flG^" gebert\ and it is only from Ctbft "unclean", and the like, that Ctl*ft"3f* even is read in place of Ctttl^ ( 42) ( ); h*MJi and A^4 in the Fern, have the forms 'hlTih't d AlHMh A syllable of this kind may retain a, only when the first of the two concluding consonants is an Aspirate: in such a case, if it has a short a, the vowel must be lengthened, e- g- V P ' l ' K *fe*JH?i^ ( 46); but any long vowels, other than a, must be shortened even before Aspirates, e. g. *fl{H) Fern. fl0d^*; and yet here and there one meets also with h.lHjK't' and even with tij^'t (from lijty, inasmuch as 4 occasionally shares in the peculiarities of the Aspirates). Farther, when the first of the two concluding consonants is a semi-vowel, the long vowel may be retained:thus not only does one say I P S J & ^ S 7fthAJK.^hjfor here has the sound of i,but also /h^flHh fty*<h0Hh where the Ch inclines at least to u ( 39). Apart from the very common case which has been described, the shortening of a long vowel in the formation only occurs regularly, when the tone-less 1 of the Fem.-persons of the verb is brought into the middle of the word, through the attachment of a suffix. Shortening happens also under the influence of a ^ or a ID, which draws to itself a y or a w out of a foregoing or following I or and leaves the vowel reduced to a short e ( 52) ; or it may happen in consequence of the emphasis-of the word, an d, or an a which has come from 6, being in certain cases simplified into u, and an e into I ( 60). Cases
m t n e em 2 a n

X ) A short &-originally ending the Noun (whereon v. 3 8 ) is not taken into aeoount here. ( ) An exception is formed also by 1 0 - A ^ 'Kufale\ p. 142, 1. 3. On forms J&e Atflflft titllih. + \ v. infra, 151, 4. [As regards CJflhJrih wnn it does occur, it is probably an instance merely of cacography for CtMl^h & an inferior MS.]
2

37.

73
r

fall to be noticed here also, in which u occasionally becomes ue just as "HYl and ftAft* zeku, elku, with the addition of is, are, by reason of this new load in the end of the word, shortened to Htfts and ftAYf"f= and even to flYl'P andftA h * (v. 26).It is only under the influence of an Aspirate coming after it, that a short vowel is lengthened in the formation with a measure of regularity, and even then the rule is restricted to a and e ( 46). For other cases, in which short a or ? becomes a, I, or u, or even becomes e,see above, 18, 20, 21. Besides, when we make a comparison with other Semitic languages, we are obliged to recognise in the a, i, and u of certain Word-forms, vowels which were originally short, and which, merely through the tone, have been gradually turned into long vowels (v. infra). The weakening and reducing of vowels occur occasionally in weakening a few words, in particular in the weakening of a into e ( 18), Xcing of the reduction of u to o, and of i on the one hand and a on the other to e ( 21), and the simplification of b to a.( 18). A regular phenomenon i n Formation is the reduction of d to e before Aspirates ( 45), as well as the reduction, and at the same time the lengthening, of d into e, the lengthening being by way of compensation for a double consonant ( 56). S 37. Individual vowels may fall away, but only when they Treatment of Short ^ meet with other vowels ( 41). On the other hand this fate is ' very often experienced by Short e as a result of change in the ^j* conditions of the syllable. I n many forms i t is not maintained conditions, either by the tone or by a closed syllable, and already sounds very short and little else than a half-vowel; and thus upon due occasion i t disappears completely. The following cases fall to be noticed here in detail:(a) A short e in an open syllable without the tone, which is preceded by another open syllable having a long or short vowel, can seldom maintain itself, at least according to the later pronunciation: i t brings about the attachment of its own introductory consonant to the preceding syllable and then disappears: thus "M14* (originally yegaberu) is given as yegabru; $*Kfti4* (orig. yesehefu) as yesehfu; (lCtt* yebdrku: yefesmu; 9R'*0hp'i medrawyan; and so in the semi-passive expression of the verb, instead of original 7"fl gdbera, - h l - f l ^ tagabera, the pronunciation is rather gdbra ajtAtagabra. But the e which constitutes the so-called Binding-vowel of the pronomV o w e l 8 c f

74

38

inal suffixes is retained, whether with or without the tone, even in the later pronunciation, thus: h9flYfi amlkna; ^ A l qleka. Again, this shorter pronunciation is not employed, i f the open syllable which precedes, the syllable containing is a particle externally prefixed, such as a preposition or conjunction, e. g. : flfljhp, ba-seti (not basti) ; A ^ ^ 9 la-teqm (not latqum) ; but it appears in special and permanent compounds, like txlYl.lvfldhC egzabhr, *Mhi zekt. (b) A short in a closed syllable, which is preceded by an open syllable, is maintained more firmly,so that JB.1*flG> TrlC are rendered yegber, ymlek, neger. I t is the same with &*7A dangl and ft'PAft' awaled; and only a slovenly pronunciation would give these words as awald and ymalk. But when a formative syllable, beginning with a vowel, is applied to such a closed syllable containing , the final consonant of the latter is taken over to the formative syllable, and the e,left with its introductory consonant,disappears, while the last-named consonant attaches itself to the foregoing syllable: J&''fK-, ^<wAhj Tria negri ; V*7ft dandgla (although at first certainly dandgela) ; ,'77, dgen, but dgn. Treatment 38. A similar loss of a short and fugitive has been exat the end perienced by Ethiopie at the end of Nominal stems. I t may be stem P ^ pretty clearly, from the formation of individual Nominal stems, singular and plural, as well as from some other indications, leaving in fact no room for doubt, that at one time Ethiopie had the ground-form of Nominal stems, as distinguished from the Construct state and the Accusative, ending in a fugitive ( ), so that at one time, for instance, 1flC "servant" was pronounced
m i n a l

rovea

( ) Just as a noun in Arabic ends in u in the Nominative and in i in the Genitive. I n Ethiopic these two cases had not yet been distinguished. The above theory,which has been contested by TRUMPP, p. 532, but has been supported by KNIG, p. 76 sq., I have endeavoured to establish in my Essay ('Observations on the Grammar of Ge ez and on the ancient History of Abyssinia'): 'Bemerkungen [zur Grammatik des Geez und zur alten Geschichte Abessiniens: Sitzber. d. K. P r . Ak. d. Wiss. zu Berlin 1890, p. Bsqq. On the Arabic literary language, which knows nothing of nouns ending in a consonant, cf. FLEISCHER, 'Beitrge', St. 2. p. 281sqq.', St. 5. p. 130sg., and on
c 1

the form of the Himyaric local name ^LJfe, "WSTENFELD, 'al BakrV p. 468; JqV III, p. 576; cf. OLSHAUSEN, 'Monatsber. d. K Wiss. zu Berlin 1881', p. 690.
l

II,

Preuss. Ak. d.

38.
e

75

gbr , and ft^^A. dangeV. This termination in a vowel must, however, have worn itself off in very early times,a thing which in the case of most of the Nominal stems might well have happened without increasing the difficulty of pronunciation, particularly when the second-last consonant had a vowel of its own, however short, like V1S 0^Tf &S"?A and others. Even when the second-last consonant had no vowel, the vowel-termination of the word would be discarded without difficulty, i f the two consonants, thus deprived of vowels, were of such a kind that they could be readily attached to each other,if, for instance, the last consonant were a Mute or a Sibilant, as in *w>7, 9tli hC/** or if the second-last were a soft Aspirate as in Uft-fl &c. I n such cases, owing to the new pronunciation, a host of words arose, ending in a double consonant (v. 35), and given* thus, rnarg, rams &c. But in other cases, the loss of final e left as a result groups of consonants not so easily attached to each other, like IHC, "l^hi, 0$9 &c. If, nevertheless, final e was given up in such instances, asaccording to descriptions of Ethiopic pronunciationseems to have been the case, then of necessity a fugitive e must have been brought in after the secondlast consonant,thus, gab r, hefn(^) &c. There are, however, a number of Nominal forms, in which final e did not allow itself to be so easily dislodged, but probably continued to be spoken even in later times. In the first place, when a word ended in a w-containing guttural, the e connected with that u was bound to maintain its position more tenaciously: for instance, " I ^ A ^ half* were certainly not pronounced bare huelq anda'wg^ ), but huelque, afnqe, so that in pronunciation alone there is no difference between ft*}lD* and fti* "brother" ( ). In the second place, when the concluding consonant of the Nominal forms concerned here is a semivowel, as in fl-|D, fCiD*, ^"iOh, fahft,, hthCtO; A<Pft<D, ao^>^ah, Wt&Oh, l^, the final e must always be
e 2 3

( ) Accordingly words, which originally resembled Arabic words like came rather to resemble Hebrew words after the type of ( ) If even the single word 0"J"f "p' was pronounced nguag,
LUDOLF
3 o 2

as

says; for it is also written OTr'h'*}( ) How KNIG (pp. 76, 140) could dispute this position, it is impossible to perceive.

76

38.

retained, to prevent the resolution of the semivowel into the vowel, thus badw , Urw , qahw , ray , dhrew , and sawasw , mahdtw , waldtw , gamd y , for original sawdseuf &c., the fugitive e of the second-last syllable being given up, and its introductory consonant being attached to the preceding open syllable (v. supra). A t least ID is always maintained in this way as a semivowel, unless preceded by a. f is less stable; and in certain words and forms,which will be specially indicated farther on, in the account of Nominal formation,it passes into %, e. g.: tfhA and i. e. makdley becomes either makaly or makdley = makali, just as, for instance, the form mentioned above, {t*\\fj, may easily be pronounced rai in place of ray . But in other Nominal forms also, like iJAfl*" (from UA*0>~)> fll^<D, final e is maintained in the very same way, and the transition of the semivowel into a vowel is prevented (v., farther, on this matter 51 sq.; cf. also some of the names of the letters discussed in 9). Thirdly, the retention of final e is generally necessary, when the last consonant is one of the five Aspirates,particularly in forms like i^D, V40, 4*fl?i> where the aspirate is inaudible without a vowel before or after it, and where the pronunciation ndqe' &c. is likewise difficult. I n such forms the preferable pronunciation is naq , ndqh , qeb' , kuesh , resembling the Accusative ijf*U d the Feminine ttyUfy. But even forms like ^Tft? ftfl*7d>although the pronunciation hdte\ abage\ has a foundation in the formation, should rather be pronounced hdf , abag with retention of the original final sound, by reason of the attractive force of the d upon the consonant which follows it and the consequent complete disappearance of the fugitive e which came after that consonant. I n fact, in all the Nominal forms ending in Aspirates, in which a vowel, different from a, a or e, comes immediately before the Aspirate, like i<g/]h, IVrh, this final e, it seems, must be heard, if the Aspirate is not to lose all its force (as in the Amharic pronunciation of Ethiopic):thus we say nawih , geW (}). The scanty observations made by the earlier grammarians on the pronunciation of Ethiopic among the natives in their day, are far from being sufficient to enable us to settle all its details with exactness. The leading rules, meanwhile, are the result of
e e e 6 e 6 e 6 c e 6 e 6 , <e e e e a n e (e e e

( ) Jut as

little

can one say

in Hebrew

fi^ or f r t ^ .

39.

77

observing the modes of formation and the historical development of the pronunciation in general. The fact that no longer was anything heard of final e in the Noun, in those very recent times when the pronunciation of Aspirates and Vowels was in full process of decay, does not justify the conclusion that it never existed; and we shall do well to re-introduce it even, in the course of learning Ethiopic, i f we recognise that it has a historical foundation. The entire development of the later pronunciation tended to impoverish, and not to enrich, the language in the matter of vowels, as may be gathered both from 37, 38, and from the similar case noted in 34.
(B) M E E T I N G OP V O W E L S .

The general rule, that no syllable can begin with a Contraction vowel ( 34), implies that if two vowels come directly upon one coalescing, another in the formative process, they cannot stand side by side as two separate sounds: the hiatus thus constituted must be remedied somehow. The means for this purpose at the command of the language are the following. (1) Contraction and Coalescing. Two vowel-sounds meeting together pass readily, in certain circumstances, into one sound, simple or composite, so that they form only one syllable. (a) I f two like vowels, long or short, come directly upon one another, then the pairs % + %, u + u are not indeed contracted into i and u, but one vowel in such a pair has to be hardened into a semivowel ( 52): on the other hand the pair a + a is very frequently and regularly contracted into a, e. g. in th*PC? + dt (Plur.), thVCf*, 0 ? H > + a (of the Cstr. st.), i V } l i > ; U t e + a (for ha Suff.), 1116*, ami, 0 / * % f l * . Two independent words even, viz. "hao "if" and ftft "not", blend into ft^Mfl. Similarly, e + a and 6 + a,for example in the Accusative form of Nominal stems ending in e and b,become e and b, while, in other cases of this kind, e and b are resolved into their component parts, or else are separated from the following dissimilar vowel by a disjoining letter. (b) "When unlike vowels meet together, then if they are such as to be capable of blending into one combined sound, they pass into such a sound. A n i is in this way easily attached to a foregoing a, u or o, e. g. "he shall make known"; 41tiJS. "the
39.

78

39.

weeping"; n d ^ "cattle"; irWi "camp"; X Y l - " b a d " ; AW&O "the second"; l f 'name of a letter of the alphabet'; and yet in this case the combination must continue rather external in character, and ai or ay, for instance, is not allowed to become e ( ). On the other hand u is much less easily attached to a or e, and accordingly it is better to render it hard, after both of them, as a semivowel, aw, ew:?0hC& yawred "(that) he bring down"; t>0* neqaw "tone"; (fl&O tardw "Pleiades"; %Oh sew "salt"; TtxffoBh emhew "ancestor". LUDOLF , it is true, says that in his time &4D* was pronounced seu ( ), and Europa is now written Ji,IDf?JT', but no conclusion for the original pronunciation follows therefrom. I n more ancient times a sv, for instance in svayyikiov, Eulogia, Eustathius, was expressed quite differently; and in the formation of certain Nominal stems it is farther shown very clearly how little aw can ever be contracted into du and o. On the other hand a + i and d + u regularly coalesce into ai and au, or in many cases blend still farther directly into e and b. I n this matter too i t is characteristic of Ethiopic that i t differs from Arabic and approaches Hebrew. The mixed sound e or o appears throughout in the Perfect of Triliteral verbs mediae infirmae, like *%ao and Jfrao (unless special phonetic conditions had of necessity to introduce the diphthongal pronunciation, 94), also in all the forms of those Quadriliteral Verbs which have i or u as second radical, such as , f'ftih,in Nominal stems from roots tertiae ID and f , which end in the Feminine t,and in the Suffix pronoun of the 3 pers. sing. masc. attached to the Accusative of the Noun. The diphthong, on the other hand, is maintained most regularly in several forms from roots primae vocalis, like ftlD*lJfl, *ND*flVl> fcflA &c.,in the Subjunctive of verbs tertiae and in the plural forms ending in Oh^ and JR^- of Nominal stems, e. g. ^0aHh(*), Ofijt,^, manifestly because the ,-sound is of essential importance i n these forms ( ),and, lastly, in the interior
a e e e 6 3 rd 5

(*) These forms, however, ought properly to be given as bekay*, ekdy , tdayen* or tadyen ( 38). ( ) To be sure, the form for l*V^h is met with.
2

O
B

[Cf. TEUMPP, p. 519sq.]

(*) Yet ( X A t the same time distinguishing them from the forms of the Feminine Singular.

40.

79

of the word, in all those forms in which a diphthong ai or au has sprung from an original dye or awe just through briefer pronunciation ( 37), e.g. tfm-, ^4 tf>""- But in all other Nominal formations and in the conjugation of verbs tertiae infirmae, and of those which end in u in the Subjunctive, as well as in some few individual words, the speech fluctuates between the diphthong and the mixed sound, varying with roots, with the age, with authors, with copyists; and the very same word frequently appears under both modes of pronunciation. A comprehensive survey, however, proves that as time went on, the mixed form of pronunciation steadily gained ground, and only a few departments of the language remained unaffected by it. I n foreign words also, au and ai are generally, expressed by o and e (7), although the reverse process is also met with, in the substitution of au for the b Of the foreign word, as in pfD-fI iootcc. Besides, the mixed sound e or b may arise not merely from ai or au, but also and frequently from ia or ua (v. infra 40). When i is preceded by e, it can only dissolve into the diphthong ei, e.g. ih&at'fr heiwatf), although this is of rare occurrence. When u follows e, it must be changed into w (v. 49sqq.).
,

40. (2) Hardening of the Vowel into a Semivowel. This Hardening . of Vowel process can take place only with those vowels which have cor- into semiresponding semivowels, that is with i and u, or with the mixed vowels e and b, by resolving them into their elements. I n the beginning of a word i and u must always be hardened in this way, seeing that no word can begin with a vowel ( 34), e. g., flHft*fc (we-etu) for uetu; J &K"t iy^ eti) for ieti. A l l roots therefore which originally began with i or u have been hardened into roots primae f and CD. And since u cannot have the sound of a vowel after a or e ( 39), it must always be hardened, when it closes a syllable after those vowels:fffrGX? ydwred\ Q&h^lQ* yewge'u. The same thing happens after i, e. g. i'djOh. So too i is hardened after i, and u after u (v. 39 and infra, 52). I n the interior of a word i und u must become J& and 0h whenever either of them happens to come between two syllables, of which the last begins with a vowel of any kind, though the first may be
v o w e l J

( ) I n Cod. B. of Sirach (PETERM. I I , 'NachtrJ 55) iha>{D fr is from time to time written instead of ihfbQi'X'.
x

80

40.

either an open or a closed syllable. Thus before the vowel e: J&flTj fD"jP yemdyet, yeqdwem, from yema-i-et, yeqa-u-em; ta'dyenC); fll*hJ&Tf^ from O H r h / H ; FOB* $erw out of Uru- \ before a, e. g. T C P from "7*5; ^AtfJfc from ^fV, before a, f l A from flA.; H,JP<P from Al^ahf} from ftoypq*, before 7, ^flAP. from ^HlA,; <w^^* for ma-u-it; before u, f l A from J&llA., ^ I t ^ f l l . fromH.<n>-; before 6, &hf-tt* from $>&hi\ '1 A? <* " from -fiV; before e, e. AA*B. This hardening is necessary before all vowels except a( ): On the other hand in particular forms, it is true, i or u before a passes of necessity into ya or wa. However, in several other forms the a-sound may press into these, and thus coalesce with them into a mixed sound, ia and ua becoming ai and au and farther e and o. Most regularly the Nominal termination corresponding to the Arabic
e e W , 0 2

jb_

is in this way shortened into et and e, e. g. d^ht^T "help";

3

"parable" ( ); and the Accusative and Construct state of many nouns in % have e instead of ya, e. g. flJtfY, "flftfV I n the same way the binding-letter e between several nouns and the suffix pronouns has come from ia ( 167), e. g.^hUMI n other formations also, ya and wa are exchanged at pleasure for e and o, thus 3" and 4 * 3 ^ "service"; ^^hfll^" and ^ f ^ "desire"; while others again admit of the contracted form only, like f "If "way"; "prayer"; 9fl/t* "evening" &c. In like manner the mixed letters d and e, although in certain cases they absorb a following a ( 39), must as a rule be resolved into aw and ay before a vowel placed immediately after them, of whatever sort it be, e. g, /hf "(that) he live" ( J&AfflK), ^ftiVB, J&/hPOJ., J&AfP & c ; 1(1 "side", in plural KUP^. On the other hand an e, originating in ia, is readily resolved into ya, e> g- 9t\h> + at, J P f l A ^ h Meanwhile I, u and e do not necessarily pass into pure y, w and ay, but may keep their place before y and wi thus in( ) These words may farther of course, by shorter pronunciation, in accordance with 36, be turned into yemait, yeqaum, tddirt. ( 2 ) V., however, infra 4Seqq. ( ) This law, accepted also by SCHRADER, 'De linguae Aethiopicae indole &c? (Gott. 1860), p. 11, is disputed by KONIG, p. 112 sq., without my being able to agree with his own explanation. Of. also PRAETORIXJS, 'Aethiop. Qramm: p. 22.
3 x

41.
p

,0 p

81

stead of lflCh9J > ?flGlfl< "J is also met with, from KICi)0"; or Dent. 22, 1. This occurs most frequently and most regularly with nouns in e, when they form an external plural, as in"flower", ffV*; tMfc "judgment", tf-Vfc^, and when to the suffix pronoun \ another is attached beginning with a vowel, e. g. VWtf "give her to me", from Oflfc and a ( = y ) : V . farther 52.We call this the "Semi-hardening". I n foreign words which contain two vowels, the one immediately following the other, the hiatus is obviated, wherever possible, by a like complete or partial hardening of one of them, asin^VC^? Map/a/*; A W Lydia; ftjffl-fl 'I^ffofiff; A f l H l ^ f - f t Leontius. 41. (3) Interpolation of a Separating Consonant. This terpoiameans of avoiding the hiatus is upon the whole seldom employed separating The readiest method in such a case (as in a similar one, 34) i to insert an ft or some still stronger Aspirate, e. g. Y$ "behold!" formed from V and an appended a; yet an Aspirate as a separating letter is hardly met with except in foreign words, e. g. & h?*tl*tl Theodosius, and even AfW*? I n true Ethiopic forms, however, the Aspirate (which in other cases also 48 may pass into a Semivowel) inclines to become at once a Semivowel; and the more indeterminate ID* is in greater favour in this usage than the pointed fi>. This insertion of a separating fl>( ) is most usual in Inner Plural forms: A ^hlD -G^ "lands" from -flh,C; tiJ^O^i^ "eldership"( ) from A ^ T . The Adjective-ending dwi appears also to have come from di in this way, e. g. ' W ^ U alongside of 4 JS*7J&; and to the particle ^ "behold!" the suffix pronouns are attached partly by means of I D , e. g. VP, partly and still more frequently by means of f , e. g. \$, Vf"" *** 160. On the other hand, cases like % "flower", PI. f^%f't, are to be explained according to 40. The insertion of a separating Semivowel comes also into use in transcribing foreign words into Ethiopic: 'fcfP.Rr^- Theodora, a secondary form of ; "fcffV^V "Theology", a secondary
0 C o n 8 0 M n t s m 0 2 3 > 1

form of 'fcft97 or ^ft-7V &c. ( ).

O
3

Of. K O N I G , p. 126 sqq.

(*) Cf. EWALD, 'Gramm. Arab.' 50, and 'Hebr. Sprachlehre' 28, d. ( ) IV- 1^0, a, where it is explained that this word,properly a plural, meaning 'seniors',has become a collective form, which is used as an official denomination, TR.]
( ) KONIG differs from me, p. 129. B'ABBADIE , 'Catal. rots.', p. 127;
4

82

42.

Displacing : (4) The displacing of one vowel by another also occurs but el by 7"rarely. Naturally this can only affect short rowels. The fugitive other. e at the end of Nouns disappears before the Binding-vowel e or I of the suffix pronoun, e. g. fflC, 'MIC?, fOP*, /"CflHl I n the Subjunctive formation of roots mediae vocalis an e or d is absorbed by u and e. g. J&fejF for yequem or yequam; f^f/f for yemiet: for other similar cases v. 4 9 ad Jin., 51 and 5 3 . Also, in the accusative of the Noun, e. g. in CDG4V d before the suffix pronoun f ( 154) is dislodged by e (i): (DC*b warqeya. For several other cases, in which u, w or i, y disappear completely, v. 52. I n the transcription of foreign words into Ethiopic, the absorption of one of two vowels which come directly together is of more frequent occurrence: for examples v. supra, and in 20. Meeting of 4 2 . The meeting of the u of u-containing Gutturals with u-contam- certain vowels deserves special notice. This u, in fact, by becoming ing outtur- hardened into a kind of consonant, may easily permit of an unlike alswithcer^ _ tain Vowels, vowel being heard after it, without its own proper character being thereby impaired: the principal vowel may be heard in qua, que, qui, qua, or que, clearly distinguished from the u-so\md. Whenever then, in the course of framing words and forms, one of the five named vowels should properly appear after a w-containing Guttural, this may take place without farther difficulty; and these vowels are treated in such a case with the very same regularity as if they followed the ordinary consonants. Thus we form, for instance, *VA*fe "he has numbered"; 'YoAlt "they have numbered" (Fern.); - I h ^ A ^ "thou numberest" (Fern.); "he numbers"; "enumeration". A t the same time it is evident that such a guttural can never be completely mute, but a fugitive e must always be heard after i t , to make its own tt-sound audible,, even in cases where the corresponding forms of ordinary roots have a vowel-less consonant. This e is found both in the end of the word, e. g. in yehueleque (of the form yefesem), as well as in the Noun 3 8 , and in the interior of the word, as in JtT-G deguer; r b l ^ A hdguel; VH^/h kudkueh. Only in a few words is the it-sound readily given up completely in such a
> t 5

'Gographie' I , p. 12 (Preface), shows how at this day in Abyssinia Qh and

J & fat

are pronounced between two vowels, in words like

Jf*C,

l G%ft

43.

83

case : U f o * and ftAh-fc ( 26); Otn-T- and ( n t l "lizard"0). On the other hand whenever such ^-containing gutturals have, to take up a it or an o, the w-sound of the guttural regularly coalesces with this u or d, so that hualaqu-u, hualaqu-dmu are given as "VA45, 'VA4< "> and from 77*ft we have T't'h, after the form *7flhC &c. As soon, however, as such a u falls to he hardened into a semivowel, by reason of the application of affixes beginning with a vowel, the tt-containing pronunciation of the guttural reappears, e. g. *YA^ with the pron. suff. becomes ^^^9**** hualaquewdmu. Still, the vowels of these w-containing gutturals are always somewhat heavier and weightier than the corresponding vowels of simple consonants. This explains why, in such words, originally short vowels are readily lengthened, so that, for instance, the verb h%C "to be one-eyed" is even met with in one case written Farther, u approaches ue pretty closely, and 6, ud; -and therefore an original ue or ud passes easily into u or o, e. g. f*flA t o * f r A ; Ctf-frt intoYi.frt; A M h "street" into flinch; +Afe4"-P into ^ ^VP4' ? 5 'faA'fe into ^ A ^ C ) - I n like manner original u or 6 passes into ue or ud, e. g. "be (thou)" into Yf*1 &c. ( 26); hh$C& into YxM&CC &c. I n the more accurate manuscripts an interchange of this nature is not observable.
,0 m , ,, , 2

(C) M E E T I N G O F V O W E L S AND CONSONANTS AND T H E I R I N T E R CHANGES. (a) I N F L U E N C E OP A S P I E A T E S ON T H E VOWELS.

43. Among the Consonants, the Aspirates and Semivowels Close reiastand nearest the Yowels; and this relationship of theirs to the ^ ^ 7 Vowels brings about manifold vowel-changes. Aspirates. The Aspirates stand in a peculiarly close relation to the vowels, from the circumstance that on the one hand the vowel, generally a, always involves a breathing, which is distinctly audible even when the vowel begins or ends a word independently, and that on the other hand the breathing cannot be heard, except it have a vowel before or after it. This reciprocal relation of vow(*) I n the case of other words, this often rests upon errors of copyists. ( ) [Thus throughout in the old Cod. P of the Kebra Nag.; v. the Glossary.]
2

84

43.

els and aspirates settles their power to effect changes in one another. I n languages rich in vowels, like Arabic, or poor in vowels like Syriac, such an influence has asserted itself less decidedly, but in Ethiopic and in Hebrew it has become most thoroughgoing and multifarious. Besides, certain phenomena, which are met with in Hebrew in the case of the softer and weaker aspirates only, have become comparatively common in Ethiopic,even with gutturals which were formerly stronger, in consequence of the gradual softening which at an early date crept into the pronunciation of the harder aspirates ( 24). Aspirate (1) The Aspirate must always have a Voivel directly next ^vowe? it, whether before or after it. Accordingly, neither in the beginning directly f j when an Aspirate makes its appearance merely as a consonant prefixed to a full syllable, nor in the termination of the Noun, when a guttural follows a vowel-less consonant, could the shorter pronunciation described in 34 and 38 occur; but on the contrary faf* or 'IRC had always to be pronounced hese, hesdr, and V3f*0 " fountain" and the like, ndq' . Even with Nominal stems which end in aspirates, it is better to retain a final e there too, when any other vowel than a, a or e immediately precedes the Aspirate, as has been already pointed out ( 38). On the other hand, in the middle of a word an Aspirate standing by itself in an open syllable with short e, if it is preceded by an open syllable with a short vowel^), surrenders its e-sound quite as readily as other consonants, in the case described in 37 ad fin., and attaches itself to the foregoing syllable, e. g. J&OHfhlf" ye-weh-zu from J^fP-AiH ye-w&-hez; while it seems better, after long vowels, with the exception of a, to preserve the Aspirate with e as an independent syllable, e. g. $>%,bi\ ye-se-e-rani. Since farther an Aspirate, particularly ft or 0, at least with certain vowels, is of easier utterance before a vowel than after i t , the vowel in one or two cases seems to be shifted from its position before the Aspirate and placed after it. This appears to be most obligatory, when an open syllable is followed by a closed one ending in ft or 0 and to be pronounced with short e, e- 9- 7 *flft properly ye-gd-be\ but certainly better pronounced yegab-'e; so with J&A?*0; on the other hand, to be sure, V, rh and admit more readily of an e coming before them even in this case,
Q a w o r ( ? a e

(*) This vowel,

in accordance with 45, is &

44.

85

as in fLIKfa, C U . Nominal stems, like fcYTfft, &<PA0r fSPCti &c. are, independently of this, to be pronounced by preference quandz-e &c. according to 38. But whether also in cases like j&V-'V the pronunciation should be yenuh only, and not rather yenu h, we must leave undecided, through lack of information on the point; but perhaps it should be noticed, that in several formations of this class the pronunciation with u is avoided, and the one with a is substituted: J&"7ft 53. 44. (2) Aspirates have a marked preference for the a-soundC)- l^* This preference, however, is made good by them in two quite rates for the opposite ways:they either bring about an a-sound next t h e m ' instead of a different one founded in the form, or else, if for other reasons they cannot bring about such an a-sound, they drive off the a of a foregoing open syllable, just to avoid being attracted by it. The first case does not occur so often; the second is more common. (a) A n a-sound appears most generally before the Aspirates, when an Aspirate, which has to be pronounced with a, is preceded by another consonant as a prefixed syllable and therefore one properly to be spoken with short e; in this case a takes its place in the prefix also, in room of e. Thus we say <w>#fiG, 0ih &c. instead of 9thC, 9d\&\ Wthfy "laughter" for / ^ r h ^ (even aoQ^ for 90'fr "wrath", although 0 is properly to be given as a double consonant); ftrfi<9*G for ftrhOG; f04-fl for 0 <Hl", and, in this way, the personal prefixes of the Imperfect or the Subjunctive of Verbs, which have an Aspirate as first radical, have always a instead of e (if the Aspirate has a); but when ft, not" is placed before the Personal prefix the fi, may more easily hold its ground instead of f , because the sound, ye, is supported by the foregoing %, e. g. ft,0Hl and fttf O ^Nl. However, the rule which is enunciated here about replacing e by a came into full prevalence only at a comparatively recent date. I n the older manuscripts and the impressions which follow them, forms ( ) like JFMiC? JRAflH^, J&ftyj &c. are still very common, while it is always possible that even in earlier times an a-sound was given in speech, although
e a s o u n d a

O
2

Cy. KNIG, p. 148

sqq.

( ) And just because these occur most frequently in the oldest records, they can by no means be regarded,with LUDOLF, I I , 7, 7,as copyists' errors.

86
x

45.

Reduction of a of open _ Syllable Aspirated

not in writing ( ). But if the Aspirate has a different vowel from a, a syllable prefixed to it keeps its e, e. g. *Y,j&f|, K'i'bi 9th+C &c. The preference of the Aspirate for a instead of e is shown in a different way in the formation of the Subjunctive in Stem I , from roots which have an Aspirate as middle or final radical ( 92). I t is only in rare instances that under the influence of an Aspirate a foregoing vowel, stronger than e, passes into a or a,as when one gives for example the word in frequent use for "day", in the form <w 0A'ih, rather than ^OA ^h? its original pronunciation. I n a similar manner this influence is shown in the Subj. of several roots mediae vocalis, and we say therefore JrV7h , flK, as contrasted with $*9 &c.; and on account of the Aspirate we also say VP*! "high", instead of VCV- Occasionally too an original a,which is softened into e in similar w ords when unprovided with an Aspirate,is retained on account of the Aspirate, e. g. 0flTh "gift" ( 106) in contrast with T ? ^ , and fttfC^ "pot" a side-form to ft'tfC'ih c 45 (\)\ When an Aspirate has a different vowel from a or
> r

^J

E R T A I N

a,then a, occurring in an open syllable immediately preceding it, is almost invariably reduced to e, because the Aspirate would become strongly attracted to the foregoing a, and be obliged to surrender to it a part of its force (v. infra 4 6 s<?.)( ). By reducing the a to e, however, the language obviates this attraction and thereby secures the distinct pronunciation of the Aspirate. Reduction of a to e is most binding, when the Aspirate following has itself an e; but even when it has a different vowel, such reduction almost invariably takes place. Thus from roots mediae gutturalis Nouns of the type Ifl.C are formed like AV14 "old"; Cfh /fl "broad" (but Fern. <J*h-fl); and of the type |flC, like "Sunday"; also Infinitives, of the type Ifl^C, I^C^T &c, like g'tfr to escape safe"; ^tKC^ "to pity"; f'^IC "to be taught" &c.; and even the Imperfect, of the type f1HC, ?1*(IG ,&c, from such roots always takes, in the very same way, the form &9thC ye-me-her; &9th& ye-me-hel; $9ft\C yd-me-her; .V)0
2

(*) Compare the relation between a Hebrew 8h va simplex and compositum. ( ) Cf. K M G , p. 135 sq., who has noticed also a few rare exceptions (|>i 186).
2

 46.

87

yek- for ye-ke- ( 37), instead of t l 0 - or J&tl0fl>*; and only when the Aspirate has to he uttered as a double letter, can a be retained, e. g. in j&twtfC, Subjunctive from JK."XUC although even for such a Subjunctive one prefers to say *9hC ye-meliher. Even in the forms of the Perfect of these roots, of the type "l-fl^ and "f"1*flwhich originally had the sound gobera, tagabera, but later became gabra, tagdbra according to 37the a of th first radical must necessarily be softened into , partly because the second radical at one time formed a syllable of its own, and partly to prevent the lengthening of the a following the first radical into d (by 46), thus <D-/h, C K f (for iD^fc, Ox?), and lhw, (for 't'ihu* and -f^fr?). In the same way "we" is given, instead of the original Vrh, to avoid the obligation of saying /hV according to 46. Roots with an Aspirate as third radical, in all forms in which the second radical should be given with a as an open syllable, turn this a into ,thus, in the Perfect of all the Stems:Vfc, fl-fM, sabbeha, flArfi, hTrfh, l\J./*Vh &e. It is the same with the Subjunctive, Imperative and Imperfect of certain Stems, like fSifh* (for ^wh*) ; V K (for 5 fy^f**)*^ (for 'hlhiiPAO &c, and in Nominal forms of the type OT7n<5 and ft7n<5, e. g. trot^du "purifier"; <w>74VL and YxityH* "awakener". The of the second radical, which has originated in this way, may however completely disappear, according to 37, if an open syllable precedes, so that the pronunciation seems to be n'a, f**h, tetnas\ "i/^K, ne&C). 46. (3) An Aspirate may lengthen a Vowel which precedes it in the same syllable, by giving up to the vowel some portion vowei pre of its own breathing, weakening itself however in the process. pfrtu^th In Hebrew, where the same phenomenon occurs( ), it is only the softer Aspirates which exercise this influence; but in Ethiopie the five Aspirates all do so in an equal degree, for even
2

(*) H U P F E L D ,

it is true, is of opinion, p. 12, that

and

ODftti were

pronounced samd and masa, and even

ftfl'f'fliD'rh astabawa, with entire

suppression of the Aspirate; but this is refuted by the written language, for such forms as ODf{ and ODftfx are never met with in writing. Speaking generally, HUPFELD'S entire account of the relation of Aspirates and Vowels is a mistaken one, because it starts from the erroneous assumption that the Amharic pronunciation of these letters approaches the original. ( ) EWALD, Hebr. SprachV 54 sq.
2 l

88

46.

the three harder ones became softer and softer as time went on (v. 24)0. (a) This influence becomes operative most regularly when the vowel of the syllable is a, both in those cases in which the Aspirate closes the syllable, as in jZ,9Xh for 9h; h^^iti for M v C i W h ; hike* for h^^o't i l ^ h - f o r r t ^ d V h ; flifrdhfor fl<fetft-; fl"V"fMr for n ^ 1 l ' V ; ^ K h A for 0DfthA, and in those cases in which this Aspirate is followed by another consonant either originally vowel-less or which has become so, as a result of later pronunciation, as in V w r f l / i h ^ "knife"; fll^PA/h^* "piece of money"; R A ? . ^ "enemies"; AfcC "a (skin) bottle"; Ifafy "mockery"( ). Words in which this lengthening of the a is sometimes avoided are very few in number, such as 100 "fnll moon"; Jt*VH "pledge"; *}/hA<D "to be crafty", which occurs oftener than *Wii\fl>- Bnt still i t should be noticed, that in the oldest manuscripts and printed works this rule was only in rare cases consistently observed, and *7DfthA, &9&K and so forth, for, instance, were at one time written just as often or even oftener,from which we may perhaps rightly conclude that this phonetic rule was not developed until later times. They went a good deal farther in Amharic, and in such cases completely suppressed the Aspirate, whether hard or soft, e. g. i\f "bull", instead of the Ethiopic
2

AU0( ).

Of course this rule is not to be applied in the combining of words. For example, we can never say nMl> for flMlj^ ba-eJc&ye "through wickedness". And farther, the short f% of the Causative Stems and of the Collective forms of the Noun is treated in ^exactly the same way, and as a mere external attachment, e. g. hd<L "he rested"; MM "he made an end of"; hihH'tt "nations"; ftfh4A^h "fields";for which forms we never find hb& & c ;

( ) cy. KONIO, p. 131 sq.

( ) The pronunciation of those words which end in Fem. t presents no , kind of difficulty in this case; and even the others, like * * f < l h 4 > y easily be pronounced as monosyllables, if the hard Aspirate is given with a soft utterance: but if the older pronunciation of the Aspirate is adhered to, they must be given like iah-g*. ( ) The examples cited by K6ma, p. 132 sq. to support the contention that even a Guttural, which is not without a vowel, may lengthen foregoing it, rest upon corrupt readings from Herm. and A. Ezra.
m a 3

46.

89

but other Nominal prefixes, like ao and f* when set before Aspirates, certainly follow the general rule. I n the same way the lengthening of the a is better to remain in abeyance before double Aspirates, e. g. i&VC'l!* mahherot. I n Reflexive Stems of the type *M*flt it occasionally happens, it is true, that the first radical has its a lengthened before the Aspirate which has become vowel-less, e. g- H \ r h i \ b u t , as a rule, both i n this case and in others i n which it is desired to avoid lengthening the a, this a is rather softened into e, just as in f 7 i n s t e a d of "M/hi**, 45. But now i f a vowel-less Aspirate, which has brought about the lengthening of the a of its syllable, assumes a vowel in the process of formation and inflection, and is thus separated from its original syllable, then the a ceases to be lengthened, and it is, i f possible, softened into e, e. g. 9%h* "(that) he come'', but frfKh? "they shall come" for jP ftft.. Only, in the Subjunctive and Imperative of certain roots I . or I I . infhrmae, the long a is retained even in inflection, because it serves at the same time to compensate for a radical which has been thrown out, e. g. in J&f ft, J&fft; flft, flft, &c. ( 53). I t is retained in the same way, as belonging to the stem, all through the inflection of nouns of the types 1 l f t "want", ?<PD "meekness" ( 143 sq.). (b) But even when the vowel of the syllable is e, it may be lengthened by a vowel-less Aspirate coming after it. I n several words in very frequent use, this lengthening of the e into e has been given expression to in writing, even from remote times. The feeble root Cftf "to see" invariably forms the Imperfect J&rftft., by the original J&CftJEi (for f t , by 45) ye-re-e-i becoming ye-rfr-i^ ye-re-i, because the i drives off the e preceding it, and ft influences the foregoing syllable. I n a manner quite analogous fL&JhJ?) is met with, from the root Cdf "to herd (a flock)", 92. I n the same way &flA" "they said" was produced from jR-flOA* ye-beh-lu, through the lengthening of the e and the elimination of the Aspirate in accordance with 47. I n other cases, it is true, this lengthening of the e under the influence of the Aspirate is not expressed in written form, but yet it is evident that it must be adopted in pronunciation; for words like Cftf though perhaps spoken once like were
r

( ) A like form, A f t } - from ftftV "to be unable is cited by LUDOLF in 'Lex:, col. 172.

11

90

47.

at a later time certainly contracted always into re'ya or re'ya; and the case is similar with d>-fti2; J&ftH,; 'Ihft'flft'lh tes-be't; 't'QCV'fr tefreht. Farther, the corresponding groups of letters containing harder Aspirates were in later times assuredly uttered in the same way constantly, e. g. h^O't, "Ih^/^iVlh afreht, tefSeht; thus too jFdC weV for meV ; "IdH * ge'z:so that one may appropriately transcribe these words, as meer, geez^). Even in cases like r / h C for j&mAC ( 45); j P A C h , - M - A W l ( 102), it is matter of question whether they were not in later times given in speech in a contracted form, as yemehr, mehrka, tatehtka, instead of yemeher, meherka, tatehetka. occasional ft 4 7 4 an Aspirate may disappear altogether, after it has
s e

Disappearance

of

Aspirates.

r e

given up its force to a Vowel. This took place with considerable g i jty several cases, at the end of a word which terminated in an Aspirate, preceded by a lengthened by the Aspirate, as in <fy "parting-gift" for p?ft; J t ^ ^ r T A ) "hair of the head"; ft"A(d) "table (of stone)" &c.; but with other words it occurs in but a few manuscripts. I n the middle of the word the suppression of the Aspirate usually occurs, when certain inflectional syllables, or other additions, come before or after it. Quite regularly does this happen in the Imperfect and Subjunctive formations of Verbal Stems commencing with ft, ft*}, ftft-f*,by the personal prefixes , ^ , ft, "} before the ft becoming first of all f, *J-, ft, ^ ( 44), and then coalescing with the following a of ft into *h, ft, V, while the Aspirate is thrown out( ); but in other forms from such stems the Aspirate is discharged without leaving a trace, as in <fl1 < fe( ) * , ""ft'MUA, JF'fl^'hflft. Similarly the h of the Suffix Pronouns I I * , y , iPt* *, Wi is often thrown out, 151. Other instances of throwing out an Aspirate are more accidental and rare, but even in these instances, as well as in those just mentioned, it is chiefly
U a r m 2 , IIU 3 0

(*) For farther conjectures v. HAUPT, 'The Assyrian EvoweV in 'Amer. Joum. of PMloi:, Vol. V I I I , p. 281. ( ) On the other hand, forms like ftftjPC know"; ftfttfD'} "I am to believe" are not farther contracted: ft*iTf, Cant. 7,9, Ps. 17,41 is merely a bad reading for ftft*lU. ( ) [That is to say, the Participle, or Participial Noun, which is formed from 7 and h^tro^* (II, 1 offf\0D$>)becomes OD<Y<fty or tto^ao^, the initial ft of the Conjugational form disappearing, TR.]
2 3

 48.

91

ft and 0 which exhibit this fugitive tendency. When the ft of the Vocative is appended to a noun, the Aspirate is given up:ft*7|JLft from ft7|tf. + ft 5 'flfcrt.-fr from -nftfl/h + ft, 142. JrVftA yekel is always said and written for 1)11 A yekehel; -flA 2/e&e? for JR-flUA 2/e&aeZ; f l A y e M for 410 A ; flA &a? for -fl0A;ftOA for ft 410 A, and so on (v. also fl,A 46):Afc4 "presbyter" is usually contracted into A/l* j and < * 7 * j J "seer" came from tfCftProbably too ftCVJ& "wheat" came from tldCt^ ("hairy", cf. The later pronunciation however, and also the corresponding manuscripts, carry this process farther. A word like frAfti was even pronounced Me; andflftT"f*and Hft'JflA, although compounded of two words each, had the a and ft thrown out and were pronounced benta and zenbala: also tfAVi is found here and ther"e for ^ A f t h "messenger", and ftCJl^ for ftCftfl^ "heads"( ). The older times knew nothing as yet of these corruptions of speech and writing. But even in older manuscripts, when in any word an Aspirate, with a or a in an open syllable, follows a closed syllable, the a-sound is displaced and set before the Aspirate, e. g. IxPbfi, for ft*7*JH.. This occurs most frequently in Numerals, among which, particularly in later manuscripts, AOdi? and -ffld"! are often met with for original fl-fW'fc and 'frtlO'P, 158. I n these cases too the tendency is again indicated, to make the Aspirate dwindle away more and more( ). 48. 5. A final peculiarity of the Aspirates is this, that they Aspirates commonly draw the Word-Tone to themselves, when they aregiven^x^-Tox with -a-following them^). This phenomenon is explained by the fact that an Aspirate communicates a share of its own force to the vowel a which is the most nearly related to it, and thus makes the vowel stronger ( 46). Thus the Reflexive and Causative-Reflexive Stems, which otherwise take the tone on the third-last syllable, arewhen they belong to roots mediae gutturalispronounced by preference as follows: 'frh'^fl ta-ahaza; htli 9th ustamhdra; ftft-hCftf astar'dya. Farther, forms like / ^ C O ^
2 2 3 m

O On the other hand, the ft is kept on in

2

ft^ftl^fttfO+ftll,

39.

C ) [Cf. also spellings like 0 f = ftCftf, andftft#W>=

3

ftf|?0

Kebra Nag. p. X V I I . ] ( ) Cf. also PLATT, ' The EthiopicDidascalia' (London 1834), p. 17, 3, Note.
(*) Cf. KONIG, p. 140 sq.

92

48.

h passing into a Semivowel.

are not pronounced Mr"at in the usual paroxytone fashion, hut Ser'atC). I n consequence of this more emphatic pronunciation of a after an Aspirate, later scribes began to write long a in such cases, although it had absolutely no foundation in the formation, e. g- +A^fA; f 0 CifO\ f and, vice versa, a long a, founded in the form, was occasionally written as a short a, as people had become accustomed to pronounce even short a long, when it came after an Aspirate; cf. e. g. Hh9G for ftftjPC- This led at last to confusion in the manuscripts, by long a and short aespecially when accompanying ft and dbeing rendered entirely at pleasure either by ft, 0 or by ft, J( ). A farther deterioration in the mode of writing, in another but similar case, appeared later in less accurate manuscripts: the Personal Prefixes of the Imperfect (and Subjunctive), which in the Causative Stems are f, ft, V, are written f, + , ft, V by later scribes, when the first radical is an Aspirate, because they clearly thought that an a before an Aspirate is somewhat prolonged, without any farther notification being required, and that there is accordingly no difference in pronunciation between ^OC*P and POOPg rphg f t s t Aspirate ft passes into a Semivowel in certain
t D < 2 so e

cases. This takes place more frequently in Arabic and Syriac; but in Ethiopic the phenomenon,apart from certain root-formations,is limited to a single case: When ft. "not" is prefixed to a l pers. sing. Imperf. or Subjunct., or to a Causative or Reflexive Stem beginning with ft, the ft passes regularly into except with verbs primae gutturalis in the Imperfect of the First Stem:( ) ftJ&'MlC-ft.ft'MIC; h>?h9C=Khh9C, ft coming after ft. always becomes ft then, by the fading Aspirate lengthening the vowel = ftft7fl<:; KflP&O fih.?K9G = flft,ftft0f?(*). I n some rare cases this phonetic transmutation occasions obscurity. For the rest cf. 41.
8 t 3

( ) LUDOLT, '<?ramm.' I , 7.

( ) This shifting-about takes place most frequently in tke case of the ft of the 1 pers. of the Imperf. and Subjunct. of the Causative Stems. I n eertain MSS. ft is almost always read in this case.
st

()

Cf. KONIG, p. 125 sq.

(*) I t is but very rarely indeed that original ft or ft is retained after ft., as e. a. m ft.ft^-^^. Numb. 2 1 , 3 5 ; ft,ftlMl Deut. 2 , 5 , 1 9 ; hjh^lthtt Deut. 2,27.

49.

93

O n t h e Doubling of Aspirates v . 56.

O f t h e o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s o n l y | a n d s h a r e , n o w a n d a g a i n , i n t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e A s p i r a t e s , e. g. i n t h e m a t t e r o f t h e i r p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r t h e a - s o u n d , 105 sq., a n d i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s {cf.

96 o n / l i ^ X ) .
(ft) T H E VOWELS I AND 7 7 AND T H E SEMIVOWELS.
1

I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t ( 40) t h a t t h e V o w e l s 8 i a n d u ( a n d a l s o ai, au, e a n d 0 ) a r e o f t e n h a r d e n e d i n t o t h e i r 1st Eadic o r r e s p o n d i n g S e m i v o w e l s , w h e n t h e y m e e t w i t h o t h e r v o w e l s . T h e semivowels, general rules, w h i c h were then l a i d d o w n as governing the appearance o f such hardening, must however undergo various limitations and special modifications, according t o the immediate peculiarities of t h e several kinds of roots. Besides, special phonetic changes m a k e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e , w h e n a n i m e e t s w i t h i o r y, o r a u w i t h u o r w. A n d l a s t l y , u a t l e a s t o r w i s l i a b l e i n c e r t a i n c a s e s t o be removed altogether( ). 1. Hardening of i and u into Semivowels, (a) A l l r o o t s , w h i c h a t o n e t i m e c o m m e n c e d w i t h i o r u, m u s t o f n e c e s s i t y , a c c o r d i n g t o 34 a n d 40, h a v e h a r d e n e d t h e s e v o w e l s i n t o y a n d w. T h e y are therefore p r o n o u n c e d i n the g r o u n d - f o r m as roots w i t h initial f a n d CD, a n d t h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s m a i n t a i n e d w h e n e v e r a v o w e l h a s t o b e u t t e r e d a f t e r t h e first r a d i c a l , e. g. f * 0 ; ?41ft; f l * f l ; fl>A; <B "A"^"( )- A s s o o n , h o w e v e r , a s t h e s e l e t t e r s c o m e i n t o the interior o f a w o r d a n d terminate syllables, i n consequence o f formative prefixes being placed before t h e m , they seek t o resume their vowel-character. I f i n t h a t case a precedes t h e m , they f o r m w i t h i t a d i p h t h o n g ( 39) w h i c h i s w r i t t e n afL, a < 0 - s f t < D " A & aulada; ftJ&J^O; 4 "<D -AT " b a r t e r " ; i'Oh^ " a g a m e " ; <w>fD-A-S.^" " m i d w i f e " ; YxQhfyfi " ( e a r - ) r i n g s " ; a n d a l t h o u g h t h i s d i p h t h o n g does n o t indeed pass into a m i x e d sound i n the f o r m a t i o n o f the V e r b , i t d o e s s o q u i t e u s u a l l y i n N o m i n a l S t e m s o f t h e t y p e s fl^fft
49.
H a r d e a i l l

O f t f l i U C l t l } 8.8

( ) Cf. also KNIG, pp. 134 sq. and 151. ( ) Cf. KNIG, p. 108 sqq. ( ) It has been pointed out already ( 19) that in later times fi, and Oh, when they had to be pronounced with 2 in open syllable, were again given directly as i and w;thus, ibs, uliid.
3 2

94

50.

"antiphone"; flrtC^ "a saw", and now and then in Participial forms like *Pttl "heir" (alongside of fl<DA-S/lh given above). After a, i may easily have a vowel-sound, e. g. pf?*6 ydidi, but u must be hardened, e. g. pahf^ yawSe'. After the short, dissimilar e, u may become a Semivowel, if it closes the syllable, e. g. $*Oh*lQi yewge'u (not yuge'u), but yet ew is not in favour, and as a rule it is simplified in Verbal formation by throwing out the u (w), 53. I n Nominal formation, on the other hand, the u generally pushes out a foregoing e; and in this way forms are continually appearing, like 0vh'H; more rarely we have JP*D* iA alongside of tf^-'JA before the Aspirate; also ^"ID"hA"K and ishA^hO; ^fl^AJ?? and "fcAJt- / after e is, in this case, of necessity contracted into i. vowei-Prog gQ R t which have i or u as second radical, cling
< 0 0 s

nunciation

of i and tt most tenaciously to the vowel-pronunciation,so closely, in fact, j g ~ that even when according to general phonetic rules hardening ought to ensue, they often throw out the vowel that follows i or u, in preference to hardening the i or u. But of course it is only the short vowels a, e which can be dislodged in this way, and these only when they are less essential to the formation. Thus in the Perfect of the Simple Stem and Stems derived from it, the a or e, which should appear after the second radical, is removed, e. g. in f^ f ma-ue-ta; for ma-ia-ta or ma-ie-ta( ). I t is the same with the Subjunctive and Imperative of these Stems, e. g. ,00*^ for yem-u t or yem-uH; J&"lT for yem-i t or yem-i t (but in these cases ua is sometimes contracted into the single sound o, by 40:JE,#hC "(that) he go", v. 93); and it is only when the third radical also is a vowel (Semivowel) that the second must of necessity be hardened into a Semivowel, thus &<Df; ^<Df (cf. 94 ad fin.)-, f?,CfDp> yerwai; *hfl> haiwa (for hay^wa); J&Apfl>". I n like manner, when a short vowel comes into the formation after the first radical, the words from these roots preserve the vowel-pronunciation of the second radical (1) by making it coalesce with a foregoing a into a diphthong or a mixed vowel, e. g., of
a s dRad 1 c a

( ) Manifestly both pronunciations, fe> and tu, are possible here; for, had they always said tu, it would have been always written in that way. ( ) That the diphthong must always in these cases pass into the mixed sound ( 5 or e) is taught by 39.
2

51.
0

95

the type ?flC, H ^ "death"; "jfcT "price"; or ,h4* "shore"; OOf? "circuit", "circle" (and often in this way as a diphthong after an Aspirate, seeing that a has a somewhat stronger sound after the Aspirate 48), and (2) by removing a foregoing e, unless it is essential to the formation, e. g. "revenge" (type-*7flC); >-1 "length"; V l & ^ "robbery"; falfr "course". On the other hand we necessarily say, in formations from roots which are at the same time tertiae infirmae ihp>{D*t hHwat; fflh^^rtewyat (rarely di^W't &c.); v. supra. But even these roots must permit the hardening of their vowel-radical in the following cases:l , when the second radical is doubled: &(D*0 sdwwe'a; *^fA hdyyala; 7P gudyya; 0o i (D tl mafdwwes; 2 , when it is followed by a long vowel, or even by a short one, provided it is essential to the formation:OfDC "blindness"; Up A "stag"; 1<Pf "sleep"; h-HfK "companions", from fljf; "turned"; aoq^r "to die" (Inf.)(On % after i , and u after u, v. 52); 3 , when the radical in question comes to stand between two vowels, of which the first is a long one, e. g. f-^OIft; 4*hP&; \Ghb "sacrificer"; ffoftOhC "carrying-poles"; 'frlf*'} (properly ta'dyen, but according to 40 ta'diri), or between two vowels, of which the first is indeed a short one, but of which the second is essential to the form and therefore irremovable: fLaotth't; J&tfwJ&T properly yema-wet, yemd-yet, but according to 40 ye-maut, yemait (yet never fl "K ); J&"XT); 4 , when it is followed by two vowel-less consonants, seeing that by 35 sq. no long vowel can stand in a doubly closed syllable, thus ^Of/}^ U-yent\ ^fiOh^i^r tez-weft;ftftj&^^h"swords" (and yet we have Mutl't' as well as M]J&fl^h because Sibilant and Mute are very closely attached to one another). 51. (c) Ethiopic roots which from the first have had i or u Hardening as their last radical, exhibit a marked tendency towards hardened . pronunciation: they farther hold tenaciously to their termination, and do not readily allow it to glide into other vowels. For this reason, roots ending in i and u are very carefully discriminated from one another, and do not pass into one another in the course of formation, as happens in other languages. The vowel-pronunciation of the last radical, in forms from such roots, appears only when that radical has no vowel after it or at most a short and
m Bt m nd e 9 rd 1 th 3 r d B a d i cals-

() [V., however, Kebra Nag.$4b7

(VP^).]

96

51.

-easily r e m o v a b l e e , a n d n o l o n g v o w e l b e f o r e i t ( 40) ; b u t y e t there i s this e x c e p t i o n , t h a t i is given w i t h a vowel-sound even a f t e r l o n g a ( 39). T h i s r u l e i s e v e r y w h e r e a p p l i e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d i n f l e c t i o n o f t h e V e r b , t h u s <i*fHD\ Cftf; A f'>but -f-AflHl ialduka, a n d -ffWl; CKM; t(\?>\\ rassdika. A f o r e g o i n g s h o r t e g e n e r a l l y c o a l e s c e s w i t h u a n d 1, t h u s J&"f*A*; *&tL ( r a r e l y 1-A<; f l , cf. ^T\T>&- L e v . 2 0 , 6 ; ?WOh E x . 2 7 , 2 0 ; P^tih E x . 2 7 , 2 1 o t h e r w i s e i n 3 8 , 1 3 ( ) ; a l s o %Ohifh v.infra 99, I ) . F a r t h e r , i n N o m i n a l f o r m a t i o n t h i s r u l e h o l d s g o o d a l w a y s , w h e n t h e n o u n d o e s n o t e n d i n i o r u, e. g. i n AO'S' " u n d e r i3tanding"( ) a n d dtf " e q u a l i t y " , o f t h e t y p e 7*flC9; frtft/lr " p r o p h e c y " ; ^ / ^ ' H h " i n c a r n a t i o n " , o f t h e t y p e ^ * 7 f I C h ; a^tft " s p a d e " ; <w">fl.^ " t e m p t a t i o n " , o f t h e t y p e tm l<mcPt\ *0OHh na'dut, " h u n t e r s " ; ^Ajfr^ haldit, " s i n g e r s " ; tfCVIh " h e r d " ; ^ A b ^ " w i n d o w " , o f t h e t y p e tf*7flC^5 a n d s o t h r o u g h o u t i n all Feminines w h i c h a r e f o r m e d b y a closely attached, vowel-less ^h, e. g. ihf,^ " a g i r l b e t r o t h e d " s p o n s a , <>Ar1" " a p o s t a t e " /*., f r o m ;h0- a n d ( 36); ao<fr " f r u i t f u l " f., f r o m tf<pC. W h e n the N o u n , however, ends w i t h the last radical, different nouns f o l l o w d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e s , a c c o r d i n g as t h e y r e t a i n o r g i v e u p t h e f u g i t i v e e, i n w h i c h ( 38) t h e p u r e N o m i n a l s t e m o n c e t e r m i n a t e d . I n s u c h f o r m a t i o n s final u m a y h a v e a v o w e l - s o u n d o n l y a f t e r a, by forming with t h e latter either a diphthong o r a m i x e d sound: 0O0Oh " S p r i n g " ; p*ijBh " r o o t s " ; fcfl<0 " f a t h e r s " ; 0(1 " d e w " ; 10 " s i d e " ( o f t h e b o d y ) : "Vflfl " l o c k o f a d o o r " : i n a l l o t h e r cases t h e t e r m i n a l e is r e t a i n e d , a n d t h e v o w e l u is h a r d e n e d i n t o w:!h$ah heydw ; JHfi'JfD- mek%w \ ^rlijtth taMw \ /"CtD*
l

<

,:

Urw \ ftahjbddw ; ao**^* mahdtw , f o r mahdtew ( 37); <">+6i0> maddllew ; aoftfah masdggew ; t/o^fiiOh mdtleiv ;
e e 6

n o w a n d t h e n t o o u i s t h r o w n o f f w h e n i t c o m e s a f t e r l o n g a ( 53). O n the other hand, i has a leaning t o t h e vowel-pronunciation, a n d m a i n t a i n s i t s e l f a s i a f t e r l o n g a a n d u ( 3 9 ) : * f t f l ; f W ; OArJ&C ). I t f o r m s w i t h a a d i p h t h o n g , o r a m i x e d v o w e l : d f l ; X%; A&; <w>/*&; a n d a s a r u l e i t f o r m s , w i t h f o r e g o i n g e, l o n g ' ? , e.g. n<G> av*C$3,probably not
8
| ,

O [Cf. also Kebra Nag., p. X V I I . ] ( ) Yet here too eto is tolerated, e. g. AC7fl*"T "adornment", cf. 49. ( ) .Although here too 6e%, bekaye &c. may be given.
a 8

52.
e 6

97

mafrey and mas'arrey , but mafri and maSarri, since we find these forms quite as often written aoQ& and *n>i*v; so also fl/hC "pearl" = fl/)ru bahri or bahreye. Thus in the Noun, i is necessarily hardened into and e added to it, only when it is preceded by a vowel-less consonant, as in ra'ye, of the type fflG; and i t may be given at pleasure as a vowel or as ye, when the introductory consonant of the syllable should properly have a short e, while the preceding syllable ends in a long vowel, e. g. 0DI1AJ& "talents", either makaly* ( 3 7 ) or makdli, as it may be even written tff|f\,- I t is the same with a*h'f' &$ "accuser", and < flTh Pfc "actor"; and in like manner A / h "beautiful" is to be pronounced laky** or lalnf). Both in the Verb and Noun however, u and i must invariably be hardened, whenever any firmer vowel than the fugitive e has to be uttered after them ( 40). I f in LTJDOLF'S time words like }fD, bOOi were spoken as fdnnaua, esaua, we are not at liberty to regard that pronunciation as original or deserving of imitation. 52. 2. If a formative vowel i or w meets with a radical % Badicai i or u, it never coalesces originally into one sound (i or u), but the ^"with* " radical i or u must be hardened into B or UK whether before or * i
t ID <
1

o r n ) a t

r e

*^
3

Vowel % or

after the formative vowel( ): yi and wu, when produced in this . way, generally remain unchanged, e.g. p.^fiiOK, M A P . , /**CfflL But roots mediae infirmae, which in other respects also have peculiar phonetic conditions ( 50), aim at a shorter pronunciation in such cases, by shortening the long vowel and doubling the semivowel instead (making yi = yii = yyi, mdwu^wuu==> wwu), so that the result, in accordance with 19, is yye or wwe( ). Consequently, Infinitives and Adjectives of the type ffl^C from roots middle i may, it is true, run like i*>fk0 "to place", uofkT "to turn", (f&rh "red"and these forms are still found in abundance in the older manuscripts (*),but usually they are written iPj&jP , *t>,fo. These forms then are first of all to be pronounced Sayyem, mayyet, qayyeh; but they may be farther
3 0

(*) Of. with these deductions the somewhat diverging ones in KNIG, p. I l l sqq. C ) Otherwise with KNIG, p. 152sqq. ( ) Of. EWALD, 'Gramm. Arab: 387, 108. ( ) [Cf. also f n & 4 * > Kebra Nag. p. X.VII, sub 6.]
3 8 4

98
1

52.

simplified into Saim, matt, qaih ( ). I n the same way Passive Participles of the type *7ft*Gr fr roots middle u, are very often met with, having the pronunciation ffRJt mewut; *ID. dewuy {dewuy ), and so in the PI. 9OhpTr &c.; but j P f l H ' and C<D~K are found instead, particularly in later manuscripts, the pronunciation being first mewwet, but afterwards, in abbreviated form, mewwt and mitt, with the plural both 9Oh*7r mewwHan and ao*^"} mutdn. And yet it should be noticed that in the Singular certainly the style 0**lh> 4r8r does not occur, and even in the Plural it is rare. On the other hand the forms Rm.fj, CGhfc are preferred, from roots whose third radical also is weak; but in the Plural we have f^f*k (as well as 0}.?'}) from dewweydn. But when the group iy or uw is produced by the meeting of these sounds, it can be tolerated only when its elements are shared between two syllables, as e. g. in VIU^*ih (along with which we have V*fl^"l") "prophets". Besides, these soundswhich are somewhat difficult to utterare simplified by I and u being partly hardened, whereby iy and uw become eyy and eww ( ) ( 19). Iy alone has kept its place, and that too in but one single type, viz. in Adjectives of the form 1ft,G> as if the formative sound i had been of greater importance for them. I t is thus that words like DflJEr, VflJK- &c. originated,which were certainly spoken at one time, like abiy , nobly . I n later times, however, when the fugitive e was given up, *abiy, nabiy were contracted directly into abi, nabi. Thus too we have the Fern. Vfljj't* nabit^ and although in most cases the JE. is still constantly written, yet, in one or two detached words of this form, used rather in a Substantive sense, i t is regularly thrown out, as in Hifl. "security" (legal term); and mli, "goat"; V f l J ^ is written also Vfl /K -Thus I and i finally coalesced into i,a phenomenon, which does not otherwise readily occur. I n the other formations, however, the facilitated style prevailed completely. Accordingly, the Passive Participles of roots with final u (with a few deviations in detached manuscripts) run t h u s : < 0 * reheww , A"flfl>* lebeww ( ); Plur.
m 6 2 < e 6 e 6 e 3

(*) Like v^uuo from-ouuo for o t j J o . ( ) Of. EWALD, Qramm. Arab.' 108. ( ) We never find C"V> and Aft" given for these; and therefore HUPJFELU is wrong in teaching, p. 16, that they were spoken as rehU and lebu. And farther, the pronunciation UAfl>* as helluw & c , recommended by L U D O L F ,
3 2 l

53.

99

C W , MWi rehewwn & c ; Fem. sing. CV^h, AfHh for rehiwwt &c. ( 51). I n the same way forms are still met with, here and there, for the Infinitive of the type *lfl.C from roots ending in i, like GftJ&which is to be read re'iy ; but these are to be regarded as entirely obsolete. The usual form certainly is given in flA, (ft?*, Ch> (never ftft> ft-fc, GftJ, accordingly to be pronounced baleyy , saUyy?, re'eyy*. A t the same time, of course, the pronunciation may become more contracted in special cases, e. g. re'yy for re'eyy ', and flAP"" * baleyym, fl^hP""** sateyym, may become, at least when carelessly employed, balym, satym. The same aversion to the sounds iy and w, even when they are shared between two syllables, is indicated in some other phenomena, quite outside of the formations from roots with a vowel as middle or last radical. The connecting vowel % of the Construct state usually passes into e before the suffix pronoun f (v. 153 sq.). Forms are still no doubt met with, like ftjPAtl? amlakiya, but, as a rule, they run like ftjPAlfl? amlakeya (*). Even Jjft, "helper" may, with the suff. f , become radd'eya. For the same reason, forms like *lflClfl "J > f iMUflfl **? are doubtless possible ( 40 ad fin.) ; but even in these cases the complete hardening of the w is more common than the semi-hardening, thus I f l C h y P &c.
e w n i c n w o r Q S a r e e e 6 0 n, p 0

53. 3. Rejection of a u (and an i)( ). Of the two Semi- Ruction vowels in Ethiopic, w ranks as the more indeterminate, and at the " same time as the one which stands nearest the softest Aspirate ft. And just as it may for this reason ( 41) be interpolated to separate two colliding vowels, especially when the first is an a-sound, so on the other hand, a radical w, hardened out of u, may at need give way to an a- or e-sound. This happens most frequently when u at the end of a syllable after e or a would have to be hardened into w and to form the group of sounds, ew, w, which is so little in favour. I n the Subjunctive of the Simple Stem from roots with initial u, the group J&flh, ^ID* &c, is thus, as a rule,
a n

is certainly inaccurate, for otherwise it would be impossible to understand, why people did not keep to the original way of writing it, viz Ofc(P*' According to TRUMPP, p. 534, it is pronounced helhi ( = original nelfao). I n the end of a word the doubling is no longer heard. C ) But v. Knig, p. 153 [and cf. Kebra Nag., p. X V I , sub 2.] ( ) Cf. with, what follows, Koma, p. 105 sqq. 7*
1 2

100

53

simplified into J&, &c. (although it has kept itself unchanged in isolated cases of Verbs, e. g. ,Oh?\), thus from fl); 4 * from 1 0 ^ 4 . While according to 49 ew may easily become u in Nominal formations, the e of the Personal prefixes is in this case held to be so essential in the Verb that a w-sound is never admitted; and whereas in Hebrew, where Tj likewise stands for ibv,the w which falls away is at least replaced by a long vowel, it falls away in Ethiopic just as in Arabic without leaving a trace, so that even in the Imperative and in the Nominal forms derived from the Imperf. (Subj.) the root makes its appearance, deprived of its first letter. I n the very same way in Nominal stems from roots with 0 ) as last radical, if they have long a before the last radical, the u, hardened into w is frequently rejected^), in order to avoid the by no means favoured group, aw. I n words with an Adjective meaning, likeftfyJ{or "white", PI. ft*Jr<D", this course is rarely followed, but it is common in Abstracts, the most of which do not admit a plural, e.g. /^^'"flesh"; ^ 9 "way"; "favour" &c. ( 107), and it is almost constant in the type *l"f|4 "hope"; (and -fft20 "relationship"; -f-g'A "pleasure" &c, ( 111), though on the other hand we have ^\xtf*a^ Esth. 9,22, as well as f h*\F ' I n like manner it is sometimes thrown out before the closely attached t of the Eem., though not quite without compensation, e. g. QOhf^t "lamentation" (V^OflhflD); f*C'i't "bride" (V7AHD)\ rh"?^ "mother-in-law" &c. ( 128)( ). More rarely it may happen that in the beginning of a syllable which is preceded by one that is closed, u is thrown out before an a or a, which for any reason may be irremovable ( ). Thus from roots mediae d>, instead of the heavy-sounding Causative Stem Xflf, a simpler one is formed with lighter sounds, like K4 < for t\ty(D0i>; from fn4(*), particularly from those roots which have an Aspirate as third radical, e. g. for M ' V ) ( 45), for ft7fl)*1 (v. farther on this point 96). I n this case also the u or w disap, a m a 8 , wl 6

(*) Just as in the Arabic ( ) I t is a totally different case from this, when in the much used archaio words ftfl, 00 &c. the last radical disappears; cf 105, a.f.
2

( ) As often happens in Arabic, EWAU>, 'Gr. Arab: 109, and in

Hebrew, EWALD, 35, a.

(*) Of. K6mo, p. 116,

( ) [Which itself is still met with: v. Eelra Nag,, p. X X V I I I a . ]
6

54.

101

pears without leaving a trace;yet cf. 96, 1. I n Nominal formation this is rare; yet an example is found in fhrt")h "he" from ghflW, for fhflflJ'K )- A few roots mediae ID, which have an Aspirate as third radical, transform in the Subjunctive into d and thus give up the vowel-radical; but this d continues then at least without change ( 46):jfcflfc, for f l h , ,<ph (v. 93). A like process is shown in cases like "word" for 4*A( ), accordance with 18. I or y is much more stable than u or w. The most important case, in which radical % disappears, or rather unites with another %, has been already described ( 52. p. 98), e. g. mAv Otherwise the rejection of i or y occurs very seldom indeed( ). OP*left "the tenth part" seems to have come from Of**Ir-f*^, like Qhf't from O t D * 0 H h We meet with * f l f l ^ "cattle" for >flA^, for the sake of the rhyme(*). Z**"}^" "urine" (Vtf), seems to have come from a Masculine form " t / J , of which the i had to be shortened into e, by 36, in the doubly closed syllable. The interchange of w and y, which is so common in other Semitic tongues, is exceedingly rare in Ethiopia True, there are, it seems, many roots originally commencing with i, which have passed into roots having an initial < D ( 68); but after the ronts had once been thoroughly formed, those which had u and those which had i as the first, second, third, or fourth radical, remained sharply distinguished thenceforth, and passed no more into one another in the course of formation. Accordingly, cases like the plural aoi^f from ao^^ for aoQ^O^ are few and far between ( ). I t has already been explained ( 48), that the Aspirate h, occurring after an i, passes occasionally into f.
1 s 2 m s 5

1. CONSONANTS.

54. The Consonants form the more stable, unchangeable Doubling of part of the sounds of the language. I n general they maintain, j ^ ^ f all through the process of Word-formation, the appearance and of Assimi. lation.

0) Oftener in Arabic, EWALD, 'Gr. Arab: 410. ( ) Cf. EWALD, 'Gr. Arab: 73 and 387. [Better to regard ^A J l *
2

= Assyr. qlu and 4>A = \}y = Assyr. qvilu, as has been already pointed out supra, p. 37, Note C ).]
1

() ()
5

Cf. KNIG, p. 107. Cf. also KNIG, p. 107.

(*) LUDOLF, 'Lex. Aeth:, col. 247.

102

54.

order attaching to them when handed over in the fully formed root. The only thorough-going alteration, which the radicals are subjected to in formative processes, is their Doubling,one of the leading formative devices in the field of Semitic speech. Meanwhile, and apart from this, groups of sounds may be produced by the formative process, which are somewhat difficult to utter, and which therefore almost necessarily involve transitions of sound among the Consonants. Farther, in certain phonetic conditions, individual consonants, especially the softer ones, may gradually become enfeebled, and either disappear entirely or be turned into vowels. And just as consonants may in certain circumstances pass into vowels, so vowels again may avail themselves of the help of consonants, and add to their own strength by bringing them into the word. 1. The D o u b l i n g of a Consonant is sometimes given in the root itself, inasmuch as the language possesses a number of roots in which one of the letters is pronounced as a doubled letter: a more precise account of this phenomenon falls to be given in discoursing of roots. Sometimes again, doubling serves as an expedient in word-formation: an account of this is also deferred to a subsequent part of the work. Finally, Doubling of a Consonant is sometimes produced by another Consonant becoming assimilated to it, and this is the case which calls for detailed description here. (a) When in any word then Consonants meet together, which in consequence of this encounter are difficult to utter, one of the devices employed by the language to introduce an easier pronunciation is the transferring of one of the two letters to the other, or the doubling of one Consonant, as a result of the other being made to resemble it (Assimilation). Such assimilation of two letters occurs frequently in the formation of roots. I n particular the softer letters , e. g. Aspirates or liquids, readily pass over to a stronger consonant, e. g. tfoflA mabbala "to wield power", from tJD>(\Oh; AAA "to withdraw" sassala, from A AAA &o. (v. infra 7 1 ) O t h e r w i s e , this phenomenon is limited to a few
( ) Just like <70flA; PRAETORIUS, 'Beitr. z. Assyr? I , p. 30 sqq. would
!

also understand QOD0, 0 f ,

-f-hfi. I n the words ^ m , fl^ff, <hjl

he sees (ibid. p. 28 sqq.) a compensatory lengthening, for the disappearance of a doubling produced by the assimilation of ft, Q &c.

"titli ftolfD,

103

definite cases. When two Consonants come upon one another, without being separated by a vowel, the one passes over to the other in certain cases. 1. When, in the course of conjugation^), the Guttural .7 or f as radical meets with the h of the personalending, the latter passes over to the foregoing radical( ): Odl 'ardgga, for 0*7h; T*fe seheqq, for ft"U4Yl. If however, the preceding Guttural belongs to the ^-containing class ( 26), assimilation is not in favour, just because a kind of vowel then separates the two letters, e.g. Afh*f*Yl; H V K M h ; YA4 *h *- Only now and then does assimilation take place, e. g. Arhh, for A<Mf"h; *h*YA4s, for i'VA Mri Ps. 87,4. 2. The ^ of the formative syllables of the Feminine and of the Reflexive Stem is assimilated to the radical fli and y e d d a l , for jMhAA"; fll< k, for j&'Thfli^'fc; ufp, for i ^ f H h <P<h, for PA*^; a(D&?;, for ^ f f l A ^ ^ a ^ A J ^ f o r ^ O J - A - ^ ; <J7vfor<P?-^. I t is only in the words( ) hthil "one" (f.), for ftfh"fc, and A ^ "daughter", for flJA^K ) that the radical has given way to the formative letter (just as in nrjK for ffinN). Inasmuch, however, as the Dental Mutes and the Sibilants belong to the same organ of speech, it is not at all remarkable that the combination of letters ts, ds &c, which is regarded as inadmissible in other languages, should be made easier of pronunciation by the Mute passing over to the Sibilant( ). Accordingly -J" or before a Sibilant passes over to the latter; and in fact the of the Reflexive Stem regularly does so, with every Sibilant: ftiPfllT, for ft^iPiDT ,A ,01., for ^ 0 1 , ; H.hG,for &MMCl SWh,for j & f r u h ? ; ^ * : , for W H H D - . " passes into ft in ft A*, for A*A and in ft A for ft,"A> although both letters belong to the root. Apart from these cases the transition of one consonant to another is exceedingly rare. A Nasal has been
2 # M tf0 < WK 3 4 5

(*) Thi case rarely appears anywhere else. I t is true that the same thing apparently is met with in appending a Suffix Pron. of the 2nd pers. to a Noun which ends in a Guttural, but in point of fact the two letters in that case are always kept from touching, by means of the binding-vowel, and no assimilation is possible. On similar appearances in the appending of enclitic particles to the Verb, v. infra, 169 and 152.
() ()
3 2

Cf. KNIG, p. 97 sq. (O'tl'f*

by 1 becoming
5

seems not to be derived from iD'ft'P'lh, but from [Cf. however, Assyr. istu (ultu).]

flHft'p,

(*) V . KNIG, p. 97.

( ) Other languages evade the difficulty by the transposition st, sd.

104 ft?"

55 J,J)

assimilated to an Z in M "but", "however", from and 4 ($f,

Doubling 55. (b) The device of shortening a long vowel and restoring of Consothe length by doubling the following Consonant, is very rarely made nant, to make up for use of, except in the case described in 52. I t appears, however, shortening n d preceding in \iao* Mmmu (Suff. Pron. of the 2 pers. pi.), the first vowel Vowel.

Doubled Consonant always written in Single Form.

of which was originally long,although it answers to ^ i n Arabic, and accordingly the doubling of the m would seem to have been introduced to strengthen the short vowel in the open syllable. On the other hand inftA-ellu "these", "hti ella "who", "which" (pi), the doubling appears to have a different origin (v. 146). (c) Whatever may have been the origin of the doubling of any Consonant, the doubled Consonant in Ethiopic is written only in single form. A n d the script has adhered so faithfully to this principle, that whenever two identical consonants meet together, without a separating vowel between them, whether in forming or in compounding words, only one consonant is written down, e. g. ^fcA*, for J ^ - f c r l v h tM, for tfixlY, hf<*>fc, for htl0Wfr, J P O ^ , for ^ f l H H h M l V h for M t V F h h9P, f o r f t j P : ^ ; p1hlh, for ^ 7 f t ^ ; <P!hX:, fern, of ThR for PJriXrf-; even (DOh !, for (DOWD- }; (on the other hand h<F<\\\X\ amldkeka; fAD'Yt sawanena; $/i$?ft* yenadedu &c.)( ). Even in foreign words there is no deviation from this mode of writing, e. g. Lydda; ISO, "Rabbi"; ftTfrf! Symmachus. Variations occur only in those cases in which the consonant itself varies from a pronunciation which employs a vowel, to one which discards it. I n particular there are cases ( 37) i n which a consonant that should otherwise be uttered with a fugitive e in an open syllable, and which follows an open syllable, gives up its e without difficulty, and, having thus become vowel-less, attaches itself to the preceding syllable. I f such consonant is the first element of a consonantal double-letter,which is often the case in formations from roots med. gem.,both
0 1 a

(*) [But see Note to 168, 6.]. The cases of this sort which have been collected by EONIG, p. 98, with the exception of Vflrft,4 for K^'flrh.^
in the R U P P E L L Inscriptions 1 , 2 8 ; 2 , 5 1 (cf. D . H . M U L L E B , Z D M G X X X ,

p. 704 [and 'Epigr. Denkm.\ p. 52]) are doubtful. [V. however Eebra Nag.,
F

p. X V I I , sub 1 0 : - f t f l , ^ = ? y n + and - W , + ^ f l I ( ) Cf.Kmo, p. 94*0?.

l 2

fl,*.]

56.

105

modes of writing are allowable. It is true that and "f-flft are usually written for } and + r t J t , seeing that here the vowelless pronunciation of -the middle letter has thoroughly penetrated the form, and so too with -f^O tame-a, for f f(lO\ but the other mode of writing occurs also. In the very same way J&VJ?-> ,PVfl> 1"*. 1i*P &c. are frequently written for V"J?-, .PWlfl, "iP *^, ht**J*'9*- Now seeing that no written sign has at any time been contrived ( 16) to indicate this doubling, it is only from knowledge of the Word-form itself that we can tell when a Consonant has to be read as a double one; and this constitutes a sensible defect in Ethiopic writing, for the beginner in the language. It is still worse that we should in this way be destitute of any ancient external evidence ( ) as to those cases in which a consonant is to be uttered as a double one, and that we should therefore be left without guidance, if not in regard to individual types, at all events in regard to individual words, which may belong to the one type or the other.
t 3 t x

56. (d) Giving up the Doubling. 1. The doubling of a Consonant is audible only when it is followed by a vowel: It cannot be heard at the end of words which do not conclude with a vowel. Originally, it is true, there were no words in Ethiopic which ended with a consonant requiring to be doubled and yet unprovided with a following vowel, for the Nominal stems, which alone are concerned here, ended at one time in e, so that A*fl, 6. g., was pronounced lebb ( 38). But this e was given up at an early stage, and then of course cases emerged in abundance, in which a concluding double letter could only make itself heard as a single one, e. g. A"fl leb > fh*7 heg,although in such words the double letter was at once heard, as soon as it was followed by a vowel, as in Aft lebba, A*7h heggeka.
e

2. In the middle of a word the doubling, particularly of Semivowels and Aspirates, may in certain circumstances more easily
(*) The later pronunciation, as it was heard by LUDOLF, is by no means invariably the correct one. LUDOLF also propounded several decidedly erroneous views on this point, seemingly founded on his peculiar grammatical opinions, as will be farther proved.According to TRUMPP, p. 522, N. 1, the doubling of Consonants (with the exception of the Aspirates) is still heard to some extent in Ge'ez in the middle of a word, but is invariably given up at the end of it.
Cf. also KNIG, p. 117 sq.

106

56.

occasional compensaLoss of the Doubling.

disappear. On the Semivowels ( ) cf. supra, p. 97 sq., 52: cases like #n>J&1 mait, properly mayyet,belong to this section, as well as a* '}, for yah^t mewwHan. I n other cases we have the same thing; for instance f rhOHR. (from f rhfl**Jf) yahawwesu may no doubt become, when somewhat carelessly pronounced, yahawsu, yahausu. Gutturals too occasionally cast away the embarrassing doubling. Thus it comes about, that an a which has the tone, and which comes before a doubled Aspirate followed by short e in a closed syllable, as in JE.tfDUC yemahher "(that) he teach", is thickened into e, as in ,9VG, indication that the doubling is no longer clearly heard ( 45),and that this yemehher is farther reduced to yemehr ( 46). Farther, a certain dislike to the doubling of Aspirates can alone explain why some verbs, having a middle Aspirate, should in the Causative of the Intensive Stem,in all those forms in which a doubling of the second radical would have to be audible (Perf., Subj., Imperf., Inf.),have recourse to the Causative of the Simple Stem, e. g. h t*ih t ; hfoOil, as well as htiOtl (cf. 96). I n the same way a still larger number of verbs middle Aspirate prefer to adopt, in the Perfect (and to some extent in the Infinitive) of the Reflexive Stem, the form *f*ihrlri*f", tatehta, instead of the form ' H v h ' f " , that is to say, the form of Reflexive 1, in preference to that of Reflexive 2;or at least they admit of both forms side by side (v. 97). But we cannot follow up this question of the doubling of Aspirates farther than these few hints, seeing that the means of gaining acquaintance with the old pronunciation are wanting, 3. I n the cases mentioned hitherto, the doubling disappears without compensation for its loss, but in other cases it is made up for in one way or other. There is the case,isolated, so far as yet k ^ doubling of a radical (in a double-lettered root) being thrown back on the first radical, in the word f *JQ, "fTldh for -f 9fyO, f*tf 5dh &c ( 97). Of almost equally rare occurrence is the device of compensating for the doubling, by lengthening the preceding vowel( ), e.g. %$*t, "delusion", for meyyane;
m m an : r m n v n o w n > 0 e t , D< 2 a

"ambush", HST, ^flH==j^ll3; and in foreign words, e. g.

C) Cf. EWALD, 'Hebr. 8pr.\
2

64 a.

( ) Common in Hebrew and still more frequent in Syriac. Cf. also KONIG, p. 416. [It will perhaps be wise to receive with a measure of caution the instances which follow in this paragraph, as some of them seem rather forced and doubtful, TK.]

57.

107

0C4!fc*{\ MarcellusC). Oftener the first element of a double letter is softened into a Semivowel, which then coalesces with a foregoing a into a mixed vowel, as happens in several Multiliteral roots (v. 78). Only, in the Imperfects of all the Intensive Stems, in consequence of lengthening the immediately preceding vowel a into a, the doubling of the middle radical is regularly given up, and in compensation anfc-soundis blended with the a, e. g. JR-^ftT? yefesem, from yefdssem ( 95). A third method of replacing the doubling, and one of very frequent occurrence, consists in interpolating a Liquid: cf. 72. 57. 2. To facilitate the pronunciation of difficult letter- Exchange groups, there are still other expedients at the command of the nanta** " language, besides the Assimilation of two Consonants,inparticular, * P (1) exchanging them for others, and (2) transposing them. Exchanging one Consonant for another is, upon the whole, of rare occurrence ( ). A H , meeting directly with ^ may easily assume the sound of ft, and in fact,although it is retained, as a rule, e. g. in flJ^hJ&U^" "rivers",it has passed into ft in several words in very common use. This is the case invariably in 'Wlft'h "bread", for *ifl'|f^", and sometimes in hP'hll't "lords", for or as a companion-form to ftj?ft*H'l". Probably also a <p has been weakened into -J" after ft in the common word fl*"ft")K )' 9i when it meets directly with Labial Mutes, frequently passes into the Dental Nasal: ft*Jfli "because of", for h?flV; V H I A "except", for ft0flA (although one always says h94\th.C, K r - f t C ^ C ) &c); A^ftA Xa/wraff, A l f c k X a / n ^ ; SOfl ^Ma/*{3pyj, Gen. 14,24; 18,1; and a like result happens more than once when it comes upon a Dental Mute: T^TtR "stem", from ip-i; ft'JJJA* asjuitaXig; and so too, no doubt, in ao'i^* "twins", for aof^* from Dfcfi( ). In Ethiopic the transposition of Consonants does not appear in Word-formation, for ts does not become st, but ss,v. 54 ( ). But certainly Ethiopic roots, when compared
0
0 T a n s

( ) Verbs, like A^<, O ^ i l , I do ot regard as Intensive Stems (in the way of p3), t rank them rather with Stem 3. ( ) Cf. KOKIG, p. 100 sq. ( ) [But cf. supra, p. 103, Note ( ).] (*) [V. however supra, p. 104, Note ( ).] ( ) fiftft^fnft f aaira\a%og is explained by the Greek uncial writing (A having been read as A).
D U 2 3 3 1 5 r

( ) CAhowever,ftjrCA^andftjPAC h;K PC'l^andK^C^;

108

with the corresponding ones in the related tongues, present many examples of the transposition of letters, e. g. fO't'h^h't "shoulder", for <7y)'l-q".'Th (in?) ; h C ^ A ^ A , for ft jp<:ft<*A from A0A la-a-la, for 0 A 0 A ; * h + pan, viJL^; 7fl, ooCM, tfBte; 0O<?&0, from ^ J ; M 7 A 1 ( = M l A A l ) for M l A l A ; I n particular i t is the more liquid letters and the Aspirates, which tend in Ethiopic root-formation to glide from one position to another:Examples for A^l^UA, r6D, JL$J; ftrhA nnV?;

flAm, J Jo; rh4>A, p)n, b$n, J J i ^ ; A?"> yJLo and (jo-U: for C D ^- "breadth", m ; Jkl-flC-fl, ^13, 6 ^ ; tllh,
?

g^i

(^gi): for *>:rhV, i^y^^-f 7Drj;for Aspirates besides:

V

U ; ? M l , "lead",

"groaning", pjjj, pi;

<.rh4 "3JBn, vilij; AArh -ys; rhAA, J C U . I n one or two roots all the letters are shifted together: 9 ih, Dm, f ^ O ) ; AU4* J^; 0G1, perhaps too in M C "foot", from A*7C( ), ^ 1 ' J 4 / >
o r 2

i*^)* - ^
n er 0

details in these cases reference may be made

on

to the Lexicon. ^' ^ ^ P ^ ^ ^ or Rejection, of individual Consonants, ^Rejection of and Softening of Consonants into Vowels. I n the first place a Consonants. ^ vowel with the tone, in an open syllable, may be strengthened by the insertion of a Nasal: thus "WJ^Js zent, "this", stands for H-f:; Of I i " heydnta, "instead o f , for Off", which still appears along with i t ; tf*AV; for tf-A;*N M f l for KQ; A ' M A * , A U L A , along with flflA (KNIG, p. 102); **}^ "chance", for J t ' R - ; cf. also fo'iai'im/} "petty", from Vaoflft; Atf"^*}^ lekuetent.
poiation or
SOr a

"7dflA and 0O*aOA; tf^flA* and tTDjtAfl^; i'9YlP t tor W f c M h and faPhVlh for ^ - f M r f - ; CrhA^ and CftfHh ^ A K C ^ for "ffcAC^; ttboc* for frp-Atf-; ^ O M i ^ for ^-HaH<p^; hi HibHr andfc7flA * ; MUfr and fc^Mi*; J R ^ U *
: m

for gsfrao^V*

'Gadla Adam' (ed. TRUMPP ), p. 79, 1. 24..On the question

n a s

whether the prefix of the Causative-Reflexive,KAi* from hH-H, v. 83.

keen transposed

( ) But v. PRAETORIUS, 'Beitr. z. Ass.', I , p. 21.Cf. Arab. Greek "kfrpa.

( )
2

Jds*, from
' .

EWAI.D,

*S?6r. <S(pr.' p. 9 1 ; SCHRADER, 'De Indole', p. 24; K O N I G ,

p. 144.

58.
XYJKV&O;;

109

<n>7T>, nP^yj^). But just as a short vowel may in such a case be strengthened also by doubling the following consonant ( 55) ( ), so may a Nasal in turn make its way into a word to compensate for giving up the doubling of the consonant ( 56). This phenomenon, which is quite usual in Aramaic as is well known, is shown in Ethiopic, just as in Arabic ( ),mainly however in root-formation, though in this case, of very common occurrence, by a 7 coming in after the first radical, probably to replace the doubling of the second radical (for examples v. 72). I n the word JF*tM[ Deut. 32,15, we have, alongside of this original form, the variation Of foreign words there may be compared, e. g- A7"CC otxnfoipog. With less frequency a C is interpolated for a like purpose in root-formation: ^CAPft Callus; mOUTrtlllTdbennesis (cf. infra 72) ( ). I n Syriac and Arabic this practice is more common. The rejection of a Consonant without any compensation is similarly infrequent in Ethiopic ( ). The Nasal is the letter most liable to be so treated, e. g. btb? f btbtf before the Semivowel, or as a final letter after a long vowel, as in the numerals from 20 to 90 ( 158) and in the Pronominal terminations (e. g. 146). A n entire syllable, viz. (t along with its vowel), is thrown off from JiJPJ "from", when it has to be closely attached to the Noun. And just like f, the Liquid A is constantly rejected after a long vowel in a word which is in very frequent use, viz. f l , "he said", for JrVflUA (cf. supra, 46) ( ). The Fern. ^ disappears, just as in Aramaic, in the terminations d, e (for dt, et), 120 sq. On the rejection of Aspirates and Semi-vowels cf. 47 and 53. Occasionally too, in forms where several radicals are repeated, a letter is left out for brevity's sake. The softening of any one of the firmer letters into a vowel softening is still less common, and has mostly been handed down in very , ancient words, like frfo-fl "star", from h-flfo'D Cf. also 28, on fl. a s 4 5 r 6 n a n t 8 i n t 0 Vowel8

O I n Amharic, e. g.
()
3 2

"one'\ for
9 sq. 163, 191.

from

hgh.

Cf. EWALD, <Hebr. Spr.\

l

( ) EWALD, Qr. () ()
6
5 4

rab:,

Cf. also KNIG, p. 103. Cf. KMIG, pp. 101, 103.

1

( ) Cf. also GBSENIS, 'Thesaurus , p. 600.

110

59.

I I I . THE WORD AND THE TONE OF THE WOED.

Th v consisting of several syllables, has a unity of the impressed upon it by means of the Tone, which brings one syllable ttBldju8tprominence as the one which dominates the whole. The proment. nunciation of the other syllables is then accommodated to this leading syllable, as regards length or shortness, height or depth of note, and even, in certain circumstances, choice of vowels for these syllables. Although the influence of the Tone upon the vocalisation of the word by no means displays itself in forms so manifold in Ethiopic, as, for instance, in Hebrew, it nevertheless asserts itself now and then, and therefore it calls for a short description here. 1. I t is true that the method of fixing the tone of the word(*), in a dead language which has left no grammatical description belonging to the time when it was a living tongue, and which did not employ in its written character any tone-marking ( ),can no longer be exactly determined in detail; but the general principles of the process may be gathered, partly from the rules of wordformation, and partly from later accounts of the accentuation ( ), and from a comparison of Ethiopic with Arabic and Amharic. According to these principles the Tone is not bound to any special syllable, as it is in Hebrew, in such manner that it should fall, as a rule say, on the last syllable, or possibly on the penult; but on the contrary in any polysyllable,so far as mere possibility goes, it may rest on any one of the last three syllables, and occasionally may he, it would seem, still farther back, e. g. fl^hi" barakata\ fl^h'Hl barcbkataka. The adjustment of the tone is regulated by wholly different points of view. I n the first place it depends upon the kind of syllables and their vowels. Syllables having long vowels,or (which is the same thing as a matter of prosody) closed Tone
w o r o

(*) Cf. now specially, on this subject, the frequently quoted treatise of TRUMPP, ' TJeber den Accent im Aethiopischert, ZDMG X X V I I I , p. 515 sqq. : v. also KNIG, p. 154: sqq.On the marked fluctuation of the tone in presentday Abyssinian, e. g. in Tigrina, v. PRAETORIUS ZDMGr X L I , p. 688 [and in Tigre, LITTMANN, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr.' X I I I , p. 140 sqq.]. ( ) The signs written over the several words in Ethiopic Hymnologies are certainly not Tone-marks, but musical signs, apparently formed in imitation of Greek notes of Music.
2

( ) L U D O L F , 'Gh-amm.' 1,7.

59.

Ill

syllables having short vowels,naturally assert themselves in the word, and necessarily attract the tone, in opposition to open syllables with short vowels, e. g. 'V/JT hedt; V*ICV nagdrna. The second fundamental rule, which, besides, is connected with the formative history of words, is this,that final short vowels, belonging invariably to the form, and final and simply closed syllables which have short vowels, and which have originated from the rejection of a final vowel in pronunciation (e. g. VIC hdgar, for hdgar ), do not take the tone; while final long vowels also surrender the tone to the penult, when the penult has a long vowel (thus, of course f l / i , yebali; ft'td/t yetfanno; nagaru; but fl>/V* yebel; ipJfc motu] J&lfl| yemit; yeri'y; yesef;
6

fatari; {P ^HJ medrdwl &c). Evidently in most cases the tone avoids the last syllable. Much offener it rests On the third last syllable, but oftenest on the second last. For the rest, the accentuation of a word is regulated by the nature of its formation, because it is only from this that we can see what vowels and syllables are the most important in the word, what formative additions are attached bearing the tone, and what ones have given up their tone,why, for instance, *7flC "act", (Imper.) is pronounced gebar, but OIC- "city", hdgar; why aoii^T/'ir "princes" should be masafent, but TC ^h created" (fem.) fetert; Oh}\*^ "he", wet, and *ffl4* "they acted", gabru, (fec.^). Accordingly, instead of reckoning up a series of rules on accentuation at this stage, it will be more advisable to give the accentuation of the several forms when we come to describe them. Still, reference may be again made here to 48, according to which the Aspirates exercise a peculiar influence on the tone. Ethiopic has a large number of small monosyllabic words, which are too weak to take a position for themselves in the sentence. They are therefore attached to stronger words as prefixes or suffixes ; but, like the enclitics of other tongues, they are then unaccented, or only so far accented as to make them discernible to the ear as loosely connected appendages, which do not belong properly to the word. They cause no alteration in the main accent( ) [Without going into particulars it may be said here generally that TRXJMPP and KNIG are probably safer guides than DILLMANN in the pronunciation of Ethiopic, when the last-named differs from the first two, as he frequently does, TR.]
x

112

60.

nation of the word; and yet, according to LUDOLP, in words which end in a long vowel, the tone must necessarily fall upon this long vowel before an appended particle, even though it did not rest on this vowel in the word when standing alone: fl>^ mdnu, but aoy-ao manUma; ?% yogi, but f-^lfc yogtke. U "this (m.)" and H "this (/".)" differ from these attached particles, for though they are mostly attached, in writing, to the word which follows them, they still retain their own independent tone. Nothing is known in Ethiopic of any special pronunciation of a word at the end of a sentence or at the end of a clause of a sentence, and nothing, accordingly, of any influence being exerted by the accent of the sentence upon the accent of a word (Pause). LTJDOLT expressly notices that the Abyssinians modulate their voices very little in reading, vocaiisa 60. 2. The vocalisation of a word mainly depends, of course, word, as in- not on phonetic conditions, but on the sense and signification of financed by ^ f f different significations cling to different
g o w n o r m s o a r a s

the Tone.

'

vowels, as will be shown farther on. And yet phonetic conditions exercise an influence too; for the sense of the form is usually sustained in any word by one vowel only, or by two at most; the selection of the rest depends upon phonetic conditions, and that selection is made in such fashion that the several syllables in the word all sound harmoniously together, and the toneless syllables subordinate themselves to the tone-bearing ones according to their situation with respect to the latter. As regards, first of all, the long vowels, they appear, with some few exceptions, to be essential in Ethiopic to the signification in the forms concerned. The short vowels, d and e,and particularly a,seem possessed, it is true, of the same property, in the case of many forms, but they are often mere auxiliary vowels, employed to facilitate the pronunciation of consonants which are not supported by the formative vowel or vowels. Of the two, e is the more unimportant, indefinite and colourless; a is more important and significant, and accordingly, as a mere auxiliary vowel, it is employed specially in the Noun. Farther it appears that when once a or e has established itself in a form, the other syllables readily echo( ) the vowel concerned; thus,
x

i ) For another example of a foregoing vowel recurring in the next syllable as an echo, v. 26,4.

60.

113

both, in the Perfect of Verbs and in Quadrihteral and Multiliteral Nouns the a often runs through several syllables: i l H ^ J ^ , MAj*A, or e in M f r A , J t A f r A * , JfMltf-A. To precede u, e is preferred, *7fl-C? ftA3"Ml"ft> and a to precede I, mfl.il- But if a long a, as the weightiest of all the vowels, has newly made its way into the stem, the syllable before or after it must as far as possible be shortened and obscured, and so i t is not a that appears in it, but e: A^4, jrrtOA, 9th PC, ^CPi, 9tl(l, Pfh, tvl^? , A?flA, ^ ^ h C ^ - I n certain cases, in fact, before such an a, even an a, o or e must be eased down into a u or % at least:*hfl?i, f/PU The same rule holds also, when a tone-bearing a, or a formative syllable with a, is attached to the stem as the main syllable of the word; 9 / * M i Cfi'M, 4|tfG?> Even a mere strongly accented a, which is pressing newly into the stem as the bearer of the signification, calls for an obscured e either before or after it: "IilC, J U T I J MlTf. On the other hand an e is now and again obliged, through the influence of the tone, to pass into a. Invariably is this the case when, in the Perfect of the type 7 i l and i ^ I i l ^ , the tone falls upon the syllable which begins with the second radical; for although 7*flCh gctberka is capable of pronunciation, the e is yet regarded as too weak here to be retained in the main syllable emphasised by the tone, and therefore it is preferred to replace i t by the stronger a. I n the same way the long I of a tone-bearing syllable,which is becoming a doubly closed syllable from being a singly closed one, so that its I is necessarily shortened by 3 5 sq.does not always pass into e, but sometimes into d, as perhaps in A*HUA> A*JftA^""> although in similar cases an e, shortened out of u, is regarded as regular, like ^ T C ^ , out of <m>CC)l 6 f

(*) For an account of these conditions, differing from the above, v. 118NIO, p. 121 sqq.

PART SECOND.
MORPHOLOGY.

A, R O O T S : T H E I R

CLASSES, A N D THEIR FORMS.

61. Roots are the material out of which Language fashions Words. To explain the mode of their origin and their significations in detail, is the province of the Lexicon. Grammar takes these as given, but it is bound to furnish a survey of the different classes of roots and their forms, because the mode of formation of the words, which have sprung from the roots, is determined by the form of the roots. I n accordance with their signification, Roots fall into three classes of very unequal extent. 1. The lowest stage of roots is formed by those Interjections,. which are not derived from Pronouns or Conceptional Roots, but which burst forth as a direct expression of feeling, and are, as it were, the animal utterances of Man. They are mostly short and unbending; and in their case the distinction between root, and formation from the root, falls away. There are, however, only a very few of them in any language. The most common of these ejaculations is Yx\ "OP 'O, employed to express emotion, and particularly wonder, e. g. hflffotlnC " 0 what a marvellous thing!": I t is therefore often used in accosting any one in the Vocative, 142,, M i l C "O man!" I t seems also to be involved in htf "Oh! certainly", v. 62. As ejaculations of distress and pain there appear: h ( ), in combination with fc: as # & Numb. 24,23;
2

O { ; l ; art, > < > T; n*g.

115

hVC) "Ah!"; g and p-( ) "Alas!". I n more frequent use is flIJRf) "woe!", always with a following A f the dative, e. g. < D *'woe's me!"; and, with like meaning, the longer form also with a following dative; finally flj&A or fl,A, with a following Suff. Pron., "ah! alas!" (for these last three v. infra, 199). A secondary form (Dj&A to fll, or fc&A to J%A, is not necessary to be assumed ( 167); and yet, just as in Arabic j j has been formed out of J*y so too in Ethiopic a noun < D J & A "howling", "lamentation", has sprung from < D and the ti which invariably follows it. Besides, we meet with Yy% "come!" (Ex. 4,19; var V*J), fl&, flrh, flrh, with a following Suff. Pron., as a particle of salutation, Arab. ^ J , .^S; and ft*p as a call to silence.
t

62. 2. The Pronominal Boots are one stage higher. They p onomte\ are no longer confined to the field of sensation, but belong to that - Boot8: :De
0

'

monstra-

of the understanding. They do not, however, themselves denote the aves. objects of conception and thought, but only point out these objects in space and time (Indicating-words); and starting from this they are employed, farther, to denote all possible conditions of thought. ' They constitute quite as important a part of the language as the Conceptional Roots. I f the latter contain the material of the language, the type is furnished by the former; and nearly all the formative additions to words, and the majority of the particles which serve to express the relations of clauses in a sentence, are of pronominal origin. Ethiopic has developed this portion of the language, precisely, in a very rich and manifold way, and has preserved much that has been lost in the other Semitic tongues. (1) Of these Pronominal roots, the most widely extended and most variously employed are the Demonstratives, in the narrower sense of the term (Demonstrativa). I n this class we distinguish four orders of roots. - (a) The primordial Demonstrative ta( ) has been softened into da; and then, through transformation of the Mute into the
6

( ) V. LUDOLF, 'Comm. Hist. Aeth.', p. 41. ( ) V. LUDOLF, 'Lex. Aeth.\ col. 484; Arabic L J in a different meaning.
2

( ) 5 !s
8

J J ;
c

~{;

()

()

116

Sibilant, the two farther modes of expression sa and za have been evolved. A l l the four are represented in Ethiopie. The elementary ta, besides appearing in the Feminine termination "H ), is still P served in the Personal particles i : ( ) and -fc "the" (m.&f.), though only in compounds, e. g. ahfrfc, h"fc, TfH*, A*"t> A-fc }gP '}'p, as well as in the Interrogative AiJ&'fc "where?". The softer form of pronunciation da, which has become predominant in Aramaic, can only be supported in Ethiopie by the preposition ^ f l "upon" ( 165). Having passed into the harder Sibilant( ), it has, under the guise of A? produced a series of particles of relation and of exclamation, namely, ft ()6, hftfl> "for" (conj.), fif\ "when", A d JiftVh "P y> do!" (Gr. 057, Lat. quaesd). Just as in Hebrew and Arabic, it lias become predominant, under the form of the soft sibilation, for the usual Demonstr. Pron. U "this", and for the Relative Pron. H "who" ( 64), as well as in the particles UP here", "when?", J&ftft "now", and perhaps also in UL "point of time", "hour". (ft) The root *f, or has become U, through a farther subtilising of the Mute into a mere breathing( ). As such, having been shortened out of the *|s which has been fashioned into a Personal Pron. ( 65), it makes its appearance in the Suff. Pron. U"> H1 If" *", WTr] elsewhere, only in Adverbial formation, in particular in y as a mark of the Accusative; ih as an interrogative; % "away to" ( 160); VL re, "also"; i)f "there"; "in place o f ; doubtless also in "oh! certainly" (properly, "oh! quite so"; cf. 61). And, remarkably enough ( 24), this aspirate 0 is hardened, in Ethiopie, even into *h and *i in "lift "with" and "where" ( 161)( ), and h<h "away yonder", UthYl "yonder"; and into 0 perhaps, in Yk "behold!" (but v. 41). (c) Like the Mute and and Sibilant Dentals, the two Liquids n and I also serve to form Demonstrative Pronouns, with either a preceding or a succeeding vowel, as na, an( ), la, al, and they are
1 r e _ 2 M 3 a n ra 4 1 6 6

(*) [ V . on this subject C . BEOCKELMANN, 'Die Femininendung Tim Semitischen' (Breslau 1903).] ( ) Cf. TRUMPP, p. 546, N . 2 : [ V . also BEZOLD, 'Die grosse Darius2

inschrifV, p. 2 5 sqq.; BABTH, Z D M G , X L V I , p. 6 8 5 sqq., and L I X , p. 161 sq.;

FISCHEE, ibid. p. 443 sqq]

6

( ) Cf. Dtf.

( ) Cf. \jt>, H.

( ) [Cf., however, PRAETORIUS, Z D M G , L V I I , p. 272]".

( ) These

two are also extensively used in Sanskrit.

62.

117

still frequently employed in the Ethiopic language. The first branch, and first of all in the form >, is employed in Semitic generally, and accordingly in Ethiopic too, mainly to form delicate circumstantial particles which express relations either sensible or intellectualQ)i From it proceed on the one hand the words for "behold!"( ) VU*, VP, V^, ( ) for "come now!"( ) HJ, and on the other hand a few enclitic particles, which closely resemble in form and meaning those which come from the root 0, namely y as an interrogative, % "away to" (160), * "away to" ( 160), and \ "also" ("again"). I n the form ft*>, modified into V J , this branch serves partly to form Personal pronouns, i n the Feminines of Demonstrative and Relative pronouns, V J ^ Y l - , and "that" (f.), "who" (f.) ( 64), and as the first element in the Pronouns of the 1 and 2 Persons ( 65), and partly to form various particles, like "there!" "see!" (in KiYi^, ht$6, Mi* "with repect to"; VJH "while", "since". As a Demonstrative it seems originally to refer, in opposition to ta and ha, to the more distant object, and thus to signify "that"; and, seeing that it points away from what is at hand and existing, words which express negation (*) could at the same time be derived from it. Like the Hebrew pg, pNt in fine, the Ethiopic h"| "not", in compounds like h!JH% "perhaps" ( 163) and V>*flf " I may not", is also traceable to this root; and the usual Ethiopic word for "not", A. {cf. Assyr. ai) has been shortened out of a form like The second branch also, la, al(*), had originally the faculty of pointing to the more remote object, although it has not preserved this more definite meaning in all its formations. I n Ethiopio A still occurs with a personal meaning, particularly in the reduplicated form AA 'he, he", "even he", "he himself, "self", 150f); and ft A in the same way is found in the compoundftAYt*?tiAt^* "those"; while al and la together, compounded into alia,.appear in
3 1 6 a i l d 3 s t nd

C) Cf. TRUMPP, 'Sitzber. d. philos.-philol. CI. d. bayer. Akad. zu Mnchen vom 5. Mai, 1877', Part 2, p. 117 sqq. ( ) W , j n jj.
; 2

) M ; * i ; ^ .

( ) Like -if "not", ^SRT "other".'

( ) Cf. TRUMPP, p. 55, N. 2 (contrary to PRAETORIUS, ZDMG X X V I I , p. 639).

118

63,

the plural stem,running through all Semitic tongues,of the Demonstrative Pronoun ft/K ftA "these", as well as of the Relative Pronoun ftA "who, which". And just as from the branch an, so too from the branch la, al, negatives are derived, especially ft A C ) "not", in ftAO "there is not", and A( ) "not", in ftA "but"( ). (d) As the original meaning of the roots formed with I and n has gradually become weak, the new Demonstrative root h has been fashioned, to indicate that which is more remote. I n the form ha it is contained in the adverbs h * h "away yonder", llrfijfl "yonder". To form Personal Demonstratives i t is appended, under the form ft-, to other Demonstrative roots, in order to bestow upon them the faculty of pointing to that which is more remote: U Y i - "that" (m.), M^Xl* "that" {f.), ftAVb "those". This Demonstrative root can hardly be regarded as one which has sprung from the Interrogative Relative root ( 63) , but it seems (*), like the h of the 2 pers. ( 65), to have come from original ta, twa. For a last Demonstrative v. finally 65, treating of the Personal Pronouns, interroga 63. (2) Interrogatives may of course spring from Demon" strative roots like U and V", through the influence of the tone ( 62). But as the influence of the tone does not suffice for the formation of all Interrogatives, languages have produced special Interrogative Roots. (a) I n Semitic, and accordingly in Ethiopic, the most usual Interrogative root is ma (probably hardened out of wa) ( ). I n this short form it is still retained (though no longer invariably interrogative in signification, but brought down sometimes to the level of indefiniteness and relativity), in the attached particle ao ( 162), as second member of compounds, in %ao "iitrum?" (and Oi %ao "an?"), Yiao "nearly"( ), h<w "as"( ), and as first member in ^ f t f t "when?"( ). I n order to turn ma into a Personal Interrogative, it was compounded with the Demonstrative stem na: ao^* "what (is)
1 2 3 n d tlves 5 a 6 7 8

Ote.
3

( )'^M.

( ) [cy. however, 168,6, Note].

( ) Gf. i J t S , i ) ! S ; ^ , n ^ ( ) As the remains of original kwa quis? (v. EWALD, Hebr 104). () n 3 . O 1?; U () ; ^ ; wJboof.
5 l t

Spr.\

64

119

he?", "who?"(*), whence also the neuter "what?", A neuter and adverbial form **% "what?" "how!" appears to be a: corruption of a form like Lo, no, no,no longer retained in Ethiopic. A few other particles also, of a relative meaning, have been derived from this ap (v. 64). (b) The second of the most usual Interrogative roots isftjR.( ),
a

probably a weakened form of original kai (oUT). I t is used in Ethiopic, just as in Arabic, as an interrogative adjective, in the sense nolo;, qualis, "of what sort?". Either in the short form e or in the complete form ai, it is prefixed to several Demonstrative particles and even to one Conceptional root, to impart interrogative force to them: ft-fc "where?", fcc "how?"( ), ftft^i: "how much?" "how many?". (c) Both of these Interrogative roots in common use point to an original root kwa, kai. And there actually appear to be some remains of i t , even in Ethiopic, in the interjection h.t$i& "well now!", properly:"see what!", where the k has at the same time passed into the strongest guttural. But in other cases, just as in the other Semitic languages, the Interrogative root, even in this original form, has assumed a Relative meaning throughout. 64. (3) As in other languages, the Relative Pronouns are derived from the Demonstratives and Interrogatives. (a) The ordinary Relative Pronouns are taken from Demonstrative roots, viz. H "who, which" (m.); h.t'fr "who, which" (/.); fiti "who, which" (pi.), as well as the conjunctions H "that", "in order that"; V } H "while" ("seeing that"), and the prepositions hTfi* "with regard to"; flft'J'f" "because o f . Also, under the form A this demonstrative root is employed with a Relative sense in
3

Beiative Pronoun

"when" (with appended fl, while ft perhaps corresponds to f j , t6!) (b) From the Interrogative root ma there came, with the help of a prefixed aspirate (*),the conjunctions "when";ft<w>" i f ( ); and a form shortened from the last, ob, in the apodosis of a Conditional sentence ( 170); and with a prefixed demonstrative A, in accordance with 34, ftfttfD (for fl<m "that which"), "while",
5

(*) Somewhat the same as in Itf K. ( ) DK; on its derivation cf. EWALD, p. 225, Bern, 1.
5

O ]0; ^ ; y U . ( ) nb*.
3

( ) ft}, , T 8 ; JLJ, JLiU;

^f,

J$**.

120

"because", "for". From the Interrogative root Jcwa ( 63, c) an impersonal Relative stem has originated, through simplification into lea, in the sense "that" (properly:"whatf'X ): I t occurs in the compounds ftflil( ) "until", "as far as"; V>h "therefore", Htaque" (properly: "see that", "seeing that", "from that circumstance"). But this stem is mainly employed in processes of Comparison, with the meaning "as", "like"( ), first in \\ao "nearly" ("like what")( ); htn> {Prep, and Conj.) "like", "just as"( ); farther,when compounded with Demonstratives,in ft, "therefore", "now" (probably shortened from )5=)rt3)( ), and in \l "thus" (from Jcahu, "like it"), no longer in use alone, it is true (like rfc, N3; JL&), but probably preserved still in ftfc "in nowise", "not"( ). C( ) seems to have arisen, by sound-transition, out of Jl in the interrogative ft "how?". The same Jed, subdued into leu, seems to me to be involved also inftftlb ( 62) which is made use of in appeals (for J|to, 34) "ro/W', "quaeso", "pray do!" (properly:"since indeed"). The letter k might, however, be farther softened into g, and thus we can explain"hTrp"well now!" as being another form of ft"}h (properly:"see what!"),perhaps also T.H, "moment", "hour", "time", if this is at all of pronominal origin (for Yl + ftH), and perhaps the quite obscure "perhaps", "that . . . not", "lest". For the remains of another Relative ia, v. 65. personal 65. (4) The purely Personal Pronouns of the three Persons, pronouns. ^ Thou, He"are, asj the strongest Pronouns in the Ethiopic tongue, thoroughly compounded. The special root for the Third Person is of a purely vowel-character, viz. u or i, but not a. Although, at one time, even a possessed demonstrative force, as is still clearly shown in Sanskrit, i t yet looked to that which was more remote, while on the other hand u or i looked to that which was nearer and more intimate ( ). I n Ethiopic at least, u or i was employed whenever a demonstrative root had to be developed into a form with a personal reference (cf. *p, *fc, >-). Even to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 M 9

0)
3

Cf. Hebr.

EWALD, p. 230.
4

()

ftf|

Tg, by 30.

( ) V . EWALD, 105, b. ( ) l^T; ^ 5 .

5 6

( ) Cf. &y_D3. ( ) Cf. also u ^ .

i s

; O So that ft, perhaps shortened from ft*> ( 62) or ftv> of negative force of and by itself.
( ) EWALD, p,232.
8

possessed

Cf. TBTXMPP, p. 559, N.'l.

() EWALD, 103, a.

65.

121

denote any person other than I or Thou, u or i was at one time quite sufficient; and so, with the help of a final e, the Ethiopic u , i emerged, i. e. (O-ft and J&ft ( 40) ( ). Both of these stems Chft and JRft, however, were judged by the Ethiopians to be too weak, and they were accordingly strengthened by the annexation of the demonstrative root or *fc( ). When farther the distinction between u and i had become established in the language, so that u stood for the Masculine, and i for the Feminine ( ), there emerged the Pronouns O^h'P "he" and J&ftTfc "she"( ). Both are substantives originally, but in the course of time they have come to be employed also as adjectives, like w n & c , and are thereby brought down to the position of mere personal demonstratives. J&ft was even made use of to form an adverb in J&ftH, "at present". The Second Person h'i'i* is compound of the root tu or twa for "thou", and the demonstrative an( ); but in certain types ta, which is a curtailed form of twa, is exchanged for h ( 29), as in all Semitic languages. The First Person is certainly very much curtailed in Ethiopic, and takes the form M; but both the plural *>AV, and the Vh which still appears as the verbal termination for the first pers show that ana has been shortened from anoku or anoki,still preserved in Hebrew, a compound of the demonstrative an and dM V\ Finally from the hu, lea or hi, which appears in the 1 and 2 Persons, and occurs also as a more general Demonstrative in
e e 1 2 3 4 a B v u s t nd

(*) I n the same way as U ze, "this". ( ) This root is the basis of HI!"!; o; ^je; and, in Ethiopic itself, of
2

y, y | f o-,
3

and

If 7.

( ) [Cf. BARTH, ZDMG X L Y I , p. 685 sq.] (*)'Seeing that J5 and fj" are still preserved complete everywhere else in Ethiopic, I cannot accept the explanation that Ohfa and
e e e

J&ft,
e

u and i

are weakened forms of hu and hi , and these again of tu and ti . declension of

That there

were original pronouns w and i is clearly enough discernible still from the and ^HIH and the Latin is, from Zend and Lettish, as , TfJBf avrog, and also from the Relatives

well as from the Gun a forms

and ^ derived from these demonstratives (e. g. in ^R^, l[cf &c). I n Semitic also there is a Relative ia, derived from that *, of which a trace is still preserved in Ethiopic in the Binding-vowel of the Construct State, and in the Adjective-ending i; and it is not clear why this ia must be only, a shortened form of tia,
( ) EWALD, p.
6

234

122

66

accordance with 62, d, an Abstract kiydt came into being, shortened into \\^f " 8elbstheif\ which with the help of appended suffixes serves to express the notion of "self (v. 150) (*), and corresponds to the Arabic l ^ a n d the Hebrew m( ). For another word
2

to signify the notion of "even he", or "he himself" v. 62( ). Conception 66. 3. The third and highest stage of roots is formed by oener^ ^ Conceptional Roots (i. e. Roots conveying an idea, conception Description. notion'Begriff'swurzeln'). They are the designations expressed in sounds of all the simple ideas which have been gathered by the mind of a people from the experience lying within the circle of their contemplation, and which have been developed by their mental activity. They are exceedingly manifold and numerous, but still they are capable of survey, and are not inexhaustible. Inasmuch, however, as no simple idea or notion is ever entertained, in actual thinking or in actual resulting speech, in a pure form, but each in a certain relation of thought,there are no pure Conceptional Roots in actual speech, but only words which have been formed out of these roots. The root, which constitutes the hidden foundation of a numberwhich may be largeof words derived from it, is obtained from the actually existing words, only by the scientific process of Abstraction. The tracing back of words to roots in this way results in the announcement,as the first fundamental law common to the whole family of the Semitic languages,that the majority of the vowels, and particularly all the short vowels, belong invariably to the formation and not to the root, and that the root thus consists of firmer letters only. With this announcement is associated another,as a second law quite as universally binding, that every Conceptional Root comprises at least three firm letters^).
t 8 _ e o r

Cf. TRUMPF, p. 549, N . 1 (contrary to PRAETORIUM, Z D M G

XXVH,

p. 640).
( ) EWALD, 105, sq ; NLDEKE, 'Mand. Gramm?, p. 390, N. 2 ;
1 2

'Syr.

Gramm.' English ed., p. 226, N . 1; LAGARDE, 'Mitteilungen , I , p. 2 2 6 ; HAUPT,

'Beitr. z. Ass.', I , p. 20. ( ) On the Semitic Pronouns in general cf. O. V O G E L , 'Die Bildung des persnlichen Frworts im Semitischen', 1866; CH. ENEBERG, 'De pronominibus Arabicis dissertatio etymologica', Helsingforsiae, I , 1872, I I , 1874; and H . A L M KVIST, 'Den semitiska sprakstammens pronomen', Upsala, 1875. (*) On Biliteral nouns v. D . H. MLLER, 'Actes du VI Cong. d. Orient:,
3 me

1 1 , 1 , p. 4 1 5 sqq.; and on the other side, BARTH, Z D M G X L I , p. GO sqq.

66.

123

No root has fewer letters than three, but a root may have more than three. There are Quadriliteral and Multiliteral Roots, but these are recognised without difficulty as later formations, which have been derived from simpler roots. Even within the sphere of these Multiliterals the law of Triliterality has had the effect of reducing many of them again to the form of Triliterals. And it may be remarked generally, that it is in the oldest Semitic languages that the law of Triliterality has exercised the most absolute sway, while in those languages in which the root-forming tendency continued in activity for a longer time,and Ethiopic is one of them,roots were more and more elaborated into Quadriliterals, whereas roots with more than four letters are not at all common. Accordingly even in Ethiopic the root usually consists of three constant letters (Radicals). Consonants or long vowels rank as firm or constant letters, but, for a special reason to be explained farther on ( 67 sq.), the vowels i and u are the only ones which occur as Radicals. The majority of roots are purely consonantal. Those roots only, which have a vowel as their second letter, like mitt, are capable of easy pronunciation. Scarcely any of the rest could be pronounced, for want of the necessary vowels. The usual practice therefore is to exhibit the root under the guise of one of the simplest existing word-forms possessed by the language, viz.the 3 pers. sing. masc. Perf. of the simple stem; and we shall adopt this practice throughout, writing nagara, for instance, instead of ngr, and so on( ).
rd x

Now according as a root consists of three (or more) Consonants, or on the other hand has in any position a long vowel instead of a consonant, there arise different kinds of roots; and inasmuch as the general rules for the formation of words from the root undergo special limitations and alterations according to the special kind of the root, the different possible kinds of roots must now be settled and described. The kind and order of the consonants, of which roots are composed, are in general completely free and unrestrained; for, as Semitic languages are generally rich in vowels, and the majority of words have at least two vowels, there may be found
( ) LUDOLF has frequently exhibited roots mediae vocalis in the guise of the Infinitive, like <H*f*|"; but there is no satisfactory reason for adopting that method in Ethiopic. I n this case also we shall write ^ * | v
L

124

66.:

in a root, without detriment to the forms derivable from it, consonants standing together, which could not be pronounced together as one phonetic group without great difficulty. But yet even here the formative history of roots to some extent, and to some extent regard to convenience of pronunciation and to euphony, have imposed certain limitations upon the general freedom. We are speaking here only of roots made up of three radicals, as Multiliterals follow special rules of their own. The appearance of one and the same consonant twice in the root is allowable, and even common, in the position of second and third radicals. Cases in which the first and second radicals are identical, are, it is true, of more frequent occurrence in Ethiopic than in other Semitic tongues, but all such roots are secondary formations and are recognisable as forms shortened from quadriliterals, v. 71. Roots too, which have the first and third radicals alike, e, g. (D(D, are few in number, and have received this appearance only by a process of transformation from other roots, as in }Hh> and VmV, from natala; (tfWk, from sakata; fMi'f", from tuh\ AO A, from "al; "IA7> from gal, &c.; and, in particular, those roots med. voc. which have also the same consonant in the first and third places^), are mostly replaced in Ethiopic by other roots, and are now represented only by a few Nominal stems, like fifa and Farther there is no admission within the root for two different Aspirates (with the exception of the softest one, ft, which is allowed to accompany other aspirates within roots, and may even stand immediately before or after rh or though not immediately before or after any other, e. g. W^rK, r h / f t , ftjP"*, ftJHft, ft-U, Mil &c), nor readily for two different Palatal-Gutturals (still we have T^/h'fe and^7A^)r Labial Mutes, or Dental-Lingual Mutes ( ). Different Sibilants, however, are admitted in the same root, and even side by side (e. g. i0, AH<, AH?, Also A, WV, flih, Rh, hR, hm*
M 2

?M( ) are considered difficult of pronunciation, and therefore are for the most part avoided as combinations. Alongside of 4 * ? 0i
s

(*). A still more common occurrence in other Semitic languages, EWALD118, a. ( ) I n *V^*P, & is no more than a softer form offll5 Rt't't' formation from
3 2 i s a

-f-^*'. seems to be foreign (8

; on ftfl-f*^ v. 73.

( ) On this depend e. g,

0*>a\*, Am4*, iH $0, rtl+fl

$67.

125

placed in preference to t% (04*0, and 0fe), and ft in preference to A or i ^C). i* or ni is in rare cases met with before A (e. -f*A0 and mAf ) Many of the transpositions of letters described above ( 2432) may be traced back to these and similar rules. 67. 1. Tri-radical Soots which are composed of three Trf.rcuo Consonants, are those which best answer to the Semitic root-forming ^ ~ tendency. Many of them may have existed in their tri-consonantal form in primeval times, even before the days when the Semitic Linguistic family separated itself from a primeval language; but the most of them have assuredly arisen, by a re-casting process, out of longer or shorter original-roots, and by the hardening of such radical elements as originally had a vowel-character. Along- weak side of these, however, appear a large number of other roots, which ' have not yet attained this perfect root-form, or have degenerated from a perfect condition to a less perfect one: These constitute the Imperfect and Weak Roots. (a) A whole series exists of roots possessing only two Oon- Boots sonants, which are to be conceived as originally associated about, a short vowel, (say a, the one which comes readiest to hand), like nab. I n order to bring these roots up to the proportion set by the fundamental Semitic law ( 66), the language has either repeated both of them, and thus elaborated them into Quadriliterals, like gdsgasa (ef. 71), or it has only doubled the second letter* and developed them into Triliterals, like nababa. W i t h EWALD we then call them Double-lettered Roots (more exactly: Roots} with the second letter doubled), Lat. radices mediae geminafae( ). Many of these roots are common to Ethiopic and the other Semitic languages. Others of them are peculiar to it,the short original roots on which they are founded having been developed into Triliterals by the other languages in a different way, e. g. 7W>
: g E o o t s 3B tB me 2

^JJO,

^Jbo,

gjo.

A few of these roots in Ethiopic are ghlli

only recent formations, of a denominative character, like

O Hence fe,0^, fl^ft 0#|?, t5>|33), though, to be sure, we have 4 > < * > * < . < ( ) According to A. MULLKR, ZDMG X X X H I , p. 698 sqq. (cf. NOLDEKE, ibid. X L V I , p. 776) both these roots and roots mediae w had originally two radicals, and in the course of their inflection the Consonant became strengthened in the case of the former .class, and,the Vowel in the case of the latter.
2

126

67-

These roots maintain their amplified triliteral form throughout the whole formation, and they follow absolutely the course taken by forms from strong roots, and at no point abandon the double letter, although, according to 56, there may be cases in which the doubling is inaudible in pronunciation. Only, one trace of their origin is still shown in the fact that, when the first of the repeated letters is separated from the second merely by a fugitive e, the e is readily given up by these roots, and the letters approach each other, without however ceasing on that account to be uttered as a doubled sound,as has been described in detail in 55. I n some rare cases the doubling is transferred from the second radical to the first, or it disappears entirely (v. 56). (b) We come upon a second kind of Imperfect roots in Moots med. mf. ^ Vowel-centre C), (or Vow'el-centred Boots), i. e. such as have for their second radical a long vowel,more precisely a u or an i (radices mediae infirmae). Long a does not occur as a second radical; for although originally there were roots with middle a, they were bound, in the process of word-formation, to call in the help of some firmer letter, in fact an Aspirate, and they appear to have passed chiefly into roots with a middle Aspirate or with a middle i or u. On the other hand, roots with % or u as second radical abound. I t is true that they also, like roots which have the second letter doubled, may be developed into the form of strong roots, by hardening their middle vowel into a Semivowel, but yet this is not always done, where it might have been expected in obedience to other formative and phonetic rules: fidelity to their origin is shown by their preservation of the vowel-pronunciation of the middle letter, wherever that is possible, as has been already described in 50. Of these roots there are nearly as many with middle l as with middle it. Each of these vowels is tenaciously retained throughout the whole formation, in the root in which i t has once been established; and almost no instance can be observed of the u passing into I, or the % into u. Farther, it is but seldom that both forms, with * and with u, have been brought into being to express the same meaning or a similar one (like rhtVR and rhPX, C?R and f0, and 7f): frequently an entirely
Boots
w a

( ) V . on the other hand KSNIG, p. 108.

127

different meaning is attached to the form with u, from that which belongs to the ?-form (e. g. and Wn, V i V and VtV). Hoots med. voc. are closely allied in origin with roots med. gem., as is shown in particular by comparing the two kinds of roots in the various Semitic languages. I t often happens that what one language has developed into a root med. voc. appears in another as a root med. gem., and vice versa; cf. e.g. Vl,&= OSl J V # h = B u t within Ethiopic itself the two kinds are kept strictly separate from one another: they do not pass over to one another in the process of formation, as they do for instance in Hebrew. I t is farther a comparatively rare thing, to find both kinds of roots formed to express the same idea or a similar idea, as in Uhh and y h 68. (c) The third kind of weak roots may be called Vowel- voweisided roots, being such as have a vowel for their first or third ^*" , radical (radices primae fl) et ?, and radices tertiae infirmae). They fall naturally into two subordinate classes:
d g

(a) Boots beginning with a Vowel. There are no roots with a Vowelfor their first sound. Seeing that no word can begin with a vowel, B o, such roots would have to introduce the a by means of a Breathing ( 34); and we may conceive that (as in the similar case, 67, b) many roots, originally beginning with a, were consolidated into roots having an Aspirate for the first radical. Roots, on the other hand, which begin with i or u (although they too are bound, whenever a word, formed from them starts clear with the first raradical,to harden that radical into the corresponding semivowel) reproduce the vowel readily as first radical when a prefix is applied, and thereby prove their origin (v. 49). According to the analogy of roots med. inf. and tert. inf., it might have been expected that about as many roots would begin with u as with i, but the fact is otherwise. I f Northern-Semitic transformed almost all roots which begin with u into such as begin with i, Ethiopic, on the contrary,in this, resembling Arabic,has preserved the original i in a very few roots only, and then for quite special reasons. The root f "to know" retains i to distinguish it from fflJth, which is wholly different in meaning; in f-flfl, f f l f l , f f l M l the transition from i to u was prevented by the phonetic character of the second radical (a Labial); while f-JT* and f T J are very old Semitic words. A l l other roots beginning with i, if such did
0

nln&

128

68.

exist at first, have been replaced, partly by roots beginning with u, partly by vowel-centred and vowel-ending roots, and partly by still others. On the other hand, roots beginning with u have been formed in great abundance. The two classes of roots, moreover, have been kept separate throughout the entire formative process, without at any time passing into one another. But sometimes, though rarely, an exchange takes place between roots with initial u and those which have a middle u: thus we say JF*/.^ "spittle", probably formed from not from the ordinary fD*bC) ( H6); and (DUft has in the Imperfect J2.tf*fl ( 93): Conversely there appears OT^fih. "entrance", from OMlft instead of ( i f t , 115. Comparison, however, with the other Semitic languages shows that they often have roots med: inf., tert. inf. or med. gem., corresponding to Ethiopic roots beginning with u, or else that these languages have still stronger letters in place of u, like n and b, e. g. (DAlTI, <Jjo; l 4P, JLaJ? Lsau, Vp ] tDlO, Others appear to be
s

vowei-

loote

recent formations of a denominative character, like (DtlX, from *)2; and <D<<J, from "is. (/?) Boots ending in a Vowel. Those roots, which originally perhaps had a for last radical, have in most cases hardened it into an Aspirate. Roots, on the other hand, which end originally in i and u, although they have a very decided leaning to the stronger form of expression, i. e. to the hardening of their vowel into a semivowel,a much more decided leaning to it, in fact, than have the corresponding roots in the kindred tongues, permit often enough the vowel-form to re-appear in suitable cases; for details on this point v. 51. Roots which end in i are, however, more common than those in u. With some few exceptions in Nominal formation, these roots remain strictly separate from one another. I t is but seldom that radical forms of both kinds are evolved in the language, to express the same meaning, like AP and ft(D, ll(D and Hp. I n other cases, when both forms were developed out of an original root, the significations were more or less strongly differentiated, e. g. ft"l<D "to be gracious", and ftlf "to bloom"; ftA< "to listen", and ftAp "to pray" (properly: "to incline" the ear, body or knee); HiAfl) "to watch", and rhAP "to think" (cf. Jty. Of all the kinds of weak roots this is the one in greatest favour
( ) [ V . , however, DILLMANN, Lex.\ col. 898].
J l

129

in Ethiopic. I t appears very frequently for the Vowel-centred and Double-lettered (med. infir. & med. gem.) roots of the other tongues. I n some rare instances i t is interchangeable, in Ethiopic itself, with roots med. gem., as in h and ft*Jf with somewhat different meanings. Certainly the predominant sense borne by the whole of this class of roots is a transitive one; and accordingly, when new roots are to be derived from short nominal stems, the class is of use to express the doing, exercising, owning, &c. of that which is signified by the Noun, e. g. AfltV, from vfl; "IftO) from IX"; mflfl* from T-fl. 69. (d) More than one weak radical may be found in one nouMy and the same root. Such roots are styled Doubly Weak. The ^ g most numerously represented among them in Ethiopic are those which are at once 'Vowel-beginning' and 'Vowel-ending', and have only the central radical a Consonant. Such as begin with u and end with i are of no uncommon occurrence, e. g. (D&P, flW>f. Only one root is known as yet, having u both at the beginning and at the end, viz. and not a single one is known, beginning with i and at the same time ending with i or with u. I n the process of formation each of these two weak letters follows its own peculiar mode. Roots which have both a Vowel-centre and a Vowel-ending are fewer in number. They may have the same sound in the second and third place, just like roots med. gem. (Of?, 0 ? f , 7 ? ? ) , or they may have different sounds there, like rh/^<D on the one hand, and <<DP, . 0 ) ? , flUDf, A<Df on the other; but invariably, in the formative process, the second sounda Vowelmust be hardened into a Semivowel ( 50), while the third is treated as in the vowelending roots. The remaining possible combinations,namely, the case of both first and second radicals being of a vowel-character, as in f OhU, and the case of the first radical being of such vowel-character, while the second and third are identical consonants, as in f f l f l , < , (Dhhpresent no peculiar features to affect the formative process, seeing that they occur only in stems and derivative forms in which a vowel-pronunciation either cannot be developed at all, or only in conformity with rules which hold good even in other cases. There are no other Weak roots. Roots which begin with 1 are all treated throughout as strong roots. And for the rest, it is only the largely employed root -flUA which has anything peculiar
e a 0 t

130

certain opio Boots compared with cdrresponding

about it, its peculiarity being that in one of its forms it gives up the final v, 58. But roots which have an Aspirate in the first, second or third place, pursue a course of their own in the formative process, so far as the rules stated in 4347 are put in force with them. And i f such roots, containing Aspirates, belong at the same time to one or other of the classes of Weak Roots, very peculiar forms of course may sometimes arise, 70. Even these various classes of Weak roots, still existing in the language, furnish manifold information as to the nature of i t root-construction. But besides, roots which have
m o s a n c e i l

'

been fashioned into strong roots in Ethiopic, when compared with ^TotTln^ corresponding roots in the kindred tongues, discover in multifarious kindred ways the manner of their origin. This is best illustrated in the
Languages. ,

case of roots, which contain an Aspirate by 67 sq.:Roots with Aspirates are very often changed in the different Semitic languages into Vowel-beginning, Vowel-centred or Vowel-ending roots, as well as into Double-lettered roots. Thus, for instance, OTh compares with Jo! and Jo^ ; and in Ethiopic itself Vf^Y\ and iDj^ft are connected. Of roots with Middle Aspirate there may, e. g., be compared: *1UA, tap, ^ 3 ; . U ; 7dH, \U>; ftflt, pra, jLa, iV'fl, y^yi (and vice versa, e. g. flfJV, ( J O J U ) ; 9bC, *f> (j*>*)\ 9bH,
0 {

yo. Ethiopic roots, which have an Aspirate for their final radical, often correspond to Vowel-ending or Vowel-centred roots in the other tongues, such a s t h f h , H^n, hb^i, HSi, L d j ; *feT0, fittpi &*1Q, ^ - U : Eor the converse relation compare e.g. (H*<0; #21, JLs, ( J | J ; l / h f , The process of forming roots by placing ^ before an original root exhibits little vigour in Ethiopic. Nearly all Ethiopic roots, which have initial V, have been formed in the same way in the other tongues^); but many which are formed with n in the kindred tongues exhibit a different form in Ethiopic (cf. e. g. Dpi, JVAJ). Frequently Ethiopic has ao instead of i t , e. g. in aoYlth, ^ (c*"' * W ' HI, I k e I V . Farther 5r, as third radical in proper Ethiopic roots,
a n (
< n , r f l J

O Contrary to PRAETORIUS , 'Beitr. z. Assyr?, I . p. 36 sq., who would compare Ethiopic Boots beginning with fl), with Roots primae Nun of the kindred tongues

(WKih=M]

hO>V*7t===lio!, Kfett; !D =^..ft3).

71.

131

appears to have been lately added, e. g. w>ml, TWO, doe; 0fefr, ^ L o , p , (not (J^SXJWU, "11D). Several Triliteral roots are, properly, shortened Causative stems from Weak roots, formed by prefixing ft, which may then be hardened into 0 under the influence of the succeeding radical, e.g. ftnvf, from ^ L o ; fth1*, wi"(m the sense:"to crook", "to bend"); ftHfl, Mt, of, ^ | y ; 04><ID, Dip, U ; 0fe<:, V , Y I I ; 0 , nsnn, L ^ ; or by prefixing ft ( 73):AH^, from fry; flm, HJ^lB; At<V, or by appending t", as is done still more frequently in Quadriliteral roots ( 73): ftflf- and ftflf (Hen. 89,6) "to swim"; ftth'fr "to have plenary power", from flflWh; 0 1 i " , U, d U ; hiP-f* "to disclose", from
r

HD3 "to cover". On Triliteral roots which are shortened out of

T T

Multiliterals, v. infra, p. 132 sq. 8 71. 2. Along with the Triliterals a large number of Multii

Muitoiterai Boots:

literal Roots have been formed, which, viewed in the light of (a) origin*. historical grammar, are to be estimated very differently. According r pg^ to their origin we distinguish three leading classes. (a) Many Multiliteral roots originate in repetition of individual Bads., or of radicals, or of the whole root according to a formative expedient ^J common to the Semitic tongues, which still displays marked activity throughout the whole process of Word-formation ( 74 sqq.). Accordingly the discussion of all the roots belonging to this class might be deferred, till we come to deal with Stem-formation; and of the forms which have arisen through stronger repetition of the radicals, those at least whose simpler root-form is still retained in the languagehad best be relegated to that stage of our subject. But the greater number of these stronger formations appear no longer in their simpler aspect, but are only found in this lengthened form; and on the other hand the ordinary Tri-radical roots do not admit at all of stem-formations effected by such stronger repetition of the radicals, or only very seldom indeed (and mostly in Nominal Stems). I t seems advisable therefore to follow the example of the Arab Grammarians and join such lengthened forms to the Multiliteral Roots. (a) A large number of those formations arose out of Biliteral roots as yet undeveloped, or out of weak Triliterals, by repetition of the whole root or of its two chief letters. By this device the inner movement or repetition of the conception itself was expressed
e on o f Jndi 010

9*

132

in a highly picturesque fashion; and so this root-form appears with special frequency for those notions which involve 'movement, mingling, custom, repetition, separation, gradual formation, or steadfast continuance, doubleness, multiplicity, or superfluity of parts or of acts'. Accordingly it is used in conveying the ideas of 'tottering and wavering, trembling and rolling, going backwards and forwards' A/hArh 4A4A, VVJrh, n i * h , - f - W , roAoiA, OtOY Aft'Aft T CW, 'feA'feA, AaW .0)); of the trembling, glittering movement of light' (AO>"A<D, flAflA, 1(0"% Hen. 108,13,14); of the 'murmuring sound caused by repeated notes' (flrh*flrh, " f c C I " ^ cf. also (iTr&p, 58); of 'dropping, welling forth, gushing, sprinkling' (VhW., rilArtlA A A , AAA0, V / * * ^ ) ; of'knocking, whipping, striking' (7*>&, flWImfl, 917ft A); of 'stroking, shaving' (aofl ffoH,ltl*lfl); of'severing, emptying, crushing, dispersing' (AAP, flCfU, HCHi); of growth', of superfluity', of 'nourishing', andvice versa,of 'wasting away', of 'putrefying' (hrhao, H l T r t , Aj&Af, ' f e W , i T W l ; of 'checking, holding back' (?VlO, i l A h A alongside of h A f t , of'making ready' ("IftTft): also for'conditions and habits of soul and body' (like "to sin", /,.\)CO "to be tender, soft"). Besides those which are enumerated here, there is a farther series of doubled roots retained only in Nominal stems, which are dealt with in 112. Similar doubled roots in Arabic also correspond to a very considerable number of these roots. I n the rest of the Semitic languages there are weak roots which answer to others of them, e. g. <n>Htn>n, and JLo; &VCO, "ft; WPWC1; ft<PR, *l; my, &c Meanwhile many an original doubled root in Ethiopic has been restored to the standard of triliterality by shortening; and thus have arisen several triliteral roots, formed in quite a peculiar way. I n particular, by assimilating the second radical of a doubled root to the third a number of Tri-radical roots have been produced, of which the first and second letters are identical: the second, however, is invariably doubled, so that these roots in outward appearance resemble an Intensive stem. These are: I P / * * 0 (from wp/0, HB* and "to be insatiable"; AAA Jfp "to withdraw"; J|p "to be avaricious" (side-form of 4J&iP); oofO "to be timid"; "accidit" (from "to fall"); (DW-0 "to

 raise a shout" (^y j*J)>

133 "

t o D e i n a n x i e

t y " ; "KF-ft "to

hasten", "to be eager" L ^ ) - On the same process of Rootformation depend also Nominal stems, like hofrf"/h, Art'}, &ftjf| and others. More rarely, original doubled roots were shortened into Triliterals by transposing and contracting individual letters (as in AO A = AA0 A = 0 A O A, l A l = 1 A A l = 1A*lA), or by discarding the last letter (as in h A h = i l A l l A ; Afl*"A = p p ) . (j3) Many Multiliteral Roots have been developed from Triradical roots already fully formed; by repetition of the last radical or of the last two radicals. Both modes of formation are employed also in the derivation of Intensive stems from still existing Triliterals (cf. infra, 77). I n this place we have to discuss those roots only, which do not occur in any other form than as Multiliterals. By reduplication of the last two letters, there have been formed A*lf A4' "to be shaken" (probably denominative); ftff&A&A "to gleam"; and 0D*pfD "to utter lamentations", an abbreviated form of 0<D,JK.fDf ( ^ ^ c ) ( ) . More numerous than these Quinqueliterals are those Quadriliteral roots, which have been formed from Triliterals by repeating the last radical; and, just like the stronger reduplication of the entire root, this weaker repetition of merely the last radical is employed chiefly to express those ideas which involve the gradual progressiveness or the duration, continuation or constancy of the individual acts, or the vehemence and thoroughness of the action, or ideas w hich convey some inherent disposition. To this class belong tlftf-AA "to become giddy" (ton); flVflAA "to roll up" (bota); AtfWlUn "to fall into perplexity or terror" (icLu,
, 1 T

cf. w m f ) ;

"to be terrified" ( t e o r ^ s o ) ; diiW

"to be

in anxiety" (pin, pi); AAflll "to be mouldy" ( ^ ^ A , APfl); &CHH "to burst" (of a bud); "to heal"' (of a wound, properly "to break up" fllfl^AA "to be flabby", "to hang loose"; HOAA "to play tricks"; ,h-flM "to bedaub one's self"; "70AA "to deal mildly, or graciously with any one" (jLg^o); flUW "to withdraw", "to escape"; 9 A A "to abolish", "to destroy"
O But this root in the end goes back to fflJE. "woe!" ( 61); and 0, from ft, is Causative: [indeed 67 b 23; 131 a 16 s?.]

ftfD-f(D still occurs:Kebra Nag. 54 a 18;

134

72.

(Jlwo5); 9Cf^ff: "obstinate", from the and, besides, the roots of various Nominal stems, v. 112. Specially remarkable are the roots A'fAA "to whisper softly" (ArhA, and h7AA "to be somewhat serious" (from^^S"), because they have continued to keep the long vowel of the noun, from which they sprung. M. B.: w 72. (&) "While, however, the whole of this first class of tofctOT- Multiliteral Roots is due to an original and general formative tenKr ^LettL - y Semitic languages, and while the only thing peculiar in after i Bad. this matter to Ethiopic perhaps consists in its scarcely ever retaining, or its never having developed, the triliteral forms alongside of such longer forms,the occurrence or the predominance of the second class is, on the other hand, a mark of decline in the formative powers of the language. I n this second class we rank those Multiliteral Roots, which have arisen from the interpolation of one of the firmer letters after the first radical. The interpolation of the mixed vowel e or b is less remarkable, as it may be considered a variety of the formation of the third Verbal Stem ( 78). I t occurs very seldom indeed in Ethiopic ( ). Farther it very seldom happens that an Aspirate is inserted after the first radical, as it
118 enc m
st

is in ( K ) ? h v f "to overlook", "to forget" (nefa, ^*yi). A Liquid is very frequently interpolated, partly to give the root greater fulness of sound ( 58), partly to make up for that doubling of the second radical which is called for by the formation ( 56, in fin.). So far, the most of these forms might be dealt with at a later stage, in discussing word-formation; but, to facilitate a general survey, it seems better to set them together here. Generally it is the Nasalwhich amplifies a Triliteral root into a Quadriliteral. This "> occurs most frequently before Labials ( ): AT 'fl'lh
2

IT-Wtt, 11B|?; O I I M "lion" from ^); 7*>4-A "brick" ( W ^ J ; A T U A , n ^ ; .VlflA "camel's saddle"; Atf-flC* "navel"; ^filC-fld. "scab" ( 57); h">flA "crisping-pin" (JuT); M&C "lip"; VJnH "berry"; rfi^m "to scratch"; TlftA "to turn upside down"; often too before Palatal-Guttural Mutes: thTrlH "eye-brows"; Jt ^^^v"virgin"; drfllA "to be lame"; m ^ * *
{J >
x

( ) Oftener in Syriac: HOFFMANN, 'Syr. Gramm?, p. 186.

(*) Cf. KNIG, p. 99.

73.

135

"to be exact"; H*>70 "to talk at random"; "to mock"; *>|tfJ "to be deaf, or hard of hearing" ( s ^ ? ) ; O'ilO "to lie on the side" (whence 96tPd along with 96Pd)' rather less frequently before Aspirates and Sibilants, and before * J and fi\:

Rtthih "whole burnt-offering" ( ^ > , w p ; A7KA, from AKA,

fc*>HK "ringlet" (S^i)-, tropTrfm "soothsayer" {y0n)\ 'a disease'; tf7HH "to revile" (Ja*, Jax>); "to pick out grains"; ^ " l U "gnawing hunger" (3Bg); ^ m f l "to pierce" (3Bp); and probably in ht'tli "to be impatient". This nasal has in one instance passed into ao before mC)'- A9T0 "to put the field in good order"; and in ftrOA'h "scab" (nsnx) i t has slipped in after the Liquid r. R is found instead of n, but only in a few words ( ): ^ C A A "to feel for, to grope" (BteflO); *hCfl& "to wallow in the
2

mire" ( dJo^) ; &X&% "to leap" ( g j y , Bft-fc); rhClJt "crocodile". Several of the words and roots enumerated here exhibit also a like form in Syriac or in Arabic ( ). 73. (c) The last class of Multiliteral Boots,an exceed- M. E . (O) ingly numerous one,is derived from Triliieral Roots and Words fto^riiiby the external application, before or after them, of formative ^?^ letters, and in fact in manifold fashion. Several have been formed \> External at first merely as derived Verbal Stems from the tri-radical root; ^ ? ^ but in process of time and on various grounds they ceased to be tive Letter, recognised as derivatives and came to be treated in the language as independent roots. A prefix A?more fully /%A> which at one time was employed in the formation of Causative stems ( 79), may still be clearly recognised both in certain triliteral roots ( 70 ad fin.), and in certain multiliterals;partly in Nominal stems, like A 1A "cart" (^/j, b$\V\) [?]; A"Jtt-ft "lungs" (nl); A<A "hammer" (Tig); 0oilh9 'name of a month' ("beginning of winter or, of the year");partly in Verbal Roots, such as AC10> "to adorn" (cf. certain roots in the other Semitic tongues, which begin with ray and raq); AlH'fD "to play the harp", and several others, v> 85 ad fin. I n R9/VT "blear-eyed", and JM14 "to diffuse
3 : ter t8
y

o r

( ) V . also HOFFMANN, 'Syr. Gr.' p. 186. ( ) Cf. EWALD, 'Gr. Ar: 191; HOFFMANN, cited supra.
2

( ) The origin of the roots OtM> obscure or doubtful; yet v. next Note.
3

Otllt,

Ol^t*,

"ft&h

is still

136

light", "to scintillate", the A has even been thickened into the sound of ft ( ). A n original f, serving to form Reflexives, has been softened into , thus becoming unrecognisable, in "locusts"
x

("515); C"l<h and &C"l<h "rag" (J^ooi, & i i j ) ; and C l K "purple" CjteaiN, tfo-^jj) [from Assyr. argamannu\\ and pJl'froo "to become an orphan", "to be bereaved" (Dn\ jv^s). By means of the reflexive prefix ( 87) there have been formed the root f'*)flA "to act as intercessor for any one" (from -flUA), and the word 't'}fl't9 "bridge" ('covering over of the river', dJTD). A series of Multiliteral Boots of another sort came to be formed from triliteral roots, or rather words, by means of an appended e, o, i or u, through which also Tri-radical roots ending in a vowel are derived from Nominal stems ( 68, ad fin.). This formative vowel-suffix, when it was a new-comer, and not a fundamental part of the Nominal stem, must originally have had the power of forming Transitives and Causatives. I t is therefore of service in the derivation of new roots which have the sense of 'doing or exercising' what is expressed in the ground-root or ground-word. This formation has become a very favourite one in Ethiopic (even in a greater degree than in Syriac)( ). To this class belong: r l r f l A f "to acquire by trickery" (/h-flA); HCil? "to calumniate" ( ^ and J . i ) ; CflP "to shoot"; 1C0P "to stab in the throat", "to slaughter"; "to delay" ; ftJPW "to wither", "to dry up"; ftCDf "to become brutalised" (but also h(D); ftUPf, from <wft*^, and ft /hp f "to clear of weeds"; perhaps also AVl't'P and HJ3,p. Still more common are those roots which have been formed with fl):A7ft<D ( A W ; a*M*(D (fl>A^), WCHfO (<DH); 74flJ ( 72); fl/h-MD (flarfc*); 3JhAa> ONhA-*); RArhfl) ( X - A r h . ^ ) ; - W < D C i 4 - ^ ) ; VbVffl ( h / J ) ; tf.VO> (related to $ 0 ; TAO) frni, J L ^ S ) ;ft<w>fl>;nH<D ( j b , ^ b ) ; ^Afl> ("to be devout" t^.a); ftd&fl); ft"7ft<D( ). I n many cases the form aya or awa is
a 2 3

(*) Similarly an ft of the Causative Stem may have been hardened into

(v. 70) in

0'>(1H and 0*>H^,

if these actually belong, as I imagine they

do, to o j j with
2

and I I S ("132); and into *T| in ^ " J ^ f t , if this may be compared The f in -f-ftrh "to mix (fluids)" is probably causative also;
122, o.

v. HOFFMANN, p. 187; EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.\

3

( ) HOFFMANN, p. 1 8 6 ; and EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr? 125, b.

( ) I n the existence of several roots of this kind, PEABTOKITJS, 'Beitr.

137

already suggested by the termination of the fundamental word: cf. e. g. 7-C0P , from TC%\ 3A/V<D, from More rarely an Aspirate (instead of e or 6) serves the same purpose, as in foQIO "to throw stones", from n>C*9; h&ihh, from ftj^h",

mat-frO (tofi, J i b ) .
While we may see, in the series Avhich has just been dealt with, the Ethiopic offshoots of an original Semitic formative-impulse, which once exercised a powerful influence even in the development of triliteral roots,a third series, which is now to be described, depends, on the other hand, upon an after-formation belonging to the later period of the language. I n the course of time it became usual in Ethiopic to derive,from Nominal stems which had been fashioned by formative additions of a consonantal character,new Verbal roots, which continued to retain these formative additions, and which thus had of necessity to be Multiliteral. This recent style of formation is relatively more common in Ethiopic than in Arabic f ) . Such roots are most frequently formed from Nominal stems having ao prefixed, like *wUfl^ "to lie in ruins"; "VO^h "to make booty of". Of some 30 of these forms ( ), the following, which have been fashioned from simpler roots beginning with a
2

vowel, are specially to be remarked: "7rt1r "to decay", from ^ j . * * ! ,

Htyth

"to take prisoner", from

^fy

W ; *fTrh
,

"to veil". More rarely, Consonantal formative suffixes of the Nominal stems are retained; in particular in (^)tfArt]5 from / ^ A ' H ' J (cf. ^kJL*o); and perhaps in "to persecute"; oftener f", as in ihUlA* "to polish"; ("f )<w lhrh'h "to appear as a phantom" (O. Ad.), ft A " M * , <w8T<D+, b A * , and (K)nft "to found" (from avfttl^, from the root so that both an and -f* are formative letters here). And sometimes this "f" appears even to have penetrated, from its position as a final letter, into the original
) , ,;

z. Ass? I , p. 31 sqq.,is disposed to find a proof "that Ethiopic at one time, like Hebrew and Arabic in the case of roots med. gem., knew of the attachment, means of o or au, of inflectional endings which begin with a consonant".
0) EWALD, 'Gr.
2

Ar?

191.

( ) I have not enumerated all these forms in this place, seeing that for the most part they may easily be found in the dictionary under the letter an.

138

9 o^ root itself, as in ghC't'f "to be ill off" (from thd"0, cf. p^aaw); IQ^h "to destroy utterly" (U$0; perhaps also in hfH"^ OThrough the same energy of the later formative processes, verbs were derived from foreign words, liketf"}hrtfrom ixomypg; mlTl from juyjxocvy [== fxayyavov]; Art<. from (j)i\6ao(j)og &c. Besides the various classes of Multiliteral roots which have been described hitherto, there are other individual roots, of obscure or rare formation, e.g. HAlft: for those, in particular, wdiich have been developed into Nominal stems, v. infra, 112. The general result is, that Multiliteral roots are very fully represented indeed in Ethiopic.They may be estimated approximately as amounting to a sixth or a seventh part of the entire number of roots in the language.

JB. F O R M A T I O N O F W O R D S .
Methods

generally in Pronominal

74. With the exception of Interjectional roots and certain roots, which in their first and original form have wordacquired the value of small independent Words, all roots must Division of pass through one or more stages of transformation, before they words into: ^ j ' ^ f t u a l speech. Following the various

r c a n e u g e ( a g v v o r g 0 ac

1. Verbs; 2. Nouns;
r 1 es

determined modes and conditions of thought, under which the mind * of man can regard a conception, the root must also assume various forms, in order to become a suitable expression of the conception so regarded. The more general of these determined modes are the first to receive the stamp of language, and then the process is applied to those which are more special, and so on, until the very finest distinctions, of which a conception is capable, have expression given to them in speech. The formative expedients which are applied in this process in Semitic languages, and accordingly in Ethiopic, are of three sorts. 1. Comparatively small and originally independent particles, mostly of pronominal origin, approach the root or the stem in order to fix and determine the general conception contained in it, by means of their own signification; and
( ) The two following forms are to be regarded as secondary abbreviations from Multiliteral roots:frflv "flame", from j t ? f l A f l A (root an ?, AUfl); and *>YtA "reeling", from M f r A A (root lift).
5 J

74.

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in this proceeding the language displays a sustained endeavour to knit together these external additions as intimately as possible with the root or stem, and cause them to coalesce with it. I n a few cases such additions, originally external, make their way into the interior even of the root or stem. 2. This expedient is confronted by another, which sets itself to develope the root from its own resources, by doubling one or more of its radicals. But this device, which became very important in the formation of roots ( 67, 71), is of comparatively limited application in the formation of words, and extends only to the stem-formation of Verbs and Nouns. And in the farther stages of formation it is not the radicals, but individual formative vowels, which in an analogous fashion are lengthened and broadened, to give expression to a new determination of the fundamental idea. 3. But the expedient most current in Semitic speech, and which is at the same time the most delicate and intellectual, is Vowel-change within the Root. Even the form of Semitic roots ( 66) testifies to the commanding prevalence of this means of formation. A l l vowels, with the exception of those which naturally cling to certain weak roots, are mobile; and,according to their kind, their shortness or their length, their number, position or relation to each other,they serve the purposes of the formative process and determine the meaning.The greater number of actual words, however, have been produced by the co-operation of two or even all the three of the means of formation which have just been described. The most common and obvious distinction, differentiating root-ideas (*), is the contrast between the Verb and the Noun, or between the word which signifies action and the w ord which indicates a name. A l l the words of the language take a position either on the one side or on the other. Roots conveying general notions are for the most part developed into both verbs and nouns, Pronominal roots only into nouns. To nouns, taken in the widest sense, belong also by their origin many Particles and Prepositions, which however, by reason of their frequent use, are here and there much mutilated in form. But just because in Ethiopic the majority of Particles and Prepositions (being those of Pronominal origin)
r

( ) [i. e.,general notions or conceptions presented by those collocations of letters which we call Boots, TK.]

140

have not yet been formed into true Nouns, and exhibit peculiar formations and laws of formation, they must be treated of specially. We accordingly distinguish between 1. Verbs, 2. Nouns, 3. Particles.

FORMATION

OF

VERBS.

The stages of formation, which the Verb must pass through, are three in number; 1. Stem-formation; 2. Tense- and Mood-formation ; 3. Formation of Persons, Genders and Numbers. I . STEM-FORMATION OF VERBS. The Root is fashioned into the Verb by means of one Description ^ ^ . ^ owel-pronunciation, and into the Noun by means of another. stems ^ p l ? tkl is Verb, when pronounced HlA, and a Noun, when pronounced "HflAO- The difference between Verbs and Nouns, which have proceeded directly from the root, accordingly consists at first in the vowel-pronunciation alone. A more exact account cannot be given until we come to describe the individual forms themselves, seeing that the vocalisation is different in different formations; yet it may be observed, in general terms, that the verb has shorter and more mobile vowels than the noun. But just as from one root, not merely a single noun but an abundance of them may issue, so too there issues from the same a series of verbs, each of which impresses upon the fundamental notion a new determination. Following the lead of others we call those verbs which have been derived mediately or immediately from the root, Verbal Stems (or Conjugations). I n Ethiopic there are twelve of these; or, if one or two stems are taken into account which are employed only in the case of quadriliteral roots, there are thirteen or fourteen different stems, which may be formed from one root. Of these verbal stems, all those whose meaning did not render it a priori impossible, appeared, at one time, under the contrast of an Active and a Passive voice by means of internal vowel change; and to this there was added, in the first or simple stem, the distinction of a semi-passive or intransitive voice. But of this passive form, effected by internal vowel change, such as is exhibited in Hebrew, and in the most consistent fashion in Arabic, Ethiopic preserves no more
General

75.

o r

e x a m

(*) On the question of priority relative to Noun and Verb, v. A . MULLER

Z D M G X L V , p. 237 sq.

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than a few traces (in the Participle); and it is only the semi-passive form in the first stem (and partly in the reflexive of the simple stem) that is still regularly distinguished in Ethiopic. The proper Passive form, however, is made up for by another device, the reflexive form, just as in Aramaic. On this ground we shall deal with the subject of the distinction between Active and Passive, in connection with the account to be given of Stem-formation. The Stem-formation itself assumes different fashions in Triliteral and Multiliteral roots, which must be dealt with separately.
1. STEM-FORMATION O F T R I - R A D I C A L ROOTS.

8 76. Scheme of Stems and their Relations:

S

scheme IV.
f l m o

I.

II.

III.

of Stems.

Causative-ReflexGround-Stems. C a u s a t i v e St. R e f l e x i v e St. Bt 1V6 ij 16III 8.

1 Smrple St

1. MM

l-fauM
1

2. Intensive St. fcm> 2. fcR<w> 2. ^ f \ a o 2. ftft-fttf A 3. Influencing St. f\dU 3. M + A 3. - M i A 3. JfcA-HlAAC ). In conformity with this Scheme we shall continue to denote the several Stems by 1,1; I I , 1; I I , 2, &c. I . Ground-Stems. 1. I n the first or Simple Stem, which proceeds directly from the root, the Verb is distinguished from the Noun of corresponding
(- ) [It is to be observed that PRAETORICS, 'Aethiop. Qramm.\ p. 36 sqq., formulates a Scheme of Verbal Stems, which differs considerably from the one given here. He enumerates 5 original and independent Ground-Stems, instead of DILLMANN'S 3, the 3 and 5 being of a Paial and Paual type respectively, viz.4"f"A ^ 4**1"A* From the first of these two he easily derives the Imperfect form J&4"lhA.? h i h * a^ ^ the Indicative of the Intensive Stem,rejecting as unsatisfactory D.'s account of the origin of this last Imperfect form. Forms, however, presenting the types 4?1*A and # * M _ h i c h P . regards as illustrations or survivals of his 3 and 5 StemsD. considers as belonging properly to his own 3 or Influencing Stem, while in their farther formation they follow the Multiliteral roots (cf. infra, 78). At the same time, PRAETORIUS' analysis of Verbal formation,which is accepted by several scholars,deserves most careful consideration, even if it does not itself claim to be conclusive on every point. I t may be doubted whether all the difficulties of this portion of Ethiopic Grammar are even yet finally settled. Meanwhile, DILLMANN'S Scheme may be safely adopted as the Norm of the Regular Stems, TR.]
r d t h a n < w c s 80 m e a s w rd t h r d 1

i . Ground-

m p l e

142

formation, by the circumstance that the leading vowel comes after the second radical. This vowel is a, when the verb is of active signification. I n later times it took the tone, but hardly at first^). The first letter of the root, properly being without a vowel, when it forms a syllable for itself, calls in the help of the readiest vowel, that is to Say, the vowel a in this case too ( 60), for its own utterance. Farther the last radical letter is always uttered with a in the 3 pers. sing. Perf., just as in Arabic, even with all Roots tertiae infirmae (cf. infra 91). Accordingly this stem in the active form Transitive i given as Y\{* nagdra, "he has spoken". Ethiopic, however, like the ntrlnsHive other Semitic tongues, makes a difference,by means of a different Forms, vocalisation,between the Transitive or Active verb of the first stem, and the Intransitive or Semi-Passive verb, which expresses participation, not in pure doing, but either in suffering or in a mere condition. I n place of the a after the second radical in the Active verb, the Intransitive verb has e( ), as in 7 *fl^ "he was active"; and this vowel finally disappeared altogether, so that it was pronounced gdbra instead of gabera ( 37)( ). Thus the Intransitive pronunciation of the strong verb coincides entirely, in outward form, with the Transitive of Verbs tert. guttur., like hAft? according to 92. This mode of distinguishing Intransitive verbs by means of the pronunciation has remained in full vigour in Ethiopic. A l l verbs which denote properties, bodily or mental states, emotions, confined activities, are pronounced with e, like Crhfl "to be wide"; O-flp "to be great"; &\\tm "to be tired"; ft7fl "to be satisfied"; ft-4 "to be just"; "to be a king", "to rule"; C Ifl"to hunger"; Ch? "to see"; <Up "to drink to satiety"; faa* "to suffer" (= ^\9ao); fh'F'A "to perish". I t is the same too with those verbs which have areflexive meaning, like A'flA "to clothe one's self", and in rare cases even with those which express free activity but
rd s 2 3

(*) Cf. Arabic, Ambaric and Tigrina (SCHREIBER 83). KNIG also correctly observes, p. 161, that the toning of the second syllable was not original. I n later times, to be sure, d at least appears to have received the tone after the second radical; v. LUDOLF, 'Gramm?. 1,7, and TRUMPP, p. 525, who however is himself obliged to allow, that, strictly taken, nabara, gbara, barka, would have to be accentuated, seeing that "the voice lifts up the first syllable with a certain emphasis." ( ) Instead of the and * (, e) of the other languages, by 17, 19.
()
3

Cf. KNIG, p. 81.

 77.

143

associated with effort and toil, like HT'OO "to rein in"; A^h<i "to hew in pieces"; flJ*R "to rake coals of fire together". The greater number of them are not strictly intransitive, but are rather to be compared with the Greek Middle, seeing that they may have Objects. Many of them occur under both forms of expression' like tfoflA and <OT>AA "to be like": *TfCP and ^ilX "to be pleased', and "to elect"; > f and > f f "to flee"; Ahfl and Ahfl "to lie" and "to lie down" ( ). Intransitive verbs of the Simple Stem may even stand directly for the Passive of their Causatives, at least where the operative cause is not given, e. g. <D-A? evsTrpyCxh/ Josh. 6,24; "they were put to death" Josh. 8,25; (in Transitive expression) "to become short", also "to be shortened" Matt. 24,22; l-flft airoKarecsrdvry Matt. 12,13 [and flCU "to become enlightened" 'Kebra Nag. 112 a 21]. 77. 2. The Intensive Stem. A n intensifying of the idea of - . the verb, whether it be in indicating more or less frequent repeti- stem, tion, or to signify force, eagerness or completeness in the action, is expressed by repeating the radicals; and, according as one or another or several of them together are repeated, very different forms will be produced by this mode of formation. But although, according to 71, a very large number of Multiliteral roots have sprung, by means of this formative expedient, from simple original roots now lost to the language, yet in the department of ordinary triliteral roots the majority of the possible repetitions of the root-letters have not been brought into common use. The formation which is relatively of most frequent occurrence is contrived by the repetition of the last two radicals. I t expresses in a very picturesque manner the notion of 'backwards and forwards', 'unremittingly', 'again and again', in (h)C< A< A ( 57) "to feel as a blind man does" (palpavit), from <n>CAA W , 72); ( f t H n v f l m f l "to drip" (from Wnfl), and interchanging with i t , (K)7ft hR& "to* distil"; (h)-}flAflA "to blaze" (from VflA); (Jt)A#4*< "to howl" (tf- Atif); hCAfohth "to utter reproaches" (from Afh); MtlCtid "to revile repeatedly" (from *^A<i); and it serves besides
] 2 T h e w> w, <

0 I t is the same with W&\, 'h'flC i9d,

fl^A,

'tCd.,

i w i * : , oca,

oc&, &sx, 9ai&

rAft,

A Am, A K A ,

144

to express variation in the case of words denoting colour: (h)*WdiJ&A " g " ( f o ^ A ^ A "to become green" (*^SfA), cf. 110. More rarely the repetition of the final radical occurs with a like meaning, as in 71, j3:flC& "to hail" "hail"); " sweeten" (#w>*JC "honey"); ?*flAA "to plaster with stucco" (yvipog); 'JAflfl "to veil" (from lAfl = 7 A < W 'to cover over'). I n the formation all the stems which are mentioned here, just like those enumerated in 71, are treated as Multiliterals. I n place of these more vigorous and violent reduplications, a finer and easier intensifying device has become usual in the language, namely, the doubling (or strengthening) of the second radical, effected too in such a way, that this letter is simply repeated without any intervening vowel (*), as in \%C ndssara "to view, to consider" (cf. infra, 95 sqq., for a more precise statement regarding the vowel-expression in this and the following stems). 1. This Intensive Stem is a favourite mode of conveying those verbal notions that seek to express 'dealings, practices and usages' which consist in a series or group of individual acts, or which by their nature continue for some time,like rhAfD "to watch"; rhAP "to turn over in one's mind", "to meditate"; tt0 "to play" (on a musical instrument); 'YoA'fe "to number"; fD&A and A'fl'h "to praise"; &(D~0 "to call upon"; li*>& "to chastise"; <hAfD "to tell lies"; Hr/ofl) "to commit fornication"; ftflA "to sin"; O0B "to act unjustly";as well as those in which 'force, completeness, rapidity, effort, or promptitude' is made prominent, like A "to exert strength"; (D(D "to throw"; "to hasten"; i*1< "to take quick steps"; t\QC "to feel pain";
t o l e a m r e d t o

( ) Doubling, effected in such a way that the constituents of the doubled letter are separated by a vowel, is found in this case, it is true, in Amharic, but not in Ethiopic; and wherever such stems occur, they are to be regarded as introduced from Amharic, e. g. J&^h"??f f Gen. 3, 24, Note. According to TRUMPP, p. 522, when the second radical is doubled, the second syllable has always the tone, even when it contains e: ^ A f rassdya; A'flrfl sabbeha (but UA ' hallo, because contracted from Oti(D hallawa). On the other hand, in Amharic the first syllable has always the tone- and so the second radical is always doubled in the Perfect, even in Non-Intensive stems: v. Guroi, *Gramm. elem.\ p. 21, and ' Sulla reduplicazione dette consonanti amariche in *Supplemento period.delV Archivio glottol. ItaV I I , 1893, p. lsqq.; [and'Zeitschr. f. Assyr.' V I I I , p. 245 sqq.]
1

77.

145

HlH "to-be much grieved"; IPQ "to split"; *|f "to pound"; "to consider closely"; <.h "to explain" &c. 2. This stem serves directly to express active working and doing, associated with the accessory notion of carefulness and zeal. Accordingly it often comes into touch with the Causative stem, by its being also able to signify the making or doing of something, either in actual production or merely in word or thought, as for instance declaring or regarding a person or thing as being this or that: cf. fh&& "to lead", "to guide"; h "to judge"; d^ao "to complete"; a0 "to teach"; diAA "to renew"; fA "to sanctify" and "to declare holy"; ft<w^ "to show" ("to make high, or clear"); (Dfch "to make an end"; A<Kh "to lend" ("to cause to be taken"); hHH "to command" ("to exercise power"). And since in Ethiopic many notions are regarded as belonging to the category of Action, which we are wont to express in our own languages rather as properties or conditions, there emerges an explanation of the employment of the second stem in cases like I P J P "to be beautiful" ("to acquire form"); j\^ao "to please" ("to content"); rhfllH "to be agreeable to" ("to delight"); UA<D "to be", "to become" ("to acquire being"), and many others. 3. Accordingly this stem is frequently employed in the formation of Denominatives (*), in the signification of 'bringing about' or 'busying one's self with' that which is expressed by the noun, or of 'possessing and using' i t : Aflfl), (VSb) "to possess understanding"; I P ^ O I "to eradicate"; hfDA "to form the rear-guard"; 0<wft "to erect columns"; <TDArh "to salt"; R "to pare the nails"; 0p"p "to fix the eye upon"; *|f^ "to plaster with lime". I n particular, verbs are derived in this way from Numerals: I P A A "to do something for the third time", "to be the third"; *fl0 "to form four"; Qu*t\ "to give the tithe". While, however, in the other Semitic languages, the first stem has, as a rule, continued to be used side by side with the second, Ethiopic, by virtue of the frugality displayed in the housekeeping of its forms ( 4), has mostly given up the first stem, in the case of those verbal notions which it has developed in the second. I n point of fact there are only a very few roots yielding a first and
(*) "Which purpose is also served in some cases by one or two of the stronger Intensive Stems: cf. supra, e. g. 141AA> flG&&

10

146

78.

a second stem which are both in use together, such as <n>AA "to he like", oofa "to compare"; tht-h "to perish", / h > A O "to ruin" (Gen. 35,4; Numb. 21,29); 0A11 "to hire"; 5^0 "to be firm"; 0C4 "to be naked"; {D*l 1 and 2 "to throw" and "to stone". Besides, in most cases, when both stems are fully formed, there is no longer any essential difference in the meaning, as with 0U 1 and 2 "to teach"; \ty<D 1 and 2 "to give forth a sound or cry"; -}AP 1 and 2 "to sing"; 0 A f 1 and 2 "to requite"; A.A and rhfA "to find fault with"; and JV0 "to feel pain" &c. Farther, the roots which have been described in 71, a, of the form IP/**0, are dealt with in their formation as verbs of this second stem, seeing that their second radical has to be given as a double letter. But those roots which have made up for the doubling of the second radical by a J or ( 72) follow the formation of the Multiliteral Verbs. 3. The 78. 3. The Influencing Stem is formed by the interpolation Ttem. f l g tone-bearing ( ) a after the first radical, and it corresponds precisely to the Arabic Stem I I I . I t is no longer very common in Ethiopic, but in a number of Verbs it is replaced by I I I , 3 (v. 82). Besides, the first and second stems of those verbs which have coined this third stem, are either no longer used at all, or only with the same meaning as the third. Meantime, various traces, particularly in isolated Nominal formations ( 111 a.f., and 120), show that the Influencing Stem was once used more extensively; and as it serves at the same time as ground-stem to Stems I I I , 3 and I V , 3, it must doubtless be dealt with in the Grammar as a special Stem. Two kinds of formative principles seem to have co-operated in its production. I n part'the doubling of the second radical was replaced by a semivowel, which coalesced with a foregoing a into o or e: in part an originally exterior causative form, consisting of the prefix f%, was brought within the word, and this \\ became established as a after the first radical. The Influencing Stem is therefore in the last resort to be regarded, both in origin and meaning, as a variety partly of the Intensive Stem and partly
mg a n 2

(*) This form, however, is obsolete, and is always replaced in later times by I I , 1. ( ) According to LUDOLF, Verbs mediae gutturalis form an exception, in which the second syllable has the tone. According to TRTJMPP, p. 522, the tone always rests i&n the second syllable.
2

78.

147

of the Causative (*). I t is formed most regularly iu Arabic, as is well known, and there it is employed as the strongest Active Stem, particularly in cases where the action is to be represented as one which influences another being and challenges him to a counter activity,a meaning which is obvious enough in Ethiopic also, in-1,3 even, but particularly in the derived Stems I I I , 3 and I V , 3: But other verbs of this Stem in Ethiopic do not go beyond the meaning of the Intensive, or the ordinary Causative Stem. Verbal Stems too which have a formative e or o after the first radical are properly to be referred to this Stem( ), thus %<D(D "to take prisoner"; f^m "to emit fragrance"; and JHH (in htl$d "to abhor" and htlPUtt "to make torpid or stiff" 73); but in farther formation these follow the Multiliteral roots. The other stems belonging to this class have all a after the first radical, which in many of them is certainly original, but in others appears to be shaded out of o or e. This a, however, seems to have been pronounced o in an earlier period of the language, just as in Hebrew, for it passes into u ( 18, 20), when the rules of formation require it to be shortened. The verbs of this stem are: ArhlD "to mourn for" (alongside of Arhfl) "to mourn"); flh "to bless" (by means of 'bending the knee'); <Prhf "to visit" ( ^ ) ) \ "to torment"
2 ;

(^BJ&

"to be unhappy"); HA*h "to draw one out", "to rescue";

3

(along with fe0) "to lay a snare", "to surround with snares"; Aft? "to crop", "to shave" ( ); (A'f'A "to make one participate", ^ I O A ) ; fttt "to found"; ( w i t h ^ C L ) "toflay", "tolacerate"; V**.* "to doubt", "to play the hypocrite" (<jib); AhP "to make for the distance", "to wander about" (conn, with A h ^ ) , which is also simplified again into the first stem; 7HM( ) "to console"; "1*70 "to bind fast" (Zech. 14, lBvar.); "to cover" (Gen. 9,23 var.); nmi "to be equal"; /Jf "to come upon"; "to lead away" (Is. 57,13 Cod. Laur.)\ <P^A "to take possession of" (ibid.).
0 4

C) V . EWALD, Sebr.
2

Spr.'

125, a.

( ) Like the Aramaic Pauel and Paid, HOFFMANN, p. 186. P- 141, Note (*). T B . ]
3

[Of. supra

( ) Unless we are to understand here the root jj -yo or (jOjJ and f according to 73.
4

*'

( ) Although this root seems to be closely connected with L*ut, ^awL, and the a might thus be otherwise explained.

10*

148

79.

On the other handftw<D"to endure toil and distress" (derived from2{0? "distress", by 73), and "J ft, "to decay" ( 73) are multiliteral roots. Besides the verbs named, several other roots were at one time used in Ethiopic in the third stem, e. g., *h4*<. 'to embrace"; *JR<{. "to envelop" (cf. the forms in 120); but in the course of time they were allowed to fall back into the first stem, just as some other forms which did not seem absolutely necessary were given up, particularly in later times. 79. I I . Causative Stems, ncausative Erom the three Ground-Stems which have been mentioned, stems: j leaving their other peculiarities untouched, Ethiopic derives three Causative Stems. I t does so by means of one and the same formative device, and in this it develops a certain bent of the language with even more consistency than the other Semitic tongues, including Arabic, which form such a Causative only from the Simple Stem. The device employed consists in prefixing an a to the Ground-Stem, introducing it just as in Arabic and Aramaic by means of the softest breathing ft. The Causative a is no longer attended in Ethiopic with the stronger breathing h, by which it is introduced in Hebrew ( ). But traces are found which prove that in Ethiopic also a stronger prefix was at one time employed to form the Causative, namely " f " ( 73, Note) ( ) and more frequently ft ( 70 a. f. and 73 a. i.), which ft, in its original form ftft, is still quite regularly employed to form the Causative Stems IV ,1, 2,3. I t is possible that ft, originally V, is just a weakened form of this ft or f- ( ). I n signification the Stems formed with ft are always Causative, i. e. they give expression to the 'causing or occasioning' the performance or realisation by some one of the action or dealing expressed in the Ground-Stem. i. causative 1. The first Causative Stem, of the form ft*?fl^( ), belongs to simple the Simple Ground-Stem. I t is true that often enough the Simple stem. Ground-Stem corresponding to I I , 1 does not occur in common use, or else that the second only of these Ground-Stems is still retained
; a n ( 1 2 3 4

( ) V*0*l "to believe" is a foreign w o r d : - ^ l i , ^L, [V9g?j]' ( ) " M I " ! 0 " interpret" is a foreign word from Aramaic (HOFFMANN
x 2
t o

p. 187). [Aramaic borrowed it from Assyrian, and perbaps Assyrian from Sumerian.] ( ) V . on this point EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr? 122 a. Cf. Koma, p. 77 sg. ( ) According to TEUMJPP, p. 522, it is to be accented dgbdra.
3 4

149

along with I I , 1; hut any such lack of the Simple Stem rests merely on the contingencies of speech-usage, and so, even in that case 11,1 is to be considered as derived from 1,1. I f the Simple Stem is a semi-passive verb, the Causative turns it into the corresponding active verb, as in t\9i\K "to bring", from aoftly "to come"; hi^d* "to cause to go", from th "to go";or it signifies the causing of something to exist either in word or thought, e. g. hGhA "to declare and hold as unclean", from ^tf"rt "to be unclean". I f the Simple Stem is a transitive verb, the Causative turns it into a double transitive, as ftA'f'P "to give one something to drink", from rt-jhp "to drink"; ft/**0A "to make one paint something". But not seldom the Causative gives a peculiar and even unexpected turn to the root-idea, e. g. ft*}flft (from iflfl "to speak") "to read" (as it were, 'to make the writing itself speak'); 7t"}<*^ "to sound a wind-instrument" (from ><p*1r ' to blow"); ftC*flrh "to lend money in usury" (from fcf[ih "to make gain"); Mlrh& (from h/h& "to deny") "to represent one as a liar"; ft "J/* ft "to take up", "to waken up", (from 5r/**ft "to take"). I t is only in appearance that verbs belonging to this stem have now and then an intransitive meaning;originally and really there is always a Causative sense lying at the foundation of even such verbs: YxbCd* "to rest", originally "to cause to become drowsy"; hC** "to be silent", properly "to maintain tranquillity"; ft*M "to bow", properly "to cause a bending". When Stem 11,1 occurs along with 1,2, the two certainly have often different meanings, as in <n>AA "to compare", "to make similar", ftjPAA "to declare similar", "to put forth a parable"; hod "to show", fth*w "to discern", "to know" ('to have something high and clear'); "to form a plan", t\9Yl "to counsel": but in other verbs the meanings agree, like rh7A and ftrh"?A "to ruin"; VR and hlfixd "to glance at" (11,1 properly "to cast a glance"); 4"!' and ft*44 "to crush in pieces". More rarely I I , 1 reverts to the meaning of 1,1, e. g. tlRh "to help", ftGJtft "to give help", "to help"; AT""" and hM "to curb", "to tame". A n instance of I I , 1 as Causative to 1,3 is found in ft Arh0> "to cause to mourn", with A/hlD "to mourn for". Examples of I I , 1, in cases where none of the three Ground-Stems remains extant, are afforded by KClfflB "to open"; ftfD-Afl "to marry" (a#j)> fcjE.JtO "to inform" (5>T); hah/}\ "to answer"; "tolove"; hdd&. "to rest". Denominatives also are formed in I I , 1: ft4**RA
! 1 000 000

150

79.

"to put forth leaves", from feffA; htffll "to practise divination" (A7A), M10A "to celebrate a feast" (fl *JA); h9tih "to reverence God", from t\9l\\l, and several others. 2. causative 2. T/ie Causative of the Intensive Stem. This form occurs much intensive less frequently, it is true, than Stem 11,1, but still [though of later stem. f t i o n ] it is sufficiently well represented in the language. Intensive Stems which seem to have an intransitive meaning, become active in the Causative form, e. g. Y\W^Q) "to beautify"; K*TipA "to strengthen"; JiAflfD "to make intelligent", "to instruct". Others which are already transitive, become doubly transitive, but they also adapt themselves to simpler notions, by means of some new turn:Tt\&t\0 "to order the completion of"; ftlfl "to cause one to work at something", "to compel"; fth^ "to cause to judge", "to appoint as judge"; hMlth "to order one to pay any t a x , "to collect taxes"; hrhAP "to suggest". I n rare cases, Stem 11,2 reverts in the end to the meaning of I , 2, as in 7w>i "to pollute" and ft7<wV "to cause to pollute" and "to pollute"; 0 f and ft0p "to make equal"; aofoO and Jt<n>A0 "to set out", "to continue a journey". Stem 11,2 occurs occasionally, no doubt, along with Stem 11,1, and then, as a rule, it bears a different meaning, like ft*7fl "to cause one to carry out", hli\/i "to compel"; t\9h "to counsel", Y\0Xl& "to test": but there are cases in which the two stems occur together, merely in consequence of a certain indecision in the usage of the language. Eoots of the type i*/**0 ( 71, a) form their Causative in Stem 11,2, e. g. K7"7*ft "to urge to haste"; K I P / ^ 0 "to satiate" (G. Ad.,inasmuch as 0 means first "to be insatiable" and then "to eat much", and so on). This Stem also may be denominative, through the intervention of 1,2, e- g- K'fe^fl "to administer the Communion" from ^ C f l T 3. causative 3. The Causative of the Influencing Stem. This Causative is influencing of very rare occurrence, as the Ground-Stem itself is but little stem. J T h few verbs which belong to it, so far as yet known, are: KA4A "to condole with any one" ( ulS "to be afflicted", y^j'^f "to bear with patience"); ft*Phf "to illumine something by its own light"; K ^ l f * ! "to foretell"; and as a denominative, M ' r h f t "to unite one thing to another", "to add (in Arithmetic)". But ft"7A> "to destroy", M<wfl( ) "to cause trouble to one" (by 78),
o r m a v u s e ( # e {J a

(*) According to TRTJMPP, p. 522,to be accented aiannaya. (^ According to TBUMPP, p. 522,to be accented asamawa.

 80.

151

"an idol") in. BOflexive

and ft"]0<D "to worship idols" (derived from a\p^ belong to the Cansatives of Multiliteral roots. 8 80. I I I . Reflexive-Passive Stems.

These Stems form the antithesis to the Causative Stems; passive they convey the action which is expressed in the Ground-Stem, back upon the acting Subject, so that it becomes both Subject and Object at once. But just as in the Indo-European languages the Passive was developed out of the Reflexive, so inEthiopic also (as in Aramaic and to some extent in Hebrew) the Reflexive came in process of time to serve the farther purpose of a Passive; and this use so completely gained the upper hand in the language, that the other Semitic Passive form, effected by means of internal Vowel-change, almost entirely disappeared. One leading cause of this phenomenon certainly lies in the fact that the short u dr o, to which the inner Passive form specially clung, gradually disappeared from the language. I t is only in the Noun (Passive Participle), in which the Passive u or i was lengthened into long u or I,that a remnant of the old Passive formation has been retained. And seeing that in this way the Reflexive served also as a Passive, there was all the more reason in consistency to form such a Reflexive out of all the Ground-Stems. Of the two prefixes, which at one time served to form the Reflexive in Semitic, viz.-in (hin) and it (hit), only the latter has continued in use for triliteral roots, while the former is retained merely in the Stem formation of Multiliteral roots. But farther, the prefix it (originally no doubt a pronominal element of reflexive meaning) has already been smoothed down in Ethiopic to the simpler ^throughout (just as in Stems V and V I in Arabic). .1. The Reflexive-Passive of the Simple Stem. This form, i. R..P. in its twofold utterance, i-ftld and 'f-0<Ml (cf. infra 97), corresponds to the Arabic Stem V I I I and the Aramaic Ethpeel. stem The greater number of these Stems are both reflexive and passive, -9- 't'hJ^V andHlfr ( ) "to cover one's self and "to be covered"; but many occur only in the one signification or the other. I n this matter everything depends upon the usage of the language and upon the fundamental meaning of the Simple Stem. Thus, for instance, -H]UA (from ftVli "to be able") and WM (from ftM
s t e m s : e x

( ) According to TBUMPP, p. 523,to be accented takadna, takaddna.

152

80.

"to be unable") can only have a passive sense, "to be possible" and "to be impossible". But when the reflexive signification has been fully formed, the backward reference is not always so direct and immediate by any means as it is in f'ti'dft "to clothe one's self", "to put on", but the Reflexive Stem may also express the 'doing of something for and to one's self, as in 'f'MlO "to take anything upon one's shoulders" (Judges 16,3); 'f'fDYld* "to see that something be put in one's own hand", i. e. "to take"; "f*<"P "to oppress any one for one's own profit", i. e. "to practise usury". The Reflexive may farther signify the exhibiting one's self in this or that character, e. g. f/hflf "to assume the position of administrator and surety", "to take care of anything"; -fOAfl* "to show one's self to be a transgressor", "to transgress". Often several such meanings unite in the same word, e. g. 'tt\ i d *f"ft?3r "to keep one's self in a believing attitude", i. e. "to trust"; "to entrust (or unbosom) one's self to any one", i. e. "to confess"; finally, "to become a believer"; or *fflJCrt "to take anything to one's self by way of inheritance", but also "to be inherited". Several of these Stems approximate to the Simple Stem in signification, particularly when the latter has an intransitive meaning, e. g. 1<w>Ah "to fill itself", "to become full" = <*Afc; 't^S^m "to turn one's self back" ("to return") = %ai; "ltl\V> and 'frlftiU* "to withdraw". But in many cases the Simple Stem no longer survives by the side of the Reflexive Stem, and the latter serves, like a Deponent, for the first, particularly with words which express emotion, e. g. i*9d0 "to be angry"; >f rh/* P "to exult". Even from the examples already adduced it is apparent that many Reflexive conceptions may become transitive by means of a new turn; so too, for instance, i*04*fl "to be on one's guard", but also "to observe"; 4 4'}p "to subject one's self", i. e. "to serve"; 4*AMl "to submit to be sent", i. e. "to perform services for one", "to serve".
0 ttD a n , , ,

Since the Reflexive fills also the place of the Passive, Stemlll, 1 may farther serve as Reflexive and Passive to Stem I I , 1. Thus "hfJ^O "to be made known" is the Passive of h&RO; "to be loved", of h<$] ^h9d "to be recognised", of Kho', f'ChQi "to open" (intrans.) and "to be opened", the Passive of hC\(D. Farther, i ^ / ^ h "to arise" is the Reflexive of }\Tf and *f"ifl means both "to be spoken" (iflfl) and "to be read"

81.

153

(hTflfl). More rarely Stem I I I , 1 is the Passive and Reflexive of Stem I , 2, e. g. in ^ J f ) / . "to be explained", from "to explain"; f'tfn'Fi "to be measured", together with -f'tfDfnV H I , 2, from ODflfi I , 2. This Stem is also employed as a Denominative, e. g. in ^ A U ^ "to become a presbyter", from A^4*5 f'(M'd "to be delivered of the first birth", i. e. "to give birth for the first time", from fltfC. 81. 2. The Reflexive-Passive of the Intensive Stem. This Stem in the form i'd&ffo tafassama, corresponds to the Hebrew j Hithpael and to the Arabic Stem V, and is likewise of very common occurrence. As regards meaning, all that has been said about 111,1 holds good also for this Stem. Often it has merely a reflexive meaning, e. g. ^\\ood "to show one's self"; " j ' ^ j f l r h "to praise one's self", "to boast"; ^ixiQ "to harden" (intrans.)\ f't/omm "to cause anything to be handed over to one's self", i. e. "to accept". Frequently it has only a Passive meaning, like f'tfOfltf "to be measured"; f'VA'fe "to be numbered"; i*rhAP "to be thought"; but often it has both meanings together, as f'^ao^ "to mingle" (intrans.) and "to be mingled". I t is specially in use with verbs which express emotion: f ft^(D( ) "tohope"; t&t**ih "to rejoice"; i*fl)ilA "to confide"; -frQIiP "to exercise patience"; f'^fao "to take vengeance"; f'tro^f "to wish", "to long for". Often quite simple conceptions have been re-developed out of it, as in the lastnamed instances, and farther in 'i'tiHH "to obey" ("to let one's self be commanded"); rfraoUd "to learn"; 4*fl>Vf "to play"; i ' + f l A "to go to meet"; and sometimes there is not much difference between its meaning and that of the Ground-Stem, as in 'H^Grh and WCth "to prosper"; -f-VArh and ^Arh "to experience regret"; and f'O^f "to be equal". By simplifying the idea, it may even take a transitive sense, as in several of the cases mentioned. I n conformity with its origin from I , 2, it has in a very special manner the meaning,'to be declared something', 'to give one's self out as this or that', e. g. in *Jvhfifl> "to be convicted of falsehood"; f-'I'&A "to be sanctified, consecrated or declared holy"; 'f'OOid "to show one's self blind to" ("to connive at a matter"); 1*0? "to appear as a faultfinder"; "to think one's self righteous"; so too ^ O f l f "to magnify one's self" (although
m 1 w

O According to TRTJMPP, p. 523,to be accented tasafdwa.

154

82.

0flf 1,2 is not in use). When this Stem is developed alongside of I I I , 1, the two stems, as a rule, have different significations, e- 9- "f*Hhd "1 remember", 'FHlfl^ "to be mentioned"; "to become obscure", f'&JPJ "to be covered"; f"lfl^ "to conduct a trade or business", f*7'fl "to happen". More rarely the usage fluctuates between the two Stems, both having the same signification, e. g. in ^ao^i and 't'ooafi (v. supra and 97,2). For several of these Stems the Simple Stems no longer exist, as for i ^ f l A , 4'IDVP, 'frfflhil, i-OlA, -h<n>Vf fOlw. This Stem is also denominative in cases by no means rare, as in *f*Vflp "to act as prophet", i. e. "to foretell"; f'O^i "to seek one's self a well", i. e. "to encamp"; 4*fllP^ "to observe the flight of birds" (^JLis); "f*PU& = "f"U& "to become a Jew", and several others ( ). 3. Eeflexive 82. 3. The Reflexive of the Influencing Stem. This Stem, influencing ^ h the form *f"h<.A corresponds to the Arabic Stem V I . I t stem:i ^ is true, have a purely Passive meaning, in those verbs Reciprocity, namely whose only Ground-Stem in use is I , 3, like -f-fl Arfi "to be saved"; f"^f4P "to be tormented"; or it may have a purely Reflexive meaning, as in *JhARP (from ARP) "to shave one's self"; 't'tl'i'd. "to take a share in a thing"; but these cases are only of rare occurrence ( ). Almost always the meaning proper to the Ground-Stem inclines to appear in 111,3, viz., 'bringing influence to bear upon another by means of the action expressed in the verb'. I t signifies either,'to set forth the Subject as influencing others',or, i f the action is attributed to more than one,'to influence one another reciprocally'. I t has thus in part come directly into the place of the gradually disappearing Stem I , 3, and in part it serves to denote reciprocal action (Reciprocity)^). I t is in very frequent use in both references, and may be derived
1 w m a v a s o ? , 2

( ) The following Stems have made their way into Ethiopic writings from the Amharic (v. ISENBBEG, Grammar', p. 54, No, XIV): 'frooff
r 0
1

(f\

"to turn hither and thither" j^tf^AA A "to run hither and thither" ; f*& 7<W< "to mingle with"; i ^ f l f t A "to be hospitable". ( ) Oases like ^ ^ A V "to be laid waste" ( 78); 'fr ?? "to act the soothsayer", from do not belong to this class, as these Stems come from Multiliteral roots: v. infra 86. ( ) Frequently however, when several individuals are spoken of, phrases like flfl?4:tf OO*, or i 0ftA s hAH-> are expressly added.
3 2 a

82.

155

from all the Ground-Stems, or even from derived Stems. This Stem is specially employed to express the ideas of 'contending, fighting, quarrelling, censuring, disputing (at law)' and such like, as 'l*&*'i ti in the Plural, "to fight with each other", or in the Singular, "to fight with one", taking an Accusative, in which case it is presupposed that the person who is fought with displays a counter-activity; -t-pwao, ^nfcrt, 'tP&fi, -H-flK, - H - ^ A , -jh ^ert, <t-*h</P, "M^M*? 'fr'ht/Dffi*, ^"VftO- I t is also used to convey the ideas of 'separating, dividing, binding, collecting, cohering'; and some of these verbs may also be used both in the Singular and in the Plural, e. g. f*4Afn( ) "to separate (intrans.) from one another"; 'frp'flh "to assemble themselves together"; *fA&4* "to cohere"; *i*/.}lfl "to light upon one another", L e. 1. "to meet one another", 2. "to be together". I n the very same way Stem I I I , 3 is derived from many other conceptions, in this sense of reciprocal action, like f'tlf^Q "to understand ('hear') one another"; ^ " V h ^ "to advise together"; f li\(i "to resemble one another"; f*7'l< and f'fll/A "to parley together"; i ^ J ^ J i "to help one another". Accordingly it may quite as readily be formed from intransitive as from transitive ideas, since even intransitive actions may be attributed to more than one individual in their relations to one another, e. g. t P 4> "to fall away from one another"; ' h ^ l D R "to flock together"; i-'PJf "to sport with one another"; -jhOU*!! "to multiply together"; f P^& "to rush upon one":just as, vice versa, if it is derived from transitive verbs, it is in no wise necessary that the Subjects of the verb should at the same time be its objects, but the Stem may assume an object for itself, e. g. "["fl^A not "to divide themselves", but "to share something among themselves", t fprti not "to sell themselves", but "to sell among themselves", "to exercise trade", "to purchase something from one"; i ^ f t m "to contend together over plunder" or "to plunder together". On the other hand it may have a reflexive sense, for instance, in "to disengage one's self", (while *F>7< has a passive meaning). I n several cases, however, the idea of reciprocity retires quite into the background, and then the Stem seems to revert to the meaning of I I I , 1 or 2; but in these cases also some reference, at least of a tacit order,to other persons is included, e.g. i ^ l J A
m l , ,a l r ,t L < ,w

(*) According to TRUMPP, p. 523,to be accented tafdldta.

156

83.

"to show one's self propitious", "to be gracious" to others; -f"AA 4 "to mock" at others; *f*Arhf "to adorn one's self" for others. Or the reciprocity which is expressed is not absolutely bound to refer to the Subject of the action and some other one, but may concern nearer or more remote objects, e. g. f'A-tf??*. "to tell off after one another", "to muster"; ^6*10 "to kick with both feet". This stem too is now and then denominative, e. g. in "f^fliD "to cast lots" (with different rods); - f ^ ^ l "to attack each other with the horns"; *f*pfl) "to dwell together in a neighbourly way". About the time that the language was dying out, people began to make this Stem revert to I I I , 1 or 2 (thus frequently i**wfhA instead of f*7rfiA "to conspire", "to enter into a confederacy"; 'frdhfi "to fight", for *f*flftrt &c),a phenomenon which, for the most part, occurs only with roots having the first or the middle radical an aspirate, and therefore is to be explained not according to the analogy of the V I I I Arabic Stem, which here and there also has the meaning of Stem V I , but according to 48. I n such roots also the converse may be met with, 111,3 being written for 111,1, e. g. 'f**J4fl for f'O^d-Care should be taken to avoid being deceived thereby.
t h

iv.

causa-

uve-Ro-

nexive
stems:-

83. I V . Causative-Ref 1 exive Stems. From the Reflexive Stems Causative Stems are again derived, ' and this new formation is an embellishement peculiar to Ethiopic, to which Arabic alone, in its Stem X , presents an analogy. Ethiopic is, in this case as well as in the case of the Causative Stems I I , richer and more thorough-going than Arabic, inasmuch as it derives new Causatives from all the three Reflexive Stems together. This richer evolution of I V , 1, 2, & 3 brought about the disappearance of several of the simpler Stems in the case of many roots, because the defining of the conception effected by them appeared to be given still more appropriately by means of the form I V . The formative device for these Stems is the syllable ftft, which is prefixed to the of the Reflexive. True, it is open to conjecture, that the prefix htl't', characteristic of these Stems of Class I V , should not be analysed into ftf| and -f-, but into and A, Yx^ii having been turned into KAi" (Lf), in old Semitic fashion. But, apart from the fact that such a transposition of letters is not Ethiopic ( 57), the meaning of Stems belonging to Class I V tells against this ex-

83.

157

planation, for nearly all of them are Causatives of the Reflexive, not Reflexives of the Causative. That as was at one time actually employed in forming Causatives is seen partly in Ethiopic itself even yet, from the forms JxtlPttH a^nd ( 73 ad init), and partly from the Amharic, in which ftft still forms simple Causatives^). And |%f| thus appears to be the original form for later ft, exactly as rin, j ' | is the original form for -f, o ( )- The new Causative, to be sure, is formed as has been said from all the three Reflexive Stems, but still the form I V , 3 is by far the most common, manifestly because the Stems I I I , 1 and 2 modify the root-idea frequently in a less special manner than 111,3 does. Accordingly the Causative, which is formed from I I I , 1 and 2 may be more easily replaced by the simple Causative, than the* Causative, which is formed from I I I , 3. As regards signification, all three Stems express the bringing about of the appearance, or the occurrence, of that which is denoted by the Reflexive,or they directly express the practising of what the Reflexive describes. A Reflexive must then be always presupposed, although in the ordinary speech such Reflexive has in many cases ceased to exist. Occasionally too the three Stems pass over, the one to the other:in particular I V , 1 may be formed from I I I , 2, in place of, or alongside of I V , 2, as, for instance, hh+Afth I V , 2 and K f t - f ^ / ^ r h I V , 1 from
; 2

^ / " A
1

111,2.

C ) ISENBERG. 'Gramm.'' pp. 53 & 54, St. 8 & 9; [GUIDI., 'Gramm?, p. 21;

'Zeitschr. fr Assyr? V I I I p. 286 sqq.]. Also the Saho has s placed after the root<to form Causatives, 'Journ. Asiat? 1843, Tome 2, p. 116. ( ) TRUMPP, p. 523, N . 2 agrees with the above view. On the other hand the explanation of Jifl*f* as being derived from andftis maintained by
2

0SIANDER, Z D M G X I X , p. 240 sqq.; X X , p. 206; W R I G H T , 'Ar. Gr. ',

th

p. 46,

65, rem. [cf. 'Lectures on the Compar. Gr?, p. 214 sq.]; KNIG, p. 79 sqq., and NLDEKE, who, in a private communication of the 10 Feb. 1887, observes that even the Arabic JutftA^J is used quite preponderatingly in a transit ** ^ * 1 IS
0 0

Hive

sense.

[In many cases it is directly Causative; e. g.

often

quite synonymous with

although the former originally contained a

subtle side-meaning. At the most there might be a question whether in the causal \ \ did not come in besides before the is. But this a was no doubt called forth through the analogy of the other verbal classes.
NLDEKE.]


Causative-

158

83.

1. Causative-Beflexive Stems 1, and 2, I n these Stems the stfrnf^ 2. Causative signification is for the most part brought out very clearly and decisively: htli'l'dh 1- "to take (by force of arms)""to cause that a city 'tl'Hh surrender itself"; hft'Hlrhft 1. "to induce one to fall away from the faith"; hfli*0 & "to accustom one to serve" (f 0JP); hh1"ftS.h 1- "to make a bending of the knees", not very different from flh; Kft i A<D 2. "to cause one to cherish hope" (ftA(D "to give one to hope"); htl^thW 1. "to cause to withdraw". And it is merely in appearance that occasionally they have an intransitive and reflexive look, e. g. in ftfl'i" ChfC) 1- "to cause to appear", i. e. "to reveal one's self", "to let one's self be seen", "to appear"; Kfti*Chft 1- "to make one's self cling to something", i. e. "to busy one's self eagerly therewith"; hAt'Oli*' 2. "to exercise patience", not very different from 'frOIW "to be patient" ('to allow to happen to one's self). These Causative-Reflexive Stems are also much used to express lasting sentiments and mental dispositions^): htl't^di/i 1- "to be prone to pity"; ftfl4*(D})A 2. "to be trustful", and many others. And since in this way the Causative of Reflexives frequently expresses merely the practising of that which the Reflexive speaks of, the Participle of Stems I V , 1 and 2 may replace directly the participle which is wanting in Stems 111,1 and 2 ( 114). Among the more common significations of these Stems the two following deserve to be specially noticed: (a)to hold, or pronounce as something, e. g. htl^Tr hft I - "to deem too trifling for one's self", or generally, "to deem trifling"; htl'l"(\f)0 1. "to pronounce blessed"; fcfl+ftflA 2. "to despise one as a fool"; Kft"Mtf 2. "to regard as preferable", "to prefer": (b)to endeavour to obtain something for one's self or for others, e. g. htli*9th 1. "to implore pity", "to intercede" (for another meaning of this word v. supra)-, htli'tld? 1. "to entreat pardon"; hMiX&uh 1. "to crave permission"; Kfl'f"fl0A 1- "to w^ant to enrich one's self"; hh'V^h^ 1. "to beg for a morsel". But in other respects also the Stems of this form are distinguished strongly enough from the simple Active Stems, e. g. ftfll^Art
tfD , , a

C) Whatjustificationtlieremaybefortheforms^ft'f'CjjfljftftdhChP> which are sometimes met with in MSS., but which are purposely omitted in my Lexicon still awaits investigation. ( ) V . on this point the instructive passage 1 Cor. 13,37.
a

84.

159

1. "to inhale" and "to smell" (but also "to cause to breathe again", "to revive", like ft^A); h A - M ^ w 1- "to discover" (-}i*i* "to seek"); JiA'hdflA 1. "to alarm" (ftdflA "to weaken"). Occasionally all the other Stems are lost, e. g. of htli'hlid "to make water". 84. 2. Causative-Reflexive Stem 3. Stem I V , 3 forms causativoCausatives, generally from the Stem of Reciprocity I I I , 3, whether ^ J ^ the latter be still retained in the language or not, e. g. hh't^dd "to breed mutual enmity", "to make certain persons enemies of one another"; htli'P'dh. "to collect together"; }\li't \M "to glue together"; hA'HliiP "to relieve one", and "to do something, in turn with others"; htl't^'lifD "to cause to follow each other in succession"; AA*f"flH*1f "to cause anything to multiply from itself"; ftA'f''PA& "to render capable of propagation" (so far as more than one are concerned in i t ) ; /"tAi^AA "to make (the hands) pass over each other", "to cross (the hands)". I t often conveys merely a tacit reference to others, e. g. htl t' idO "to bear a grudge" (towards others); K A + A ^ f "to be forgiving" (to others); KA'F^'AA "to expose to contempt" (from others), htft^hWll "to find or to make anything pleasant" (for others and so too for one's self); Kft'f'PUft "to give in restitution"; "to preserve to the last" (where the comparison lies with some other). Farther, just as Stem I I I , 3 (by 82) expresses also the qualifications "in their order", "gradually", "the whole in its several parts", and such like, so the Causative-Reflexive Stem I V , 3 is particularly often employed to denote the 'doing of a thing by a series of efforts , the 'bringing something gradually into being', as well as the ideas of 'restoring, adjusting' &c. This qualification, however, of the idea is brought about merely by the two prefixes ftA and J operating together; and the Reflexive Stem I I I , 3 hardly ever appears when Stems I V , 3 of such a kind exist, or only appears with a different signification. Examples: titi't'Pdh "to spend (more and more)"; frA'f"'hffl> "to bring back to life"; K A i ^ f "to restore"; hM^O "to improve", "to reform"; }\tl'fr ?f*'h "to re-establish" (on the other hand i - ^ / ^ K "to rise against another"); hil'l'PihlD "to prepare"; hhWKth "to purify (in process of time); htl't i(D4' "to warm"; ftA-M-mV "to quicken"; htl^^h "to discover by hearkening", "to listen for some time". Thus Stem I V , 3, as compared with I V , 1 and 2, has several significations peculiar to itself, while on the other
0 a r tn 1 f 9tP

160

hand it never conveys, or only seldom^), the two senses of "holding as being this or that", and "endeavouring to obtain something" ( 83); but no doubt it is employed, just like the other two Stems, to express permanent sentiments and dispositions, particularly when these involve some reference to others (v. 1 Cor. 13,4 sqq.). Accordingly, when the forms I V , 1 or 2 and I V , 3 are both in use, the meanings are generally distinct from one another, e. g. in ftft 'Yhtf and hh+tltf (v. supra); &A-f-?-nh and htl-tP-dh (v. supra); ht\i*^lh "to be envious", so htl'fr&'Trh, yet the latter has also the meaning, "to provoke to mutual jealousy". There is however scarcely any difference between Kft 't'4 rt d hh't' pftao, both meaning "to divine from omens". titl't'tt'O "to remove the marrow" is derived from a noun "marrow"), without the intervention of Stem I I I , 3. The twelve Stems which have just been described may be derived immediately from triliteral roots, or they may be denominative. But nothing like the full number of twelve Stems are to be found actually derived from any one root. Even in other languages such a case does not occur; and Ethiopic in particular, through its tendency to economise its resources, was in the practice of evolving only one or two of the most necessary Stems from any one root, while it allowed others, which might once have existed, to fall away. The most fully developed Verb in this respect, 7*fl( ), has only six Stems in ordinary use. As for other verbs, the more fully developed roots have formed one Stem each in the classes I , I I , I I I and I V , and in addition I I I , 3 as a Reciprocity-Stem. The most of them have generated only one Active Stem, one ReflexivePassive, and perhaps also I I I , 3 or one Stem of Class I V . I t farther results from the survey which we have been engaged in, that roots, which are in use in one of the three Ground-Stems, may easily pass over to a different Ground-Stem under I I , I I I , and I V , e. g. from 1 to 2, or from 2 to 1; but when Stem 2 has established itself from any root, it is generally continued through the Classes I I , I I I , and I V .
, <7D a n 2

(!) For instance in hfH'rfJhfl, properly "to pollute", then "to esteem unclean." ( ) Which LUDOLF chose for his Paradigm on that very ground.
2

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2. STEM-FORMATION O F M U L T I L I T E R A L ROOTS.

85. How Quadriliteral and Multiliteral roots generally originate, has been pointed out in 7173, 77, and 78. These sections show also that roots of five letters are, generally speaking, of rare occurrence, while those of six letters are met with only in isolated cases. The four classes of Stems ( I I V ) , which are employed in the development of triliteral roots, repeat themselves in the Stem-formation of Multiliterals; but the Intensive Stem 2 falls away completely, and the Influencing Stem 3 also disappears in Classes I and I I at least. I n certain roots, however, a Reflexive Stem,formed by the prefix ft"}, and which the triliterals have lost, has been retained. The Scheme of Stems most in use for Multiliteral roots is accordingly as follows:
Ground-Stem I. C a u s a t i v e Stem I I . R e f l e x i v e Stems I I I . 3. M K r t A C a u s a t i v e - R e f l e x i v e Stems I V . Second R e f l e x i v e Stem V .

Scheme
ste

1. htl-frftlhii 3. ht\\'tV;h( A few other rarer forms might be added, but it seems unnecessary to enumerate them in the Scheme. I . Of Multiliteral roots it is only the Quadriliteral which oc- i . cur in the Ground-Stem ( ); and the second letter in the groundform is always without the vowel, e. g. fJi10. The place of the second letter is often taken by a long vowel, as in fcflrh. There is no distinction here between transitive and intransitive pronunciation. I n meaning, the greatest variety prevails, corresponding to the variety in the genesis of these roots. With reference to the last point the following differences may be observed: ^ T ^ i T I "to bruise",where the whole root is repeated; diitytf* "to be anxious",where there is repetition of the third radical; Wrfflfl "to put forth berries", *hfl "to wallow in the mire", ^fljfl) "to take prisoner",with insertion of a soft letter after the first radical; *H}f "to loiter", WOtO) "to become a lad",with a weak letter annexed; *}70 "to be perplexed",
x

Grounds t e m

'

O Only Rjf|Jpp or ft^VAff "to wither" seems to form an exception,from the Quadriliteral ftJPUP, the fourth radical being repeated. 11

162

85.

OtUd "to play the harp", f'firh "to mix",a formative letter being prefixed; "?U<h "to carry off as booty", tMi/L't "to make smooth, to polish", ihC"i*oo "to be in misery",as derivatives from Nominal Stems increased externally; <7D">yioft "to become a monk",as an example of a foreign word. This diverse origin makes no difference in the formation, for which only the appearance of weak letters in these roots has any significance; cf. 99sg. n.oausative I X The Causative is formed, as a rule, by prefixing just as with the triliteral root. I t turns intransitive conceptions into transitive, and transitive into double-transitive, e. g. tfiCAA "to grope", \\0C(l(\ "to cause to grope"; Yxfa^iCft "to soften or soothe"; h(DfoO)(l and /\(Dla)(l "to perturb"; h'QhTh and Krtlhl*K "to dispose in order". I t farther occasionally predicates finer distinctions, as "to be fragrant or to exhale" in the sense of 'spreading an odour', Kft>V<D "to smell" in the sense of 'inhaling an odour'. The majority, however, of the Causative Stems which occur, are derived from some Nominal Stem (externally increased), for the purpose of expressing the 'causing, doing, or carrying on' that which the Noun speaks of &c, like Jtimft^-f" "to lay a foundation for", "to establish"; X^VrhflV "to hand over to be protected by any one", "to entrust"; ftvAflrf "to give full power to"; KA'Hlf* "to keep the Sabbath"; ftAAf "to spend the night";fttfD*>Afl)"to lead into temptation"; K")0(D "to worship idols". Quinqueliteral roots also occur in this stem, especially those which originate in the repetition of the last two radicals ( 71, 77): h C ^ A ^ A "to seek by feeling for" ('to wish to discover by feeling'); hJtA4 A4 "to shake"; ftCArhA*h and hCfithtlth ('to render turbid') "to convict of a crime"; J t r h ^ A ^ A "to grow green"; th&th and rhrh "to become reddish" (properly,'to acquire that colour', and accordingly Causative); also h ' h n n m f l "to drip", and M&QKAC) "to pour out in drops"; ft^AGA< "to revile repeatedly"; also a few which only repeat the last radical, but, because they are denominative, have a long vowel following the second radical: K A ^ A A "to whisper gently"; htlHMi "to address any one harshly", "to reproach". As relics of an obsolete Causative formation by means of the
,

(*) By origin at least, these two belong to this Class. As regards their conjugation, they may quite as well be referred to Stem V.

86.
79 83

163
t o

prefix fxh ( > )> " feel horror", "to abhor", and htlPttH "to become cramped or benumbed'^ ) are still preserved. On the o-sound of these words cf. 78. hll4>ty(D "to howl" has only an external resemblance to these forms, provided the derivation conjectured in 77 is correct, and the word not rather founded on a root ^0*^(D. 86. I I I . Multiliteral roots, like the Triliteral, form their in.PassivePassive-Reflexive Stems by prefixing f*. I n meaning some are . passive, some reflexive, some both passive and reflexive; and the reference back to the Subject of the verb is sometimes direct and immediate, sometimes indirect, just as with the Reflexives described in 8 0 : f - ^ r t f r "to be corrupted", "to be laid waste"; "to be utterly destroyed"; t fTth "to cover or veil one's self", and Passive; HhAAP "to nourish one's self with anything'', and "to eat", with Accusative; f*n>H(D "to ransom one's self", and "to ransom for one's self", and "to be ransomed"; f ?iff O? "to exhibit a dry appearance", i. e. "to put on a sour look"; ^i^id^l "to be appeased"; "t "lVpK and *hmftTft "to be arranged". This Stem occurs often, as it serves at the same time for a Passive form of Quadriliteral roots of Active signification. But it is often enough derived also (like the Causative) immediately from Nominal Stems, e. g. f ao&Ml "to become a prince"; "fT<wCMI "to lean upon a staff", and in general terms "to lean upon"; 'frhCOlf "to become brutal", "to be brutalised"; f'aDfVfrO "to chew the cud"; "f*<.AA<. "to philosophize". Worthy of notice is the word "to become like an eagle", because it is derived from a plural hthC't (TrtlC "eagle"), so that in form it resembles the verb 'frhtMi "to be brutalised" (from MM)Also noteworthy is the word h ^ r t "to become a Metropolitan", because it has retained the two long a's from its Stem-word fcf| TrdcTTTrag, so that it must rank as a Quinqueliteral verb. No other Quinqueliterals are as yet known. A Sexliteral word appears also in this Stem: i K T " f " A ^ A "to be impatient and unwilling", formed according to 77 from the Quadriliteral root hlftfi ( 72) still in use.
1 g t e m g w ,g , a , ,

The Reciprocal Stem is formed from some at least of the Multiliteral roots. The long a, which is introduced after the first
(*) [Probably, however, this in the Amharic Verbs of the form is a shortened form of ftf|*f", just as f\tl>NOLDEKE.]

11*

164

87.

iv.
Eefl^ive" stem.

radical in that formation in Triliteral roots, is consistently established only after the second radical in Quadriliteral roots, since the first and second radicals in such roots are always more closely associated than the others, and together correspond to the first letter of Triliteral roots:"F&VRfl) "to contend enviously with another about anything"; 'f'AS'AA "to be linked together"; 'frfi'thot "to be in harmony with one another"; 'f'Ah+P "to conspire together"; f-fllAflJA "to be at variance with one's own mind", ("to be perturbed in mind"); '^rn944 "to go to work with accurate scrutiny"; MJ^V<D "to announce to one another" (HVflJ); 'f'fxhKh. "to worship"; i*0*^OD*^ "to engage too eagerly in"; *Jh7 i"&P "to loiter" ( ). I n Quinqueliteral roots the long a is introduced only after the third radical, that the most important syllable might not be too near the beginning: *f-A"VPAA "to whisper gently to one another", I V . The Causative-Reflexive Stem from these roots occurs
, o l x v e r v

v.

second stem!

rarely indeed. Since the roots, which are already long enough j themselves must in this case be still farther lengthened by two additional syllables, such a Stem is avoided as far as possible. As yet I know of only four examples of I V , 1 : ft A"hAl?iA "to grant discharge or leave of absence" (f'A'JftA "to take discharge or leave"); ftA+ftGlDP "to render wild"; ftAtfYnftTft "to arrange"; ftA"fYIl'}'f'4 "to explain exactly",and the very same number of examples of I V , 3:ftft'MWfcfD "to render in accord"; ftA'f'Hi'&P (Gr- Ad.) "to think one had come too late for a thing";ftA4*fl>Afl>A"to perplex"; K A i " m 9 M "to rouse to zeal". 87. V . Besides these Stems which are formed both from Triliteral and Multiliteral roots, another Stem originally Reflexive makes its appearance, formed by prefixing ft"}. I n this there may
n > >

be easily recognised the Hebrew _ i n ( ) and the Arabic _ l \ St. V I I , employed in the formation of Reflexives and Passives, and originally of a somewhat weaker meaning than _ n n and _ J | . The a-pronunciation is quite as peculiar to Ethiopic as the like pronunciation of ftA ( 83). I n Nouns which are derived from this Stem, this 0) "f^fhAfl) belongs to Stem I I I , 1: col. 42, adduces, is to be explained by 48.
()
2

^^hflAf > which LUDOLF, 'Lex.'

Cf. EWALD, 'Sebr. Spr.' 123, a.

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an is simplified into na, like as into sa, just as _rin or _ j | is always rendered in Ethiopic by But this Stem can by no means be formed from all Multiliteral roots. The language has confined i t almost wholly to the roots described in 71, and in strictness to reduplicated Stems of such roots, which express movement to and fro of any kind, and also of light and sound (*), such as hli7 ?1 & "to thunder"; JrfAAfD "to walk about"; MftAA "to be giddy"; hTrllil (angallaga) "to band together" ( ). Of other roots only four are known up till now, which form this Stem: hTrMML^ "to sparkle", "to shine through" ('to be clear, or transparent'); MdMOix "to spring", "to dance"; MPb&Oi "to lift up (the eyes"); htW&O "to stretch", "to spread out"; and these come very close, in meaning at least, to the first-named forms. Several of these Stems indicate a transitive signification as well as a reflexive one: ft"}hGh^ "to roll" (transitive and intransitive); hTflCld "to wallow or revolve" and "to drive round" (trs. and intrs.)*, h?fAlA "to totter" and "to shake" (trs. and Mrs.); JtfAAH* "to go" and "to move"; M A A A 0 "to bubble", "to boil", also in a transitive sense; hTrflflMIX "to frighten", "to be alarmed" (trs. & intrs.). The following have a transitive signification only: YxTrflifoO "to stretch out"; fc7lfPH& "to expand (the wings)"; hlPv&a* "to lift up (the eyes)". Seeing that t\}, speaking generally, forms weaker Reflexives than *f,almost pure Intransitives in fact, and seeing that all these roots, except %1f and TJf7"A? ^ in Stem V only, and that in particular no new Causatives are derived from them, this phenomenon might without difficulty be attributed to a gradual transition from the intransitive to the transitive meaning, and in most cases perhaps this explanation might suffice. A Passive-Reflexive, however, of some of these formations occurs, formed by means of -f : "fJf ^AP "to be stretched out", "to stretch one's self out"; ^**}hoChd (according to LUDOLP) "to be rolled about" (cf. the words beginning with - f - l , 73), I t seems to follow from this that the instinct of the language conceived the \\ of K*} in several of these formations as being fa Causative, as if these were new Causative forms from Nominal
0 a 2 a r e u s e 1

(*) Even LTOOLF teaches that this Stem expresses impetum quendam vel motum reciprocantem. ( ) The rest are:
2

flAllA, h C W , ICld,

AAlArh, AAAO, +A+A, flAflA, dfo-QiU, 1Ot\, n i A m A , A m m , mAA, HUAA

166

88.

Stems beginning with V (by 85, I I ) C). Accordingly the process may be thought of as taking the following course: ft"}hGh "to roll" (intrs.);}faC!(KC "rolling"; Causative htfaCfat "to roll" (trs.); 'frlYtoCfad "to be rolled". A certain want of clearness in the consciousness of the language is unmistakeable here( ). The formations which are derived from Nominal Stems without the intervention of a Causative (by 86, I I I ) , -fMlf*, 'frh'iM are not to be confounded with Passive Stems like K>fnA0; for here, just as in 'frtrtfid, "Fft'J'f'A, i'OTrftfi, the ft is treated as a radical.
2

General

I I . F O R M A T I O N OF TENSES A N D MOODS. 88. I n the formation of Tenses, Ethiopic like the rest of the Semitic languages, proceeds from the twofold, and not from the threefold division of time. To that original stand-point it has always adhered. Every action or event is conceived as presenting itself either in a finishedand thus realisedstate, or in an unfinished state( ). I n conformity with this contrasted view of things, only two Tenses have been formed, the one,the Perfect,to express the finished or completed action, the other,the Imperfect,to express the unfinished or uncompleted action. To this category of the incomplete, however, there belongs not only that which is happening in the Present, as well as that which is only to be realised in the Future,so that the Ethiopic Imperfect, generally speaking, corresponds at once to the Present and the Future of other languages,but also that which is merely thought of and willed, that
3

uses of the

Perfect.

( ) [That ft did actually come in before the in in these Nifal forms, appears plain also from the fact, that the Stems under discussion (cf, supra) have for the most part a transitive, or causative signification. Words, like "to thunder", "to sparkle", are to be explained exactly like JO^p(, ' o p i , TMfl, i^^-?' P operly "to produce light" &c. I n the positively Reflexive
r

nature of the in or na,one inclining to Passive (and in Hebrew and later Arabic actually becoming Passive),it would be a very singular thing if the transitive signification had introduced itself thus in Ethiopic without farther assistance. NOLDEKE.] ( ) I n Amharic all this is met with in quite the same fashion, though more frequently employed than in Ethiopic; cf. ISENBEEG, p. 54 No. X X I V ; p. 56Nos. V I I - X ; p. 60 No. V I I ; [and Guroi, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr: V I I I , p. 258 and Note 3.] ( ) V . farther on this point EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr? 134.
3 2

88.

167

which may or must he realised. Accordingly the Imperfect here becomes also the source of the formation of the so-called Moods of the Verb, through which the conditions of will and necessity are expressed. I n Ethiopic, just as in the other Semitic languages, moods are formed from the Imperfect only. The Perfect has produced from itself no special moods. Farther, the moods which have been formed from the Imperfect^) are only two in number. With these few tense-forms and conditional forms of the Verb, Ethiopic is able to convey the force of all the much more richly developed Tenses and Moods of the Indo-European languages. 1. As regards the two Tenses ( ), the Perfect serves first of all and most frequently (a) to express the Past. Every action which the speaker regards as having happened, or as being past, from the point of time of his speaking, he expresses in this tense. I t is the tense therefore which is usually employed in narration. I f an action has to be marked as concluded in the past (as in the Greek Perfect), the Perfect also must suffice for this. I n isolated cases only, where Germans would use schon or bereits ('already') along with the Perfect, the Ethiopian may also put flJjt/i "he has completed" ( ) before the Perfect (and, according to 180, 1 a a, without a fll), e. g. (Df{M' 4"tf"GJ "we have (already) shut" Luke 11,7; [<D/JMl- ChA* " I ^ v e seen already" Hen. 106,13](*). Farther, the language has nothing but the Perfect to represent an action as already past at a certain point of time in the Past
2 3 !

( ) [It is perhaps unfortunate that DILLMANN employs the same word Imperfect, both as a generic term for the Tense which is contrasted with the Perfect, and as a specific term for the formation which is now regarded as that Mood of the Imperfect Tense which is differentiated from the Subjunctive. I t would have conduced to clearness, if like PRAETORITJS and others he had restricted the term Imperfect to the Tense, and used the term Indicative for the Mood, T R . ] ( ) On the question whether the Semitic Perfect is only a later developed form, cf. HAUPT, ' J . Am. Or. Soc\ Vol. X I I I , pp. L I V , L X I sq., and on the force and signification of the Perfect in contradistinction to the Imperfect, the somewhat prolix explanations of KNUDTZON, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr? V I , p. 408 sqq., & V I I , p. 33 sqq. ( ) I n like manner J o is always prefixed in Arabic; EWALD, 'Gr. Arab. 199 sq. But the usage mentioned is not so common in Ethiopic. Besides, tDg?}\ may also be placed after the verb, e. g. &(\aDi <D&K John 6,17. (*) [This is FLEMMING'S reading,not DILLMANN'S , who reads merely
3 1 2

168

88.

{Pluperfect); and it has to be gathered, merely from the context and the sense of the passage, whether one action has taken place before another in the Past, or not. Thus the Perfect may most readily stand for the Pluperfect in accessory sentences, particularly in circumstantial clauses, e. g. Gen. 31,34 (accessory to vs. 33 and 35); \l}t J&fl, "he had said", Gadla Adam 90,13; or in sentences which are introduced by the relative pronoun, e. g. (DChf* Yf"A" Hl'd/i "and he saw all that he had made" Gen. 1,31; Hfo> s ft*M "that he had set up" GadlaAd. 147,20; Hfrjs A<*! <w>AMl* t>"i "who had been called 'Good Angel'" Hexaemeron (ed. TRUMPP, Munich 1882), 36,20 sq.; or by relative Conjunctions like flfl, ftjPJM^, "h9hf (also "hfXfi* g>ft6* A*"fc "then he would have forgiven him" Gadla Ad. 90,18). (6) Comparatively seldom does the Ethiopic Perfect serve to express Present time, and for the most part in the two following cases merely. (1) When a transaction has already begun, starting from the Past, and is continued up to the Present, the Perfect is employed, e- g- (lYlCtl-f-tl* - f ^ W ? M ^mjifa "our sin is forgiven us for Christ's sake"; and the use of the Perfect is obligatory, when a Future cannot be thought of as taking its place without an alteration in the sense, e. g. VU* * 4*Cfl * H^'l'flhfc "Lo, he that betrayeth me is at hand" Matt. 26, 46. Certain actions especially, for which we would use the Present, are mostly expressed in the Perfect, because the Ethiopian conceives them as not so much 'a state of being', as 'a mode of doing or becoming', e. g. hh^CXb " I know" ('I have learned'); Chjtib " I see"; h^'Pd "he loves". In particular the verb (JACD, "to be",in the sense of "he is there", or "he is present", almost always occurs in the Perfect, where in our tongue we employ the Present. (2) The other case is met with when an action coincides with the very moment of its announcement in present speech. Such an action the Ethiopian regards as completed with the very utterance of the word, and therefore he puts it in the Perfect, e. g. 7tf s iJ.'fft-h " l A I send thee" Judges 6,14; lib* <D(M)tbll "Behold I give thee "Gen. 23,11; KlfoB'iXbh fbov 7rapoiTi&ejui.ai aoi Tob. 10,12 (*). On the other hand general truths, practices, and customs are expressed mostly by the Imperfect, less frequently by the Perfect, (c) The Perfect is employed even to express Future actions, first of all in conditional clauses
s

0 ) [Cf. Kebra Nag., Introduction, p. X X . ]

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and relative clauses of equivalent import, when the future action has to he represented as preceding another action, which is placed still farther on in the future,a case in which other languages with greater accuracy use the Futurum exactum:1rf*A* Hdjtlflfc* ^Hh'Afc "every one who findeth (shall find) me shall slay me'' Gen. 4, 14; Mark 16, 16; Matt. 2 3 , 1 2 ; Gen. 40, 14; [cf. also Hen. 14,6 (CKYl*~)i 62,15 (-KJ/^h-)]; (cf. infra, 205). So too by dint of a lively imagination, the speaker may transfer himself to the future in such a fashion that a matter appears to him as already experienced and accomplished:it is upon such a conception that the Perfectum propheticum in Hebrew is based, a usage which occurs often in exactly the same way in Ethiopic, in Biblical and kindred writings, e. g. Hen. 48, 8; 9 9 , 1 ; and in looser diction, e.g. tff: Oft*: *fllij& ixeilhrai tckavfrjuos M a t t 8,12, just as we too can say: "thereis crying out", instead of "there shall be crying out". I n conditional, desiderative, and similar clauses, the Ethiopic Perfect corresponds also to the Moods of Preterites in other tongues ( 205).
:

89. 2. The Imperfect, as the means of expressing uncomple- xj s of the ted actions, serves (a) to denote, above all, the Future. The Imper- P feet is the readiest and (with the exception of the cases noticed in 8 8 , 1 c) the only mode of expressing the Future, whether (1) the Absolute Future, like ffMOhl "he will be"; npttrnKh* iM "the future world", or (2) the Relative Future, both (a) the Future as regarded from a certain point of time in the past, e. g. "he held his peace to see \\ao : "fcC*h K*7tl.K'flrh>C whether God was to grant him success" Gen. 24,21, and (b) the Future which precedes another future occurrence (Futurum exactum), e.g. li,J2i*hHhA hMl ' hv> * ^0^9 s tyRoo s OflH^* "he shall not be put to death, until he stand ('shall have stood') before the judgment-seat" Josh. 20, 6. But in the latter case the Perfect occurs much more frequently ( 88). Farther, as the Moods, according to 90, serve only to express what is contemplated or purposed, the simple Imperfect C) is employed to signify any doubtful, uncertain or conditioned
fie
I m e r f e c t

(*) [DILLMANN seems to regard those modifications of the Imperfect Tense, which are presented in the Subjunctive and its offshootthe Imperative, as constituting the two proper Moods of the Ethiopic Yerb (cf. 90), while his "plain" or "simple" Imperfect (=the Indicative) is suggested as standing outside

170

89.

Future, e. g. "take no thought ll'>flA() ri fyayyirs" Matt. 6,25; "settle for me thy wages HftiHUlO which I am to give thee" ('as thou thinkest') Gen. 30, 28; "he set apart a present H^DftJts tihh(&' which he would or could send to Esau" Gen. 32,14. In the same way it is used,in Conditional clauses,of any future event which is put merely as possible, e. g. Matt. 11, 23 ( 205). Even the Future of Will may be expressed in the plain Imperfect, particularly when a decided and stringent command has to be given, taking the form "thou wilt do it" in place of "thou shalt do it". For some other finer modifications, however, in the predicating of a matter in the future, the Ethiopic language employs periphrastic forms, contributed to by the auxiliary verb Uti(D "to be". Whenever a future transaction has to be represented as continuing in the Future, the Perfect lift" or Ull(D is joined to the Imperfect of the principal verb, somewhat like amaturus est in Latin; and the Imperfect, as containing the main determining idea, takes the first place, e. g. ftrh "there will continue to be recording" Hen. 98, 7; 104, 7; JB4"lJ?A-i VtiQh "they will perish" ('be perishing') 52, 9; 1l$M(D*'} Vftr "what will be in the future" 52,2. But the principal verb may also follow the auxiliary, e.g. txi'fri VlUD't'i 'V't&JhV** s 9:C &0<p&(ijh "which (f.) shall be done on the earth in his days" Hen. 106, 18; cf. ibid. 99,2. Naturally too the same periphrasis may have the sense of a Future just impending (Futurum instans), e. g. jE.<wX7i UA "he is about to come" Hen. 10, 2; ^AflW * OAfll^ "it (f.) is on the point of sinking" 83,7. Meanwhile, precisely to indicate the last-mentioned variety of modification of the Future, a periphrasis,made up of Vfi(D and a suffix pronoun (with the force of a Dat.) followed by the Subjunctive of the principal verb,has become more usual, and is very frequently employed( ), e. g. HOliP p,9%K < $ juiXXccv 'epxsafrai Matt. 11,14; 17,10; OA5 -' P'7"fl?P"theywill (shortly) deliverhimup"Matt.l7,22,
8 8 s 0 2 p l

of the sphere of Mood, and as being a mere counter-balance of the Perfect Tense. It would conduce to clearness of nomenclature, as well as to accuracy, to follow PEAETOBIUS and other scholars, in holding the General Imperfect Tense as being divided into two Moods, viz. (1) the Indicative (=DILLMANN'S Imperfect), and (2) the Subjunctive, including the Imperative as a sub-form, TR.] ( ) On the other handttftlMUltwhich might also stand, would mean "which I am to give" ('as thou hast determined'). ( ) The Greek /tsXXe/v is also expressed in this way.
x 2

89.

171

and similarly in 2, 13; 17, 12; Hen. 104, 5. Still more frequently some definite shade of the Future,as in the notions of will, shall, must,is expressed by this device, inasmuch as VlitO with a suffix means "it is incumbent on one to", e. g. JP*J"f*s "lh*7fK-" UAfDftaix "what will you do (then) ?" Hen. 97,3; 101,2; U A f D l f l ^ : fyChF**0 " y will be obliged to see him", "you must (then) see him" Hen. 55, 4; 98,12; Matt. 16, 21; Gen. 15,13; 18,19; Ex. 16, 23; similarly fafr.:.... "they had to worship" Gadla Ad. 147,18 sq. Occasionally the suffix pron. for OtiW is wanting, as in Hen. 100,8; and fM(D stands also, although comparatively seldom, after the Subjunctive, Hen. 104,5. (b) But, by its very conception, the Imperfect expresses also that which is coming into being, that namely which already is in process of becoming, but which is not yet completed, (a) I t is therefore the most obvious tense, and the one most frequently employed, to indicate the Present (Praesens), especially when the action of the Present is not one which passes by in one moment, e. g.\"tell John H^fljFVh IDH^rfSAft what you are (at this very time) hearing and seeing" Matt. 11, 4. And it is so much in common use for Present time, that even the Present Participle is usually expressed periphrastically by this tense: HJ&HGfr "a sower", "sowing" &c. ("who sows" Impf.); or ChMP f rhfl^C " I see him go" ('going''that he is going'). And where usages, customs, and actions, which are continuous or which are often repeated, are delineated, the Imperfect is always summoned to take the duty first; and it is comparatively seldom that the Perfect is used instead. (/3) But, just as frequently and usually, that which was coming into being in the Past is denoted by this tense, and 'then it answers quite regularly to the Latin Imperfectum. Whenever in narration an action has to be represented as continuing, or as being gradually accomplished, or as being repeated, the Imperfect is nsed throughout: "the governor was wont to release some one at the feast" WJt' hAj&JP Matt. 27,15; Mifri A-flV* Hhtf'
u

V*7<V ovy} $ fcapb/a yjju&v /caiojuivyj yv sv ^juTv, oog skakei TJ/JLIV; Luke 24,32; til\d.' ?flA,|fl<*: fll^OC "continually I sat with you and taught" Matt. 26,55; fcjPh'Ttf: J&^Jt-J&Ch'fl: W "from that time he sought (continually) to find an opportunity" 26,16; Gen. 27,41; 25,21; in the description of the manners of Noah's time, Matt. 24, 38 sq., and similar instances in

172

89.

Matt. 4,23, and Gen. 2,6. The Imperfect is therefore the tense of circumstantial clauses, in which the accessory circumstances, accompanying the main action, are described, whether they are introduced by (D, V J H , or in some other way, e. g. >i*}Hs 0 , "while they ate, he said" Matt. 2 6 , 2 1 ; aHP-frfcA* jWfl^JP 'while he slept" 8,24; Gen. 3,8; tfAm.: b&.p\tf(DhS^^ "they were naked and were not ashamed" Gen. 2,25. I n smoothly flowing narration also, statements which describe anything of a circumstantial nature appear in the Imperfect, e.g. fDOtilD* *fl?iA
s

Judges 19,1. If, however, duration in past time has to be expressed still more precisely, so as to bring into more distinct prominence the notion of the customary character of an action, or its coincidence with some accessory circumstance or other, then the language has once more at its disposal, for this purpose, the periphrasis constituted by VlMD or t i j "to be", followed by the Imperfect of the verb concerned^):e. g.\ Ji>: J&f^lC* *7'fl* " f l C ^ "he was wont to fabricate implements of brass" Gen. 4, 22; ( D I M : fvh*JA ^ f l l fl1^9 "John baptised, ('used to baptise') in the wilderness" Mark. 1,4; i D / f T A * I M W 1 C fDtl't'' hTr*PK "just while Lot 8 was sitting in the gate" Gen. 19,1; 18,22; Wfc: Mb HMtLk- (D^O* " I was just praising God . . . ., when lo (they called me)" Hen. 12, 3; frj: fJfrfJtXi Gadla Ad. 9 5 , 2 8 ; flfr: A - "it was fitting" = "it would have been fitting" G adla A d . 90,21 ; but also Wr"hdbUdbant" Gadla Ad. 103,9; and even Jfl4.s $,th "they kept on building" Gadla Ad. 164,1 sqq_. [and VflClb fc&A. " I kept on praying" Philosophi Abessini (LITTMANN) 20, 23]. I n contrast to the similar periphrasis for the Present in the Future (v. supra), OA ID andfrVmust stand first here. A case, different from those which have hitherto been described, arises when the speaker or narrator transfers himself into past time in so lively a manner that he represents it as passing at that very moment, or as being present to himself and his hearers (Praesens historicum). I n such a case, actions may be described in the Imperfect, which in less lively narration would necessarily have been expressed in the Perfect. This turn of speech is not very common in Ethiopic; but upon it depends the universal use of J&fl, "he said" (literally, "says he") in narration.
0 8 8 8 8 8

(*) Just as in Arabic: EWALD, Gr. Arab: 208.

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90. From the Imperfect, as the expression of uncompleted Derivation d action, or of action coming into being, are farther derived the Moods f ^ ^ ( 88 in init). Ethiopic has developed only two. I n particular, imperfect if the action coming into being has to be set forth as one that is willed (whether it is one that is founded in the will of the acting Subject or in the will of another), then this condition is denoted by a special form of the Imperfect, which we shall henceforth call the Subjunctive. The Subjunctive stands wherever the expression of purpose, or of will or wish is in question. I t stands not only in dependent and subordinate clauses, but also in simple and direct deliverances, and therefore it has at once the force of a Subjunctive and a Jussive. I t is accordingly employed in plain command (unless the Imperfect( ) is preferred, by 89), either with an introductory conjunction, as in Aj&Vb"> 'fiCf'} "Let there be light!" G-en. 1,3, or without it, as in ^ID -ft-fl "he shall marry" Matt. 22,24 (for the second person, however, the Imperative is used). Farther it appears as a Cohortative, e. g. TiRty "Let us build!" Gen. 11, 4, and in wishing, as in M l U v f l r k C ' dMlh "The Lord preserve thee!" Ps. 120, 4. Even in Interrogative clauses, it makes its appearance, whenever the action is conceived as one which is willed by some one, e. g. "h^RTh "am I to abandon?" Judges 9, 9; X C * h*7flC" ATTN** *i1C "how can I act in this way (that you require of me)?" Gen. 39,9; and so in all other sentences of whatever land, e. g. h'h CTi X\0* T A'flrh( ) "we know that we must praise him" Hen. 63,4, whereas \iao s "}rt,flrh means "that we shall praise him"; or h A 0 Hf>tlldi Ptipa*** tf^VL "there is no one whatever, who is to hear their voice", i. e.\ 'no man must hear it!' Josh. 6, 10. Quite as frequent or still more frequent employment is found for the Subjunctive in dependent or subordinate clauses, which attach to the main clause the object aimed at or only some purposed result, whether the purposed action (or result) may be immediately subordinated to the main action, as in Klilf: ?Uft "commanded (he) that they give" Matt. 19,7, "JCfc "allow that we see" i. e. "let us see", 27,49; tfnfrft s f A F f "he came to seek" 18,11; or be subordinated by means of a relative pronoun, as in "they sought false witnesses RH * 4^ 6i9* through
x s ffD i r 2 :

( ) [That is to say,the Indicative, TR.] ( ) [Flemming's edition reads:"}A*fl]h. TB.]

2

174

91.

whom they might put him to death" 26,59; or by means of a conjunction, as in hlftCZ ' hn * &dCb "he constrained them to go up into" 14,22 &c. Accordingly it must stand regularly after certain final Conjunctions, particularly after \\ao "in order that", and suchlike, and farther, after those which contain the idea of "before", "not yet" ( 170), e. g. hFfygao s -fl<kA "before it (i. e. 'herb or grass') grew" Gen. 2,5,because in such clauses lies the meaning that there is something to come about, or to be determined, but that it is not yet realised (*). On all these cases, which are merely indicated here, v. infra in the Syntax. The Imperative is a special ramification of the Subjunctive, and has been developed out of it. Although it may be formed from all verbal stems, it is only used in the second person, and never in a subordinate relation, but only in direct speech by way of command, wish, request &c. I t takes the place of the second person of the Subjunctive, so far as the latter is Jussive. But since it admits of absolutely no subordination to any other conception, and can only be set down as an independent summons, it is again replaced by the Subjunctive as soon as the summons is preceded and conditioned by a negative. General 91. The formation of these two Tenses and Relations (Peri^rmltion f ^ ^ ^ perfect) of the Verb is effected by the co-operation of in the two formative expedients. The one consists in the different way of and attaching to the Stem the additions which form the Persons of the imperfect Yerb. Seeing that a Yerbal stem, on entering upon the process
00 1 ec an m

T6HS68.

of Tense-formation, at the same time brings to view of itself the distinction between the persons, there is actually no Tense-formation without Personal-formation; and thus the Semitic tongue was enabled to make use of Personal-formation as a means also of Tense-formation. The contrast between the Perfect and the I m perfect is in fact given expression to by the contrast presented by the two possible positions of the signs used in indicating the Persons. I n forming the Perfect the Personal sign is attached to the end of the stem, so that e. g. oo^.h't* means:"full (is) she"; but in forming the Imperfect it is attached to the beginning of the stem, so that e. g. fyao fafo means: "she (is about to be) full". I n the latter case the action is represented as something still standing before the person, in the former as something already set behind
(*) Cf. the like in Arabic: EWALD, Gr. Arab.' 210.
l

91.

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the person; and by this device the essential difference between the two Tenses is hit off with great subtlety. Along with this formative expedient is associated the second, viz.Internal Vowel-Change. This change is very simple in Ethiopic, as it now lies before us: In all Stems of active signification the characteristic vowel following the second-last radical, if it is e in the Perfect, passes into a in the Imperfect, and if it is a in the Perfect, into e in the Imperfect. But in Reflexive Stems, which at the same time serve as Passives, and generally are closely allied to the Passive, this change is either not carried out at al^ ), or only to a partial extent. For by another rule which takes effect here, the Passive must take, in the Imperfect, a in the place where the Active has e. This a prevails without exception in the Imperfect of the stronger Reflexive Stems; and it was due only to the fact that some had introduced into the Perfect an e instead of a in the critical position, that there emerged a farther partial change between Perfect and Imperfect. On the other hand the weaker Reflexive Stem V (belonging to the Multiliteral Roots) exhibits the same change as the Active Stems. Both the Tense-forms originally possessed,in those Persons, to which no formative addition was appended,a vowel-ending (just as in Arabic), which, following the distinction of the tenses, must have changed between a for the Perfect and e (u) for the Imperfect. Such vowel-ending constituted a farther mark of distinction between the two tenses, and served also to distinguish Moods in the Imperfect Stem, by different pronunciation. But Ethiopic soon gave up entirely the vowel-ending of the Imperfect at least, i. e. the e (just as it did the termination of the Nominal Stems, 38), while it regularly ( ) preserved the ending a in the Perfect. And so by this difference a new contrast is brought about between the two Tenses:The Perfect has a fuller vowel-expression; the Imperfect ends with the last radical in the forms mentioned.
1 2

(*) And just as little in the Arabic Stems V and V I . ( ) It is only in the one Perfect Off, used for UAfl> "to be", and occurring quite as frequently in the latter form, that the a has been thrown off or has blended into an o, so that it resembles the form of expression of verbs tertiae irifirmae with the Syrians. That the distinction in meaning between UA and OlifD, which LUDOLF sets up in his 'Lexicon , is incorrect, has been already pointed out by DRECHSLER. [On the slight variation of this final & in the Abyssinian dialects, v. NOLDEKE, "Beitr. z. sem. Sprachwiss", p. 15, Note 2.]
1 2

176

91.

I n the other Semitic languages, if they possess Moods at all, Older Form of Impersuch Moods are formed from the Imperfect, partly by modification fect Tense ] used as the of the final vowel and of the personal-endings, and partly by shortSubjunotive ening; and in the most ancient times this appears to have .been the Mood. Fuller case also in Ethiopic. But in still early days the final vowels here Form as the pure must have fallen away; and the fuller endings which are still retained Imperfect [= the In- in Arabic, must have been greatly curtailed and abbreviated, so dicative that they became incapable of showing by themselves, through Mood.]

farther abbreviation, the distinction of Moods. But now, while Hebrew,which so far had followed nearly the same course as Ethiopic, either gave up entirely the distinction of Moods, or expressed it by shortening interior formative-, or radical-vowels, and by cutting off final radical-vowels, Ethiopic took a different path. I t kept the old form of the Imperfect, curtailed as i t was, for the Subjunctive, and from it fashioned a new and fuller form for the Imperfect [or Indicative]. I t compensated for the vowels and nasals discarded at the end, by interpolating an a in the stem itself after the first radical (and in the case of the Multiliteral verb, after the third-last radical) ( ). Thus there arose a new Mood-distinction, and a form of the Imperfect which diverges from the Imperfectforms of all the other Semitic languages [with the exception of Assyrian]. And, since the Imperfect [or Indicative] thus depends upon a later formation, and the old form is represented rather by the Subjunctive, we must, in discussing this class of forms, start always with the Subjunctive as the Ground-form. The Imperative proceeds from the Subjunctive, with which i t is intimately allied in meaning, the Personal sign of the 2 pers. Subj. being discarded from the beginning of the same. I n every other respect the Imperative agrees completely with the Subjunctive: only, in one or two verbs of the First Stem i t exhibits farther and more pronounced abbreviations.
x n d

I n the several roots and stems these general rules of formation are applied in the following manner.
(*) Like the method followed in Ethiopic in the inner Feminine formation of one or two Adjectives, where formative vowels, which originally were attached externally, forced their way into the interior of the form ( 129). On the corresponding forms in Assyrian, v. BARTH, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr.' I I , p. 383 sq., and HMMEL, ZDMG X L I V , p. 539. On the like in the Arabic dialect of Zanzibar,
v. PRAETORIUM, ibid X X X I V , p. 225. Of. also KNIG, p. 8 2 ; PHILIPPI, 'Beitr. z.

Assyr? I I , p. 383 sq., and REINISCH, 'Die Bedauye-Sprache*, Vol. I l l , p. 136 sqq.

92.

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92. I . 1. I n the simple Ground-Stem of the Tri-radical i . Tense Root, the Transitive and Intransitive modes of pronunciation are Formation differentiated, in accordance with 76. I n the former the P e r f e c t - P
in lSim

le

iS given as (nagara) "he spoke ; in the latter, as 7fl^ (gaora) stem. "he was active". I n the Subjunctive the characteristic vowel takes ^ j ^ * . up a position after the second radical, the first and third having itive Prono vowel. The Personal sign for the 3 pers., ft, by 101, unites with the first radical to form a syllable with the help of the vowel e. The formative vowel after the second radical is e for Transitive verbs, according to 91 (to which e the ie, and uo of other tongues have been reduced), and a for Intransitive. Thus the corresponding Subjunctives are given as *}*7C and J&*7flCj with the accent on the first syllable: yenger, yegbari^). The Imperative has the sound *J*7C and *7flC neger (or neger ?), gebdr. The Imperfect^) [or Indicative] anew interpolates an a after the first radical, by which proceeding the Personal sign is isolated, and it is then pronounced with a mere vowel-touch (Sh va). The new vowel takes the accent, and so greatly dominates the word that an a, in the syllable following it, must be reduced to e, thus:JRJ*?C "M1G yenager, yegdber. The distinction between a transitive and an intransitive pronunciation accordingly disappears in this case. Meanwhile,just as in the other Semitic languages,there are several verbs in Ethiopic which merely in one of the two tenseforms follow either the transitive or the intransitive form( ); while
rd e r 3

Gronnd-

( ) Of. TRMPP, p. 530; KNIG, p. 158 sq.In Tigra a short vowel is inserted after the first radical, in the Subjunctive (PRAETORIUS, Tigriha\ p. 276 Rem.; SCHREIBER, 'Manuel de la langue Tigra , p. 37), which NLDEKE (GGA 1886, No. 26, p. 1014) regards as original. ( ) [V. Notes to 88,89, as to DILLMANN'S nomenclature of the Moods : to be kept in view in what follows, TR.] ( ) [DILLMANN means that there are several Ethiopic verbs which are neither solely transitive in form nor solely intransitive, throughout both the Perfect and the Subjunctive. So far as can be made out from what follow?, the different varieties under this relation would be;
l 1 2 3

1. Tr. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

in

Perf. and Tr. in Subj.

T

Intr. Intr. Tr. & Intr. Tr. & Intr. Intr. Tr.

. regular Intr. T r . & Intr. Tr. & Intr. Intr. Tr. Intr. TR.]
1 s

12

178

92.

on the other hand there are some which fluctuate between the two forms in the Subjunctive, just as according to 76 several verbs admit of both even in the Perfect. The following verbs fluctuate between the two forms of pronunciation in the Subjunctive: 4Cfl "to draw near", 4 ^*n and j & ^ f r f l ; *1rA4* "to pass away", JrVVAfc and j & U * (v. Gen. 8,3); OCl "to ascend"; 0*}A "to be pregnant"; ftA*** "to be dark"; Zfaao "to be tired"( ). The verb Aftfl and Atlfl "to he down" forms both J&flll-fl and AVHl; *f-fll and Aftm "to wish", both ^i'Oh (<-) and $ f a ("!*) On the other hand, of those verbs which shift about in the Perfect between the two forms, some exhibit in the Subjunctive the Intransitive form exclusively, or at all events in the great majority of cases:{FAA "may he be like!"; *1rflG "let him be connected!"; A f t A "let him ask!"; <<: "let him be fruitful!". The following have only the Intransitive form in the Perfect, and only the Transitive in the Subjunctive:}*7i* "to be king", 1*7/*'; "to be thick", 7 U ; WiV "to make escape",
x

*}# Contrast with these the following, which have the Transitive form in the Perfect and the Intransitive in the Subjunctive: tlfi "to find", t f M l ; 71U "to sit", -JflC, 0+fl "to keep"; O^C "to wrap up"; O-f-fl "to bless with the sign of the cross"; tlOlD "to pour". The Imperative invariably follows the Subjunctive. T. and M. (1) Of the Aspirate Verbs those which have an Aspirate as Formation g ^ i ^ ^ave only this peculiarity, that, by 44, they Aspirate f nish the Personal sign of che Imperfect with the vowel a instead
rg e e r ur

Verbs-

\_
2

of a fugitive e: f0C*7, f V f l C , fP *"fl &c.( ). (2) Those which have an Aspirate as their final letter, whether they be transitive or intransitive, have all, by 45, the form in the Perfect aofofa "to be full"; iff CO "to set in order" (mal'a, Mr'a); and likewise, in the Subjunctive, seeing that here the Aspirate by rule requires a before it instead of e ( 44), they have only one form of pronunciation, lengthening this a into a, by 46: jF'A3i> / ^ A , -fl #0 Imperative: 9tit\, f&*6, 9Xh, A"VA. But
i

0) [C/. also Kebra Nag., p. X X X I , sub Ofrfl and ffh<M ( ) On the other hand, after }\^ "not", appears as a result of retrogressive Assimilation, e. g. p. 118 sqq.
2

h+frthRd* "they (f.) do not dwell"; v. Komo,

179

they exhibit no peculiarity in the Imperfect: frao&h, J&i*G& (3) Verbs with an Aspirate for their middle letter run, when transitive, like hhh "to send"; Arhfl "to draw", but when intransitive, by 45, like A O * "to grow", "to deny", "frftA "to be little": Several vary between the two forms ( 76). In the Subjunctive these roots also have a instead of e, on account of the Aspirate ( 44),so that from transitives and intransitives alike we have the formations j&flrh'fl fthrhJt, A 0 C , &9thC> In the Imperative, however, one says regularly, by 44, Arh*fl> hrh*> instead of tlth'Q, Yld\$? &c. The Imperfect, by 45, takes the form f|rh*fl yeseheb, instead of JtArHrfl C); and similarly frftthQ "he writes"; A U 4 "he grows"; J&"V> "he saves himself"; but IWdfo appears, as well as tOhdfo. Gen. 33,14 var. Only a few roots in frequent employment, having weak Aspirates, exhibit peculiar forms here. C?if "to see" has the form frChfr in the Subj., but, by 46, it lengthens frChfr into J&^/i. in the Imperf.; and in the same way II, 1 Imper. ^ and 6h- It is imitated now and then by Cflf "to herd", Imperfect $*&\; but this formation is not founded in the nature of the 0; and the better class of manuscripts usually have J&C*%, for it (cf. infra 94). Farther f|JiV "to be unable" might lengthen its e in the Imperf., thus frith }, as appears from LUDOLP'S 'Lex.', col. 172, although, as a rule, it forms ft2VI; cf. DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 377. Then the root -flUA "to say" (little used now in the Perfect) discards its 0 in the Subj. and Imperf.: accordingly we have the Subj. jP.flA (for J&*flUA)> and the Imper. flA In the Imperfect the e is at the same time lengthened into e, after the manner of the foregoing instances: thus we get ft> A ( 46); and, as A is cut off in all those Persons, in which it would become the final letter ( 58), the result is fl,. But seeing that this fl is invariably used ( 89 ad fin.) with the force of a Preterite, "he said", the language fashioned a new Imperfect J&'flA? for 'flUA> in the sense"he says" and "he will say". In like manner although the Subj. of f)UA "to be able" is given in full jfl(/A? the Imperf.
> 0 l

(*) So that the form, to judge by the written character, coincides with the Subjunctive of strong Transitive verbs. I n pronunciation it is essentially different from it. 12*

180

93.

is usually shortened into J&hA. (yekel)\ hut } ) U A occurs also, v. I Kings, 26,25. Roots in which two Aspirates meet together are rare ( 66): -fl/HK "to become sour"; M H "to take", "to catch" (*). The latter forms the Subj. 2 ^ T f , Imper. M H , Imperf. J&fr'l'H- The Subj. f K*VH, which LUDOLP found in an old manuscript, Ps. 15,6 and 34, 9 (cf. also John 7,30) and for which he printed f MH (as Subj. of St. I , 2), may perhaps be explained by having been spoken at one time like \ 93. Of roots with doubled final letter {y"y) the Transitive T. and M. Formation of Weak Perfect is pronounced like ' Y I P W "to seek"; Vflfl "to speak"; and verbs:the Intransitive, like dx" (hdmma, for ih9o hdm ma, 55) "to med.gem, be i l l " , "to suffer". Some take both modes of expression: and J "to burn"; rhftA and /ftX "to become small", "to decrease"; and 1p "to flee". From these come the Transitive Subjunctives 1 r / ^ / ^ , JE/HMl fl"-, J&^AA); also from Rflfl "to compress" and "to be narrow", ft*'fl'fl,Imper. XW1, ft^'Jt but the Intransitive T-f( ), d f ( ) ; Imper. &c. The Imperfect is pronounced g/iRft;
0 e 2 3

JZ^-fMl, f'V*'/*' ( 92). Of Boots beginning with a Vowel, the only one beginning prxm. voc. with i which is as yet vouched for in this Stem (Simple GroundStem) is ?*nA (intr.) "to be dry", Imperf. J &f'flfl, Subj. f l f | , Imper. flft. But those which begin with u are numerous. Transitive and Intransitive forms are found in the Perfect:e. g. fDA "to beget", (Did "to throw" and "to stone", <n& "to descend", <DA& "to lead away"; (Dgty (rarely (DM Numb. 14,5) "to fall"; with middle Aspirate: OhftiH "to flow", <0*^ "to become few", fl^fll (and 0J"7m) "to gulp down", (DUfl "to give"; with final Aspirate: <D*?h "to butt", "to push"; (D&h "to go out". Only a small number of these preserve the initial w-sound in the Subjunctive, hardened into a semi-vowel in the combination |D* ( 49), whence in transitive form J&fl)7G (Lev. 24, 16; Deut. 22, 24), 0>C4, m-<PC, < M C 0 K - , <M fl Acts 19, 33;
verbs C ) tx'hd. has Subj. I , 2 'IhK'iC according to a siDgle reading in Ex. 22,28, in the sense "to delay"; other MSS. have 11,1. ( ) Also Numb. 10, 34.
1 2

( ) [For the form J&frVJ, along with frR'}'}, from Jtf, ftfi "to be inclined" v. Kehr a Nag. 117 b 12.]
3

93.

181

of Aspirate roots: frOhph Hen. 89, 43; frOhpd ("to suck") Hebrews 5,12. I n the majority of cases the sound,frtth, which is not much in favour, is simplified by rejecting the tfh ( 53), and then, when the verbs are transitive, the second syllable is strengthened by assuming a instead of e. True, the form f|" (yesed) also occurs, e. g. in Gen. 27, 10, Note; Ps. 42, 3; but usually ct prevails:>ti?C), frlC John8,7 (as well as the above-mentioned *0h lG), <{.G (the u being retained in this case after the preformative), JR4G? fll *J ; just as in the Intransitives frfjp, From middle-Aspirate verbs, f d \ H ( 44); ? 0 A Luke 19,5; Ps. 68, 18; PIM1- From final-Aspirate verbs, Whenever the first radical has fallen out in the Subjunctive, it ceases also to appear in the Imperative, thus $Jp, Ar> V'Q, h\ and from forms like J&A% comes the Imperative ftj^ Ex. 33,12; Gen. 42,19 (although now and then AJt is also found, as well as J & A J C " ) . - But even from frObiC there is derived, by rejecting the first radical, 7C Ex. 1, 22 (yet we have also ahlC, and 1C from v. Notes ad loc.): and similarly we say 4*C (from 04*^ "to hew") Deut. 10,1, as well as $C, 0>tyC, and OHC Ex. 34,1, v. Notes ( ).
a 2

The Imperfect of all these verbs uniformly runs thus: J&lDjHk <DA", <DCA, F'fflbh and from Middle-Aspirates, frahfaH, frO**d A &c. Only, the much employed word (DUfl, by transposing the tt-sound in ( D | J ' f l yeweheb, invariably takes instead of it the form IM1( ) Boots mediae infirmae of both kinds,i. e. both with i and ^ u as middle radical, do away with ( 50) the a or e in the Perfect, which ought to make itself heard after the second radical, thus obliterating any distinction between a Transitive and an Intransitive form of pronunciation. They invariably blend their vowel-radical with the formative a of the first syllable into a mixed sound: "to bear", "to carry"; "to run"; fa "to go"; "to set"; "to turn"; "to pass the night"; and so too when the
a

Ver

C ) Cf. j J j G , T ^ ; PHILIPPI, Z D M G X L , p. 653.

( ) Some of the verbs concerned here are not yet supported by examples in all the forms. ( ) In accordance with 68, this may be regarded as a transition from a Vowel-beginning Root to a Vowel-centred one; but in that case it must be assumed at the same time, that here the old form of the Imperfect, which elsewhere took the meaning of a Subj., continued to be retained.
3

182

verb is at the same time tertiae gutturalis: fh "to conquer"; flji "to come"; & r h "to make a way"; 6rh "to be red"( ). I t is only those, which are at the same time vowel-ending, that take another form, 94. When LUDOLF in his Lexicon cites forms like fHD*, *TfOm, 0 f l H , <wpfl, f 0, flf f l , (ltd., f V, he has given them this shape only, because he had not yet met with their more exact expression in the Perfect, in the course of his reading. The forms of the Perfect I f ^, d.f't; 0(D(i are vouched for, it is true, but they appear to represent Stem 1,2 ( ). The Subjunctive from roots mediae i takes throughout, by 50, the form fr"%f, fr**L9, *V.A, JRrtUd, r h f l Matt. 1 1 , 2 0 ; Jude 9:Imperative % ?, "*L9i Is. 40,2. Roots middle u also nearly all have
x 2 a i

the form described in 5 0 : f t . G , 0-% J&M; Imperative ft.C> W'ft- Also, ftV "to be" has mostly J^Vl-"} in the Subjunctive, and Yi"} in the Imperative; but, according to 26 and 36, these forms may be still farther shortened into Yf""J and Vf*"}. I t is, however, unmistakeable that an intransitive form existed also at one time in the Subjunctive and Imperative, at least in roots mediae u, and that this form caused the intransitive vowel a,which has to be given after the second radical, to remain still audible ( ).It is most frequently preserved still in f h G > fhC> particularly in older manuscripts, though later ones generally have / h G , r h : So too with # G and & C ( ) . I t may be met with too in other instances here and there, e. g. in = fr^*; v. DILLMANN'S 'Lexicon'. I n roots mediae %, such differentiation of an intransitive form cannot yet be authenticated, even for more ancient times. Finally, the Subjunctive of the two roots 0Y\ "to come" and oph "to conquer" were perhaps at one time also pronounced fl?i> &1}\; but, under the influence of the final Aspirate, 0 passed over, in accordance with 44, into an un3
4

Q) Cf. the Arabic Imala; KONIG, p. 67; BARTH Z D M G X L I V , p. 698.

[The Imala, of course, is the 'deflection' of the a-sound towards the i-sound;
v. WRIGHT'S 'Ar. Qramm." 3
2
1 R D

ed. I , p. 10 O. TR.]

( ) This cannot be determined with certainty before the relative Imperfectforms have been found. ( ) It is distinguished from the Transitive form, just as is from
3

or o L i B o from J - J b . ( ) [V. also Kebra Nag. 'Introd.' p. X V I I . ] V . on the other hand KONIG,
4

>i

p. 1518q.

94.

183

alterable a ( 46), whence we invariably have . f l h F* !}*, and in the Imperative flh, " V h C ) . The Imperfect of all these roots, of both kinds, whether transitive or intransitive, is formed precisely as in the strong verb; but the vowel-radical which follows the interpolated (v. 92) and accented a must be hardened into a semivowel, thus: j&hfl***}, ftfl>C, PtOh*,, f 0 f l > - - , f thOhC PtkO-h, P*tP>9, f UJ&Jt, f / h A Rev. 2, 4. (On the pronunciation v. 50), 94. Boots tertiae infirmae of both kinds (with % and with u) weak sound the final a in the 3 pers. Sing, of the Perfect, just as all ^Hued-- " the other roots do, and thus regularly harden their vowel-radical inf. in this position ( 51, 68). I t is only in one or two instances that an Intransitive form occurs in the Perfect from roots tertiae u, and in these instances the second radical is either an Aspirate, or a vowel or semivowel:"f*Afl) "to follow"; <{/f"fl), more rarely 6jfr(D "to lust after"; also \\0(D "to pour out"; ArhfD "to extend" (neut.); on the other hand R*rhO> "to awake" (neut.); JFUfl) "to melt" (neut.); and so too the doubly weak root rhj&<0 "to live" (originally hdyewa, more shortly hdiwa); cf, infra. I n roots tertiae i, however, the distinction between the transitive and the intransitive modes of pronunciation is regularly indicated in forms A ^ P "to pardon"; fltfDp "to name"; frflf "to refuse"; and "TiCf "to elect"; and C f "to bear fruit"; A ^ P "to drink"; 0 - f l f "to be big"; flAP "to grow old"; CM "to see"; C A P "to feed", "to herd"; ^ O p "to recover" (n.); flHkp "to burn". I n the Subjunctive the short e of the transitive form is dislodged by the third radical, 51, and therefore we have ^ A * (for yetle-u)\ J & M s , * 7 A " , J&Aft., A J ? . , T K , Matt. 26,34; and others; - m u "to weep"; fM& "to dig"; A h Dent. 4,42; C f e ; J&TA. Ex. 32,10; jR/hA* "to sing"; JRAA., Ps. 130,4. But the a of the intransitive form, as well as the a of roots middle-Aspirate, retains its position, and forms a diphthong with the radical which follows i t ; thus constantly with a following \\A; JE-A+JR (now and then in the transitive form A"fc)> J&*1^J&;
rd
11

V e r t s

tert

(*) I f it were only (1 ) \ that had this formation, it might also have been accounted for in accordance with 68, a [,an explanation which might be still retained, if we consider PVt\ to be an analogous formation to f l ? t (v. 103).]


41A; W (
f r o m

184

94.

V e r b s

weak.

W ) ; T 0 ; H O ^ ; C f c , frCOfr also with a following u, in which case, it is true, the diphthong often turns into the mixed letter b: frf.-fr Ex. 20,17. After an Aspirate, however, the diphthongal form is more closely adhered to, although it is not invariably retained: frKthOh] frtlthOh; fr\\ 0 O K Accordingly the Imperative takes, in some cases, the form ^As 0 & ; KA*; b%*\ AA; 1 A . ; O f t , and in others, the form hOffr ( 44) and even Eev. 3,19 (Old Ed.); 7 * ; * f l A ; tl'tfr (and in transitive form ft-fc); 0 , e. John 21, 15, 16 ( ). But C h f "to see", although it has always frChfrnever frCh*in the Subjunctive, yet takes the shorter (transitive) form in the Imperative, viz. Ch+-The form /Jfrfr or even CYxfrt which is read here and there, is not a good reading. In the Imperfect the e, which should be uttered after the second radical, is regularly dislodged by the succeeding vowel, thus: fri*fc, 4 v l A * , H 4 v fr^ "to sound", f f M = , A-fc, frd%, f-*<5, f o n , eoA.. From roots middle-Aspirate (by 45): fr\lfh, frith, frty^frKd*', frT% frCX (and fr&% 92), A r h (Liturg., from A r h P ) , but G h P bas always fr&h^, 92; and in the Berlin Manuscript of Henoch [Cod. "Q" in FLEMMING'S edition] frlfh. always appears for frah*\, e. g. 93,8. Now though these forms of the Imperfect, from middle-Aspirate roots, coincide with the Subjunctive forms of verbs which are not middle-Aspirate, there still is no possibility of mistaking the one for the other, because the latter forms have always a corresponding Imperfect with a in the first syllable, and the former always a Subjunctive with a in the second. As regards Doubly Weak Boots ( 69), " M ? f and 0 ? p have been dealt with already in 93. Of those which are both vowelbeginning and vowel-ending, CD&f "to put in" forms the Subj. frfr.fr; Imper. frfr, Oh^, and Ohf.fr (Herm. p. 81 b. 1. 7); Imperf. J&lD^.; "to burn" forms the Subj. fOfr ( 44); Imperfect frOh ^ (the Imper. is not yet vouched for); and (Dffif forms frQ**Au ( - DILLMANN'S 'Lex', col. 893). The solitary root which has both middle i and final u, viz. dtfrOf, exhibits no peculiarities winch the foregoing account could not explain; it has the Subj. frlbR* and frt1\?a>'] Imper. /hf" and /ihf <D; Imperf. f Afc- Boots which have both middle u and final i take a transitive form in the PerJ
0

O [For the occurrence of OfyOh,

A'flO* v. Kehra Nag. ,Intvo&., p.XVII.,]

95.

185

feet: tt )p "to be i l l " ; iPflJf "to rub the ears of corn", "to ripen"; <fl)p "to quench one's thirst", Gen. 24, 22; m<Df (or a\Oh??)

"to make windings";Imperf.,

&V>% 6% tym'E (2 sg.

,

m., Ps. 17, 29); Subj. (not supported for all of them) J&, fl). 95 2. The Intensive Ground-Stem is given in the Perfect Tense and with three a's, of which the one that follows the second radical is T^ the essential and determining one, and therefore (according to 2.intensive L U D O L F and TKUMPP) it has the Tone: fassdma "to com- ^ ' plete". As the second radical must be doubled, the strong formation always appears, even with the double-lettered (jrp or med. gem.) and the vowel-centred (med. voc.) roots, thus: ftffH azzdza, "to command"; th(DH haivwdza, "to be agreeable"; fliff tayydqa, "to investigate strictly"^); and the same formation, of course, occurs with the other roots:e. g. (D(D "to throw"; rhA? "to think"; <Ofl) "to send". But roots which have an Aspirate for their last letter take, in accordance with 45, the form A'flsh sabbeha( ), "to give praise to"; guagguea, "to be in haste", "to be eager"; sawwea, "to call"; PID-0 yawweha, "to show clemency". I n the formation of the Subjunctive, the Personal Sign is put in an isolated position and is therefore uttered with a VoWeltouch (or She va), because the first radical, along with the first half of the second and doubled radical, forms one single unalterable, closed syllable; and, instead of the a of the Perfect, there appears in the determining position (i. e. after the second radical) in the Subjunctive a toneless e, which is suppressed by a closing radical-vowel, thus: $*&f\9 yefdssem or, in the case of an initial Aspirate, prh,R"A "to renew" yahdddes; or, with a final Aspirate, M'dAx, P'hT-K From weak roots we have f f t H l f , M% f-fl-fl, <DAT, a ) - A , J&fcflW>, tthOhf;, ffl>-U, a>flH> yewdwwe (Josh. 6, 5): fli4 yetdyyeq; J&Htf *, PUA*
0 B t e i 2 e c 1

yahdllu, D 4 (fromfli^lD); RA> W A . , PfhA.- Imperativeforms are &.K9 fdssem, hHH, ( D A T , 3U*A, ffl>MJ, OWhd, fllK <0-> RA> A. Only, as a result of a shortened and inaccurate pronunciation ( 56), jbrnpty, m 4 * d the like may have the sound of yetaiq, taiq. The middle-Aspirate roots ought
a n

( ) Thus too

IPfJ,

ffifA,

so far as they belong to St. 1,2;

not

"M,

rh.A( ) LTJDOLF, 'Gramm. Aeth.' 11,2.

2

186

95.

properly to have formed a Subjunctive after the type J&H>D yemdhher, "(that) he teach"; and, in point of fact, in this case d is still retained in a number of instances before the double Aspirate, in old manuscripts and impressions (e. g. Deut. 4,9, 36; 6,1); but even for this case, the expression which is preferred is, in accordance with 45, fr9VC yemehher, Imper. jFUC> e- g- Ps. H8,26, 64: In later pronunciation, in which the Aspirates came to be uttered less and less clearly and distinctly, these forms easily degenerated into yemehr, mehr, 56. In other respects these two Moods have nothing peculiar in their formation. I t must however be kept in mind here, that several roots admit Stem 1,1 and Stem I , 2 in the same meaning; in particular, 101^, twOd, &0, and some others besides, v. 77, ad fin. Meanwhile, to form the Imperfect an additional a is inserted after the first radical; and the double sound of the radical, which follows the resulting long vowel, becomes inaudible, and is made up for by shading off the a into e (from a + i). Accordingly the Imperfect [or Indicative] of this Stem, in all classes of roots, is uniformly produced by estabhshing an e after the first radical, thus: fr^Rr yefesemC), frdyfrh, fr^VC, frtbHth, Y),VJ, j&IWMI, J&'BAT, J&*BOHd, <h.OhX, m , f r , fc/V, RA> J&rh>fV This e of the Imperf. is at the same time the surest external mark of all the Intensive Stems. T. and M. 3. I n the Influencing Ground-Stem the a which contains the TnThe force of the Stem bears the Tone throughout, except that when influencing the second radical is an Aspirate, it draws the tone in the Perfect
F 011

Ground-

,
2

stem.

to its own syllable( ), thus: Mqaya; but ArhCO lahdwa. The Imperfect [or Indicative] in this Stem is not distinguished from the Subjunctive, because the means employed for this purpose in other forms ( 91) are not sufficient to produce a special form in this case. The forms concerned therefore run thus: Perf. flh, Imperf. and Subj. f l h , Imper. flCh; in the same way: # 0 , fr^6C, SdC", with final Aspirate: f|Arh "to rescue" bdleha,
( ) According to PBAETORIUS, 'Beitr. z. Ass. I , p. 27, this yefesevn must have arisen out of an original yefissim by a compensatory process of lengtheningto which the Tigrina J&K"9 [with an audible doubling of the R] points. [For another explanation of this form, derived from an analogous phenomenon in Assyrian, v. BBZOLD, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr? X V I I , p. 273.]
( ) LUDOLF, Gr.
2 l

-1

Aeth. I , 7, 3.

96.

187

OA/h, flArh; and from weak roots: t\{J* ACC, ACC; 9ihV, Prh, *Prh; f+P, Arhfl), A/h, Arh8 96. I I . Causative Stems. _ 1. In the Causative of the Simple Ground-Stem, the second formation radical has a in the Perfect, and so too has the third, in the 3 causative pers. sing, masc: the first, primarily being without a vowel, is attached, by way of closing the syllable, to the formative prefix of the Stem. This closed (first) syllable takes the Tone; and only when the second radical is an Aspirate (with a), does the Tone fall on the second syllable ( ). The Causative is formed in the same way, whether from transitive or intransitive roots, thus: JiJPAA dmsala "to declare alike"; h&$ "to love"; hYltUP* akhada "to convict of falsehood". From roots with final Aspirate come: Mf^h dnMa "to raise"; h'dCO "to illuminate"'. Of all the strong and Aspirate roots, "flUA alone has the singular peculiarity of parting with its Aspirate ( 47): JtflA abdla, "to cause to say", for ftflUA- Besides, it must again be recalled here, that roots with an initial Aspirate do not lengthen their Stemforming \\ before the mute Aspirate ( 4 6 ) , thus: h/h^tf , ftfttfo^, (not hthd )Of the remaining roots, the double-lettered and the vowel-ending have a thoroughly strong formation in this 3 pers. sing. masc. of the Perfect: ft7(10 "to read"; hT^ff "to put to flight"; M'Afl) "to cause to follow"; ftA1*P "to give to drink"; hGhf "to show". Specially to be emphasised is ftjPdfl dm'e'a "to provoke". The Vowel-beginning roots blend their first radical with ft into a diphthong: ftfl>A& dulada "to deliver" (in birth); Kahili "to answer"; ftflA "to dry up" (trans.)- ft-0 "to make known". The Vowel-centred (med. voc.) Roots for the most part, even in this Stem, do not admit the a after the second radical, and they maintain the shorter pronunciation of 1,1, thereby isolating the ft of the Causative Stem, while the tone falls on the long radical vowel, thus: th, htt*6 ahbra\ ftft; A.A, ftdi.A (along with which, to be sure, ft/hf A occurs); Jfcft, ftfoA- I t is only those which are at the same time Vowel-ending roots, that must of necessity, by 69, assume the strong formation, just as in 1,1: ftjhffll "to enliven", "to vivify"; ftC<Df "to give to drink";
m J r d s t e m s J 11 00 r d

(*) [TRUMPP, p. 522, makes the Tone in these Stems fall on the second syllable throughout, e. g. afqara. TR.]

188

96.

,ftJ"<Df> KTflJf- And yet there are a few roots mediae , which also admit of the strong formation: p "to be bhnd" and pty "to attend to" may indeed form Y\PC and hPty, but, when broken up because of the Aspirate, they may also form ftflfl)^ (and ft0^), and l\ffl*p- From roots unused in St. I , 1 LUDOLE brings up ft/**<Dfll " convey back" and hlotd "to insult", though without supporting-instances. A few roots mediae , especially those which end in an Aspirate or Labial-Nasal, exhibit quite a peculiar formation,shortening their into a (originally a) and thus assuming the appearance of simple triliteral Stems (*): pft "to come", *r*1i "to be long", and the obsolete root fl*h constantly form ft*flft, ft">*V ft*flrh "to permit" (in accordance with 45), for ftflft, ftV"1bwhich still occurs: Josh. 24, 29 v. Notes [and Kebra Nag. 145 a 17] and ftflrh; and they are imitated by ( 48, ad fin.) fn|, ftfli4> "to confine" Josh. 19,47, though we have also hTi'p, Hen. 89,15 ( ). I n the same way $tn> "to rise up", *fao "to sleep"form Yxtyew and ft)tfD, e. g. Judges 16, 14, 19, for which the later manuscripts have ftTtf; cf. also faoD't*= hf ^, h9i\ and hTh, ft<X = ft& 2 Esr. 2, 30 var. On fti#m (for ft/**<Dfli or hY*(n) - the Imperative (infra). In the Subj. and Impf, of this and the other Causative Stems, the Personal formative-prefix JE, blends with the Causative ft into 47 ( ); but the ft appears again in the Imperative, when the Personal prefix has been thrown off. As regards the vowels, e appears in the Subj. after the second radical, in accordance with 91, while the first radical is mute, just as in the Perfect, and becomes attached as a closing letter to the prefix-syllable, thus: ffbtyC yfqer, J M l ^ A yabquel (from ft'fl'feA); from Aspirate roots: Sh9C y'mer, $9h\Q ymher, flfh, ^-flCU; but
t o 2 0 Y 3

(*) KNIG, p. 116. Perhaps at one time the first radical was pronounced as a double letter, to make up for the that had fallen out,so that these forms would answer to the Hebrew in J^H, n^H. ( ) [FLBMMING, 'Das Buch Henoch', Leipzig 1902, in this passage adopts the reading fl)ftfll4'? < " instead of the reading which DILLMANN selected,
2 > ,l>

a^ft'p <4 $ * T E . ] ( ) According to PRAETORIUS, as cited p. 41 the Tigrina f^'lhA = 7t5jp^, ^ J Q J has preserved the more original forms in preference to the Ethiopic and Amharic ones. [Farther v. supra, p. 92, Note ( ), as to the frequent use of ft instead of the ft (resulting from ftft) of the l pers. Sing.Imperf. Causative. PRAETOEIUS draws attention emphatically to this usage ('Aeth, Gr.' p. 51). TR.]
3 2 st

,0

96.

189

from ftflA, from double-lettered roots, ^ l - f l - f l , . W H h ; from \\fbO, P96d ydme;from vowel-beginning roots, ydide\ e. g. Hen. 106,12, ?ahfr ydwledC), ^flH/hTf. I n accordance with these we have the Imperative ft^P^C dfqer, ftft?C, hi fit, Jtf-fMI, ftj&JtA, fta^AJt Med. Vowel-centred and vowel-ending roots do not admit the e after the second radical, thus: $(\Jt, Imper. ftfl/h from ftflrf; $(hR, Imper. ft&C; too ftfll.fl, Tobit 6, 16. But those Stems mediae u, which have in the Perfect the short pronunciation ft*flft, Y\$0, form the Subj. usually after that type, ^*flft, ?&9, $19, ^ f l / h (Josh. 10, 19) ( ), and therefore the Imper. ft4>0 (e. g. Josh. 6, 3 ; Judges 20, 7), ftllft aVe (for a-oe\ 43), ftTl ( ). But it should be noticed, as regards the longer or the shorter pronunciation, that the Perfects and the Subjunctives and Imperatives do not always conform to each other by any means, seeing that e. g. htyffv may take the form ft'fejF in the Imper. (Liturg.), as well as h$9, and that ft'J'Tf may also take the form fflp'h in the Subj. I n like manner or ftA(D4* may form or fdOhty, and ft/**fl)fll (?) may have the Imper. ft/**T Deut 22, 1. Vowel-ending roots give: W A - yddlu, $bf{., ^Jl-fc, $60., $CK\ Imper. ftjr^Addlu, ft-n*, ft14-5 h A - t , hCK Doubly weak roots yield: Imper. ftCC; ?th%, Imper. ft/h; $Oh% Imper. ftOJ-'V.. From these forms the Imperfect [or Indicative] is quite simply fashioned by inserting the accented vowel a after the first radical, except that in roots having a middle Aspirate, e appears instead, thus: ?&$C ydfdqer, ?t\9"C 9hF'ft; but ?9faC yameher (kept, by pronunciation, quite distinct from the Subj. p9ihC ydmher), JNflA ydbel, $ 4M{, $rbt> ya-me-e\ JffJtA, ?(D&;, but ^m-ZhH yawehez (overagainst Subj. ydwhez). The Imperfect is formed in a similar manner from all vowel-centred roots, whether they have the long or the short pronunciation in the Subj.: pdiGhQ, ^flfl>*ft,
s o 2 3 1 t

filahfa, $\ahf, ?oa>-ty, ?#ah9, maHk> (Josh. 19, 4 7 ) , ^hj&K* (properly ydkdyed, then readily yakdid); and from vowel-ending roots ^ & A - , A-fc, b u t ^ C f t , ( ^ e - % i. e. ydr-i) <D4, $Oh\ ydwe%.
:

(*) According to TRUMPP, p. 529,to be pronounced yauled. ( ) Also Lev. 25, 46.
2

()

Cf. PHILIPPI, 'Beitr. z. Ass.% I I , p.

380.

190

96.

2. The Causative of the Intensive Stem is distinguished in form from the Ground-Stem 2, merely hy the prefixed formative syllable of the Stem, ft. The latter is always isolated, as the first radical forms along with the first half of the double letter an unchangeable, closed syllable. The toneO is usually on the third-last syllable; and only when the second radical is an Aspirate, is it on the second-last in the Perfect. Accordingly the Perfect is: ft"|fl agdbbara, "to compel"; ftAOA aldala, "to lift up" (Judges 7, 20); ftftoJV, "to make a judge"; fttfnJJ, "to render contemptible"; ft"Y?A> "to strengthen"; ftm?4>, "to assure"; ftl*if, "to beautify"; ftAHfD, "to make intelligent". But from roots with final Aspirate we have forms like ftSWlrh, "to cause to pay taxes" ; ft'W'ft, "to urge to haste"; ftiP/^O, "to satiate"; ft<7i>A0, "to proceed farther". Seeing, however, that this Stem is rather lengthy and polysyllabic in the Perfect, many roots,particularly those of the Middle-Aspirate class ( 56),endeavour to replace it by St. 11,1, at least in the Perfect, and occasionally even in the other formations (cf. 97,2): thus ftA0A is used in the Perfect in preference to ftAOA; e. g. in Glen. 7,17; 18,2; ftftw always, instead of ftfttf; h'tth't' always, instead of ft-fvh'fo "to humiliate", but scarcely ftr<w>i, "to wrap up in clouds" ( ), for ft<H>V. K% frequently occurs in the Perfect instead of hO, "to equalise". The Subjunctive has the form ^1flG ydgdbber; fYtofi, $XP\, ^Aflh and the Imperative the form ft*MlG ctgdbber, ftho'J'J, ftfllj&fo hwfa ft AH' But from Middle-Aspirate roots:Subjunctive ^ A d A (properly yale"-el, which closes into yal% 56); Imper. ftA^A e. g. Josh. 8, 18 ( ). The Imperfect in all cases uniformly runs thus: ydgeber \ JFA.0A f'bHv^,
2 3

.F'W&A, ? t,0>''},

^Afl- &c. Noticeable on account of its

(*) LUDOLF, 'Gr. Aeth: 1,7. This rule, however, does not agree with the teaching of LUDOLF about the Tone in the case of St. 1 , 2 and I I I , 2. Cf. also supra, p. 150, Note 1. [In fact TRUMPP, p. 522, keeps the Tone throughout on the second-last syllable, T R . ] ( ) As LUDOLF has it in his 'Lexicon p. 496. Certainly LUDOLF himself has "to lead to repentance",
2 1

ft/**fllV "to cause to foam", ftT'Arh ftfl>*mi "to cause to begin"; ftT^T^ft (v. supra), for ftl*0)7, ftiftrh, ftfDmV ft'KP'ft. At least the other form of pronunincorrectly contrived the forms ( ) I n like manner
3

ciation has hitherto remained without support. ft^A^ Eph. 5,21.

97.

191

fluctuations between I I , 1 and 2, is the word "to catch in the net", "to net", in respect that, for instance, it forms the Perfect (Matt. 17, 27), and the Subjunctive and Imperative (John 21,3; 1 Cor. 7,35; Cant. 2, 18) according to Stem 11,1, but the Imperfect (Mark 1, 16; Luke 5, 10) according to Stem 11,2. Farther tiPd and hP*p form the Subj. from St. 11,1, but the Imperf. from St. 11,2; and a stricter investigation of the treasures of the language would no doubt furnish instances of similar fluctuations in other roots. 3. The Causative of the Influencing Stem is likewise distinguished from its Ground-Stem merely by the Stem formative prefix: Perf. ftA+rt aldqasai ); Subj. jf/itytl, John 11, 19; Imper. M 4 f t ; Imperf. ^ A ^ f t , John 11,31. Weak roots: $<tfc Subj. and Imperf.(and from quadriliteral roots, which follow this Stem: f%ao- Mark 5, 35; Luke 8, 49; $a\(h Acts 17, 16). I n middleAspirate roots the tone in the Perfect must rest here also on the second-last syllable: h * P r h & awdhdda.
1

8 97. I I I . R e f l e x i v e Stems. in. The Stem formative prefix *f is in the Perfect placed before T. and M. the root externally and separately; in the Subjunctive and Imper^ feet it blends with the Personal formative prefix into the syllable
F o r a t l o n e n e x i v e 3

Stems.

J&T and this T is, in accordance with 54, assimilated to a following Sibilant or to a mute dental-lingual. I n the tense-formation here the change of vowels ( 91) is never carried out in St. I l l , 2 and 3, and but seldom in St. I l l , 1 (v. infra). Farther the distinction between the Imperf. and the Subj. is carried out only in Stem 111,2. I n Stem 111,3, it could just as little have made its appearance,for the reasons given in 95,3, as in Stems 1,3 and I I , 3. But even in I I I , 1, where the Subj. has already a after the first radical, the Ethiopic means of forming the Imperfect were insufficient to create a special form. To lengthen the a would have transformed the Stem into St. 111,3; the lengthening therefore remained in abeyance, and the Subj. and Imperf. coincide. I t might be, of course, that in more ancient times the two forms were at least differentiated by means of the tone, e. g. that J&'hfflC as Subjunctive, was pronounced yetgabdr, and as Imperfect, yetgdbar or yetgabar.
( ) Cf. supra, however, p. 150, Note 2.
l

192

97.

1. I n the case of the Reflexive of the Simple Ground-Stem, seeing that in the Perfect the first radical is originally vowel-less, we might have expected the form " H i f t } , like M l & ) in Cans. St. 11,1. This form, however, is no longer met with, with the exception of f'ti^'h "to raise one's self, "to rise up"( ): and even this exception became possible only through the form having been derived, not from St. 1,1, but directly from St. 11,1, hlt^h "to lift up", overagainst which the Reflexive-Passive of fr/**ft "to take" is invariably given *Hf/**ft( ). I f it is remembered, that jh itself is merely an abbreviation of ft)h or ft^fr* ( 80), and that the oldest form must therefore have been ft'HlAV, we have the explanation of the circumstance that this f does not, like the Causative ft, combine with the first radical to form one syllable. Out of an original ft^hhthe form -f-tlftV arose through abbreviation, ^ t l f t l , in fact, with the tone upon the chief vowel in the secondlast syllable is the first and most obvious form of this Stem in the Perfect. But it has not continued to be the only one. On the contrary, in this Reflexive-Passive Stem, the intransitive or passive vowel e ( 75 sq.) has very frequently made good its position, in place of the Active vowel a, as in f ' l ' f l ^ tagdbra (for tagdbera); and thereby a change of vowels between the Perfect on the one hand, and the Imperfect and Subjunctive on the other, has been at the same time secured, inasmuch as the of the Imperfect and Subjunctive answers to the passive e of the Perfect. But which of the two forms of pronunciation is to be employed in the several roots, cannot be determined by general rules. I t was, after all, nothing but the usage of the language ( ) which decided for the one form or the other. I n many roots the two forms are freely exchanged for one another. The fundamental difference between the two may possibly at first have been, that +04*0 for instance, signified "to watch one's self", "to take care", while f'Otyd meant "to be
x 2 3

(*) I cannot accept the explanation of this word given by KNIG, p. 148. According to NLDEKE, GGA 1886, No. 26, p. 1016, "f"T / ft is a denominative, from a Substantive like
2

^"'J'Vft.

( ) [For the employment of f""3'/*'ft instead of *f*V/**ft and vice versa, v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.\ col. 637 sq.]. ( ) This, however, has not yet been investigated with sufficient strictness; and many statements made by LUDOLF regarding it, in his Dictionary and his Grammar, stand in need of correction.
3

97.

193

watched, or cared for'^ ); but in later times this distinction was completely obliterated. However, for brevity's sake, we shall call the pronunciation with e, "the passive pronunciation". Accordingly we have in the strong verb the twofold form of the Perfect: f'tf^flm "to be robbed"; Mfl "to happen". From the Middle-Aspirate Verb ( 45) come, for the most part, forms like 't ithv tagSMa "to withdraw"; -f'K'VH "to be taken prisoner"; "HlUA "to be possible" ( ); more rarely with a, iflftA (^flKA) "to fight"; from a verb with a final aspirate the form is always +wAh "to become full", -f-AjPO "to be heard". Prom doublelettered verbs we have either f** iu*iP "to be sought"; or more frequently, with the passive pronunciation, - f ^ f l "to be read"; *f"A "to be banished", in some few instances written ( 55); but i*900 tame a, "to be angry", may, according to 56, by throwing back the doubling of the second radical upon the first, be simplified into -flPO tamm&a, and then into tarn a. Vowelbeginning and vowel-ending verbs always have the strong formation in the Perfect: 'frfRO "to become known"; fa>A& "to be born"; f'flJ-lJfl "to be given"; *f"0&<D "to transgress"; * J-<D"P "to be put in"; -frYldO) "to be poured out"; i*h? "to be seen". Vowelcentred roots, when uttered with a, have the strong formation; if given with e, they reject the e ( 50) and produce a diphthong: -tOmh Numb. 22, 3 and I'UOhh Matt. 2, 3, "to be troubled"; -MJ& Hen. 89, 58 "to be robbed"; -btPfrao "to be settled"; very rarely the diphthong blends into a mixed sound: 'bpO "to be sacrificed" (Org.); l"^ft(?) "to be disgorged".The Subjunctive and Imperfect are formed from the whole body of the roots 'strongly', and uniformly with the chief vowel a after the second radical, and with a as the readiest vowel for the first. Vowelcentred roots must harden their vowel-radical; the vowel-ending ones combine it with the preceding a into a diphthong; and it
a 2 t K

(*) As LUDOLF assumed.

But LUDOLF, trusting too much, to this as-

sumed law of his, often enough Bet up a form in his Dictionary like met with the other form
2

"1*04*0

without being able to give an instance of its use, even when he had frequently

*f*04*ft

the Perfect (v. DRECHSLER, p. 34).

( ) It is not correct in copyists to lengthen the vowel of the first radical before a mute Aspirate, thus:

*fr\\thli

"to paint one's eyes", for 13

194

97.

is only roots tertiae u which may farther hlend the diphthong into a mixed sound (exactly as in the Ground-stem, 94), thus: ^h7flC yetgabarC), J ^tfoflT, P^MH, rt"7d ( 46), j & ^ n - n , tArmon, p^-Md, je^ufjc-, p^owYi, zwpd, ptfO&ah or P^OP, ^ < D , ffidhp. Also the Perfect f'Tr^'h forms the Imperfect and Subjunctive J&'lhV'f ft, just like 'fr'lP'h J d in the same way 't^dO and f'9 0 equally form ]h*fl>'}fl. The Imperative, because derived from the Subj., likewise exhibits a invariably after the second radical: 'MflG* f'ft'VH? -f^A, - M W , -t-tA-Oh or -frdh?* &c But in the Imperative of 'jh7 /* K the peculiar pronunciation, imitated from Causative 1, comes back again, i 'i/ }\, "Arise!". So too runs the Imperative of *f"jF fl0, shortened into *f*9d (Plural also, ^96(h)' Farther, Middle-Aspirate roots, which have the Passive pronunciation -^"IthW in the Perf., occasionally take the shorter form 'fr'Qihf*', tag hdl, Numb. 1 6 , 2 1 , 26; 17,10, instead of the regular f"|rh/**; (in MS. F this shorter form occurs in the passages named, whereas the other MSS. have f'lthf* , a reading which is also met with in Ps. 33,15 and 36, 28) ( ). 2. The Reflexive of the Intensive Stem, according to LUDOLF, must in the Perfect have the tone upon the vowel of the second radical; in the other forms it rests upon the vowel of the first. The Perf. has the strong formation in all roots: 'fr&P+fl taqadddsa, "to be sanctified"; f"hoW takuanndna, "to be condemned"; *b(D(l\\ "to be added to"; *frtflJ "to hope"; f'OCfi "to become equal to one another"; 'bOfDA tcfawwdra, "to overlook"; f 0? "to reprove". But from roots with final Aspirate, regularly:'t'&.f^'th "to rejoice"; *f*<wArfi "to be salted"; ffOhO "to let one's self be pacified". Farther, as the Aspirates, following the later pronunciation, readily grew too nerveless for doubling ( 56), a phenomenon made its appearance, which became noticeable also in Stem I I , 2 ( 96), viz.that in the Perfect Middle-Aspirate roots fell back from Stem I I I , 2 to Stem I I I , 1. Thus 'baoOt tamahhdra first of all becomes tamahhera, seeing that a Passive e
a Q o ; , m Ar ,
e

(*) According to TRUMPP, p. 527, to be accented yetgabar.

( ) 'f*']"fl(l
Liturgies',

in the Ethiopic Liturgy (ed. BEZOLD, in SWAINSON'S 'Greek

London 1884), p. 384, 1. 11is probably a copyist's error for

98.

195

is at least possible instead of a (v. supra in this 97), and then tamhhera (by 45), which ultimately drops into tamhra. And so we have f*tf0<l and i*9V/i "to learn" ; f"\r\ir and f fM "to be made humble"; -fAdA and J'AflA "to be exalted"; f - H U and *f-HlJ " be vainglorious"; + " 1 ^ (e. Judges 5, 28 F) and t'Jt'lf^ "to remain behind", "to loiter"; "H"dV "to mount upon"; ^ A f t A "to enquire about"; i*^Od and l - f r d ^ "to be tormented"; ^ h t i and -J-frhA "to be reviled"; -|-p|J& and Hh U. "to become a Jew". I n the Subj. and Imperative, both these and all other roots have a after the second radical as chief vowel, and also a after the first. I n the Imperfect they have after the first radical, and dispense with the doubling of the second, thus: JE.^'fe&A, J ^ + f t A , 't'Qfrtl yetqedas, yetqdddas, taqaddas;
: t t o

^ A 0 A , J&^AOA, * A 0 A ; fr^tjnhi, ffidStth, Iv/f/h; ^frPl>, PU, -t-P^U ; ^*4.<DC, fromc, -hOflJC ; A*G or A , f l H , A G , * A C or i-A^fll- ; J ^ * . ^ , J&^O^Ji, + 0 < : &c
1

3. The Reciprocity - Stem takes the form in the Perfect +4-Afll "to separate from one another", with the tone upon , taflatai ), but in Middle-Aspirate verbs, with the tone upon the penult, ^ " / ( / A "to be propitious towards any one", taSahdla. From roots with final Aspirate the form has always (in place of a) after the second radical: *K?flft tagabe'a, and more shortly tagVa. I n all weak roots this Stem takes a full and strong formation: i* M& "to be foes to each other"; f*"700 tamfre'a and tam"a "to be angry at one another"; f'pOhV "to flatter one another"; 'f*PAfl "to intermarry"; - M V ^ f t "to conduct a learned controversy"; f *{D& "to run together"; "HiP ft "to enter into a confederacy" ; *f*<P>p "to play together" ; 'tfO* "to take leave of one another". Farther, in the Subj., Imper. and Imperf. this Stem has a after th second radical, while there is no distinction between the Subj. and Imperf., thus: J & ^ A T , ffiPQk, frldC,
1 t ,

WPA-n,

fr&mx,

j&^HPVje,; - M - A T , i-Pdh

&c.
p o m a t i o n

98. I V . The C a u s a t i v e - R e f l e x i v e Stems, as active IV.T. and M. verbs, have the active vowel a in the Perfect after the second
in.

radical, and, like the other Active Stems, change it into in the Causative Imperfect and Subjunctive. The formative prefix of the Stem htli", ^nT when combined with the personal prefix, becomes ^f|-f ( 47).
C ) Cf., however, supra, p. 155, Note
1

13*

196

98.

1. The first of these Stems has two forms of pronunciation in the Perfect. I n the form which is most obvious and usual the first radical, originally without a vowel, is attached to the formative prefix 'b by way of closing the syllable (exactly as in I I , 1)0), thus: Kfll^dtA "to inhale"; with final Aspirate, hWV'fih "to take (by force of arms)" Numb. 21, 32; ftft-HMfO "to pronounce blessed" ; and htl'fr'tt^O "to make intercession"; from weak roots: ftfl^fOvhA "to borrow" (Ex. 12, 35); ftft-fGftf "to appear" and "to reveal"; ftftf"f|p "to obtain forgiveness"; from roots with initial Aspirate:htl&*(h4*& "to treat contemptuously" (Glen. 29,25; Judges 16,10). The tone in these cases rests on the third-last syllable ( ), and in Middle-Aspirate roots on the second-last. But, alongside of this,the usual pronunciation,another has also become current, which puts forward the prefix ftf|f" in a separate fashion, after the manner of the Reflexive Stems, and causes an a to be heard after the first radical. I n this case the tone must undoubtedly rest on the second-last syllable; cf. TEUMPP, p. 524. This form of expression appears oftenest in roots tertiae gutturalis, e- g. htli'^'ih "to be envious"; htl't*(\(D*th "to ask permission", and in roots primae gutturalis ( ), e. g. ftf|'f ftfl. "to treat as a fool"; ftfl-hfthf "to declare bad"; ftft^"Yoi* "to invent"; and here and there too in other roots, e. g. in titl'frth4 , a collateral form of ftft'hCrh'f* "to remove". I t is noteworthy besides, that from the unused root fl<9"ffi, which assumes the short form ft*flrh in St. I I , 1 ( 96), ft?)"f**flrh also is formed in this Stem, as well as ftfti*fl<Dvh "to ask permission". But the difference between these two forms of pronunciation is of no importance in the formation of the other tenses and moods. I n the Subjunctive the first radical is always attached without a vowel to the formative prefix *b by way of closing the syllable: fhi't^tl, fhi"fi'P^d, fltf-Chll, ftifZi&C, 2t\*h&, 9hCK\ and accordingly in the Imperative we have ftfll'Ch'fl, ftft'f-fl'M, ftfl'M^AC, ftfl *i*h6i ftfl+Gft.- I n the formation of the Imperfect, a (probably also accented here) is inserted after the first radical: ftli'/LYl'ft,
2 3 , >

C) Cf. KNIG, p.
2 3

148.

( ) V . on the other hand TRUMPP, p. 523. ( ) To avoid lengthening the a of 'b,for which reason one says hh'tth+d as well as hll^th^C

99.

197

^ f l ' M U M , ^ f t - f - V V . $Mr(l&\ in Middle-Aspirate verbs, a is thickened into e: ?h t'9 ihG yastameher (overagainst which we have the Subjunctive ydstdmher); ft*f"fldA> ftl'tCh* (yastare'v, and therefore in some Manuscripts occasionally written tl't*d*h ( ), v. St. 1,1). 2. The Stem, of this class, derived from the second GroundStem takes the form in the Perfect, htl't'Oll*', with the accent on the third-last syllable( ) (v. St. 11 ,2), thus:asttidggala, "to practise patience". I t takes the strong formation in all weak roots, e. g.hft*h0flf "to brag", "to swagger"; htl'frfi&O) "to awaken hope in any one"; Y\M*'\^ii "to prefer"; hll't'Ohfi "to have complete trust"; and in roots tertiae gutturalis: htl'frd.f*'th "to rejoice" {astafaMeha). I n the Subjunctive the a after the first radical is of course maintained, and the a after the second becomes e: ftrt'Olr'ydsta'dgges-; ftli"^frtl, JPfl'I'flDVlA,^fl+Ofl., fhi-H^, ?tl'fr&/*'Xi( ); so too with the Imperative:hA-f-0 *7/** &c. The Imperfect is formed (as in all the Intensive Stems) by means of e after the first radical, while the doubling is given up:
r 0 1 m 2 a

3. The Stem, of this class, derived from the third GroundStem forms the Perfect ftA'H'VAAj with the accent on the thirdlast syllable( ); from roots tertiae gutturalis: KA'hJ^'flK; in like manner Kft+^VdO- Por other examples v. supra 84. The Subjunctive and Imperfect are not distinguished from each other; in both e appears instead of a after the second r a d i c a l : ^ A + ^ A A ydstamdsel, fM-P-Oh, fil-MCC, fll-MA ^A-f^fc, fM-lbd; and, accordingly in the Imperative: ftA't^AA? hA*f"fl* &c. 99. The Multiliteral Verb follows, generally, the same rules as the Trilateral in forming the Tenses and Moods. I n the ation of Multiliteral verb also, the inner vowel-change between the two M* " * *
4 T e n B e
m

11

61

Verbs:

tenses invariably makes its appearance with the second-last radical. The first two radicals are combined into one syllable, with a between them, and they are maintained in this combination, throughout nearly the whole of the farther development of the form: in
(*) Also $tl*\i*&l\^ Herm. p. 8 5 a, 1. 3; cf. KONIG, p. 119. ( ) In Middle-Aspirate verbs, on the penult. V . however TBUMPP, p. 524. ( ) Once however fhi'Kd'iP 5 v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.\ col. 1306.
2 3

( ) V . however TRUMPP, p. 524.

198

the Imperfect, however, and in Stems I I I , 3 and I V , 3 this group has to he broken up. Farther, in this group the a-Sound is held to be so essential, and a long vowel in the first Stem-syllable so reasonable, that this a is not thickened into e before a mute Aspirate according to 45, but is lengthened into a according to 46. I n the domain of the last two radicals, however, the same rules prevail with regard to the treatment of Aspirates, radical Vowels and double radicals, as in the Triliteral verb. I . The Ground-Stem does not distinguish between a transitive and an intransitive form of pronunciation in the Perfect. I t is always uttered with three a's(}), the first syllable either closed, or possessing a long vowel having the Tone( ), thus: P/ilQ ddngasa, "to be terrified"; with an aspirate as second radical:lVdXl mdhraka, "to take as booty"; with a similar letter as last radical: IQh'k, "to destroy"; with an aspirate in the second as well as in the last position: fl'^fl V "to rot"; with doubling of the third radical: 0AA "to extinguish"; with a like doubling when the radical is at the same time weak: flrhPf "to clear of weeds"; with a long vowel as second radical: "7Ai "to decay ', ft/Ii "to persecute", -tf-Arh "to mix"; with a vowel as last radical: &CflP "to shoot", ffltytD "to touch the harp"; weak in more than one radical: 0{Offl)"to lament aloud", %(D(D "to take prisoner", "to sin", ft,}<D "to give forth perfume", A"A<D "to inflame. The Subjunctive is formed by the prefixed Personal signs and by the transition of the a which follows the second last radical into e: ^ 7 * 7 d yeddnges; primae gutturalis: P C J U G ; farther examples:0 ?UCtl, J W ^ f c , J & f l - W r K A?AA, W J , #A/]fi, &CfL M ? * , wahz, ^%ok or t Oho*, f/h%, J&JWr-j A" A"- I accordance with these forms, we have in the Imperative: .1*16, fl"WTK &0AA, fcflMD" (Judges 5,12), &c.( ). To form the Imperfect, an accented a is inserted after the second radical, which brings about the separation into two syllables of the syllable made up of the first two radicals:
2 , 1 n s

( ) [Excepting, of course, the necessary modification of the second a, when the last radical is an Aspirate, T E . ] ( .) V . however TRUMPF, p. 524.
A

( ) Irregular are: Subj. J&JPtfCh Kuf. p. 122, N. 4 ; p. 160, N. 11; and Imperative

aUC} la.

8,1, 3

mr.-and

J &ft*hf from R r f i f f .

 99.

199

yedandges, jt,m>UCh, frl&^h, ?>1lWh, ft*">f!fl, (Rev. 14, 2), ft-ft^fl,, f 0fl)fc. But those roots which have a long vowel as second radical, like ft,7>, -frhih, can have no special form for the Imperfect, because an a inserted after that radical blends with such long vowel; and even roots like " i f f , /t*>A<D are too sluggish to break up their mixed sound; thus we have: " 7 f | ? , JE.ft.TJ, ft-frfl/h, A-A- (Jas. 3, 6), $>%GU (which do not differ from the Subjunctive forms, v. supra). Seldom is it,and it is not good Ethiopic,that roots which have a vowel for their final radical omit the proper formation of the Imperfect, as, for instance, in the citation by LUDOLF from a manuscript of the Organon: hlrfri Kjt'0 f^tir "which does not wither", instead of -IhtfDftA*. I I . I n exact conformity with the same rules are also formed IL in the tenses and moods of the Causative Stem of Quadriliteral roots. g ^ " Perfect: fttfo'Jftfl amdndaba?) "to bring into difficulty"; tW^Oi "to entrust to"; ft+S^TO "to put the ground in good order"; K m h T h "to prepare"; hfCClCl "to cause to feel after"; htliZKD "to adorn"; ft71ftf "to delay one"; W l f "to cause to sin"; h&itD "to smell at"; h!{ai>a> "to cause trouble"; hOlC'liC) "to appease"; ft JO *Tfuh "to sacrifice". Subjunctive: <w"}fl, f !^ b% ?*9Tb, fmh'Th, ?<*>Clltl, fACt, ?T"Tr1, fKlh., ?%Trthth, or pffiihTrih; Imperative: K ^ ^ J t - f l , &c.; Imperfect: <*>}vn, fao-Sol, pfoofb, ?mh?K, fao^hh, W l , but J>ftmK Quinqueliteral roots combine in one syllable the first radical and the formative prefix of the Stem, and the second and third in one* with a: the second-last radical supports the vowel-change. I n the Imperfect formation a establishes itself after the third radical, and the syllable formed by the second and third is thus resolved into two syllables. Thus: hC^h^d armdsmasa, "to feel about"; htypthfr/h and Mi'thFxh "to become reddish"; JrfflVflmfli "to drip"; OCOC "to sweeten":Subjunctive: ?C0Ptl9tl, P&fthfrih, f^b CCImperfect: $Ca(l9tl ydrmasdmes, ftyfthfrih (Lev. 13,24; Matt. 1 6 , 2 , 3 ) , ^ m l l T - f l , Ps. 71,6. I n the same way KsVJPOff, fcfr<wWe, fcfftTUff, or K ^ O f f "to render flabby"; h&?M frWlb
D Ca 8 t e l , 0 J

(*) V . however TKUMPP, p. 524. ( ) [A peculiar form for

2

K ^ ' I C ' V v.

DILLMAKN'S

'Lex: ,

TB.]

200

100.

"to whisper gently", and the two Cansatives, formed by ftf|, 85 ad fin.; except that here the Subjunctive and Imperfect cannot be distinguished: ffcTilh, ?MCC, ftlPHW, also f | # * . iiLT.andM. 100. I I I . I n the Reflexive Stem the second-last radical Formation g ^ - j ^ g owel-change between the two tenses, 97; but, on Beflexire ^he other hand, it has become possible in this case to make a difn o V

Stems of Multiliteral
V e r b s

ference between the Imperfect and the Subjunctive by inserting, ' in the former, a after the second radical, which is without a vowel in the Subjunctive; and it is only in roots mediae infirmae that the Imperf. and the Subj. coincide (just as in Stems I and I I ) . Thus we have in the Perfect: >fH*>ftfl tamdndabaC); i &9{iil, "to be extinguished"; i'W^h, 't'XhftK "to worship"; -t-ao-tfuD "to be tempted"; +RSFl/f, i-^liti, f'VTfh, -f-fcrtf, +n,H<D ( ^-.Subjunctive: J ^ t f ^ - f l , f,&9tltl (Ps. 108,13), P^IW (Ps. 120, 7), H"l<ph, P^Mh, P^liiOh, VP P^Hl, P^Wlhi, PA,ftP P^tinah: Imperative: 9Ml, ^^"iBl &c. But in the Imperfect we have:JR^h<wVft'fl yetmanddab, &<*>flf|, ^ao^*}, ^7 ;J*ft, ftfotft, P^ao Mia*, $>&aVp\ but J & ^ ^ r t ^ &c. just as in the Subj. The Reflexive Stem of Sexliteral roots has hitherto been found in the Perfect only. On the formation of the Perfect of the Reciprocal Stem, v. 86. I t deserves special notice, that even the root H V < D resolves the e, which it preserves through all the forms of Stems I and III,into ay, before the inserted a. Of course the Tone falls upon the long d to which this Stem owes its form. There is no difference between the Imperfect and the Subjunctive (cf. 95 97), nor is there any change of vowels in the two Tense-formations. Thus AVAA, Ex. 26, 3; J&mV4>4>, Lev. 23, 22; ?ftOH, PtlthOb, Pffoi'P, Imperative: ^fl?ftfl-, -W*fl> &c. iv. in I V . The Causative-Reflexive Stem is, in accordance with Reflexive 86 of very rare occurrence. I n the Imperf. and Subj. it necesstems. sarily exhibits the vowel-change found in all the Active Stems, hence ^ft +flVh-, Jas. 3, 17. v. in V. The weaker Reflexive Stem, which is formed by prefixing Befle'xive til ( 87), so far shows its kinship with the Active Stems, as to stem, exhibit the usual difference of vocalisation prevailing in those Stems between the two Tense-forms. The Imperfect is distinguished from
, , t

(1) But cf. TRDMPP. 524.

 ioi.

201

the Subjunctive just as in the other Stems of the Multiliteral roots. The Personal sign in the Subj. and Imp erf. is connected with ft*J just as it is in other cases with ftft and ft. Whence we have, in the Perfect: MlrOrC angudrguaraC); in the Subjunctive: t'CT'C] Imperative: h i7CT C\ and in the Imperfect: j?'}1Y G- With Aspirates and Radical vowels; Perfect: ft'JOrh -flA, MPO&O), ft'JrnAO, ft?M<D, M11?\ Subjunctive: ftlO i A-fl/h, fi^O^, 91fi &b,S'}fi(b,?n%\Imperfect: H A i M l / h , $1^0ft., and the rest just as in the Subjunctive ( ).
m t n e r , , 2

I I I . F O R M A T I O N OF PERSONS, GENDERS A N D NUMBERS. 101. I t belongs to the very conception of a verb, as distin- Formation guished from a mere predicate, that it not only gives what is predi- GendlrT ' cated, but also,contained within it or at least indicated by i t , 8 a n d N n m

bers :

the Person, of whom anything is predicated. Accordingly the Verb furnishes its Tense- and Mood-Stems with Personal signs, as the third step which it takes towards its full development. I n order to manage this step, it encroaches upon the domain of the Pronouns, inasmuch as it is just the Personal pronouns which are made use of to express the several Persons. The Personal signs have originated in the combination of the personal pronouns with the verbal Stem. The former in due course coalesced with the latter, but in this closer connection they have undergone abbreviation and occasionally considerable mutilation. The entire apparatus of the distinction of the Persons in Gender and Number, which prevails and lives in the language, in the domain of the Personal Pronouns, is thus reproduced in the Verb. And just as, in accordance with 148, two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural, are distinguished in the Personal Pronoun, and two Genders, Masculine and Feminine, in the two pronouns of the second and third Person, so are these distinctions repeated in the verb in Ethiopic. I t has already been pointed out in 91, that the position which is assumed by the Personal sign with respect to the Verbal
( ) But v. TRTJMPP, p.
2
x

General
E e m a r k a

525.

( ) On the peculiar forms of hlt\h\l\th "to move (tnfr.)" v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.\ col. 327. On the Passive-Reflexives formed with <f*, like 'fr'ifll&O, v. supra, p. 165.

202

101.

personal thePerfeot

Stem, is of essential importance in the formation of the two contrasted Tenses. I n the Perfect the Personal signs are attached to the end of the Stem; in the Imperfect and Subjunctive, to the beginning. This different method of attachment, however, has caused the modification of the originally complete pronoun to have another character in the Perfect than it has in the Imperfect; and accordingly the Personal signs actually in use in the language fall into two divisions. 1. The Personal signs of the Perfect C). The Third Person ^ 9- Masc. is not distinguished by any special sign. Seeing that all the other persons and genders in both numbers were denoted exactly by terminations, the Personal sign could be dispensed with in this one case, by virtue of the contrast. The Third Person Sing. Fern., on the other hand, has at, which serves the same purpose also in Nominal Stems, v. 126. The Third Person Plural Masc. is denoted by u, and the Third Person Plural Fern, by a. The former is shortened ( ) from umu, um, un, the latter from on (<D~}\&'}), an.The sign for the Second Person Sing, is in the Masc. h, in the Fern. \\^. The vowel-change between the two genders is the very same as in the full pronoun of the second person ( 148): the other Semitic languages also retain this change, either complete or in traces, h or itself, however, is nothing else than the second element of the full compound Pronoun hTfb or hl-iz ( 148), inasmuch as (v. 65), from the original twa, from which f sprung, h might also come, and has come not only in this case, but also in the Suffix Pronoun of the Second Person in both Numbers in all Semitic languages ( ). I n the Plural also, Ethiopic transforms the original sound into k in the same way: Masc. hf kemmw, Fern. Ylt ken, answering completely to the second
n 2 3

(*) Cf. now with this, in particular, NOLDEKE, 'Untersuchungen zur semitischen Grammatik\ ZDMG X X X V I I I , p. 407 sqq., [reprinted with numerous additions in Beitr. z. sem. Sprachwiss.\ Strassburg 1904:where v. p. 15 sqq.]
l

( ) As is still more clearly seen in the other Semitic languages. ( ) The difference between Ethiopic and the other Semitic languages is merely this, that the latter put into the difference of the types ta and ha, the contrast between the pronoun used as Subject and the pronoun used in a subordinate position, while the formerthe Ethiopic languageemployed the type ta for the separate pronoun, and the type ka for the pronoun when suffixed.
3

 101.

203

element in M^a*; h l ^ l , 148.For the First Person the sign in the Sing, is in the Plural V- The k in M , it would appear, is more original than the t, which all the other Semitic tongues exhibit ( 65); and certainly the influence of the Personal sign of the second person has had the effect of making this A; retain its position here more tenaciously^). But all the more was the Towel u,which comes just as readily to hand as I ( 65),bound to establish itself for the First Person, lest the First Person and the Second Person Fern, should be confounded together. The ^ of the Plural is a remnant of the full Pronoun ">/3hV? I 2. For the Imperfect [or Indicative'] and the Subjunctive ^ * the Personal signs have to be set before the Theme, in accordance the Imperwith the original meaning of the grammatical form. But as the ctt^wld" signs of the Verbal Stems are also set as prefixes, the Personal subjuncsigns had to be compressed into the utmost possible brevity, to keep the several verbal forms from being overloaded in their commencement. I n Ethiopic, therefore, just as in the other Semitic tongues, the prefixed Personal signs are either very short from the outset, or have been much abbreviated, and consist of one single comparatively strong letter. But as such a letter sufficed merely to denote the different Persons, but not the Genders or Numbers, the needful assistance was obtained from signs of Gender and Number attached farther to the close of the form.The Third Person, first of all in the Sing., has in the beginning of the form JR. for the Masculine, and *h for the Feminine, and no farther marking in either case at the end of the Theme. The *|h is assuredly the same mark of the Feminine which appears in the Perfect, and very generally besides in the domain of Nominal Stems ( 126). But, in the same way, JR. is nothing else than the original Pronoun of the Third Person ( 65), and first denotes merely the Third Person, as contrasted with the other personal signs ft, *}, with4 8 er8 na

(*) While the t of the Second Persons in the other tongues brough| about the transition from h to tin the First.EEMAN, Z A S X X V I I , p. 81, points out the ku of the 1 pers. sing. Perf. in Egyptian also. Cf. farther HALVY, 'Notes smitiques' in the 'Mlanges Renier' (Paris 1886), p. 447 sqq. On
ST

<J instead of

of the 1

ST

pers. Sing, in Southern Arabia cf. v. MALTZAN,

Z D M G X X V , p. 197, and MORDTMANN, ibid. X L I V , p. 191.

204

101.

out distinction of gender (and so in the^) Plur.). I t is only as contrasted with the Feminine *jh, that it receives a Masculine signification ( ). I n the Plural there are appended, besides, u for the Masc, and a for the Fern., plainly the same signs of the Plural which are found in the Perfect; and in fact they always yield the mere sounds of u and a in Ethiopic, while, as is well known, the other tongues have continued to preserve, precisely in the Imperfect, their more original and complete form. Seeing that a, by its difference from u, of itself denotes the Fern., the change from to -fr in the prefixed Personal sign is omitted in the Plural; J& suffices for both genders, as being the general expression for the Third Person. To denote the Second Person, the sign ^ is prefixed in the Singular and Plural for both genders, that sign being a shortened form of hl'fr, M^oo* ( 148). The ^ thus prefixed has to suffice for the indication of the Masc. Sing.; and the inconvenience of having in this way the 2 pers. Sing. Masc. undistinguished from the 3 pers. Sing. Fern., which has the very same form, has not been remedied in any way in Ethiopic. But the Fern. Sing., and the Masc. and Fern. Plural are again specially differentiated by appended signs. For the Fern. Sing, this purpose is served by the vowel i, which also indicates the Feminine gender in the separate pronoun of the 2 pers. Sing.; and to denote the Plural,seeing that the Person has already been designated by a prefix as the Second,the general signs of the Plural, used also in the Third Person, are made use of, viz. u for the Masc. and a for the Fern. The First Person has the prefix ft in the Sing., being a shortened
2 n d rd n d

( ) I n Assyrian, according to HAUPT, the type yaqtulu for the Fern, occurs much oftener than taqtulu: v. ZDMG X X X I V , p. 757. ( ) This use of i for the Third Person without distinction of Gender points back to a time for the formation of the Personal signs, when <D"ft and JRft Were not yet contrasted with each other as Masc. and Fern., any more
2

than this contrast is shown in ftH, "now".That J&, \, j is not merely a modification of we, will perhaps now be generally acknowledged (v. DIETRICH, 'Abhandl. zur heir. Gramm.\ 1846, p. 122sqq.; EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.\ p. 434 Note). That Syriac has ne instead, still proves nothing for the softening of ye out of we, but only that Syriac had in general at a very early stage lost the demonstrative word jEft (as follows from the want of % in the formation of the construct state) and that another demonstrative element came to be used in its place ( 62).

205

form offtV" I " , and the prefix 1 in the Plural, a shortened form of 7rhV "We"; and these two prefixes are severally quite sufficient, as there is no distinction of Genders in the first Person. 102. The attachment of these Personal signs to the Stem of Attachment the Tenses and Moods is regulated in part by the vowel character si^lTnthe or consonantal character of the first letter of the Personal signs Perfect, to be appended, and in part by the conditions of accentuation ( ). 1. Three of the Personal signs of the Perfect have a vowel commencement, viz: at, u, a; the others begin with a consonant. A t one time all were certainly accented, but the majority of them have become tone-less. However, u, a, kenimu, ken, as a rule, keep their accent, and at the same time generally attract the tone of the word, since the actual word can have only one principal accent. The others have all become tone-less; but those which begin with a consonant, throw their accent no farther back than upon the syllable immediately preceding, which invariably is either closed, or furnished with a long vowel or a diphthong; and only the vowel-beginning at, not forming any closed syllable before it, leaves unchanged throughout in the Perfect Stem the accent possessed by the Stem at first. But even the Personal signs u and a, which usually attract the tone to themselves, give i t up to the foregoing syllable, i f that syllable has a Stem-long vowel, or an unchangeably long vowel (as in "fcflb, 1^)- The nature of the attachment of these Personal signs, for the rest, is very simple. Seeing that the last radical in the Perfect-Stem is originally vowelless ( 91), the signs which commence with a consonant are appended to i t in such a way that a closed syllable precedes them, while those which begin with a vowel are attached so as to draw the preceding third radical into their syllable. I f the third radical is a vowel, the consonantal-commencing signs are simply appended to i t as a new syllable; but, before the vowel-commencing ones, the vowel of the Stem must be hardened into a semivowel, and joined to the syllable of the Personal signs. These explanations may clear up the inflection of most of the Perfect-Stems; e. g. V}<, nagdrat, nagarka, nagdrki, nagdrku; nagarU, nagard^), nagar1 1

(*) On the conditions of accentuation cf. TRUMPP,

p. 525, and KONIG,

p. 160 sqq.
( ) [TRUMPP, p. 525, followed by PRAETORIDS, 'Aethiop. Qramm? p. 46,
2

puts the accent on the 2

N D

last syllable in the 3

R D

p\.:-nagaru,

nag&ra.

TR.]

206

102.

kemmu, nagarken, nagdrna. Or from ftft^Chfl? astdrkabat, astarkdbka,astarkabu, astarkabkemmu. But we must again call attention here to the fact that the four Personal signs of the second Person and the sign of the first Pers. Sing, assimilate their h to a preceding radical 1 or e. g. QC% 'araggi, for OCflX^', 'ifjtyao* nadaqqemmu, for V&4*h * ( 54); and that when two h's or two V's meet together in such circumstances, the letter in each case is written once only; fl>rhtl mahdkka, h&V kaddnna, <Yl, Gadla A d . 135,19; \\\ konna 1 Plur., ibid. 23,9; 25,10; Hen. 103,11; [fttfofr, e. g. Chrest. p. 98, 1. 24; Kebra Nag., 90b 8] ( 55). The following peculiar Perfect-Stems deserve special notice: (a) Perfects which have the semi-passive vowel e (instead of a) after the second radical, viz. St. I , 1 in the Intransitive pronunciation, and St. I l l , 1 in the pronunciation -f**lfl^,transform their e into the stronger a (60) ( ), in all those Persons where it stands in a closed syllable with the accent; thus though we have and 4"M14, ' M ' f l ^ , we have also I f l C h and ^ i f l C h , and they maintain this a also in both forms of the Second Person Plural, where the accent rests on the Personal sign; thus we never have 7'(1C*1< - or "M-nCtl?, but always m C h ^ , 'frMChTr, and from d-(i I t W l l l , hfth<nK (b) The Perfects of the Stems 1,1; I I I , 1 & 2 from roots mediae gutturalis, in the semi-passive form of pronunciation 9ih, f'^dH, 't'R'hili y retain this e-form throughout the whole Conjugation, thus, e. g. 9foCh, -frldWh, -hXTiAh (v. Table I I I ) ; and, in fact, this must be done by the Perfects of those Simple Stems, which in the Ground-form admit this Intransitive form alone, like A.U'K for instance. But many admit in the first Stem the a-form of pronunciation as well as the e-form (v. 76 ad fin.) and besides, in the case of all of them, both pronunciations are possible in Stems I I I , 1 & 2 ( ). Accordingly one may quite as well say <w#hCh, "hlOTf tl, "t"ftft AH &c. Different manuscripts vary between the forms very considerably, in the case of such words ( ). Such types, however, should in the first place be pronounced meherka, ia-ge-ezka or
tfD st x D m a 2 3

( ) Cf. PHILIPPI, 'Beitr. z. Assyr.' I I , p. 378 sq.

( ) 'fr't'th'fr' however, appears always to keep the e-pronunciation.

( ) V., e. g., Gen. 16,13, Note.
3

207

more shortly, tag-ezka, ta-se'-elka, although it can, hardly be doubted that the later Abyssinians, who gave a soft pronunciation to all the Aspirates, like mehra, tage'za, tase'la, said also mehrka, tage'zka, tase'lka (v. 46 ad f.).Boots tertiae gutturalis, in all the Perfect-Stems, restore the a after the second-last radical, before all the terminations which begin with a consonant, but, in accordance with 46, it must be lengthened into a: <OT>AJI, ^ A f t h j JArh, M & h ; flArh, OA A h : ft<?-flft; frmtl; fcJWUh faM/hil, Tb 'ihft, I ^ ^ M l &c, while, before all terminations w hich begin with a vowel, they retain the e of the second-last radical: l^^hK^h?
T

ntth*, ittx

&c.

(c) The tri-radical roots mediae geminatae, in the semi-passive pronunciation of the Perfect of Stems I , 1 and I I I , 1, take, no doubt, the contracted form ^J^., *fVfl, *J*Vfl before all terminations beginning with a vowel, instead of nadedu, tanabebu &c.; but, before all terminations beginning with a consonant, where a must appear instead of e (v. supra), the two repeated letters are always kept separate by this a, thus "f^fl-flYl", 1*^fl*flh<' " &c. 9dO, the only Ethiopic root which has the same guttural as second and third radical, is regularly conjugated in the Perfect of St. I I , 1, J\9dO, h9 id\l &c.; but, in accordance with 97, it may have in St. 111,1, either the full form 'fr9dO, or the contracted *f{J|J. The former is conjugated " h J P ' J d h , * M P d 0 &c, but the latter like a Perfect of St. I , 2 of a root tertiae gutturalis, thus f 90, "fldh,
j D

al

- H P f l - O &c.

(d) Boots mediae infirmae, whether they be tertiae gutturalis or not, in all the Perfect-Stems which have the mixed-sound pronunciation in the Ground-form, retain this pronunciation throughout all the other Persons, like rh^, rhCh; flft, flMl; HT't', ftT^h ftfl.-fvJiO.I'h; M kdnna, "we have become" Hen. 103,11. But when they have hardened their radical vowel into a semivowel in the Ground-form, as in m f 4, ho&d, +A<DA, or have a diphthongal pronunciation, as in 'frghOhfl, '^I*J&w^ tahausa, taSaima, they carry the hardened pronunciation right through the whole formation, thus m?^^, h&fflCU Y6,(D{\X\. 'I'rhflJfth 0h. Yerbs, which in Stems I I , 1 and I V , 1 have the shortened form
; ,

( ) Thus, according to L U D O L F ; but f*906Yl also appears, e. g. Ex. 32,12.

x

208

hi*** , ft*flfh> hA'Mlrh* are conjugated like the Perfects of the Simple Stem: M9h, KflAih, KA+flAh. (e) Vowel-ending tri-radical and multi-radical roots must in all Perfect-Stems (v. supra) harden their last radical into a semivowel before those terminations which begin with a vowel; but before all those which begin with a consonant they must sound that radical as a vowel. Since farther the second radical has generally a in this case, u or i as third radical combines with this a first of all into a diphthong: fAflHl, 7V h, flAh from flAP, *hH^Vfl*"Yb> ftlAAflMfl"? and the diphthong is usually retained. But those roots at least which end in u may modify the diphthong farther into a mixed sound: f*Ah, 'I'&Wft; rhP"Yl, < 8TA1fr' Gladla A d . 21,21; and the verb Oii(D "to be", in particular, very commonly does so; thus we have not only Vft\\, OA"1fl ", 0AV &c. but even Otti 'fr instead of UAflJ'lh, inasmuch as one may, in accordance with 91, say for UtltD itself. Less frequently the mixed sound appears in roots which end in i, as in "Tf^Vltf *, Josh. 24,22; Judges 10,14; and in *fAfcft, Judges 16,17; Ex. 29,17. Multiliteral roots have the mixed sound more frequently than have the Triliteral, because the Stems which are formed out of them are longer and are therefore abbreviated as much as possible.Triliteral roots tertiae infirmae, and which at the same time are mediae gutturalis and have an intransitive form of pronunciation, take a peculiar conjugation, like CM "to see"; CAf "to herd (a flock)"; flh-A? "to burn" CJUf, 1A?, 9VtD, ft"/hfl)> When terminations beginning with a consonant are applied to these verbs, types would arise in the first place, according to what has been said (v. supra, under b), like re-e-i-ka, but the e is regularly thrust aside by the radical ( 51), and thus we have re-i-ka, CKM &c.( ) (v. Table I I I ) . I t cannot yet be said with certainty, whether those roots, which end in u (9V(D, ftihO)). likewise follow this formation, seeing that they have not yet been supported by instances in the Persons concerned. I t is possible that in these Persons they pass into the a-pronunciation (ftrhO-h) Even CM in St. I l l , 1, before terminations which begin with a consonant, falls back into the
w, tfD ; a 0 x

C)

CYb

Hab. 3,2, 7 Cod Laur.;

Ch*&MP

Amos 9,1 Cod Laur.;

 103.

209

a-pronunciation, so that although we say *fCftf, i'CM &c we have iftj&h &c.Doubly weak roots like rh(D, ^<Df, 7p, in accordance with what has been said in 69, present no special features: rh?<Hl, O&fM, ><tfM &c. 103. 2. The attachment of the Personal signs in the Subjunctive and the Imperfect [or Indicative]. As regards, first of all, the Personal prefixes *lh, ft, and *}, the manner in which J& is
Attachment g^'in *
t h e
I m e r 1 1

P feot[Indi-

set before the Stem has already been dealt with in 9299; cative and and all that has been said of holds good of the other three also. ^ j ' Whenever the following radical has a syllable-vowel of its own, as in the Imperfects of all Ground-Stems, in the Subj. of St. 1,2, 3 of the Triliteral Verb and of St. I of the Multiliteral, as well as in the Subj. of St. 1,1 of Vowel-centred and Vowel-beginning roots of weak formation, these prefixes are uttered with a fugitive e, and with a only when the following radical is a guttural, according to 44. We have therefore not only f OC% PONTIC) but also PfhTf, from fDvhtf, Ohdti- But when these prefixes form along with the first radical a single (closed) syllable, as in the Subj. 1,1 of most of the Tri-radical Verbs, they are uttered with the full vowel e. Farther, in all Reflexive Stems formed by f, the Personal prefix closes with this *f,which gives up its a, into fr't* ( ), which proceeding the rules, explained in 54, 55, must be attended to. Finally, the prefixes combine with the ft of the Causative Stems I I and I V , as well as of the Reflexive Stem V, into p, ft, The Personal Suffixes ^which are the same in the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Imperfect) consist of mere vowels i, u, a. They draw the tone of the word to themselves throughout, thus: l(K-, yegabrU, tenagri, yefesemd( ). As vowel-suffixes they attract the final letter of the Stem to their syllable, and when that letter is a vowel, as in roots tertiae infirmae, it must be hardened into the corresponding semivowel. But although the final letter of the last syllable of the Stem moves forward into the syllable of the termination, and the
u n c t l m 2

( ) Differing thus from the method followed in Arabic, which here also shows itself richer in vowels.The shortening of f into *J" is the less surprising, when according to 80 this -f* itself must in earlier times have sounded it or et.
()
2

Cf., however, TRUMPP, p. 526

sqq.

14

210

last-mentioned syllable attracts also the tone to itself, yet the formative or radical vowel of the last syllable of the Stem (which now stands in an open syllable) is kept unaltered, as in A 0 A , * A f l A . ; W , Pt*a~\ AJt, * A 3 . ; -}7C, 7 K - ; J &nAA, .fcOArli.; < U M , ^ X 7 ; &c. Also, in cases where the formative vowel has been absorbed by a vowel occurring as third radical in the Ground-form, as in Jifltl,,, "lhA" T*1.i it must again appear, after the radical vowel has been hardened into a semivowel: flh^, ^"IhAfflL, "3h1*7P.- I n old manuscripts, however, types are found like J&*flh P forfa-flYl^Abb. L Y ; 4 Esr. 6,25; [fUu &c, v. Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X V I ; ] ffe& Amos 6,15 Cod. Laur.; A"fcfc Amos 9,14 Cod. Laur. ( ). I n altering the syllabic relations the following has to be noticed: I f the last Stemsyllable has the formative vowel e, as in J&V7C> t least if it had it or should have it, as in J&f-Ar, and if this last Stem-syllable is preceded by an open syllable with a short vowel,either with a (V*7G, i*A*), or with e (^*7C), then this a or e attracts to itself the first letter of the last Stem-syllable,-when along with its e it is being isolated, with the result that that letter gives up its e and becomes attached to the preceding syllable as a vowelless closing letter( ): i*7G> fold yendger, tenagri; 7*7C, Trl^ neger, negrU; .PA'fvIVWl, ftl't'd.Ylilr ydstardkeb, yastarakbuf). Farther, if types like tfA?i> PiOhg , <wl\ are at least against analogy ( 43 and 50) pronounced yemdl-'e, yendum, yemdit, the forms tyaofoh,, J&Vfl^tf*, 0*(n* are, on the other hand, necessarily pronounced temal-i, yenaumU, yemaitU. Verbs tertiaegutturalis: In all those cases in which the last Stemsyllable should have the formative vowel a, these verbs lengthen it in the Ground-form into a: &9Xh, 9%h, J&^rfC/frh, P'tdMih, ^Pdh, i-Pdh, ZftdAdA &c. But if a Personal termination is applied, and the Aspirate is drawn into the following
, f l < a o r a 2 0 0

O I n DILLMANN'S i
2 3 n

direst

Aeth.\ p. 147, Str. 3, 1.. 2 the MS. offers

preference to ^A&-

( ) Cf., however, TRUMPP, p. 526 sqq. ( ) [Or more shortly:In Impf, and Imper. forms, of the type yenger, neger, the obscure e of the last stem-syllable falls away before the increment of the personal vowel-suffixes i, , ; e. g. *^V*7C tenager (2 sg. m.) becomes

fold

tenagri (2 sg. f.).

TR.]

103.

211

syllable, not only is the reason for lengthening the a removed, but by 45 this formative a must pass into e, and then the secondlast radical which introduces this e,in the special cases which have just been more precisely determined,loses the e entirely and becomes attached, as a vowel-less letter closing the syllable, to a preceding open syllable which has a short vowel, thus: ^JP Jtft.; 9Kh* mes-u for me-se-ti: 't0 ih*, yetmal-u for yetma-le-u: ^^^p**h, M ' A / * ' A . tetfaSSehi &c. (*). Only the few Subjunctives and Imperatives of vowel-beginning or vowel-centred roots of weak formation, which have been described in 93,viz.
9 D

and from fllflft, and j&flfc, Qfc, Wk from Oft and Hh,preserve the long a throughout the entire Conjugation, inasmuch as it serves at the same time to compensate for a rejected radical letter (v. Table I I I ) , j&flft, and flft are formed after the analogy of and flft. Double-lettered Verbs (jry). I f in the Ground-form of these verbs the two like letters are separated merely by the weak vowel e, and the first of them is preceded by an open syllable with a short vowel ( ), then in the case of forms which are increased by personal terminations (cf. supra) the two like letters are brought together, without any separating vowel, and they are in that case generally indicated in writing by one letter only. The assumed conditions in the ground-form are exemplifieid in J&i'fMl, TfOrtl, $*lf, fit <*>flf., 1<">IAA, but not in frM*}, fMl, M% Ml'Y}, because in this case the first *} has to be pronounced as a doubled letter. The above forms, when increased by personal endings run t h u s : T r t t r , Wt-, fb^O", fr&aofafaotfo, but also with the letter repeated, as V*flfl (v. 55) ( ). The Imperfects and Subjunctives from h960 and i 960, $966 and frfyaD'iJt ( 96, 97) cannot yet be all substantiated, but they present nothing in their inflection, which might not be understood from the general rules, e. g. f96(h Numb. 16,30; Deut. 31,20,29;
2 3 t

i ) [Or,Forms like 9ftfi+u

1 2

pass theoretically through the following

, TR

changes:mesa' + u=mesa + Y%*=mese + fo.=mes + h=jP ft'H' -1 M ( ) Cases like for 'V/ |* Cod. Pocock., Ps. 77, 9 rest on copyists' errors.Notice the Subj. ^}flA"flV ^ QLexS, col. 1235) from a multiliteral root. ( ) V., on the other hand, KONIG, p. 95. 14*
al 5 1 3

212

104.

Hen. 69,1; or ffiaoOO* John 7,23. In like manner Imper. i?9b ( 97), i-9% -t-90; *ri\ or -t96% i-9dth, The Conjugation of Verbs tertiae infirmae presents no difficulty, seeing that I, u, as well as the diphthongs and mixed sounds ai, au, e, d may be easily resolved into their corresponding semivowels, and that, according to 52, all the groups of sounds, which occur in these cases, viz. yi, yu, yd, ivi, wu, wd, are admitted in the Ethiopic language. The first Imperfect of 'fll /A. ( 92), j&fl,,
which is employed as an Aorist, forms fl,, ^ f l , , J 'fl .A.* h(U \ flA*>

f l A ^ f t f r , ^ f l A , ItUO- The second Imperfect flA, as well as the Subjunctive J&flA and the Imperative flA, together with the Imperfect of A ( 92) follow the ordinary rules:
f l f r , - O A - , j & h / h nA- &c.

FORMATION
Classes of Nouns; and ^ ^ Methods of stem-Form a

O E NOUNS.

104. Over against the Verb stands the Noun (Naming - Word), Noun, in the narrower sense of the term, which is derived
' '

from roots conveying a notion or conception, and the Pronoun, which is derived from demonstrative roots. The formation of Nouns, like that of Verbs, passes through stages three in number: 1. The Nominal Stem is formed from the Root; 2. the Stem is then differentiated by Genders and Numbers; 3. the words thus elaborated assume special forms, or Cases, according to the special relations upon which they enter in the Sentence. This formation, however, in the case of Pronouns, differs in some respects from that of Nouns properly so-called; and farther, amongst Nouns themselves the Numerals have much that is peculiar, and in some points they share too in the peculiarities of Pronouns. Accordingly in the account to be given of Nouns, we distinguish these three classes: 1. Nouns, in the narrower sense of the term; 2. Pronouns; 3. Numerals.
()
l

Cf. TKUMPP, p. 526.

213

A. F O R M A T I O N OF NOUNSIN T H E NARROWER SENSE OF T H E TERM.

I . S T E M - F O R M A T I O N O F NOUNS.

Nouns are divided according to their signification, first of all into Words of Conception, or Conceptional words (Abstract Nouns), such as bring forward in the form of a Noun, an idea, an action, or a property purely by itself, like Belief, Killing, Quickness, and into Words of Statement (Concrete Nouns), which state the notion as incorporated in some being or thing, and attached thereto. Concrete Nouns themselves are again divided into Self-dependent words (Substantives), which give a name to a person or thing in accordance with a conception or notion perceived by the mind as having been realised in the one or the other, i. e., Names of persons and of things, and words which are not Self-dependent (Adjectives), but which state a conception as being realisable in a person or thing, and therefore always involve a reference to a person or thing, to which they are ready to be attributed, i. e. Descriptive or Qualifying Words. These two distinctions between Nouns, in accordance with their meaning, are not in themselves very stable. A n Abstract Noun may, by a slight alteration of the sense, be turned into the name of a thing or a person (as e. g. Clothing may first of all mean the act of clothing, but afterwards also the dress; and in like manner, First-birth may come to mean the first-born); or it may take the place of a descriptive word (as in : 'God is truth') ; and a descriptive word may easily become the name of a person or a thing. Nevertheless, that fundamental distinction must be adhered to in treating of Formation, seeing that for the proper understanding of Stem-formation the main consideration is,what was the original meaning of a word, and not what is its derived meaning. Special classes of Nouns, besides, are formed by Infinitives and Participles. They are distinguished from other Nouns by issuing from the Stems of the verb, and not directly from the root. They are accordingly more closely connected with the verb than is any other Noun (Verbal Nouns), and they set forth the conception contained in the verb in its Stem-determination(*),
( ) But the Participle and the Infinitive in Semitic, as is -well-known, accompany the Verb no farther than up to the distinction between the Verbal Stems. They do not share in th Tense distinction.
x

214

104.

either as a purely Conceptional word (Infinitive), or as a Descriptive or Attributive word (Participle). Of each of these two classes there are to be found, in those Semitic tongues which still retain their full wealth of form, as many forms as the Verb has Stems. But Ethiopic has sustained serious loss, at least in the domain of the Participle. I t is no longer capable of forming a Participle from every Verb in every one of its Stems; and only from a few Stems of comparatively few verbs has it retained the Participles, as the scattered remains, so to speak, of an earlier stage of formation. Still, it makes up for the Participle in another way. Infinitives are more regularly formed; but as they constitute a special Class of Nouns, we shall deal with them, only in concluding our survey of Nominal Stem-formation. On the other hand the description of the Participial forms, which are still retained in a dispersed condition, has been embodied in the account to be given of the other Nominal Stems,for the reason, mainly, that such forms have, to some extent, assumed the meaning of ordinary Adjectives or Substantives. The means employed in the formation of Nominal Stems have already been enumerated ( 74), viz.: Inner vowel-change; Inner increase by doubling individual radicals; and Outward increase by attaching formative letters or syllables. And in particular the feminine Nominal ending is made use of, even in carrying out the formation of the Nominal Stem itself and in establishing its meaning, inasmuch as Conceptional words and the stronger Abstract Nouns are readily conceived as being of the feminine gender. The Inner vowel-change, is unlimited; but as regards multiplicity in the forms produced thereby, Ethiopic is inferior to Hebrew and Arabic, first of all because it has now only two short vowels. I t has not even kept all those forms,still in use in other tongues, which it might have done, even with its more slender stock of vowels, but it has been content in this matter, as in others, with what is most necessary and essential, and has allowed wdiatever else once existed to disappear. Thus in many cases older forms, or common Semitic forms, are now represented merely by a few fragments from ancient times, or by words brought in from a foreign source. Nouns in the narrower sense of the term (apart from Participles and Infinitives) are derived either from the root (Primitive Nouns), or from other Nouns (Denominative Nouns). Of the latter

 105.

215

class Ethiopic has a large number. I n particular, conceptional words, words denoting properties, and their relative attributive words, are often derived in this way. Individual Nouns, besides Infinitives and Participles proper, are also formed from derived Verbal Stems, chiefly when the Verbal Stem expresses a simple idea and makes up in this way for a Simple Stem which is wanting. I n reviewing the Stem-formation of Nouns we start from simple and original forms, and advance to Compounds (in which several formative expedients have been co-operating) and to Derivatives. The simplest and most general method of formation is that which makes use of Inner vowel-change; for every Nominal form has definite formative vowels, which convey its meaning. Inner increase of the radicals constitutes the second stage of formation; and External formative devices furnish the third. I n all three stages, however, the vocalisation is of essential importance. Its nature cannot generally be described beforehand; but when compared with the vocalisation of the Verb, the peculiarity of that of the Noun is shown in a preference for longer, weightier and broader vowels (*). Like the Tenses of the Verb the Nominal Stems in Ethiopic once also ended in Vowels; and this vowel-ending, through the change of vowels happening in it, served at the same time to denote the different relations of the Noun in the Sentence, viz. the Cases (v. 142 sqq.). This vowel-ending, however, without assuming which a series of Nominal forms could not have been accounted for, was, in accordance with 38, given up at an early stage, at least in the Ground-form of the Nominal Stem.
1. SIMPLE NOMINAL STEMS.

105. 1. The simplest Nominal formation consists in the ^ establishment of a short but accented vowel after the first radical: P
I i r s t Sim

and lest

'

'

Formation: with acgh

The second radical is vowel-less; and the third, which once had the general vowel-ending of all Nominal Stems, was, later on, given without a vowel ( 38) ( ). This form stands in direct contrast with
2

ortVowei Radical.

a f t e r l 8 t

( ) On the Tone-relations of the Noun v. TRUMPP, p. 531 sqq., and KNIG,

p 154 sqq.
( ) Cf. TRMPP, p. 532; KNIG, p. 145.Corresponding forms appear in
2

Hebrew

1BD, BH]?; Arabic

j J b , Jjf, Aramaic y ^ o ,

*ofo.

216

105.

the coinage of the root as a Verb (where a vowel follows the second radical). I t has at first always the force of a pure Conceptional word, like - f l ^ h "gap", 07*A "corruption", Gh'h* "fewness", (OCR "breadth". But by virtue of farther modification of the meaning ( 104) these Conceptional words were often employed to designate objects and substances in which the idea becomes realised, so that this form goes on to furnish expressions for names of things, names of persons, plants, animals, and the like, e.g. A*flt) ("clothing") "dress", V ^ft ("breath") "soul", -OC^ ("cutting") "brass". fl>A* ("birth") "son", a>Ch "moon", h C / " "belly", hA*fl "dog" &c. Many very old words especially, the roots of which are no longer used at all as Verbs, like Opt "eye", are formed in this way. But pure Adjectives are not expressed in this form( ). The vowel which is established in the first part of the form is either a or e in Ethiopic. Into this e have been taken the u (o) and i (e) of the allied languages; but in a few roots beginning with Aspirate-gutturals an original u has, in accordance with 26, endeavoured to save itself by taking refuge in a Guttural or an Aspirate, like 7*CJ "threshingfloor" 7*-J- "Stem" (T#I), tf-^A "dye for the eyes" (jJaJO,
x

|x.f|<p "costus" (iaJji), ifx-C "cold" (-1J5), tfA "totality" Any essential difference in meaning between words with a and words with e is, generally speaking, no longer discernible. When this form has been produced in both modes of pronunciation by one and the same root, these modes often have also different significations attached to them, in such a way that in some cases the word which contains a has a more active meaning or one more connected with a person,while that which contains e conveys a more passive meaning or one more suggestive of a thing, as 1*flC "slave", *7flC "business"; ^7Jt "foreigner, llf^ "journey"; but also with other kinds of difference, as i n : TrYxti "youth", V?iA
Q) For

J&jP*"}, J^*lC, 6*19 never mean dexter, posterior, laevus,

"good" belongs originally

as LUDOLF thinks, but "the right, back, left side"; and is doubtless merely an abbreviated form of y*^* to a different formation. also
a n < 1

n u s

( ) Farther ^ f f , f"-ft*A, 'kA/h; tf-CU, WhAl, ^ A ^ \ "leg".The view propounded above is also approved of by
2

TBUMPP, p. 532, but contested by KONIG wrongly, pp. 45, 52.

 105.

217

"smallness"; A-flA "rope", ArflA "cunning"; "judgment", iJtth "solution". But frequently both forms are used with like meaning, as CftvH a n d ^ / M l "breadth"; C9th and^jT^i "spear"; dC*t> and OC4> "reconcihation"; fyftC and "citadel"; ^fh and 4*}^ "envy"; J<p4> and *J<p4 "chest", "box"; ^ f f A and fcffA "leaf"; "r-M* and - V A ^ "number"; ftAfc and ft'Ah "hatred"; and.R"!'} "well", "weal";for seeing that on the one hand, a may be softened into e ( 18), and that on the other, Aspirates and Aspirate-resembling letters (like i the examples adduced) have a preference for the a-sound, this alternation between a and e in certain words is easily explained, and there is no need to assume the existence of two original forms. Finally, we must not fail to notice (*) that several of these words which have a are nothing other than somewhat maimed forms of original Participles of the type /MIC- This is the case possibly with *M1G "slave", originally "a worker", and OCYl "friend" &c. On the pronunciation of these words cf. supra, 38. A Middle-Aspirate exerts no influence on the e-formation: H M 1 "wolf", 96C "a time", j P f t ^ "a hundred"; but in the a-formation it lengthens that vowel into a ( 46): Ph.1l "quarrel", "ithty "mockery". Boots mediae geminatae in both formations leave their double-letter unresolved ( ): A * f l "heart", fat "law", f"k
n 2

"beauty" (*LL), tfl "tooth", Tffc "a skin", "bottle" (J-j), "fl "a bear" (J, j ) , * H l "pit" (ZJ*), "piece" and "gift" (Judges 19,5; Jas. 1,17), J P ^ "husband" (PI KjPjHh); rhK" "arrow" (yn), p^, 4 "leaf of paper", flh "emptiness", "flame", j*'} "vapour", "smoke" (JLiil), 4 "little one", 0C "enemy", m A "dew", m "an infant" (*]) (frequently employed in the Abyssinian Chronicles). From Vowel-beginning roots this formation is always strong: frfl "right side", f*flft "firm or dry land", "continent", OJ-flT "interior", 0>"W; "fewness", IDAJt "son", (D^C "sinew" (ljf). I n the formation from roots mediae infirmae the vowel e

C ) V . EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.' 146, Note. ( ) Accordingly ary col. 562:

2

*p"J must also be read for <F"J"J in

LUDOLF'S

Diction-

"length" might be merely a lengthened form of fyl, but it

may also come from a root fcfr^Sn.

218

t*tf

( 50) is displaced by the radical vowel, thus: rh.ft "reproof", "cunning", fl.fr "comrade", 4JP "revenge", tl/i "art", mfl "smoke" {^o\ (jLljo), A.A "dropsy" (oul), 9jx "hlth" (nS),

M "length", 0,7 "baseness"; v*b "tinder" On the other hand, the vowel a forms with the radical vowel a diphthong, which is often retained, especially in words from roots primae or tertiae gutturalis, but which often also blends into a mixed sound: "plunder", "sword", }A "power", "shore", "flood", Rj&A "street", iDjrV} "wine", Of, } "eye" (07, T HjK-^, 7-fl,'!>&)> OID-Jt "circuit", HO>-7 "pair", tiahfo "table" {'tabula'), UOhd and HOhd "jests", K(DA "vapour", flfl>T "scourge" (#Ohd, or "price", fl,^ "house", ,C
0

"cloister" (5), %h "mead"( ), fidoi; Sap. 13, 18, f>^r "death", qty "warmth", #JT "growth", p-JP "today", pt "bird", /JT "tree , "dawn" ( y f c , AC, ^C, KC, K T , CA) But together with these genuine Ethiopic forms, there occurs also another pronunciation,one with long a,particularly in some very old words. This a proves in most cases to have been simplified from o in the Ethiopic and Arabic manner ( 18) ( ):
3

"word" (cf. supra), S\C "race" (not p.Q, "breeches" (cf. *J); often under the influence of an Aspirate: "sweat", "mourning" (whence Od.(D and tithtD seem to be derived), f)A "span" (^Lj, ^ p ) , * j y "year", AA "hour" (as well as A ^ ^ , SLtll, properly "moment", nytf).On the other hand "good omen" appears to be shortened from 4*?tA (Jli), and *Jfl> "curvature" from a form like \y&. and j j ^ ; finally ^A "hut" seems to be originally an Arabic Participle (c/".
X*A* U 5),

or a lengthened form of &A-

jBoofe tertiae infirmae neither reject their last radical, if we except a few very old words of uncertain derivation, nor introduce the vowel-pronunciation, but on the contrary invariably harden 0) Afl***P Can tic. 7, 3 cannot be a Substantive, as L U D O L F assumes, but is a Part. Pern.; ROhft "invitation" is derived from the Intensive Stem of the verb.
( ) Perhaps also
( ) V . EWALD, ' G > . Ar.'
3

"salt", root "2 or

73, 387.

^yo.

219

it into a semivowel, and thus possess a thoroughly strong formation. This formation, however, has its explanation solely in the assumption ( 38) that at one time all nouns, including these, ended in a short vowel; and it is precisely in words of this formation that such vowels must of necessity be given utterance to, in order to render them pronounceable( ). The forms of this sort, known as yet, are: /^C<D" Serw "root", *lKOh "representation", ft1rfl> or frfa "brother", fit "a lane" ( = ftlah pf), rh*^ 'an odoriferous wood'
1 e

(cf. tlthOh "extension", flJtO* "wilderness" ( j j u ) , p^Oh "emulation", tftxfr "face", ArhJB. "beauty", V U "recreation", "refreshment". Obviously this formation has become very rare; and there is no example of it where the word has the vowel e and itself comes from a root ending in The rarity of such words might occasion astonishment, were it not sufficiently explained by the circumstance, that when the final vowel had been dropped in the later pronunciation, the whole of this formation was allowed to fall out of use, and,so far as pure conceptional words ought to have been formed in it,was replaced by another formation ( 106). Farther, a few very old words appear, which have only two radicals, but which,sometimes before a Suff. Pron. and in the PL, sometimes in derivatives,pass into tri-radical roots with final u. They are therefore to be enumerated here, although in stray cases the tri-radical root is only derived from them, and not they from the root: b? "man", ftJP "name", JtK* "hand", 6b "tree", 1MI "female breast", f | ^ , fl^ "papyrus", "blood"( ), IK "face", ft< "mouth", Aft" "arrow", ft-fl "father", th9 "fatherin-law". As regards their formation, it is not indeed certain that all of them have been formed precisely according to the first form here assumed by us; but in their type they resemble mostly those words which belong to the first formation; and since their true genesis, from its extreme antiquity, can no longer be established with certainty, and at all events cannot be classified under any of the modes of formation still in force in the language, we have set them down among Nouns of the simplest form.
3

A n onomatopoetic word of this formation is %b "raven"

C) V . however TRUMPP, p. 532. ( ) For EHf* is Infinitive and of quite another origin. ( ) Whence seems to have been derived. [A doubtful derivation.]
2 a n 3

220

106.

[also 7*7% a word of similar meaning Kebra Nag., 122 b 17, var.]. The following foreign words too have been altered in accordance with this form, v i z . : W i "India", KCh "Greece", tffti "passover", A'J'ft" "Xevriov", *bfr or *hg, "brimstone" (freiw) &c. Several of these forms, especially of those which have received the signification of common Nouns, passed over to the feminine type, like ^fLao^ "tent" (ulL), R^tt "bat", fr^V^ "wallet",
0

(xLU), ift "garden", Qlh^ "galbanum", ghl ^ "bile" (for ihFOtty, (ftl^ and flMh "street", "lane", (related to frT^ v. supra), ^t^fy- "door" ( x ^ ^ . ) , T/J. "lime" (sj^j), and several others ending in a ( 127). 2. second 106. 2. The Second mode of formation consists in the ^ establishment of an accented short vowel, or a tone-long vowel, accented after the second radical. Words of this form are Verbal Nouns. ofTonlllng They give evidence at once of this relationship of theirs to the vowei after y "b by the position of their formative vowel after the second
Form n: er

radical, inasmuch as the Verb has its essential vowel precisely in that place. I n meaning they are either conceptional words of an Infinitive type, derived from the old Imperfect, or Descriptive words, derived from the Perfect^). A subdivision naturally takes place into two classes, according as the words issue from the Imperfect or the Perfect, conception(1) Conceptional (or Abstract) words derived from the Imperai words -f +corresponding to Infinitives and Substantives of an Infinitive
ec

2nd Radical:

derived as ' verbal

N o u

'

is

f r o m e

imperfect (Subjunctive form): vowels

form in other Semitic languages. The old Imperfect, i. e. the Subjunctive ( 91), in Ethiopic has for its vowel e or a, the former for the Transitive Verb, the latter for the Intransitive; and these two must turn up also in the conceptional words derived from it. (ft) Conceptional words, however, with an accented e after [ radical are no longer met with. The e proved too weak
0 r

with
original Transitive e

seconc

after to keep the tone ( ), and so they passed over in a body to the Femibut now 'wiwe form ( 104),as when, e. g., instead of fl*fl seber, we have with Fem.- frft/Jfr (sebrat, the accent going to the 1 syllable) "breach", and
s t

ending at, and Accent

y

. .

ists i^bie. kept from being with the First Simple ( ) V . on this confounded point EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr." 148, a.
X 1

it was only by this Feminine-ending thus assumed, that they were formation by
( ) Just as it also lost the tone in the Subj., 92.
2

 106.

221

means of e. This Feminine-ending at, less frequently a, ( 127 b) is very common I t is the form in which Nomina actionis, in accordance with their meaning, almost invariably appear, such as "running", "career", CftA*^ "discovery", Cltt^ "piercing through", or Abstract words of Quality like tlYld't "drunkenness", CTd't "dampness"; rarely, Common Nouns like HiUh't ('lair') "stall", V^UH* ('apparition') "spectre", ft^dlh ('excavation') "hole", ty"*&.&/b ('the being uncircumcised') "foreskin", fhA +'lh ('circle') "ring", *p*04"Tf" "oppression". When nouns of this type and those of the First formation are both developed from one root, then the former always signify action pure and simple: %Jrb "plundering" (!/ "plunder"), A-flA^ "putting on clothes" (A'flfl "clothes"), j P A f t ^ "filling up", "being full" (9frh "fulness") &c. Such words are also formed from Middle-Aspirate and Final-Aspirate roots, although these have the vowel a in the Subj.. like hfhi'H' "error", -flAJi^ "fermentation", Ohlh?b "butting", T'Rh't' "striking", "stroke" &c, and in the same way from many intransitive roots. From roots mediae geminatae this form always runs like flm^ settat "rent", "gap", l&b/'fever", "touch", T-V^ "flight", ("escape"), "flying" (of a bird), faon^ "blackness", "ink", ^'t^f "piece", "fragment", aoQ^b "anger" ( 44). Roots beginning with u have often the strong form in such words, even when the Subj. has the weak, as in ObtMi'b "flowing", Ob*}^ "throwing", "cast", Ob^lh^ "butting", Ob^Jb "accusation" (v. infra), but in most cases they have the weak form: A f c ^ "birth", "descent", C43* "spitting", filler ('duration') "day", "fall", p h * ( 44) "exit", and analogous to it flM"entrance" from flft ( 68). I n cases where the two forms, strong and weak, both occur, they have different meanings: "brand-mark", flH^f^ "burning"; "Ifitb "anathema", Ob ) U'b "excommunication". Several others of these yvords are given with an intimately attached feminine-ending ( 128):<pTHh "beginning" (flK'pJ^ "the commencing"), ^ Y * * ^ "strife", 7 ^ ^ "a
0

0) In
l

Hebrew, forms likefi*1Jtf,n&?n,

JV6 &c. correspond,

EWALD,

Hebr. Spr: 150; in Arabic, xXki &cOn Tone-relations v. TRUMPP, p. 533.

According to KONIG, p. 77, these-Feminine forms would belong to Nouns of the FIRST formation.

222

107.

sudden occurrence", /hft'h "loan", (Ml^ "gift", in which the a of f llfl has held its ground, by virtue of the Aspirate. Forms from Boots mediae infirmae exhibit invariably ( ), in accordance with 50, the vowel-pronunciation of the middle radical: <m-'J-^ "dying", fad*!? "going", $tao^ "standing", (hdjt "blindness", 0*l^h "baseness"; " ^ . m ^ "turning", ^ f l l ' h "deceit", *%ao^ ('installation') "office", ' V . A ^ "emigration", ferh^ "redness"; and only those roots, which are, besides, tertiae infirmae, have forms with a diphthongal pronunciation, like thfrfD't "life", f f l ^ f ^ h "distortion". On fXh'fr v. supra. In the case of Boots tertiae infirmae this formation is all the more in use, that the employment of the first, simple formation for these roots has greatly declined ( 105). I n accordance with 40, the type is either *fr "election", Cftf ^ "face", "aspect", "irrigation", dCf't "equalising", "avarice", ^-v fll^h "succession", d&ffl't "apostasy", \ldtD't "outpouring", HQ <D*!h "dispersion", or (as well as jPft^^h) "evening", "poverty", dfo't "recompense", jP&*|h ('solitude') "monastery", Q'i't ('sending') "way"; and in several words the two forms are used indifferently, like 4 * ^ ? a n d 4*31^* "service", G9?*lr and G " * ^ "throw", G4f ^ and C&^ "enchantment", ^ID^ and ^^4" "lust"; cf. supra p. 80. With ft prefixed ( 34): ft-fl dJ.'lh "alternation". A few words which have an Aspirate ( 44) or 4 ( 48) for their initial letter exhibit a in the first syllable instead of e : a n d ^fi ^^h ".calumny", i)\\Jh "weariness", "joy", Qlh^ and 4>">K^ "ardour" (Numb. 25,11 Note), rh4^^ "contempt", ty&fr and 4</fr" "density", "hardness", 4 - ^ "bet". Of a more Arabic character is the form( ) rhrt*t* "lie", for AiiHD^ from the root ghfltt), which, according to PEAETOEIUS,
r 2

'Beitr. z. Ass.'.I, p. 34, possibly comes from JLA. Cf. infra also 128. with 107. (b) The formation with an intransitive a is still !r fter retained in a variety of fashions. 2ndRadicai. ( ) The second Badical is pronounced ivith( ) d, the first,
In Ve a 3 a

( ) LUDOLF,

'Lex. Aeth.' col. 564, adduces f 0hi>D'h, but without a pasg k

sage in support.
( ) EWALD, 'Gr.
3
2

Arab: 410.

( ) At least originally having the Tone; cf. TRUMPP, p. 533. I n Arabic

 107.

223

ivith fugitive e. This type is formed only from intransitive or semipassive verbs and is therefore by no means very common. To it belong words like 1 f t "shortness", booty "depth", tym! "thinness", ftitPf "ugliness"; and from roots mediae gutturalis ( 44): Wfhfy "laughter", JWh<b "census", ^rh -fl "width", h r h J t "denial", "Vfl "hunger"; from roots tertiae gutturalis 'tpV "vigilance", tl6*(h "fatigue", ^ " J J i "lack"; in words mediae geminatae, the doubled letter is always opened out: Tfl "fl "wisdom", ftfl-fl "roundness", ^ o i T "thinness"; tertiae infirmae: M l "vileness", d(\fi> "magnitude", or, by the diphthong becoming a mixed sound, ft-f^ and ft-fr "drinking", R% "bloom", "fruit" ($, perhaps also Ufl "copious dew" (of obscure derivation)^). Roots with initial u usually make the feminine take the place of this form (v. 106); yet to this form belongs ifa "spittle" (on the other hand we have C4*^h "spitting"), and in like manner "foundation" (probably VlT)( ). From a root beginning with i comes f l f | "aridity", because this i is never discarded in the Subj. From roots mediae infirmae this form is exceedingly rare (AfllC "blindness"), and is replaced sometimes by the Feminine formation, as with roots just mentioned, and sometimes by the First Simple formation. "Words of this formation now and then change it for the First Simple formation, still keeping the same meaning: 7H< and 7Ti*t: "density", J i f l J t and ft-fl' "folly".
9 2

(/3) The a may be lengthened into a( ). The words concerned are thereby more detached from their affinity to the Verb and are raised from Infinitives into Substantives proper. They are not so much an expression of the action itself as the result rather of the action, and are mostly names of things. Examples: *h^ "remainder", ftJjC "drunkenness", "custom", ffl} "child", Tf?{P "rain", ft;ffl "book" [Arabic loan-word, u>UT), f M C
<

ycvi

and the like correspond (EWALD, 'Gr. Ar. 240), and in Hebrew the

intransitive Infinitives of the First Stem. O Cf. BARTH, ZDMG X L I I , p. 352 sq. Gen. pp. 54, 59. ( ) [V. now on this formation and its passive meaning NOLDEKE, 'Beitr. z. sem. Sprachioiss.\ p. SOsqq.]
3

( ) That there is a word = 03 A? * perhaps made clear by 17, 12, but without doubt it is so by Gen. 1 7 , 2 3 ; Jer. 2 , 1 4 ; Kuf.
2 s n o t

224

"piece", fr^'fl "chip"; mediae gutturalis: fAxty "mockery"; tertiae gutturalis: frQrh "morning", Cflth "gain", "sputum"; mediae geminatae: tti^i9 "pain", "fever", A ^ C "heat", f i b "roughness"; mediae infirmae: rh*PC "portico" ("corridor"), 1<P9 "sleep", A*Pft "sense", A<PA "foal", A,?fh "a costly vessel", ^P^A "vial", tyyh "vomit"; tertiae infirmae: 'fU)JP, "weeping", fi;f "drink", "torment", T*P and "colic", 7P "vessel", *flX<D* "slumber", Q~0b "desire", l$>Gb "tone", and, by rejecting the Ob according to 53,*7A "covering", bl "lot", "way", "flesh" (KC^uOC ), b% "money-debt", "recompense"^). A word with ft prefixed ( 34) occurs in ftA^"l "dress" (/nn ?). Traces of an original it in the first syllable are shown in "ring", "clasp", tf*i*C Hnfula", ^ " T A "louse". This formation appears now and then side by side with the First Simple formation: hArh and hArh "outcry", K ^ A and ftTA "the young" (both of men and lower animals). For one or two Feminine forms of a and ft v. 128. But these forms may be still farther extended by pronouncing the first syllable with the more definite vowel a. This is the most usual method of forming Common Nouns, as well as conceptional words. (y) The type which has a in both syllables( ) is to be regarded, sometimes as a farther formation from (a), inasmuch as one or two words still admit both forms indifferently, e. g. A*I9 and Al9 "barley",sometimes as a development of the First Simple formation ( ), with which it alternates still more frequently, e. g. Wljty and o>C% "rising", ft9C and A ^ C "productiveness", (HA and fl4A "mule", i-C*h and "remainder" (*! and V7, Oi"l and 01% and 0 ; A , 0^1 and 0$**1, I'flT and ifl'p Sir. 34, 20), while even in other languages words of the First formation often correspond to them: A*7 i^g, OCrfi 2iy.( )- Accordingly it cannot any longer be determined in all cases, which syllable, supports the tone: I n LUDOLF'S view it
1 1 2 3 4

(*) Cy., however, KNIG, p. 116

2

sq.

( ) In Arabic J ^ c , in Hebrew 1^1 answers at one and the same time to our forms () and (y).
()
3

Cf. EWALD, 'Gr.

Ar?

240.

-,

( ) Y . farther, however, ZIMMERN, 'Zeitschr. f. Ass? V, p. 385.

 108.

225

is always the first; cf. however TEUMPP , p. 534. Upon the whole this formation is very common, especially from strong roots: "hail", "horse", laofr "camel", flAfl "fig-tree", H W l "tail", VIC "city". Words beginning with 0 are often inaccurately written with i. *}AJl "spelt", (jjJLiO, } H l and 0 H 1 "ascent" Tertiae gutturalis: p*PU "uprightness", -f-Afl "pectusculum", but .also 101) "full-moon"; vowel-beginning roots: flirt'} "boundary"; mediae infirmae: U f A "stag", {DA "district", RflJ'J "castle", (hPC "air" is a foreign word); tertiae infirmae: tto0Oh "Spring", d*0(O* "viper" (*); but also with mixed sound: "|fl "side" (no doubt for l ^ f l ; cf. 33, 0 b "hip" (perhaps for 0\t)\ from roots with final i, always with mixed sound: A<, "side", rt*C "seam", * B "disease", -^A "song". A t^-containing guttural as first radical does not occur either here or in (B).Feminine forms in this formation are comparatively rare, 127. (d) The form ivith long 'a in the second syllable and short a in the first is not common( ): fl*}A "festival", rhrt'fl "reckoning", M9 "peace", 19 "thunder", "will", 1^9 "field" f ) . Mediae geminatae: hfl 'fl "circle"; mediae infirmae: r h * P "gloaming"; tertiae infirmae: 4*f[* "abyss"; but with the Oh rejected, when that is the last of the root ( 53): "favour", "grace", flfj "desert" (*). 108. 2. Descriptive Words derived from the Perfect (Verbal Descriptive Adjectives and Participles). This family of words, still largely repre- deTveTas sented in Hebrew and Arabic, has been dying out in Ethiopic, Ad2 Y e r b a l
t

j.

jectivesand Participles
fr p e

(just as in Aramaic),with the exception of the form employed for the Part. Pass. A periphrasis, effected by the Imperfect of the Verb, or in some other way, became more and more prevalent as a substitute for the Simple Adjective as well as for the Part. Act.; and the old Adjective-forms were given up.Others have been retained merely because they have become Substantives. The original vowels of the Perfect are universally lengthened, to distinguish these words, as Nouns, from the Verb; and therefore
0) YxdjO^i "sweet odours" and "sweet odour", seems to be a Plural. ( ) I n Arabic ^ S L l , in Hebrew l ^ , T D 3 . ( ) I n tbe case of roots tertiae gutturalis this formation cannot be distinguished from the preceding. ( ) Otherwise with KONIG, p. 117.
3 4 2

e t

15

226

108.

the vowels i and u as well as a are separately maintained, seeing that the long vowels % and u never lose their identity in e, though the short vowels % and u may do so. with a in (d) The formation with a in the second syllable is now but 2nd syllable. k i y represented. The first syllable has e in the Adjective proper^). These words have to some extent the signification of Participles. The following occur( ): fiifOb "living", 'VJJ'p "few" (if not originally "fewness", 107), (=UA*P) "enduring", b&ty "naked"" (if not a substantive, cf. 156), 01) "raw", IpV "awaking", "1^*7 "abandoning", a**?fa = fl-*^h "fettered", *fft "tender", "delicate", "trodden down" Is. 18,2 var., "possessing" or "possessor" (Hen. 14,6) ( ). But even these few adjectives, which are still in existence, have a marked leaning towards the Substantive use. They are not generally co-ordinated with a Substantive like pure Adjectives, but are placed in a more independent position, like a Substantive in apposition, and they sometimes subordinate themselves to Nouns in the Construct State, or complete themselves with a Suff.-pronoun.Some words alsowhich belong to this class, but have become pure Substantives, have been retained as a remnant from more ancient times, like fi^jK. ('high') "heavens", 0*h& ('glittering') "sun", (but often 0rfij&), "artificial flower", perhaps also M "abyss" (cf. 107 ad fin.). Several also of the short words, mentioned in the end of 105, belong at bottom to this formation, with I m (b) The formation with i in the second syllable is more frequently 'employed for simple adjectives than any other: a number of these adjectives have become Substantives. This form comes oftenest from roots with an intransitive meaning(*). More rarely the wordsconcerned have a purely passive sense, and then the formation coincides with the one with u( ). The first radical is given with a, to distinguish the words as Nouns proper from Participles; but in
w e a 2 3 2ndSyllable 5

O In Hebrew, 1 ^ and tfvT]?; in Arabic ^ 1 ^ , ( ) For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 534.
2

^ U ^ ,J | p J .

( ) 1*119 * not gibbosus, as LUBOLF thinks, but "hump" (^IjUw),. 107. [In Hen. 14,6, FLEMMING adopts the reading T C ^ l / * " * ! while D I L L 3 8 0

MAS'ST preferred

TR.]

(*) And then Hebrew adjectives like JJ^ and jr^ answer to it.. ( ) Like TJ3B.
5

 108.

227

the case of Roots mediae guUuralis, with e ( 45) (*). From strong roots: ,h-S.f "new", hj> "godless", * m / * "thin", "short", HUC "foreign", ^9 "red", "black", 1H,< "thick", m / J "swift", flA/* "sharp"; mediae guUuralis: Crh /fl "wide", AT4 "old"; mediae geminatae: w>6C "bitter", 4AA "light", 0H /H "strong", m(U-fl "wise" *fe<5C, JM /fl, 4 # , 136, 1, 'fertVP); mediae infirmae: VCIr "long" (and also, owing to the Aspirate, V'P'V, 44), +P-rh (e. Gen. 30, 35; and Kebra Nag., 12b 11) and ( 52) "red"; from roots with final i: OfiS* "great"; in the case of roots with final u this formation does not occur. Substantives: 4*Aft "presbyter", ih*i.K? "iron" ('sharp'), h%C "the first day of the month" ('superior'), ('thin') "cake" and "small coin", a\ti, ( 52) "goat" (nbti), AV^4* and the common contracted form ( 47) A.4 "elder", "old man", 'flthjh "vinegar"; farther, words originally possessing the force of a Part. Act., or forming an expression for the Agent ( ): Vflji "prophet" ('speaker'), rhtU ( 52) "warranter" "manager", *t69 "gleanings", "juice pressed out", " \ f t / } "iron" ('cutting'); or words with a passive sense: V ^ A "dough" ( 45), aoh^th "Christ". The forms which have X prefixed ( 34): tx'tXiJtx "Lord" and M l A , A
2

"garland", "crown", JuJift (H^bs) come perhaps from Stem 11,1. (where Vl=/aO are foreign words. (c) The formation with u in the second, syllable is by far With u ii the most common, and has still such force in the language that i t ' may be derived from the majority of roots ( ). I t has first a strictly passive sense, and, when derived from verbs of Active signification, it serves as Passive participle, e. g. RVh*? "written". The first radical,properly vowel-less, is always spoken with e, (with the exception of &<fl-f| "dark"). This comes about, partly in accordance with 60, partly because this form, as being an expression of the Participle, stands close to the verb( ). I t may also be detri, }
0

GyiJvog, \\ i^h
at

KV/MVOV

2 n d

SyIlab

( ) For the accentuation cf. TEUMPP, p. 534.

( ) EWALD, Hebr. Spr.'
3 4
2 l

149, e.
c

( ) For the accentuation cf. TEUMPP, p. 534. ( ) I t answers completely to the Hebrew Paul. When LUDOLF, Gr. Aethiop. I , 3, maintains, that the second radical is doubled, he is evidently astray, and is as little to be relied upon as he proves himself otherwise to be in his statements about doubling:For instance, he pronounces 15*
1

228

108.

rived from roots, from which only Nouns are formed, e. g. f(hC "grassy", A f l " f l "prudent". I t is even taken from Derived Stems; j as no other type is available, by which to form Passive Participles of such Stems, than that of the Pass. Part, of the Simple Ground-Stem,'it is taken according to that type, except that in the process the Derived Stems renounce their Stem-peculiarities, e. g- 99^9 "complete", "accomplished" (from fassama), "tormented" (f|f), <pfcG "beloved" (h<<, Pass. ftYK> "praised" (from fcftfoo^), "delighted" (from ' b ^ t h
an( ?

St. I l l , 2); but cf. 111. From strong roots, as well as from Aspirate roots, Double-lettered, and Vowel-beginning roots, and from those which have a middle I or a final i, this type is similarly formed, that is to say, strongly and fully: A < * ' J t "learned", hfrC "bound", 7 r h - A "destroyed", { P f r h "full", Vf'V-'J "condemned", *>J?.J& "impoverished", JJT "turned away". On the other hand from roots with final ii, in accordance with 52, there emerges always the type A'flfl*" lebhvvf "skilled in", AA0>* "apostate" & c ; from roots with middle u the type JPfB.^ meivut "dead" is possible certainly, and frequently occurs still; but in accordance with 52, especially in later times, it usually passes into 9Ob't' mewwet: *f(D*ty "warm", iP0 >h "conquered" &c. As is proved already by several of the examples which have been adduced, this type is formed not only from verbs of Active signification, but also from Intransitives; and in fact it is very frequently formed from the latter class of verbs, either with the force of a Participle, or directly as an Adjective: ftVh'H "lying", / * ' 4 - C "flying" ('occupied inflight'), CBhft "running", IJA<* "existing", C ( M 1 "hovering", flH4-* "descending" G. A d . 129, 26, 2\Wh "engaged in a campaign", "subjected", Tfl *d "prepared" (intr. and pass.), ft'flJ.C "laden", ^oo-JP " i l l " , fatf*-} "sad". I t may even, like the Reflexn

maggara, yenagger, while he omits to notice that in forms like ii^'^, HO, the second radical is doubled. The Intensive forms bwp, ^ItSj?, ^ttj? &c. {EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr? 155, d and 'Gr. ArS 248; HOFFMANN, 'Syr. Gramme p. 241; [and NOLDEKE, 'Syr. Gr.' (English Ed.) p. 73]) are paralleled in Ethiopic rather by IflG- The manner of formation of the Part, Pass, in the case of Verbal Stems externally increased, and Multiliteral roots ( 111), tells decidedly against a doubling of the second radical, as also does the peculiar fashion of this formation in the case of roots mediae infirmae.

 109.

229
x

ive-Passive Stems, gain seemingly active meaning ( ), e. g. Jf^/h (from ftlMi "to expect") not "waited for", but "engaged in waiting for" ('lying-in-wait'), fl*lrhA "confiding in", "given to evilspeaking", "blasphemer", ,"V} "safe and sound", but also "wholesome" (Gr. Ad.), X*VH( ) not only "kept a prisoner", but also "clinging to", i. e. "holding something", with Accusative (Hen. 56,1)( ). I n the great scarcity of simple adjectives, it has to supply A d jectives too, such as JPfrh "full" (and "filling up"), flH1f "much", fab "idle", fr>-0 "strong", TlbO "steadfast", *74-9 "terrible", j&n-fl "arid", "careful", "heedful", tf~b "violent", "sharp-sighted" &c. Substantives of this form are very rare: 't'frl) "watchful" and "watchman", It/** "king", bgfD* "adversary"
2 3

(^ j U ) , 1 G "proselyte", -fK-C "silver" ('white'), -n^h-X "leaven", Jffl-C "muddy" and "mud", T-'tX; (from TIR) "trunk" (of a tree), (D'Cfa'} "beginner", "novice". For a few Feminines v. 128. 109. 3. While the essential vowels in the Second Simple 3. Third formation (a, %, u) have been lengthened out of originally short ! ^ " vowels, as kindred languages show, a Third series of Simple
r 1 , n b V o w e l s

long from

forms comes into being, by stronger vowelsor vowels which were the nrst.long from the firstbecoming established in the Stem. To some extent they may be regarded as new and stronger forms derived from words of the Second series. (a) By the establishment of a long a after the first radical, with a which is followed by the appearance in the second syllable of the Radical shorter vowel e ( 60), a type of w ord arises, of a strongly active ^^ sense, which signifies the one who does (the Agens), and which accordingly is employed in the other Semitic languages as Part. Act. of the First verbal Stem. I n Ethiopic this form, however, can no longer be derived from every verb. I t has almost died out, in fact, and is now represented by a few words only, which are used as Adjectives and Substantives, but not as Participles (*). The followr (flJi ttet i

O
2

Cf. EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.' 149, d; HOFFMANN, 'Syr. Gramm,: p. 177;

EWALD, ' Gr. Arab:244. [Cf. also NLDEKE, 'Syr. Gr: (EnglishEd.) p.223s#. TE.] ( ) Like tm Cant. 3, 8.
( ) [FLEMMINO
3

reads here flJj&Ji'Vli":

HotylPQ't'i <D<H /'7^ instead

,a

of DILLMANN'S
4

Oi'h'Wi'

oo^il^.

TR]

( ) For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 535.

230

ing still occur as Adjectives: %ty "just", ^ 6 "straightforward", "upright", ^ 7 "sound and well", ('escaping unhurt'), (\^ff "useful", fl^ "other", "different", Arh "beautiful".As Substantives: $<?h "sinner", "priest", UD*b ('sacrificer') "idolatrous priest", frfrh "helper", <PCh "heir", pah?" "sponsor", "patron", flflA "lord" and "rich", AV9 "ox" (cf. urb, ojtfOb "glass", <VJ& "water" ('fluid' and doubtless too those words in which ( 105) a long a has been shortened, like K'flJt "foolish", "fool'^ ). This type is quite commonly employed in the formation of Numeral Adjectives, 159. with u (b) I n contrast with this form, of active meaning, effected by or i after f l n g a, new and stronger forms arise, of conceptional (and a after words, by means of a long u or %, derived from the Passive vowel a or i, which has become established in the second syllable, and which is preceded in the first syllable not by the colourless e, but by the more definite vowel a( ). This form is also very rare in Ethiopic( ); with u we have: *h4G "heat" (different from /h4C and ih&.C "wall", "defensive-work", ftfl "North" (region of the "fl); with i: *Ti^<p "the current year" (properly "Autumn", the time in which fruits are 'gathered'), perhaps "net" (with which one 'sweeps together') and J\(UC with long a, "the hinder space", "adytum", (of the Temple, T 2 H ) ; and with an e shaded out of i: "spectre", "evil spirit", and a few Feminine Stems, 127. But what is most important is, that this form is the one most usually employed in Ethiopic in the derivation of Verbal Abstracts or Infinitives from the several Verbal Stems, 124,which Infinitives only very seldom indeed are used as Noun-Substantives, like "belief, fD-rh/H "river".For one or two Feminines v. 127. A few Numeral-forms, having a inserted in their first syllable, make their appearance as new derivatives from Verbal Adjectives of the type 7flG ( 107): v. 159. An additional number of words are to be found, apparently of simple formation, which cannot be explained from any of the usual word-types, and either depend upon obsolete formations or
1 m e a i i s 0 0 lst) 2 3 r

(*) Also 0hth

2

"placid" (v. LUDOLF, 'Lex.'), if the reading is correct.

( ) For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 535.

( ) I t occurs more frequently in Hebrew, EWALD, 'Hebr. SprS 153.

110.

231

upon a corrupt pronunciation of antique words, or words adopted from foreign languages. Examples of foreign words occur in 5A9 "world", "eternity", j j U , fibty; CTi "pomegranate", "sugar", jtL; "South", ^ ^ S ,
W ,
0

flAO

"rock", j>

or

A.* A, ^ o i ^ , bW; ThW "oven",

S . V C ^ L l ^ "denarius"-, APcAk*** ('mitra');

-^IM,&J*>;

h *!,Hld
1

('hood'),

J ^ Q - i , /i)JPft,

raco; DA*

and 0A4 "marble", (JjJIS.Words of obscure derivation and formation: **t,^fr "a costly garment"; If fl "a kind of hawk"; "ifrT} "chest", ('ark') "shrine", ('reliquary'); #flC "darkness"; "shoe"; & A "letter of the Alphabet" (tn>&ft "earth", "dust of the ground"; -flrhiC "land", "country", "the earth") and others.
2, NOMINAL STEMS FORMED B Y DOUBLING OF RADICALS, OR FROM D E R I V E D V E R B A L STEMS AND M U L T I L I T E R A L ROOTS.

110. 1. Formations from Simple Tri-radical Boots and i. From Verbal Stems. ? Tvb!a (a) From simple tri-radical Verbal Stems, attributive words stems:
a

Attributive

are formed by the doubling of the second radical,which process words, here indicates the intensifying of the notion,but in other respects, 3 ^ * * in accordance with the adjective-formation described in 108. 2nd Bad., The first (closed) syllable invariably has the vowel a, the second r i n g a the tone-bearing main vowel a,just as in 108, (a) (*). The other vowels, which are generally available for the formation of Adjec- after 1st. fives ( 108), and are also represented in the other Semitic languages ( ), are wanting here in Ethiopie (unless it be that among the words cited in 108 (b) & (c), a few have been admitted which have their middle radical doubled). To this formation belong, first of all, Adjectives which express qualities of a more intimate and firmly inherent nature, or properties possessed in a higher than usual proportion:From strong roots: "timorous" ('who is continually and easily frightened'), "anxious" (G. Ad.), "longing", "masculine", "manly", fly? "dumb", fl^rh
bea

a f t e r

2 n d

0)
2

Cf. TRUMPP, p.

536. 'Gr. Ar.' 248; HOFFMANN, 'Syr. TR.] Gr.\ Gr.' (English Ed.) p. 71 sqq.

( ) EWALD, 'Hebr. SprS 155, p. 241 sq. [V. NOLDEKE, 'Syr.

232

HI-

"bald", hH9 "pleasant", l y j ^ "manifest";Denominatives: fftC. "hairy", ('having the foreskin') "uncircumcised", fej;A "covered with foliage" (Deut. 12,2).From roots mediae infirmae: "Itf A "strong", "active", f *PV "meek", iP ^-fl "grey-headed", "stammering", 0<P*7 "abominable", "hateful"; tertiae infirmaei A<POH "malignant", h<P<0 "energetic", m*Pj& "distorted", VhP "lazy", \fft, "poor", A'hJK- (together with A r h 109) "beautiful", "beautiful", "good". And farther, this form serves also to express the 'doer' ('who does anything frequently or continually', 'who does it as his occupation' & c . ) : 7 f l C "workman", JDA'fl "day-labourer", A A "neighbour", "foreign resident" ('metic'), A ; J "drinker", H ? ( 53) "whoremonger", "whore"; from ft*?G "foot" hPC "pedestrian". The most of the words which have this meaning assume farther the extraneous termination i ( 117); several have even both forms: R ^ - f l and ft^fl, "carpenter", rh*i< and i\\Ptd, "steersman"; from ,h<J'A "field" f f i ^ A and ghPfc "a countryman".
0

t i o n o f b o t h

(b) A still more vigorous reduplication,that of both the BedupHcJ- l t radicals,is employed, just as in Verbal Stems ( 77), for the derivation of Adjectives from roots which denote colours and
Adjectives
as

the last

savoury things, m order to indicate resemblance thereby(): The the laV ^ * ^ syllable has % (perhaps also a); the other two have syllable and , just as in 108, (b) ( ): ftOJ^E: "whitish", aooc\C (also, in other two. abbreviated form, tfn^G) "like honey", i. e. "sweet", * V H A " ! A "green", h(\i\ "foohsh", fctfo?"^ "very gloomy", f h H I t l . ? "mournful", <w7m'fn.7 "small", Oft-flfl/fl "very hard", f l C f l . G "back-prop" (also "supinus", v. Gloss.). The only Feminine forms as yet known are tyfthf^lUrb "reddish" (doubtless from ^ ^ h f t / H 36), and fl^^CA^ "glittering" (from fl^A^A or fl^A^A). 2. Fromne 1 1 1 . 2. Formations from Derived Verbal Stems. Several "stems?- f the Nominal forms described in 105109 belong to these 'formations, and at the same time retain the peculiarities of the
Bads., with
1 11 as a n < m a m 2 a
111

Oonception

alWords: from 2nd

rin

Stems from which they are produced. Of course the First Simple stemTwith f a t i o n ( 105) is entirely wanting in such Derivatives; for the a after 2nd ne vowel after the first radical would not suffice to sustain these
0

Bad., and strongly ac-longer Stems. But the forms given in 106108 centedFem, l e s s themselves in this Class. a t ending a( ) Exactly as in Hebrew: EWALD, Hebr. Spr.' 157, c. ( ) Cf. TRUMPP, p. 536.
J l 2

may more or

233

(a) Conceptional words from Derived Stems exhibit different forms according to the Stems from which they come, (a) From the Second Ground-Stem (1,2) conceptional words of an Infinitivecharacter are formed by means of a after the second radical, and the Feminine-ending a strongly accented^), which at the same time generally prevents the lengthening of the foregoing formative a. The first syllable,a closed one,is also pronounced with a( ). This form, however, is no longer very common: <7*h*5 "temptation", HlA "meeting", HA4- "correction", hflA "transgression", Qaoff "injustice", ('wrongdoing'), 0ftfl "distress" ('a making difficult'), / T0H "odour"; and in like manner from several roots not in use as Verbs in Stem I , 2: rh^^" "judicial investigation' ('cognitio^), *\wl "inquiry", 5>h*J- "wonder", "miracle"; perhaps also some Names of things:like IRA "crown", {'garland", hfl>A and h*PA[for a form VA v. Kebra Nag. p. X X X a] "rear", "hinder part", 1&A "carcase" ('a stretching out'), frffoq "cloud" ('a veiling'). Several others among the Intensive Stems have given up this troublesome formation, and have reverted to the form of Nomina Actionis which is described in 106, but have assumed the heavy feminineending a, by way of distinction from the forms taken from the Simple Stem: ">ft*h "penitence", <P/*Mi "joy", ifn.'p'J "displeasure", t p T } "pleasure", /hA,? "faculty of thinking", "intellect", ah(Sht "clamour", T-T-h "zeal", "haste", "consternation"; instead
2 y

f 9fo'h "taste", Deut. 32, 28, the majority of manuscripts have 9&(h. Quite isolated stand RGhb sewwe "invitation", and fdfrV't' ydwwehat "mildness" ( ). From Causative Stems also, the Abstract-formation with a after the second-last radical,, and with the feminine-ending a,, was no doubt at one time in greater use, but in ordinary Ethiopic it is now retained only in hChP ('to show') "example", "form" (and perhaps in Yxti'\r^t "donation").
3

0)
2

Cf. TRUMPP, p.

536.

( ) These forms are paralleled with tolerable exactness by the Aramaic Infinitives of the Pael and other Stems (K^lf j? &c.) as well as by Hebrew words like nij?5. EWALD 156, d.

( ) 5\A*lh "prayer", inherited from older times, is the Arabic s^JLo ? in Ethiopic we say ftAP "to pray", not RA<D-


From

234

HL

Qg) From Reflexive-Passive Stems formed by prefixing f'Q), the Nomen actionis was once capable of being formed from the stems; with Subjunctive, retaining at the same time the vowels of that mood( ); b u t this formation has died out. The only forms still known are syllable ^aotfQ tamdhhar "study", and, from Multiliteral roots in like being formed by manner: f ' ^ f l A ('mediation') "mediator", *f*'}nf'jF ('covering ^ J ^ over') "bridge". On the other hand the type with long a after the second radical, before which *fr retains its a and attracts the first radical to its syllable, is very common, but it is formed only from St. I l l , 1, to which also St. I l l , 2 has to be transferred. I t is in this fashion that Conceptional words of a Passive sense, which may also be Names of things, are expressed( ): ^ H h C "remembrance", f ' l f l G "performance" ('work', 'deeds'), f<ftJP "completion", -t-ll4~tti "delay", ^-R^fa "floor or story (of a house)", i ^ A f l "third-floor", "quintupling", "number five"; mediae geminatae: "f"Pfl"fl "astuteness", - H M M l ('crowning') "pinnacle"; Vowel-beginning: f'tthtfti "addition", f Ohi{*f "exchange", f'Oh i\h "praising"; mediae infirmae: "alteration", f-{JJ?*> "fraud", "f 4f P9 ('setting up') "basis", "framework"; from Eoots with final u we have, it is true, *f"flj0<0 "gaping", "ajar", but as a rule the Oh is thrown off(*): "affinity", "fraternity", "relationship", *| ft4 "hope", f'.R'A "dignity" rpvtyy; from Roots with final i, only the feminine form f*lD-fc*|h "orgies" (for f'Oh'ifrPlr or f (0 " i" l*) is as yet known. Sometimes the a of the first syllable elevates itself ( ) into e, especially in names of things: ^ h f l U "command", ^Chh "what lies at the head" ("bolster", 1 Sam. 26, 7, 11), ^ C ^ d "what lies about the feet", (and perhaps *ih*>41 "wetness of the ground", "marshy quality of the soil", uligo, and *\rl$* l "firebrand"), also - J ^ f l A "mediation" (from
passive
2 E a d t h e l 8 t < 0 a l 0 b t 3 , > m t , ,< , ? , < ; 5 0

( ) According to PRAETORIUS, 'Beitr. z. Ass? I , p. 38 sqq., these Nominal types, formed with t prefixed, should rather be assigned to the Intensive Stem. Cf. also KNig, p. 81.
j ^
2

( ) Like J o J u . ( ) [A comparison with similar formations in Assyrian makes it highly probable, however, that these nouns have nothing whatever to do with the Verbal Stems I I I , 1 or I I I , 2.]
3

( ) Like AsJ<3 EWALD, < Gr. ()

5

Ar.'

280.

Cf. KNIG, p. 123.

 111.

235

f'T'flA).Nomina adionis are very seldom formed from other verbal Stems in this way, with long a in the last syllable: from St. I V , 1 comes ?iATr"34A "breathing"; from St. 1,3 (in accordance with 60) fapq: "participation", or ^\h'Q (Ex. 36, 31) "fastening together"^) (with e shaded out of a); but generally such forms from St. 1,3, as well as from 1,2, I I I , 3 and I V , 3, have in addition an external ending (v. 120). I n the formations, however, which come from Passive Stems, as we see in Hebrew and Syriac( ) particularly,the Passive vowels it and i were also permissible. I n Ethiopic it is the Subject of the Passive proceeding, rather than the proceeding itself, which is expressed by this method,so that this form has much more to do with Qualifying-words: '^'flrt.A and *lHflAA "what is cooked", "dish" or "mess" (Gen. 25,2934); ^A'TUt "disciple" (probably a foreign word). But the intimately attached Feminine termination jh is usually associated with it ( ), before which, in accordance with 36, ^ or u is shortened into e. I n this way a new class of Abstract Nouns and Names of things is derived. I n the first syllable a was originally kept up (e. g. in 'f**/*'/lh'ih Gen. 31,27F, 'frOh&g: Gen. Comm. p. 5, -tmc^ Amos 8, 6 A, *f*jP (D-frlh 4 Kings 13,17, f'lDvk^ as well as ^OhA*^ "tradition"), but in later times it was universally thickened into e, before the e of the second syllable. The form is pretty common, v. for instance ^hKlC^h "production" (G. Ad., as from -f**7flG "what is produced") tegbertC), fyfaC^^ "abstinence", ^^OC^ "doctrine", ^ J P ' A h ^ "principality", "enjoyment", "divergence", ^b^l&fr "fraud", ^"IbC^ "lamentation", ^ M f t ^ 0 "assumption of human nature", -Mf^ ^ tezmed ( 54) "race", "family"; particularly from Numerals, like Th /^Aft^ "what is threefold, Trinity" ("tripling"), and others, 159; Vowel-beginning: ^flMflA^ and -frftA^ "trust", ^lO-Atf* ( 54) and i : A " (Gen. 15, 2 F) "race" (pronounce tewUd or tided) ( ); mediae in, , 2 3 5

O Quite peculiar is <pil "lustre" (from * P h f ) , as well as AV, "strife"

( - r - A W ).
( ) V. EWALD, 'Hehr. SprS 161, a; HOFFMANN, p. 243.
2

[Cf. also NLDEKK

'Syr.

Gramm: (English Ed.) p. 76. T E . ] ( ) Somewhat as in ( ) On the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 536. ( ) Although LUDOLF I , 5 tells us to say teivld.
3 4 5

236

112-

firmae: ^dfrC^ "aspersion", ^Oh^r "self-conceit", ^9^!^ "wiles", fydpffi "camp"; tertiae infirmae (in accordancwith 51): ^hf fl/h "prophecy", ^ C r t / h "ornament", ^'hfU^ "dross", ^ d f l / l h "pride", 'tfb't' "incarnation". Qualifying (b) Qualifying or Descriptive words from the derived Stems ^ . . are upon the whole of rare occurrence:the majority of PartiDescriptive words from ciples and those words which stand for them are derived by means stemsTwithof external prefixes and suffixes ( 114 and 117). But the Pasit after 2nd sive-Participle formation, with u after the second radical ( 108, c), besides its use in the first Stem, is at least admissible in several of the other Active Stems and is very common in the case of St. I , 3 0 . From Stem I V , 1 Ave meet with fcft^CVMl "absorbed in a matter", and from I V , 3 J\i l't" b({''h "gathered together", in which the foregoing a of the Perfect Stem is in this manner reduced to e, and,in accordance with 18 and 78, a to u. Following the last rule St. 1,3 produces "blessed", ft<-C "founded", "sharing in", A * & "shaven", "bOrh "gathered together", rhft*C "coloured", V-f 4* "unbelieving", "doubting" (but also f*"4i>, in accordance with 108 c). Trf'fte*t* "transparent (l^fl ^'l'? cf. supra p. 135 sq, and infra p. 238) may also be referred to this class. 3. From 112. 3. Multiliterdl Roots are, for the most part, formed into boots'*- Substantives only, rarely into qualifying words. Farther those simple Substantives are mostly names of things, seldom conceptional words, ai words The feminine-ending (except the ending a, 127) is rarely attached ofTWngs -^ these formations, already rather lengthy. A large number of Multiliteral Nouns have been imported from foreign sources, or else have an origin which remains obscure. (a) Simple Conceptional words and Names of things, derived from Quadriliteral Roots, are formed for the most part in such a way that each pair of radicals is brought into one syllable. A like process is followed in the case of Quinqueliteral Roots, the first radical being attached by way of prefix in front of the first complete syllable. When a long formative vowel is inserted, i t bears the tone; but when only short vowels are used, according to the later pronunciation, the tone falls on the first closed syllable. (a) When both syllables have short e ( ) (so that the word answers
r 1 f r
,

( ) On the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 536.

( ) I n hatf-jfl "stone", "rock", the a of the first syllable seems to

 112.

237

somewhat to the form "MC, 105):-fl^T'flJt "plague" ( ), " > < p 1< "drizzle", <M4*-A "furniture", ^ f f A "fox", K<Ti "hedge^ hog", "|7A "virgin", g-AYl'J rpxysXa^og (Deut. 14,5), H C A ? Vort T ' "lentils", R'YY'l "mud-heap".A conceptional word of this form is 0>-A0>"A "perturbation". Quinqueliteral: J '> K;^ "axe", R A 4 A 4 * "violent agitation" ('earthquake') "quaking", R'fld tf-A> ^'fldW'A and J^T'fldVf'A "den" or "cage".Foreign word: fr;CV9 "dirhem". (j3) When both syllables have short a: A\9 ^9 "gourd", 0<p.0<p "pavement", M T M f "carpet", A + A i T w i S ^ "precipice", rhUrhli "pool", *}JP }0 "pool" (probably written short a. with long a, merely in error, 48), (\Q>*(\Gi* "ladder", wtywty "network", feAfeA = 4Wl><-ft, (\C(\C "booty", A^flA "chain", 4A&* ("eyebrow") "orbit of the eye", dxlfiC "hog" (Hen. 89,10), 3VH1A "hair-comb", diilH "eyebrows", fe7Hh "lock (of hair)", hl&C "lip", O l l C "sea-monster", *K>hC "topaz", 4CW1 "eyelash", thGlK "crocodile", htflO "almond-nut", AflWfA "javelin",
w h e n M | ,, 1 , , W h e n O< O

0 j W " " > ("pitcher") (xSLsut), 0 >mA Bdp/caj, ' / h A ^ 5 , [from the Assyrian ikallu, Sumerian e-gal,] tfD^OA "fat", Jlh -fl "star". A conceptional word of this type is <wCftft "feeling", "groping". To this division farther belong, according to 7 1 : Afl"J "lasciviousness", "frost", 4jfl "scabbard". (y) When when last syllable has a, and the first either a or e:O^^ii^l^^
t u b

"ascorpion", A7AT "a costly garment" (IsSLsu), A.e."n eitheror A ( ^ I k l i ) , "Satan", Jf-pl "shoe-tie", "flour", A 7 f l A "saddle for a camel", /h?IMl "berry", "weed" (Matt. 13, 25), tf*C "elbow", 1(\H "beam", ff:lpl "margin", "brick", X1<hlh "burnt-offering"; dT-flPC "absinth", Jt^Jt* ? ( 47) "hair of the head", | x - A # f t A ^ f t , JlG^A "climia". Words of obscure formation and origin are met with in fl/h <.A "reed-pen", MM "mouse", frCtf "cock", ffipy "rue", flA/?? "veil", *A9ff8T "spark".Foreign words: j ^ / ^ m . C Mwrypiov, fJ-^A "candela", ^.Tr^ty xwoozstcv, 0'}'h l caCoa,
1 0 a

and the first

^yS^kS.

&C.

occur by way of compensation for an Aspirate (W*rhW*/h <?/" swp* p. 133);

but c/". PRAETORIUS, 'Amh. Spr.\ p. 152. C ) On the accentuation c/ . TRUMPP, p. 536 sq.
1 -

238

112.

Descriptive (6) Descriptive (or Qualifying) Words, and Substantives substantives ^enwd from them. The Quadriliteral Verbal Stem is employed derived its readiest dissyllabic pronunciation, viz. with two short a's, as from em. ^ q ] j f y g word; or else,when it has to be more exactly distinguished as an Adjective,an a establishes itself after the second radical also, and the word becomes a trisyllable C): A"J"^'7' "firm",
m Ua m ,

"massive",
M

(<JA^),

&7&*7 and &1&7 "lean" (Gen. 41,4 sqq.),

ftoiPh/ "speckled" (Gen. 30, 3239; 31, 1012, in later manuscripts VtoAtf*A); l^T^b "rugged". Or otherwise, the last syllable takes a lengthened a, and the first is then pronounced either with e (as in 108 a): Jth^JP' "bereaved of parents" (=Jr ^y |^jP), or more frequently with a (as in 110,1 a): ih'iUtl "lame", ft{PAT "blear-eyed", AMfc (Constr. St. AftAh) "stammering"; and with final u discarded ( 53) J\A8 or &Oft "white". "hlM (discarding the (D*, 53) "four-footed animal" ('going on four feet') ( ) has become entirely substantive. The most common of these forms is that of the Passive Participle, with u in the last syllable ( 108 and 111,6), before which the preceding syllables retain the shortest possible vowel: &9 ttr9 "tender", ihCP9 "unfortunate", /h*fl$<]f* "stained",9Tffl-C andtfoUfVC"destroyed" (AlK-^, 9 ^ ! , ^-flfrfl, 7 ^ . J & , fhv^h, *hAA-<P), <0-Afll.A "unstable", H I M "derided" (from H^71); from roots with long vowel as second radical ( 20):o^A**} "corrupted" (*7AV), a^^fa "captive" (T>*rh), -frft-^i "mixed" (#Arh), "erring" ( I f f ) , "avaricious", A,A- "separated"; from roots with u as last radical ( 52): OhOMfb "young", jP^A<0"tempted", A7?i0>- "agreeing" ((D-fr^Oh, ^"JiND-, MCOb), R"A (!> "bleached", "white"; with ?': T6*b?> "deluded". This Participle may also be derived from the Reflexive Stem V, sometimes in the form MQCfhK "dancing", VJm-A*A "veiled", fxi 'b*la> "erring", 'hltyoROt' "devout"; sometimes discarding the initial ft ( 87): 7ftMK4 "transparent", "J^T'feT (Gh Ad.) "delirious", 'JUtfA-A and ft7HUA*A "dissolute"; and with still more marked abbreviation: ">Yl*A "giddy" (from ft*}foAA)- Some2 0 a

(*) On the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 537.

( ) [Probably to be compared with D^D; JLJL00QJ, K ^ D ; and, it may be, with Assyr. stsu (although the i there cannot yet be proved to be long); v. LITTMANN, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr." X I I I , p. 155, N. 1.]
1

 113.

239

times these formations assume the meaning of Substantives: C "crumb", A?fl-ft "lung", "hllPfr "aberration"; fern. J^Ctf-YHh "hinge of a door".The form with I (v. 110, b) is preserved in a few Verbals only, which have taken a Substantive colouring: AfrAJt "the index of a balance", }<Pfcp "drizzle", h?&<h "border", fl'Jfl.A "spikenard^ ), *HUAA and VHIM.A "dissolute", "a debauchee" ( VHOiiii) (c) Stronger Conceptional Words (Nomina Actionis) arise stronger from Multiliteral Roots, having long a in the last syllable (cf. iotas' 111, a, 8) and a in the preceding one: 1?& "sin", A'flA'fl <1 C Nomina

Actionis);

"marriage (lOtT from repeated cohabitation), i*'fl /'fl "trellis", h in "basket-work, or lattice-work", "th't'h "eloquence" (CD/^ft), ?ft 9h "shoots" ((nfyhQ^SKS 'descendants'), ft/hft/h "dropping", and in jfltfo-AA "mild gravity", tMft-fl "marriage-feast", ^^IgZT cess", A'tf'Aft "soft whispering", frft^ft'P and }fli*fl )*fl "drops", r h ^ A ^ V A "greenness", I f l T O T and ^ T A T "colic" (Kuf.); from one or two Causative Stems ( 85), discarding ft:(l$6*C "horror", rt/'HIf "spasm", A4^*fl*" "lamentation"; and frequently from Reflexive Stem V, discarding ft: Yb*R*W "thunder", Vh"CV^C "whirlpool", i > C ^ C "murmuring"; V^CJX" "wantonness", V f t ' f l ^ "brilliance", i*>^0>- "hesitation" VMa>* >4A^*A, i * T ^ T , M A O A, * M A , i * l C ? C iHUAA); also Ki-bPOh "aberration"; more rarely with the pronunciation *}"flftflft "tremulous movement", "^TftfAA "buffoonery", ^ft /hA/h "motion"; as also from the Simple Stem: A.AJK. "food", A.A "separation".
wit t h e l a s t A

3. N O M I N A L S T E M S O F O U T E R

FORMATION.

(a) Forms reached by means of Prefixes. 113. The formation, employed in Verbs and associated with the with the Imperfect, which is effected by prefixing ye or ya, was at ^* one time extensively used in Nouns, particularly in Minao-Sabaic, but also in the other Semitic tongues ( ). I n Ethiopic it has died out entirely, and is now represented by a single word only, handed down from remote antiquity, viz. J&CO/h or fC'tlih (yd lengthened by the tone, for ya) "giant" (root rQ"l, flrh)- I n the same way
P r e f l x 2

C ) 9MWi
2

"poor" is a foreign word.

Ar? 281. DIETRICH, 'Abh. zur

( ) EWALD, 'Sehr. SprS 162, a; 'Gr.

hebr. Gramm. p. 140 sqq.

240

113.

the formation of Adjectives,with the force of Intensives and Elatives,which has come into wide-spread use especially in Arabic (*), effected by prefixing J\, was evidently at one time existent in Ethiopic; but, except for some scanty remains, it has wholly disappeared. The following appear still, viz. ( ): hlffld "tear" ('llowing'), MT^d "marrow" (properly, 'the best' or 'purest'; cf.
2 V5

L),

Mff-fl

and hlia

( 40) "the South" ( ^ j T ) , hlltn>C

3

"purple" ( J i l l ) , htliLC (Dent 28, 22, ^ = t ) ( ) 'a malady', probably of 'the liver', with which is to be compared "yellow colour", as a fern, from yoc\, and in like manner, perhaps, H*fl^ "skin" (root d^u*), because the plural runs MflJtfl^- And farther, this form perhaps includes ft"}4*X" "door" ('being ajar', 'gaping', from (jdiij, unless it is rather to be derived from <jds V I I "to come by a crack or hole"). The words hltflh "cluster of grapes"
<tel?f&

JLXSj) and fcfrfld^ "finger" (3)3^, jJot) are very old( ). 'the name of a planet' is a foreign word; ft*}^*A "louse"

hC^"d
5

is merely a dialectic variety of ^ ^ A ? hGtb't* "yoke" is s^K ). [Also htlthH-?, htlth-t? "hail", "cold" probably belongs to these formations] ( ). Forms with >fr prefixed are, in accordance with 111, systematically derived from Reflexive-Passive Stems ( ). with the On the other hand the prefix ma, largely employed in all ^"paiti-' Semitic languages, in the sense of "he who" or "that which" (from cipies from the Interrogative Root, 63), is very extensively made use of in Active Ethiopic also, in the derivation of verbal forms, and especially Part Tot Participles, together with Adjectives and Substantives which rehaving e in semble Participles. ^and^art! ! First of all, this ma is employed in the formation of PartiPaas. a. iples, which then are farther made use of (just like those described in 109, a) partly as Adjectives, or oftener as words which indi6 7 6 c

O
2

EWALD, Gr.

Ar:

251

sq. 537.

( ) Tor the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p.

3

( ) [For ^jo^flcf. LITTMANN, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr: X I V p. 84, Note 1.] ( ) On these cf. EWALD, 'Hehr. Spr.' 147, 6.
4

() ()
7
6

Cf. EWALD, 'Gr.

Ar:

243. 331.]

[Cf. DILLMANN, 'Lex.\ col.

< ) [But v. p. 234, Note ( ).]

114.

241

cate Persons. But Participles of this sort, formed with ma, are never derived from the Simple Ground-Stem, (the Inner-formation being found sufficient in the case of that Stem, in accordance with 108 sq.) C), but only from the Derived Stems, and of these again, only from the Active Stems, not from the Reflexive or Passive. The latter, in forming their Participles, avail themselves of the type described in 117. Prom the Active Stems themselves an Active Participle only is derived. Such a Participle is still very common, but Passive Participles here are seldom met with. This formation, however, is no longer by any means so vigorous as to make its appearance in the case of every Active verbal Stem. I t is only in the case of a few Stems of certain verbs that Verbal forms, reached in this way, have continued to maintain themselves in the language, just like the Participles of the Simple Ground-Stem. As regards the method of formation, the formative prefix is invariably uttered with a, thusma; and this a holds such an undisputed sway, that even in foreign words, of Arabic origin, the Arabic # is replaced by as in tfoJitfoR*

"Muhammad", tfftAJf "Muslim", tfH7 ( j i p > (by 0> however,

m

ftA9dT"H1

x}yXxJ)). en* is always applied to the heginning

of the Stem, exactly like the Causative ft; and the latter is put aside, without a trace left, whenever ffi> has to go in front, and then em takes its place. Just as it is with the Subjunctive and Imperfect forms of these Stems, the last syllable in the Active Participle has the vowel e, and in the Passive the vowel a. And farther, the Adjective-ending i may also be attached to such Participial formations; cf. infr. 118. 114. (a) From Stem 1,2 come, for example ( j: emQ9b Participial (ma'dmmes) "he who acts unjustly", erPfaC "interpreter", ert ^ _ -flfl "he who makes four persons in the Godhead", w7/**K" "casti- From gator"; mediae gutturalis: e/D9i)C (mamehher) "teacher" St. 1,2. ( 45); mediae geminatae:em^o'}'} "judge", tfMiAA "dealer in unguents"; mediae infirmae:<7iJ(\(D*C (masdwwer) "protect"> em&Ohti "physician"; tertiae infirmae: emwC$* and OBIP
2 B or

Spr:

( ) I am not able to admit the objections raised by PRAETORIUS, 'Amh. p. 158: tfDlftft "young" is actually a Substantive=="something smaU".
( ) For the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 537 sq.
2

242

114.

st

From - ' '

1 3

t n

From '
1 ,

From ' '

n 2

From
IV,1

''

"magician",tfoft*70>"he who bestows", aoft<?ffh "he who accepts" ( 51). These forms also occur occasionally from roots which are not in use as Verbs in St. 1,2, like tJ**\\i\h "hinderer". A Substantive formed in this way is tfOflVfl^' "glue" ('causing to adhere'); aoiP^P "the best" (of a thing) is commonly used as a neuter. (b) From St. 1,3 come, for example,00*^^9 "quarrelsome", "passionate", (cf. 111)0); ao^ty "heretical"; aoq HH "consoling"; aofjbl "horseman" (Deut. 20, 1); "comforting"; aof\\^ "bewailing" (Matt. 9, 23). I n <nyXA "fuller" the short e has been lengthened into 1. (c) From St. 11,1 this form is pretty common: aoffty "Baptist"; aog'W "Redeemer"; tfft<? "prince", "chief"; < w > C "terrible" ('causing to tremble'); oofbC "grassy", "producing grass"; w*fl?iA "rugged", "stony ground"; oofC^i9 "dark", "a dark place", &c;primae gutturalis: "YJtJPC "acquainted with";mediae geminatae: aogf *} "astounding" ('causing astonishment'); trofyCC "a mischief-maker" ('one who stirs up discord');tertiae infirmae: aogfaQb "hypocrite" (also aoptfoOb St. 1,2); OD<pbP "physician" ('healer'); aotC?> "fruitful", tfotf-fl. (and tfWA) "having the same name". "7*5 "a heathen seer" is a curiously shortened form, from aoCtu C) ( 47). (d) From St. 11,2 these formations are rare; besides, they coincide in outward form with those which are derived from St. 1,2, e.g. tfoft'flrli "tax-gatherer"; f^A-fld*" "teacher"; now Trp, "beautifier". (e) The Reflexive Stems do not form this Participle: they 'may form their participles in another way ( 117), or may pass into the Causative-Reflexive type and then adopt Participles belonging thereto. But the form is in frequent use from St. I V , 1, 2, 3. From the Perfect-form of St. I V , 1, JiA1*Grh4:-<w>ft+9 thC "he who craves mercy for any one" ('intercessor'); ^ A i M M ^ d "beseeching urgently"; tfDA'f'AGJK. "he who implores forgiveness". From the type of the Perfect htl-frthty'<wA t < i&T " e who is prone to change his mind" ('bao^ai 'to face about'); <wA "inventor". From St. I V , 2 : ao^OI^ "patient";
0 0 , , w, on

(*) V., on the other hand, PRAETORVUS, 'Beitr. z. Ass: I , p. 25 sg. ( ) (T., however, DILLMANN, 'Lex:, col. 168.]
2

 114.
yo

243

< A'f'fl^A. "avenger"; <wfl'f"0'7A "a fraudulent person"; oofa^ ffl&C."augur" -mediae gutturalis: aolx^Rbli "horseman", "knight" (-J^d. From St. I T , 3 : <wft-Mi/A "easy to be entreated"; tfDfti-AA? "peacemaker"; ao^^f ^ "anxious", "troubled about anything"; tfoft^AA^ "mocker" (^AA4); f ^ ^ ? "vindictive"; <wftf-<PJ^J& "accuser" ortf*>A'f Pk"actor", "player". (/) This Participle is also formed by the Active Stems of From Multiliteral Boots. From St. I, which, in the construction of its g t ^ o f syllables, corresponds to a St. 1,2 of the tri-radical roots,come Muitmterai Verbs , tfftH<0" "one who ransoms", "redeemer"; tw^CV 9 "interK preter"; fl>m7rty & "soothsayer"; en* }**'}^:^ " d e l a y i n g " F r o m St. I I : 0D&'} }b "terror-inspiring"; w>7dA "tyrant" (from h^dAP ^ d A * ^ OA?) 5 or <w>A/'H'H "who or what causes numbJ a a 2 ness or stupor", "stupefying"; ero'} )i l(D "vagabond"; tfo{\^^ah( ) "one who chants a dirge". Also there occurs from the Weak Reflexive St. V, tf"GT C "murmurer". Along with these pretty common Active Participles, a few cases also are met with,though it is but rarely,of Passive Participles, which have been formed from Active Stems by vowel change. Of this sort are ( ) (belonging to St. I I , 1): - 7/3fi*f*^* "witness" ('one who is interrogated'); *pA "heir" ('appointed heir'); 7Kr7 "worthy of belief", "veracious", "to be relied upon" (the active form being ^}\9 'i "he who believes", fidelis) Deut. 7,9; Matt. 24,45; Luke, 19,17,for which in other passages 9K< *J stands (from an original UD'hao'}, according to 45); m>$>Q*\
0 9 0 ,< 0 tf , , 3 tf ff 0 o ni

ao"Y''Y'fb "impious , if correct at all, would be a much, shortened

11

form of m > n ^ or 130%%.

( ) LUDOLF:
3
2

aoftjfrtlpat:
riend

( ) On the other hand m>AM] "messenger"; T i ^ G "f "> "client",are, in their origin, names of things, 116; and so too must be regarded tro^Hh "masted", originally "the mast" (Judges 6,28 F . Note), and

" *fl*h'i (Josh. 8, 33) originally "unviolated" (root ^u.S\i Ho be pure'). <* lL "subduer", m^A-fl "fisher" (v. L U D O L F , 'Lex.'), and ?d4'fl
tf
fl

(Ex. 22,8) "depositor" must rest either on incorrect readings, or on a tampering

with the original forms *7*7CGj < *7A'fl; "id^il

cf. DILLMANN'S Lex \ col, 441.
l

|D

The word <n<j'j;A

"murderer" in the Salota Meqet is a Hebrew formation and a foreign word;

16*

244

115.

"pressed together", "narrow", aotyo'} "a narrow pass"; <wR'flrh "obliged to pay tribute", "liable in taxes", prefix ma, 115. 2. The prefix ma is farther employed in a non-personal formatiolof S'* f of things, or to express something in Names of which the root-idea makes its appearance; and it is but seldom, ^ress t y y transference of the notion, that such names of the^Actio^^ ^ P meaning. To be more particular, this formation is employed to designate (1) that, in ivhich the action is accomplished, or the place of such action; or (2) that, with which it is accomplished, or the implement suitable for the action; or (3) that which is made or produced by and in the action, or the products of the action, objects of every kind, and the action itself. This type is almost always formed from the Simple Stem,seldom from derived Stems or from Nouns. The prefix ma is joined to the first radical, forming with it a single syllable. As for the rest, different pronunciations have become established for the different classes of w ords thus formed.
meamn r m n a m e s
T

a n a <

n e n

o n i

1 1

e r s o n a i

(a) For the purpose of expressing the place in which anything happens,an a which follows the second-last radical, and which was originally short, is lengthened, while the a of the formative prefix is reduced, before this a, to e( ). This is a very common formation, e. g.\Vflnty "the East"; SP'd^'fl "the West"; 9iti6*9 "temple"; JP/*'<PA "altar"; 9l\ lb "hearing-distance", "reach of hearing"; 9^4*C "pudenda"; y ' V V T i "oven"; j P f t ^ H "confines"; "court of justice"; J P / ^ T "market"; JP-fl
x af

"night-quarters"; {P/hTC "path"; 9CiP "pasture"; jPJ|;J' "watering-place"; JPfa }<D* "place where anything is poured out" (Lev. 4,12); 9l^Jfp "place of refuge". From vowel-commencing roots, generally in accordance with 49, appear tf*?ft "place of exit" (Dfrh) a~UQ "receptacle"; tf*-$>p> "court of justice"; 0*pC "a stone's-throw" (0~ti, tf "Jh'lf, <" *4C) 5 less frequently 9 ab }& "prison" (lit. 'place of detention') (and tf-^A Acts, 4,3); ?flW|ft "place for praise". Even from roots middle-^, by their passing over to the vowel-commencing class in accordance with 68, we have the forms tf^flft "entrance" (e.g. in Hen. 73, 3)( ) as
, < D > a t 2

O It is thus the same form, which serves to denote implements or tools, in Arabic. On the accentuation cf. TBTJMPP, p. 538.
( ) [FLEMMING
2

adopts here also the reading 9 *f\ t\jO -

" -1

TE

 116.
i

245

well as 9'(\ P}i (e. g. in Judges 1, 24 and Josh. 13, 5), and a^A\C "space", "path" (e.g. 4 Esr. 13,46 ed. Laur.), as well as jP&'PCBut from roots mediae infirmae the form uolf} "place" is unique in its class, and belongs rather to Arabic From St. I V , by reducing a to e in the other syllables as well as in that of the prefix, we can have such forms as 0 f | ' l h f | ^ J & "place of intercession"; J P f t ^ ^ f l C "market"; J P f t ^ f l ^ f h "extension"; 9tl't'b(\'h "assembly" (*|, 18), or even, in a remarkable way, with the Passive vowel u in the last syllable ( ), JF'ft'h'Ml-Ji Hen. 46,8; 53,6 ("assembly" = ' t h e totality of those assembled'): cf. also ef*t\'\"([^6 "intercession". I n derivatives from Multiliteral roots,as the first and second radicals together form only one syllable,the prefix em or rather JJ is separately attached: "place of refuge" (from * 7 * h 0 j ) ; J H r f - f l ^ C "rubbish-heap"; 9bliP6 "place where one reposes"; 9Ohfii^*(D* "place of safety". This formation is employed throughout to convey the idea of place ( ). l *lG is not "an inhabited place", but "provision for inhabitation" ('house', 'tent' &c.) or "dwelling". For the rest v. 116. 116. (b) For the purpose of denoting implements and VeS- To exsels, products and materials of every kind, even the action itself^**^*^ pure and simple or the nature and manner of the action, the Pas2 3 a t o r t h e

-Products of
tn

sive vowel a or the Active vowel e, after the second radical, is i n e Action, general sufficient without being lengthened, while the formative prefix ao retains its natural pronunciation, with a( ). The a-pro- itself: nunciation in the second syllable is rather more frequent than the one with e. Many words have both. No difference in meaning is caused thereby, but it may be observed that all those words which have only the e-pronunciation, may be regarded as Neuter participles with an Active signification ( 114). Many of these words, in both the modes of pronunciation, have farther assumed the closely attached feminine termination ^h:Others appear both with and without the ^ \
4

O
2

EWALD, 'Gr. Ar? 387.

( ) As if it were a Participial formation.

( ) 0ftTj
3

is

foreign word, tX^ulJo, and the pure Ethiopic

word is 9
4

f|pg.

( ) V., however, KNIG, p. 121 sqq.


Formation
wit r o o t s

246

()
a i

Formation with a in the second syllable. From strong

r o o t s me em

Ld > ^' 9 -'- ""AAA and iwAflA^ (mdlbas and stable. mdlbastO) "clothing"; tf^flC "throne"; n o f ^ "half"; tfP?A "spirit"; tf87h<E "book"; tf*7flC "tool"; r/nfth'fl 'memb.genitale'; (Kuf.)(?)\ tf/**AA "triplet" (or "a third", a species of measure, not thoroughly identified); aofrfi "ledge", "projection" ( / & f l f l ) : e/vfohft ('sending') "messenger", "Angel"; ofh&R "tower"; ^b h h "pelvis". Oscillating between a and e are: ftl^C and ffi>htyc "ship" ('that which is hollowed out');tf"Ji*7and ao }/*"! "bolt"; JTD'flAA and 0"4)AA "kitchen-pot"; OD'Qtty and aO'UCfc "lightning"; aotyfty and ODtyftg "divination"; ^dA-fl and <7A f|fl ('abandonment') "widower" and "widow". With and without the Feminine-ending;H^hdSi # d ootldSi'Y "measure"; ovtofS} and *7Dyj^'J^- "covering", "ceiling". W i t h Feminine - ending alone:tfoft^A^ "portion"; <wj4iP<pi "infliction"; <wCfl'flh "net"; tfoAMl^* and ^ A J i h * ^ "business" (besides <fl>A?iJ)'ih "letter"). I n triple form ^baoty, *?AjP4, "Ibf*^ "depth"; < W P , "Tdfc'P, ^ A * ^ - "offence", "7KAC, ThftC, ^KAC'lh "tie", "string"; ^hHt, ^ f t T H ^ , "VhW}^ "corner".Eoots tertiae gutturalis do not in general lengthen their a before the vowel-less Aspirate (in accordance with 46), but thicken it into e, because a long a would transfer them to the formation described in 115:<H>Ah?i "image"; "T/hAA "young of the herd"; aoR tyfa "consecration"; aoCRh "remedy", "aid"; tf^CPh "needle". Only a few lengthen their a and then they may reduce the a of the first syllable to e: aofWh and JP'JH'V "sprinkling", "sprinkling-vessel"; JPft ^A "what is heard" (and "hearing-distance"). aofvipb in the sense of "sacrifice", usually becomes feminine oof <PA^ or yoftyb, and thereby coincides with 9f*"Pb "altar" ( ). I f they have to retain a, they generally take the feminine termination: , / D f i V | . "knife" [cf.Keb.N. p . X I V ] ; ^ f t ^ f l ' t " "obedience", &c. I n formations from roots beginning with u, the mixed-letter pronunciation always makes its appearance, in accordance with 49: T i A "favour", "grace"; <J4C "chisel"; 'Pig "flood";
0 0 0 a ; u ; f 3 T 1

(*) V., however, TRTJMPP, p. 538.

( ) But jPAh*fl "couch". ( ) For this reason copyists often confound j p / ^ t p f l a n d v. for instance Gen. 12, 7, Note.
3

ODfPb't']

247

<wT and em&f* "chimney"; WwC^ "saw"; TIC^ "sling": tertiae gutturalis: ^ " / f t "antiphone"; 7 % f t "apron"; tpf ( ) and 'pfft ( 47) "gift to one who is going on a journey"; 'paith'lr "veil". For TOfrtt "day" (Amos 8, 9 A) tf0Alh {o^A^) ( 44) is usually given. I n formations from Roots mediae infirmae, the consonantal pronunciation prevails: aoftiDG and ffoROiC't' "carrying-pole"; 7rhf *fl "well-bucket"; noKfthfy "beaten or made road". ODfrG "a litter", "lectica", must, however, be noticed (for fVfTLCPG, 40), as distinguished from aoftatC "carrying-pole"; noticeable, farther, are r/oflft "gift" (not derived from (1ft, but from its St. I I , 1 ft*flft) and <flflrh*lh "authority", 'facidtas' (from ft'flrh from flrh). ^ f l - f l "basket" (or 'box for unleavened bread')
x a

(cf. ULWJO) is formed just like

3

Words from Roots tertiae

infirmae usually contract ai and au into e and b:"awl"; libit, "axe"; and tn>p "medicine"; tfoCT "key"; "70 # "lock" (of a door); efo^fc* "rank". Occasionally, however, the diphthong is retained; for example, in the following formations from Middle-Aspirate and Doubly Weak Roots:<wG0 "herd" (Matt. 8, 30 sqq.); "composition"; HD'piDjK. "instrument of torture". Feminine forms take the mixed sound always: ^ C V l h "herd"; tfDfrrh,^ "mirror"; ^ftxkfr "song", "ode", "psalm"; tfuftfr^ "window"; tf7Hh "weight"; "Vlr-Hh "a light" &c. This form occurs from Multiliteral roots but rarely, as in ft'ifnfxb^ "curtain" (from ft7fnA0); tfi*GftfI "whatever is near the head" (as "a pillow") (from ^CftA* whence also 'IhCftfl? 111); jP^flAn/h^ "waterfall" (also emld'' Gc. Ad., from ft?fl (Mlth), tfD7M^ "axis" (Sir. 36,5, from Mbh(D), ero^Tril^ and <w>rt"}A^ "fan" (also "aspergilla").A foreign word of this type is found in anil } "machine" (fxayyavov). Q3) Formation with e in the second syllable. I t has been Formation already observed that the most of these words may be regarded as Participles, employed in a non-personal signification:tfD'JhG Syllable.
0 m 0

( ) In like manner perhaps 00*^^* "double birth", "twins", for e/O^ ^*,
x 0

is for <WJP*^ ft (from tfD*|hft = DNfi),.whence <7D"Jffl) is a farther derivation. So too, probably, by throwing off ffh, we have tf^C'J "espousals",

"wedding"(Root not Ql, but OtD,cf. fiin).

248

Prefix ma reduced to me in 1st

r

"a wonder" or "miracle" ('what causes wonder');tfoArh*^"anchor" ('that which enables a ship to cling to something'); en*fy9^ "a tie" or "connecting strap"; tfo'J'VG "pair of bellows" (also, "a pump"); <w>^4*J^ and aoQtyg "need" ('that which makes one miss something' and 'that which is missed'); 0Dg9<J "miracle" ('that which causes astonishment'); wft*fl'fl "narrow pass"; ffi*R Aft "what is hated" &c. The Feminine forms of this type are frequently Abstracts: <wAdA'Th "height"; <w'flOA^h "contradiction"; tfo*}*?/**^ "kingdom"; A f l ^ "third rank". This formation does not appear to be in use from roots mediae infirmae. From roots tertiae infirmae it takes the form em^^ffh "what gives pleasure", "what is wished for or is convenient"; enYiC^> "spade"; en>RC> "crocus"; tn>Ctl (instead of firCf|<lK) "harbour". Oftener, however, it is found with the Fern, termination: erolfr^ "temptation"; etoRfc't' "price"; tf^VlA/ih "a talent"; tn>\\fr "spade"; aotyQ,^* "pot". From Multiliterals: <*>A.A/> "joint", "limb" (A.AP). (y) Alongside of these two leading types of Names of things, _ contrasted with designations of locality, only a few other
, a s

syllable, forms of words appear which call for separate notice. I n the forms *V. "' " of several names of things which take a in the final syllable, this syllable, a has been lengthened, and the a of the first syllable has been reduced to e, so that these words have the same form as Names of Place: jr"7flC "mode of acting", "actions"; *fCh't\ "means of livelihood", "mode of subsistence"; jP*'>'7A'7 "a band" ( caterva )\ 9Ch?* "the sight" (Deut, 28,34); <m-^J& "vessel"; a-r\ not merely "fatherland", but also "derivation"^); and "sputum" (for merudq) with u thrown out, from gty = (D*l> ( 68); in the same fashion also ^ " / C "hatchet". I n the case of some others, although they keep a or e in the last syllable, e takes the place of a in the first:i^CPH "staff"; {P*ft*C = coRCF* (v. supra); 9hth'i\ (a conceptional word, of Infinitive form) "the extracting": So too with a few fern. Substantive-Numerals, 159. Farther, some words, originally Participles, have become Names of things: it is thus with <n>hf [along with <wh", in Kebra Nag., p. X X X . ] "footstool", Part. Pass, of St. I , 2 ('that which is trampled on'): so
2 d i ,

( ) On the other hand JP*^fl is a foreign word, Vfyp; is "a place for reading":(a) 'A reading-desk', (b) 'a lesson'.
x

and jP'Jfl'fl

117.

249

too with OD*Mffi^ "horror"; oopf! "hook" (Matt. 17,27), a P a r t . 0 from St. I , 3 or I I , 3 (ft *m*), ^ h - ^ t f - C "wheel" ('rolling'), a Part, from St. V of the Multiliteral ftoCh"^, with tonelengthened a. Also, in a few Common Nouns derived from St. 1,3, the Stem-peculiarities have been retained: aoi\%, "razor" (from Aft?); JF"hfll( ) "ox-goad" (from Pm?, cf. JkiL). A n Abstract form from 6**{\b "the fourth" is found in ao^'dd't' "a square" and "squareness". aofltn^C "psalm" is an Arabic Part. Pass.; in like manner "female head-dress" is a foreign word (JLJJLLO ). As to certain peculiar feminine forms v. infra, 127. (6) Forms reached by means of Affixes. 117. The greater number of those words which have b een Denominaformed by means of Affixes are derived from other and simpler i ^^Xenouns, whether these are still preserved in the language or not Formation; (Denominative Nouns). I n meaning they are either Relative De- t i n %. scriptive words, or Abstract words, and only very seldom mere Names of things. The Affixes themselves are, it is true, of many forms and fashions, but they are essentially traceable to two sorts of terminations having a pronominal origin. The basis of the most of them is constituted by an Adjective-termination common to Semitic tongues. 1. We start our description, for the reason given, with the Adjective-Formation. The termination of Adjectives is taken from a very ancient Demonstrative root % ("he") and the Relative ia ("who")( ), 65, and originally it has the form tya or dya (="he, who"). I n the other Semitic languages it was abbreviated, sometimes into ^ 0 , (j5_), sometimes into ai, e (**-, ( ) [Assyrian,ai or, with contraction,^]): I n Ethiopic it attained a triple form, as %, ai, andwith an intervening letter separating
m i n a 0

11

C ) If it be not an Inner Plural. ( ) Unless it stands for 0 7 V n ( ) The propriety of comparing this termination with the Relative Pron. is shown by the fact, that in Ethiopic another Relative Pron. with the force of a Genitive sign is placed before Substantives to form Relative Adjectives: HOOl&tl "who (is) of the "spirit" = "spiritual".
2 3

( ) EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.\

164, &

250

117.

these vowels ( 41) awl. The last two forms have pretty much the same meaning and are occasionally exchanged for one another in the same word; hut it is seldom that % on the one hand, and at, aivi on the other are interchanged.Each has its own application. (a) The termination I is chiefly employed to form Nouns denoting the Agent, from simpler nouns connected with persons. I t is comparatively seldom in use for the derivation of simple Adjectives. with i (a) Especially is it attached to those Nouns of the type *fflC ^Nouns of gubbdr, which denote the Agent ( 110, a), and in that case its chief the Type is to distinguish a Substantive which indicates an Agent from from any of a mere elative Adjective, e. g.:rh/J.fl. "husbandman"; ^ " k i n g " ; tflA- /. "procreator"; 9%. "runner"; "hunter"; t\\t\ J{ "liar"; "seer"; "sword-bearer". But several words of this type have also a purely Adjective-meaning: aoA\& "merciful"; fl#*V. "useful"; VfllL Xoymo;; thl ?. "sickly", "surly"; f*P "gentle"; Oftl. "astray" (G. Ad.), &c. The Ending itself in these formations is always accentuated, according to TEUMPP, (p. 539): harrdsi. While, however, the simple type, without any Ending, is formed only from the doubled Stem, that which is compounded with the Adjective-ending may be formed from any of the derived Stems, and then it takes the place of Participles, or is exchanged for them without any essential difference in meaning. Just as in the Adjective-formation '( 108, a and 110, a), the second-last Radical has always a (with the tone); in other respects the pronunciation of the Perfect-Stem is maintained with a. From St. 1,3: VHH. "comforter"; "unbelieving"; founder0). From
u s e t h e v e d 4 g t l 0

St. 11,1: hrPA "fisher"; KIflK "traitor"; MlA<5 "bringing a glad message"; ft^flfl, "reader"; h ?6*'k dirsairaafJisyo; (Lev. 22, 24, Root (jjJo); Kfl/u " introduces" (from h'fth from flft) &c. But from Roots tertiae gutturalis, as a is not merely lengthened, but also, in accordance with 45, dulled into e, we have K'JfcVU ) "awakener"; JwiTH^ ) "multiplier" [abzehi), and from St. 11,2: ft AAA. "he who removes or expels".
i n e w n o 2 2

(1) is peculiar, if correct at all. ( ) According to LTTDOLF'S 'Lex.\

2

 118.

251

From the Reflexive Stems I I I this formation comes all the more frequently, that they do not form any Participles with ao prefixed. Examples,from 111,1: ivh 'PA. "that which stirs"; "set up", "brought forward".From I I I , 2: "sent"', -t'OP't "patient"; ^a\$& "augur"; *hMH. "obedient"; fOPO. "robber".From 111,3: 'J-AAfe "mocker"; 'f-'PTfl. "player" ('actor'); iP^A "co-heir". From Stems IV, 1, 3: ftA'h *[\%% "intercessor"; hMVWL "interpreter"; htl1'P'(\K (because tertiae gutturalis) "convener". From Multiliteral Boots: St. I : "perishable"; fl/h;J*g "solitary"; mTr^'k "inquirer"; -Arh " mixes"; fl,H12 "redeemer"; "shepherd"; flCfl*5 "robber"; &JPAA. "destroyer"; HC*lfi. "calumniator"( ): St. I I : h"Yflfc "spoiler"; ht\ Tf'hdu " brings a burnt-offering". 118. (j3) I n like manner this % is frequently attached to with % Participles, formed by means of tm,to raise them to be i Nomina Aqentis ( ). I t has the tone. This formation occurs most y
o n e w n 0 x o n e w n 0
P a r t i c p l e 8

f o r m e d

means of

frequently in the case of Participles of St. I I , 1, in which at the ma, turning same time the e of the last syllable of the original Participle passes into a. This a is but seldom lengthened into a,and that in Agentis. the case of Middle-Aspirate roots ( 48): tffl^AA. "one who facilitates"; tfo^rtA. "one who wounds"; *w>JfAtl "one who fears God"; ^ ^ i > A . "destroyer"; aot<t>& "lover"; ^ "life-giver"; ^ J M f c "saviour" (=ao^^'}), and many others;<wfl^A, " o makes rich"; tfA*h'fc "who leads astray' (along with the form ( ). But e remains unaltered in Derivatives from roots tertiae gutturalis: 0o[\C t\ "enlightener"; <w"J/*'/i. "one who arouses"; eWiftfa "purifier"; tw^i^^ "opener" &c. We have, however, nCflft. "assistant". I n most of the cases in which this outer formation occurs, the simple form of the Participle is no longer in use.
w n 3 t

( ) On the other hand

2

%<P< "taken captive" (in Passive sense), from

and wl, belongs to 119 (Ex. 12, 29). ( ) The doubts entertained by PRAETORIUS, ZDMG X L I , p. 689 (cf. also KNIG, p. 124 sq.), appear to me to be without foundation. ( ) <W*"JA"t> ^ H A A perhaps rest only on copyist's errors; tW$?t\'J> might have taken that form of pronunciation by way of assimilation to the
3

Adjective-Ending ivi.

252

From the other Stems the outer formation occurs with rather less frequency.The original pronunciation of the Part, remains unchanged. St. 1,2: a*&jBbh (=0&.Gy*ft) "physician"; St. 1,3: aot\>ti\ "exorcist" (Hen. 8,3); <w>flArh "liberator"; tfD^TfH, "comforter"; St. IV, 1: tfnfU^/^rh. and 2: ao^d.^tK " who bestows gladness", "comforter"; 3: ao{\'bp't[h "one who assembles" HAA-K?-flJt.)- From Multilateral roots St. I I : confix T / i . "one who prepares food"; aortHqt (and in shortened form 0 \ E ) "worshipper of idols", with % (y) I is frequently used, to derive Relative Adjectives from
t o n e m Dg t t L

P P names. I n the case of Names ending in a vowel, the I is Names and generally hardened into y (v. numerous examples in Numb. 26). sonirwords More rarely this i is employed for the purpose of deriving Adjecand Names ^ or Norn, aq. from Substantives: aofll\d "destroyer" (from
a t

proper

10

r 0

e r

v e s

of Things.

ffoimC), "the last" (Aramaic) "heathenish"; Odd. "Arabic", "Arab"; f\fad and (\a\C?> "pearl" ('sprung from the sea'). I t is not seldom attached,superfluously, to all appearance,to certain Personal words and Names of things, of the masculine gender: 'flftrt. "man' ' ('bold', 'warlike'); ftfl<g
i

"Nile river or flood" (i^GlX ); hA "serpent" ('cunning', uAS'K ); -f-hH, "nver" (V'aHMI) [?]; (Tittd "sea-monster"=0? AC; 0& "West" (Ex. 26,20,35; Josh. 5,10); StfftA. "cymbal" ('tinkling'); h&d-tl. "rider", "horseman". Probably thCI "ram" (Hen. 89, 43) had also at first the form ditt*, and properly r h C l is the form of the constr. state or the accus. Farther "a youth", "servant", "boy" is perhaps to be judged of in the same
2

fashion. Mi!

Feminine Stems take e instead (from iyah, 5b_ 40): T-Ql "throat" (v. also 127, c);
3

"hawk" as well as Mt^;

or et Qb__): AK"*Th JuvydXy (cf. ^ y J ) ( ) ; HCCl,^ "carpet" more rarely it: h'fthh/t' "stinging nettle". 119. (b) The stronger ending
2

(&^);

serves the purpose of

l

(*) [A name generally given to the 'Abyssinian Nile', v. Lex'. TR.] ( ) [In 'Lex^ DILLMANN prefers the meaning 'twisting', and chooses the etymon ^ ^ ( m i d . y not mid. ^ ) . Others think the word might be of old African origin, TR.] ( ) [Cf. also DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 64. TR.] ( ) According to TRUMPP, p. 539, to be accentuated as dwt.As to the origin cf. KONIG, p. 130.
3 l 4

 119.

253

deriving new Adjectives, and words indicating persons, from Sub- Adjectivestantives (and Adjectives). I t is true that in Ethiopic, Adjectives ^Tteimay with almost greater ease be indicated periphrastically by nation awl, means of the Genitive relation of Substantives; and, in ordinary nation, from prose at least, this periphrastic indication of an Adjective is more ^8tanSu

tives and

in use than the express Adjective-formation. Ihe taculty, however, Adjectives, of deriving new Adjectives by means of that ending has remained ^ active in the language. I t is always possible to frame such an ad- words indijective from any and every word; and, in poetic and learned die- persons, tion, it has often been practised. I n such cases the interior vowels of the fundamental word remain unchanged, and the termination has a merely external attachment (contrived,for fundamental words which end in a vowel, in accordance with the rules described in 39 sqq.). I n this way relative Adjectives may 'be formed even from Plural forms, Foreign words and Proper Names. For example,{P ^g "earthly" (JPJ^C); flrhdJ-U "pertaining to the sea"; ^ A " ? ^ "worldly"; foWW "layman"; ^ A * B "horseman", "knight"; (from ^S^) "robber"; 7fl ^g "workman" (nom. unitat. from coll. "IflC); 0^12 "hostile" (from 0C); even from ft*fl "father", a feminine form ftfl^'lh "ancestress" (G. Ad.); from f?, FPU "fleshly"; from O'JflA, O'HIA'C "lion-like"; ft'JAA'E "animal" adj. (h'JAA); "syonsus", i. e. "bridegroom" (from noCfi). From Nominal Stems increased externally: tfnA+A^C "relating to the cross" ( ^ f t + A ) ; 0 7t6J\ li "spiritual"; (fiWH "Sabbatical"; hK9GP "scientific" (from Inf. Y\t\9C')r); RlIM^ "maidenly" (from "maidenhood"). From Plural forms; h'i}^^ E "domestic"; dO^^H "gigantic"; h C A ' W i " "Christian" adj. From Foreign words and Proper Names: tfHlA* "monastic"; h^O'W "Jewish"; tVfl<J.<e "Hebrew"; (0^%^ "Evangelist"; even Mnji-ftth*^ "relating to God"; JtfA ' ft^AM 0) "human"; HA^A"?^ ,'eternal". Farther, this termination may be applied to Adjectives:
m D f t mt 4

O th^A means "progeny", and "htrofapOh or fttfD: fa$Oh means "mother of a living one", i. e. "mother of the living".Accordingly tv\ti! TtltfOthPiD* signifies literally "progeny of the mother of the living", that is "the human race", "homines". From this compound substantive, the adjective, given in the text, is formed by attaching awi to the second member, TK.]

254

t t

120.

4 J ?.A^ "relating to what is holy"; '(lfr } g "appertaining to the blessed"; to the Interrogative ftft ( 63): h?< and ft^JR ('of what kind') "like", "equal"; also to words which are only used as Adverbs or Prepositions: h ^ M j "external" (K'hft); AflA'g "upper"; ^th^ll 0) "lower". A foreign word of this kind is met with in t't? IZ "sailor", "shipman", i/ccvryjg. shorter The shorter ending di alternates at pleasure with awl, at Ending ui, i t in Numeral Adjectives ( 159), but otherwise it is retained
l f e a s

alternating with

- 1 1

AoA and AoA*C; at least in ^([o^g, and -f*Q0;J"<e "masculine"; ft^jE, and h?<; Adjectives, and "the last"; alongside of <^;J"g "robber"; as well as 0<J.<g "hostile"; ft^PJK, as well as hPH "old": Also, fCS$> "corn" ( 47, from fdCt 'covering with hair'); 4t*4. "Holiest of all" (Ex. 26,33), properly 'the (place) which is devoted to the service of God' (cf. *2AOU). Somewhat irregular forms are exhibited by:$CP$* "flowery" (from ft"i); F ' M ' E "treacherous" (from T ^ / H ) ; Vf"W*e "judicial" (from tf-VJi); (fcfl,^ and) hfc&'R (from htUC) "old". 2. Abstract 120. 2. By attaching the sign of the Feminine to these ^ Adjective-Endings, a number of Endings are produced which are w o r d s with used to indicate Abstract Nouns. Endingt/by (a) I y rare cases the termination yd has this meaning appending ^ foe formation of Collectives (v. 8 140). Somewhat more fref o r m o m 1 1 v e r

aw, only m a few words.p*a\?*?> and

Eem.-Sign:

quently the termination () is employed to form Abstracts or sometimes "the portion which as lit. Collectives, chiefly from verbals in i: h^i\J\r has escaped (disaster)" or "remnant" from V4ftJ( ); "llAA'Th "people travelling or passing by"; in the same way ^p%/t (e. g. Judges 19,17); 0t\hA "army"; mift "townspeople" (Col. 3,11): Farther "end"; "beginning" (Matt, 12,45); (D~fl m/t* "what is inward"; flrh'fc'i" "solitude"; ffofc'tyflr "redemption", "salvation" (from "Redeemer", "Saviour"); WkvJ\t "help"; fl*Pft/J""acrowd of people entering"; "diminution", "waning" (Hen. 7 8 , 1 5 ) ; ' Q i C l ' t * ^ "luminousnature" ( f r o m - f i c y ^
3

as if,

( ) At one time they also used the form AA instead, (Judges

T

1,36

Note) and ^h\^P

2

Josh. 11,16 (cf. 16,3; 18,13) with the simpler ending S

( ) Cf. the same ending in the Mehri: v. MALTZAN, Z D M G X X Y I I , p. 282

[and A. JAHN, 'Gramm, d. Mehri-Spr:, Vienna 1905, p. 5 5 ^ . ] . ( ) Like TKAB from fc^B.
3

255

G. A d . 15,16). Even without the interposition of an Adjective in i, Abstracts are derived from simpler Nominal Stems by appending the termination It: Ift-fc^ "a small quantity"; ^9%^ and Rf/t "secrecy"; J t ' V ^ O ) "the being turned back"; ftfi^U^ ("quality") ; Tikhjt "perversion"; ^ A ^ A / l f "steepness"; hllXl^r
3

"testicles" V^j$N)( ). This termination is often used to derive (from Numerals) Substantives and Adjectives which express multiplicity, v. 159. But just as in the other Semitic languages, so also in Ethiopic the termination Ut(*) may take the place of this It, and with the same force; yet i t is only in a few words that this ending continues to be represented:'^^-*J "goodness" (from
m

K ) ; "Mi/Hh "fraud";frA/h^Th"artifice", "cunning" ( X ^ A k i j ) ; OhOfr^ "youth ( 1 ^ ) ( ) . (&) More frequently, however, these terminations are shaded with the a-sound. Just as the ordinary Adjective-Endings took
. '_
5

Oftener as
m o re

>

Abstracts
n

the form of at and awl instead of %,so too, in the formation of i fa. Abstract Nouns, the feminine ending, it,or, with vowel-close, Conceptioce,is employed instead of It. g (a) Some few Abstract Nouns are still derived from simpler words, by means of the ending et, from iat= ait( ): ^J^*ft,ih "help"; H ^ V V "advantage" (from 'ft, fi^d); " i - W X i h "consummation", "end" (from i -<PK?); b*QL&fV "fruit", "succession" (with prep. Gen. 12,13, propter) from a lost word like 1DS>( ); and 0fl "sterility" from dtt'C "unfruitful". The place of an Infinitive, derived straight from hhfa't (H, 1 of hfa'fr), is supplied by Mi i ; ^ "thanksgiving" (for hhfa'fc't).
i n from V e r b a l 6
7

i ) [Generally used in the Acc. adverbially, j i'f "again", T R . ] ( ) [Cf. also l l o i l o i j , irotorvjs, qualitas.
3 2

tt

"backwards",

TR.]

( ) Not K r t h ? ) as this does not mean"to indicate" (GKSENIUS).

( ) V . EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr. 165, b.
4 1

( ) 'tdflJ, these, 73.

6 7

^chlifD,

R A r h O ) and <DC!f<0 are only derivatives of

( ) Y . on the other hand KONIG, p. 113. ( ) [A different derivation is given in the 'Lexicon , col. 507, where
1

fl*H&Pt

or

A'flfi'jh,

meaning "succession", is said to be made up of fl&'lh

(from l\)

and prosthetic ft. T R . ]

256

120.

(j3) More usual, however, is the shorter, vowel-ending termination e, by means of which Infinitive-like conceptional Avords are derived from the several Verbal Stems. This formation is at once an inner and an outer one. Into the interior of the form the lengthened a,which is made use of in the formation of Abstracts ( 107,/S and 111 a, /3), makes its way: it takes the accent (TEUMPP, p. 540), while the a of the preceding syllable must be reduced to e, and a (in St. 1,3) to u( )- Externally the toneless e attaches itself to this form. The formation occurs oftenest as a derivative from St. 1,2 & 3 of the tri-radical verb, and St. I of the Multiliteral, but only very rarely from St. 1,1 (fa'PJi "existence"; ? " P h . "song of triumph"). From St. 1,2 come, e. g. thftfu "renewal" (hedddse); ^9^% "completion"; 0AA "comparison", "parable"; / " A r t , "Trinity"; h^t, "demonstration"; in-^fy, "praise"; flfl "jubilation"; d H - f . . "yielding up"; A A * B "untruth". So too: fa l L "affliction" (St. 1,2 replacing here Stem hi\\fao); ftVfc "thanksgiving" (hh\l*"t); / " " l U "answer" (i'iPf(D). Peculiar forms present themselves in Vf*i& (kuennane) "judgment"; *ifl3l as well as ' M i "skirt of a garment"; thaoa% "affliction"; f\*l& "end"( ), in which long a has not made its way within the word, and "deception" (from no J), in which long * takes
1
l

tn

tn

the place of the doubling of the second radical. From St. I , 3: *fr(\h, "assembly"; ^ 4 - A "partition"; nV^Vfc "blessing"; "observation" (Kuf.)( ). Several roots, which are no longer used as verbs in St. 1,3, have this formation,in part from St. I l l , 3 and I V , 3, like <.fifl, with i ' ^ h f l , and "institution" with
3

hA+Vfl^From A -flfl "the seventh" A-fl'i. "week" ('the seven') has been derived. This form is exceedingly rare from Reflexive Stems, the formations noticed in 111 proving sufficient for these: *H*Aflft as well as ^A'fllb "human nature", "incarnation" = ^ft-fl h"J*; \''i *ih "resurrection". On the other hand it is very common from Multiliteral roots: St. I . & 9 t \ % "freshness"; Jt 'J Pd, "maidenly bearing"; 'fl'fcfl'.J. "putrefaction"; ^ A A < "philosophy"; JP 'H'B "temptation"; (D'CH'B "youth"; % P g "imprisoni t a i t

C) But v. KONIG, p. 124. ()

2

Cf. LUDOLF'S 'Lex.' s. v.

() M%

Wh, n-^fc,, AA<% A ^ , u>*ln&>, V-HH., 1hfl&, A-^A, ih-Pt*, w&dh, 0*Pl\>,

257

ment", "captivity" (%<D0>); tf^rh. "taking captive" (<p&th) &c.: St. V : t\'}nX'l\ b "veiling".A foreign word of this type is met with in ftf /iA* ssjuioaXig. But even from simpler Stems Conceptional w ords (and Names of things) may be derived by means of the termination e, as well as by the termination et (v. supra): <DJR>A "howling" (from < D A 61); fait*, as well as art* "a building"; Vd*B "hunting" C ); a\ }'HCil& "scab"; 'name of a disease'; perhaps also 6f^"% "set time"; ^ T ^ f c "woodworms" ('humming'), and some of the words mentioned in 127, c. 121. (c) Just as et is formed from it by the admixture of '-Forms, an a-sound, so is'dt,or as a vowel-endingd, from ut. (a) The Anitives, ) accented termination bt (TEUMPP, p. 540), the Hebr.-Aramaic accented ut, has been extensively employed in the formation of the I n finitive (v. 125), but otherwise it is found only in a few words, some of them foreign. Formations of native origin are: aotXfir "Godhead" (from ftjPAfa); 9&fr t "property"; ffAA-ih "shadow" (cf. R"AA); T'tl/'Th ovvTCtfyg ('daily task', from -pfl-fl, Ex. 5); "filth" (G. Ad., from & & ) ; "low grounds", "meadows" (cf.
0 r 1 0
1

xjLotp. The following are foreign words: Vf i T't AA/T*^ "Cassia" ( & ^ L 2 ) ;

tr t

"faith", {La.faa.o);

"healing" (^oim(); ^0'> "ark"

(^b)( ).
(j3) The similarly accented termination o is likewise employed very frequently in the formation of the Infinitive (v. 1 2 5 ) . Outside of this use it is chiefly of service in the derivation of Names of the products of artistic skill (from Substantives of the type *7flC)'/* *flfa "casting"; ty^lf "what is overlaid with metal"; -flAA"cookedfood"; hit "web"; aHf "hewn work"; Tf-flrn"tinwork" ; *7AC "carved work"; T*flA "roastmeat"; "turnery"; "turned work"; "net-work"; C<hfc "tailor's work"; A C "basket-ware"; ty^RG "net-work", "fringes"; Ohftfl "noseand ear-ornaments"; "Ci "assignment"; *7U(? "circumcision"( ).
, 0 3

( ) The older mode of writing it,JA*B e. g. Lev. 17,13 F . H-speaks against the conjecture that "JO'S stands for
2

*}^*B.
(cf.

and

( ) Of unknown derivation arefttl*|h"small locust" ftp'h 'a stinging insect', rhAft*lhP"'lh "baboon". ( ) Perhaps also
3

tlc^c.), ftjh'l*

M$tyi

"egg", as a result or consequence of cack-

ling, if

H*}4''i"Tl ( A ^iuis.) really means "to cackle", [^startling view! T R . ]

,
C

17

258

121.

I n other applications this ending appears only in rare cases: ftAfl "cross"; "well-bucket"; hfltf "drum", ('timbrel', Ex. 15,20) (yd)\ hC(l "basket" ('basket-, or mat-work', o ^ ) ; ftAA "soot"; fc^htf and C h ? "hyacinth-colour"; tfofl'J* 'a musical instrument' (tci&dpa, [cf. Kebra Nag. p. X X V . ] Plur. tfA^ J^h^ Rev. 14,2) f ); ^h-f* "the condition of having monthly courses" (from " M f l " i h "tnulier menstruata", probably for " M f l K ' i f *
1

\ / Uo V I I I and j / 15^ 'reclining'; 'sitting'; to elucidate the notion cf. Gen. 31, 35); hflA" and h^flA" "hook or ring" (on a sandal); ft-flA and h-flA "hair-net" ( ). Nouns of The tone-bearing termination dt,which is applied to stance and Nouns of simpler form, to express notions of circumstance or condition, ijtion,has come into being, sometimes from dt by a change
2 conc

in Tonebearing
d t

'

~'

'

of vowels, sometimes from the simple Feminine-ending at by the process of lengthening the vowel: AD^'lh "old age", "seniority" ( ^ A U ^ ? ) from A Y # ; VM'Th "youth", "minority" (Gen. 43,33) from Tfh*li or *J>ift; tyRfl't "sanctuary", "holiness" from 4*<SA; ')&P't "state of divorcement" from 'itf.l; tlC?*)* "the condition of one who has obtained AC? * l h 'remission of sins'"; tytp't* "slavery", i. e. "the state of ty% ('servitude')"; 9C 5'\' "wantonness"; fx&p't*^) "benevolence",in which Jfft'^* ('probity' or 'piety') is shown. This at is occasionally substituted for at, e. g. in /)*fl#h"3h' "glory", alongside offt-flfh'lh;rh'flA'^* "plaited-work" (Judges 8,26; Ex. 35,22, Note) along with /IrflA"^; and at itself is sufficient for the derivation of Abstracts from simpler Nominal Stems:A'flJt"^ "humanity" from A'flh; 9h\\Jt't "poverty" from 9M\/i> I n "flA*^ "glad tidings" (rnit?$), a seems to be only

ft

[Where (pcovyv . . . /cfeapu'b&v /c&apt^ovruv

ev raig

Kt%dpaig avrav-

is translated

^ A V * ^ ' Aft

AV4fll. i
c

ft^A^*^"!:

IT** '. TR.]

( ) The following are of obscure derivation." ^rhA oame of a flower';
2

A l T "ostrich" {cf. J J ^ J L O ) ;
"Jfl "side" ( < ? / " . DILLMANN'S 'Lex.'

"tempest";

.CIf "domestic fowl";.

supra) and |^ "basket": but the tt in

y , V r "mire" seems to belong to the root; cf. a L l c . ft [But in 'Lex.', col. 1312, DJLLMANN represents as a plural of
i

elttm,o&yna&

f\fty.

TR.]

 122.

259

lengthened by the tone( ). Similarly, simple Feminines of the Passive Participle may also take the meaning of Abstracts, v. 128. 122. (e) But besides these terminations, which in the last Abstract resort all depend upon the Adjective-ending i, Ethiopic has an j ^ ^ additional Abstract ending, also accented, viz. &n or n&, which is and na. manifestly of pronominal origin, v. 62 ( ). As may be perceived from the other Semitic tongues, this terminationanat one time produced Adjectives, and it was only in lengthening it to an or on that it came to be employed farther in the formation of Abstracts issuing from such Adjectives. Only a few traces have been retained in Ethiopic of the application of this ending in the formation of Adjectives, but examples are pretty common of its use in the production of Abstracts. As has been already pointed out ( 62), the demonstrative word concerned was capable at first of being pronounced both as an and na. Ethiopic,in this again richer than the other Semitic tongues, has developed and preserved both pronunciations even in the formation of Nouns, with a slight idiomatic variation of meaning, the wa-form of pronunciation being the more common one.
8 2

(a) The termination dn is commonly applied to Nominal Stems of the First simple form; and by means of this doubled, inner and outer, formation, stronger conceptional or notional words are derived: C/^hTr (reS'&n) "old age" from Cf^h', AO PTr "seniority" (Gr. Ad.); -flCy} "brightness", "light"; /* A "1 'J "authority"; ^COYi "oblation"; a\W* "bribe"; -CA7 "dissertation"; # A V > "hatred"; Xijff "covenant"( ). The only instance, still retained, of the employment of this termination
, 3

O It may be that Qfisb

"the tenth, or tithe" is formed in the

same way, or else it stands for Q/^^J&^f", like

QQbffy

"loud lament", for

0(D*$Oh^>.
2

On ftfl^ and
l

v. 128.
163, b.

Cf. also Knig, p. 116 sq.

( ) Cf. EWALD, Hebr. Spr;

() Farther: C.4"i, rW,

also 4 T ^

KCfi,

PATJ, f l W , "lHt,

"tar" ( ^ I J l a S ) ; but A H

"ton gue" is a very old word of a

different formation

, j U l J , [Assyr. Unu]); and flj&f'l'J "Satan"

(^jliajLCu, |t5i#) is a foreign word.For the formation of these types cf. also KNIG, p. 123 sq. 17*

260

in the formation of words indicating persons, is met with in the foreign word H'GT'T} "interpreter". Sometimes on takes the place of an, as in HJR-f 1 "oliveyard" (^ycjp, and 0/**cT> "decade'^ ). I n Amharic an usually passes into dm( ), which is then used often to form adjectives (e. g. " has large teeth").Even in Ethiopic, traces of this dm are come upon:
1 2 o n e w a 0

<Jfi;J</ "how" and "shepherd's crook" (from Qtl'V, cf- ,jUaU); and perhaps 1rt9 "the morrow", "to-morrow" (Ex. 32,5; Josh. 3,5; Matt. 6,30) from %(\ ( t j ^ ) . (j3) The termination nd, also accented, is in much more frequent use, to derive from Nominal Stems of every kind fresh and final conceptional words, which express sometimes conditions and properties, but especially dignities, offices, age, standing, and so forth, and which answer mostly to our conceptional words in -ness -hood, -dom, -ship. Derivatives from Nominal Stems of the First simple form are exhibited, for example, in ChCll "the princely dignity" (CMl); -nW-C ? (bekuernd) "right of birth" (lltf-C), KCTC "old
1

age" (KC*7); 9Ah*? "lordship" (djJo); tyRf *? "precedence" d "health", "soundness"; rtC4"7 "nakedness"; ^rtHV "emancipation"; *7*7ft"V "fear". The u of the Passive Part, has to be shortened into e before ndArt A ? "height" {Uelnd, A0-A); C1MW "dampness", "humidity" (CflMl); M A T "magnificence" (flft-A); 4*J^TAV "holiness"; "exactness", "accuracy" (T&4); ^ r h ^ Y "modesty" flvh.^); Ifrtt (geyemd) "position of a foreigner" (*7PC); " ^ f t Y (musenna) "corruption" (from tfw-fr'J); "superabundance" (from <*); *hA fl<V "philosophy" (from AA P) Tertiae infirmae: UA*S" -essence" (UAtf>*); Aft' i' "understanding"; thAS "faculty of thinking"; rt^V "equality" (rt4); T'V. ?"goodhealth", "soundness"; fltfi>-',* "solitude". Farther, the fundamental Nominal Stems concerned suffer occasionally still stronger abbreviation before this ending; A?*} ? and AflT (hesannd) "childhood" ( A 9 ' ; tytlh ? and even ^fl ? "seniority" (from pA.fl); 9 ft i' (mesfennd) "leadership", from oufiq;'}; j P A M l ? "princely dignity", from
a n , : < 1 1 f 1 < 1

O " j * A "Decalogus" (Hymnology). ( ) ISENBERG, 'Gramm.' p. 33 [and GOIDI, 'Gramm, elem.' p. 15, Note 1]. Cf., in Hebrew, EWALD, 'Hehr. Spr: 133 sq.
2

261

" " A M K ) ; M - f l A V "intercession", from ^ f l A ; i ^ W A Y "monastic life", from 'J.Cfl^V and ^C<0*1 "goodness", from But in other words the vowels of the ground-word are retained, in a body, unaltered: A/frV "seniority" ((ijt*); tfA ail "Messiahship"; m O / l K "philosophy"; MlOi'i "dominion", "superiority"; VoiRS "singularity"; hClahf "ornament" (AC *1<D-), WCHa*-*; "youth" (OhClUD-); J C M A V "virginity" (-> *7A); ^Pit l t "theology"; T ^ ^ ^ V "complete agreement"; OrfJ-^J&T "mediatorship"; Mil " Y f l ^ V "state of orphanage", "pupillarity"; : ftftftV "archiepiscopate", "patriarchate"; 'flA*f fotpdM "eternity" ('the antiquity of days'); h<gV * h9 AVl^ "the becoming God" (conversio in Deum); h<V: /**C#TV "the condition or quality of the Procession" (viz. 'of the Holy Ghost'); HA^AJF ! "eternity". Such words are derived even from Infinitives: 'HlAfl'H? "canine nature"; 'ihUJ&JtV "the condition of being robbed" (f'O/iJ^); '\*9 i\(&* t " faint-he arte dness"; and from Plural forms: fciPAh*? "Deity"; h^ib^l "Judaism". P**foOG>' i "boyhood" from ^ A t is a formation noteworthy by reason of the type it presents, inasmuch as the ending e is here resolved into ew( ).Instead of rid, ndt (with the fern. -J ) appears in two instances: i4lC t t* "slavery" (from "MIC) and CAfl ?^ "godlessness" (from CAA) Hen. 99,1 (104,9 Note)( ). Diminutives have no special form in Ethiopic, and have NO special therefore to be described by circumlocution, e. g. fl*7A *JKA "a ^ J u lambkin" (lit. 'a little lamb or sheep') Hen. 89,48. tive Compound words do not occur in the domain of conceptional c o m p o u n d s , words. I t is true that the constituent parts of some very common Word-Groups and of Proper names are written together as one word, without being separated by points, like h.Di.h'ttdhC "the Supreme" (properly: 'Lord of the earth'); "hffOthjfOb "mother
r a t 11 0 ( t 2 a f : 1 3 : n o r S;

of the living"; htYPldax

"horn-bill" (Deut. 14,18

:

cmssus,

longus),though, on the other hand, <w*} : "wax"(lit. 'sweetness of the comb'); T T ^ - A "scarlet"(lit. 'purple or
So too JP AA'fl | from "VAA*!!, and f bty'iYi
, l , a

O
2 3

from <7AHl-

( ) The word flU*?*? "necklace" is difficult to explain. ( ) According to HALVY, 'Revue criV, 1885, No. 13, p. 247 the terminations -wa, -ndt must have made their way into Ge ez from the Agau.
c

262

scarlet of the berry'); but, inasmuch as the first word shows the regular type of the Construct state, these combinations cannot rank as true Compounds. Yet in stray Multiliteral Nominal Sterns^ Compound words or Compound roots seem to be met with, e. g. in J ^ ' f l d t f - A "wild-beasts' cage", "lasso" and (Yid^ (the latter part of which is = (jj^-1). hTC& "aloe". "leek" (of which the latter part =Xs^) and "silk" dT-fpC Noteworthy also are

PARTICIPLES A N D I N F I N I T I V E S .
participles: Ben^rks-

123. The foregoing account shows that special types exist i Ethiopic for each separate Verbal Stem, according to which it comparative ight form its own Participle:the types namely of the Active Beguiar and Passive Participles, described in 109, a and 108, c, for ^ St. 1,1; those which are formed by prefixing en* ( 114 and 118) for St. 1,2, 3, I I , 13, I V , 13 of the Tri-radical roots, and St. I , I I , I V and V of the Multiliteral; and those which are described in 117 for the Reflexive Stems I I I of Triliteral and Multiliteral verbs, as well as for a few other Stems. Yet we can hardly designate all these types as Participles proper, for they by no means admit of being derived from every verb. I t depends always upon the usage of the language whether, in the case of the several verbs, Participle-resembling forms,and which of them, have been established and retained. These forms, besides, have in most cases lost the force of a pure Participle, and have become either Adjectives or Nomina Agentis. This explains also why so many of them have taken the external termination l ( 117 sq). Besides, special types of the Participle Passive have almost entirely disappeared in all Derived Stems of Active meaning, with the general decay of the inner Passive formation(yet v. 111, &; 114 ad fin.):Such Stems were forced to have recourse to the Simple Stems, when the purpose was to form Participles of Passive meaning (cf. 108, 111,6; 112,5). Even the Participle which occurs the most frequently of all,viz. the Passive Part, of the Simple Stem, by no means continues to be formed from every root. This failure in Ethiopic of a regular Participial formation
n
m

i a l

123.

263

compena

was fomented (1) by the peculiar use of the Infinitive ( 181), through which the Participle could in many cases be replaced, as for instance in drtx^G ** 1*4*0- "and going, or as they go (lit: m their going'), they shall sound the trumpets" Josh. 6,8; flftT/fi! "he arrived, after he had come forth" Josh. 10,9, and (2) by the rise of a practice of indicating the Participial conception by periphrasis in a finite tense. The defect, inherent in the Semitic Participle, of being attached to no sphere of time, was thus compensated, in the course of striving to be clear, by the language gradually coming to represent the Participle through a periphrasis in the proper tense-forms. The case is quite otherwise with the Ethiopic Infinitive. I t is regularly formed from all the separate Stems, and in fact not merely in one type but in several. The Infinitive expresses the pure conception of the action of the Verb without distinction of tenses or persons, and to that extent it ranges itself alongside of
00 l
A

Gerund;
P

h a is in
r 8

a T

t e

infinitives:

Nominal
a n d V e r b a l

Infinitive or Gerund,

the Abstract Nominal Stems or Conceptional words; but, on the other hand, it partakes of the Verbal character in respect that it conforms to the Verb throughout all the Stems, and produces as many forms as there are Stems in it, and also in respect that it is capable of having Objects of its own. I n consequence of possessing this twofold nature, it inclines, in the different Semitic languages, sometimes to the Noun, sometimes to the Verb,more to the Noun, in Arabic for instance,more to the Verb, in Hebrew. I n this matter Ethiopic has taken a course of its own by constructing different types for the Infinitive in its different functions. I t has Infinitive-forms which possess completely the power and independent character of a Noun. They may enter into all relations in a sentence which are open to a Noun, may become Subject or Object, may subordinate to themselves other Nouns in the Genitive casef), may have themselves preceded by Prepositions or by other words in the Construct state, may be specially determined by an Adjective (e. g. H\t i H9?*C) Hen. 8, 2), or may even,like
gt

( ) They do not so often subordinate to themselves objects in the accusative, after the pattern of their verbs: e. g. Gen. 6, 7; Deut. 5, 22.
( ) [FLEMMING, 'Das Buck Henoch', reads in this passage
2

0{\J? s fD'flH"'! s <DMflfB , instead of DILLMANN'S CtlO ^* Oi%>: dMMMl : 119?*, thus referring the adjective *fltf"l
0

COWl * CtlH * reading WWl

264

the Hebrew Infinitive Absolute or the Arabic MutlaqC), be subordinated in the Accusative to their own Verb by way of special qualification. But from this Nominal Infinitive, as we shall henceforth call it, Ethiopic distinguishes, by a special form, the Verbal Infinitive, which stands closer to the Verb, and which we, following the Latin terminology, shall call the Gerund. Of course, being an Infinitive, it has the form of a Noun, and as such may have an Accusative. I t does not, however, take the place of a noun, but that of a verb, and properly it is nothing else than the verb deprived of Tense ( ). I t occurs only as a special qualification to a finite verb, which contains the principal action of the sentence, and it is subordinated to that verb in the accusative for the purpose of adding a secondary action. As the time of the secondary or accompanying action is determined by the tense of the principal verb, the secondary action is given without any time-form, that is, it is put in the Infinitive. But it is exactly like an ordinary verb in being obliged to enclose within itself the acting Subject, while it is completed after the manner of other Nouns by a Suffix pronoun, which in this case always is to be regarded as a Subject Genitive, e. g.\ Wh *^?: ttf*': "and at his hearing, the
2 0

king was filled with terror", i. e. "when the king heard (it), he was struck with terror"; T fc0" th'ttG ' "they shall blow the trumpets, in their going", i. e. "they shall sound the trumpets as they go". We might call this Infinitive also the Infinitive Absolute, just as in other languages we speak of a Participle Absolute. By means of the formation of this Infinitive, Ethiopic diction has gained a peculiar brevity and grace; but the similar employment of the Infinitive Absolute in Hebrew and of the Infinitive Construct with b in cases like ^bfc6 shows that in this it has merely developed a capability which underlies the Infinitive in other Semitic languages too( ).
s 00 3

to the foregoing noun, and reading the last word as a finite verb, 3 pi. Perf. TK.] ( ) [the "objective complement, which is called by the Arab grammarians
1

r d

lo-Ua+J!
2

OJAA^-MJ

tM absolute object", WRIGHT'S 'Ar. Gramm? 3

TR.]
!

R D

ed. vol. I I

(Cambridge 1898), p. 54 C.

( ) In some of the cases cited in EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr,' 280, a, b, it is paralleled by the Infinitive Absolute in Hebrew. ( ) EWALIV, 'Hebr. Spr.'
3

% 280, d.

 124.

265

124. A few Abstract forms, of those which have been deCertain Ab-

scribed already among the Nominal Stems, may be used readily for ^ometim the Infinitive, at least for the Nominal Infinitive, seeing that it is P y
e m l Q e d

for the

merely a Conceptional Word or Abstract, derived from the Verb. Nominal Several of those Abstract forms, in fact, are ordinary forms of the Infinitive in the other Semitic languages. I n particular, the forms, described in 111, a, a&^S, may directly supply the place of an Infinitive, as also may the Feminine formations in 106, e. g. <n-4> "to die" (Gen. 35, 18), flKih "to enter" (Matt. 19, 24), and several other forms, e. g. ^Wl^P?! "to come" (Josh. 13,5). Cf. also: "Mh^f (Luke 10, 35), flfr^tf*- Ex. 5, 20, Jftfh: tf-A- Sap 12,16, -\&Xfc' A h A * * tlltf*' ' - t A * 0>A i^tfr 2 Esr. 8, 22, </D<PAA : d'JA : faffr (F. N ) . For the Infinitive proper the language has meanwhile contrived special Abstract-formations, which very seldom indeed have become actual Nouns. A t the same time this distinction has been established between the two classes of Infinitives, viz. that the Gerund invariably takes an inner formation only, while the Nominal Infinitive takes outer Abstract-terminations, just as they are used with Nominal Stems. 1. The formation of the Gerund conforms to the type which Formation is described in 109, b (cf. therewith 106). I t is contrived by ^ ^ i v e inserting after the second-last radical a long and accented i, which rropen in the last resort is connected with the e of the Subjunctive of Gerund in Transitive verbs.
I n f i n i h v e t h s e v e r a l

Stems.

I n St. 1,1 of the Tri-radical verb the first radical,in accordance with 109, b, has always the vowel a, and the form runs: tfn-fcG (matir)C) "to cut", fl/V^A. "to eat", "to go on", ^ 7 "to abandon", f>-fcA "to kill", "to bind together". No difference is made between Verbs of transitive and those of intransitive pronunciation. I n roots mediae gutturalis the a of the first radical is always dulled into e: 9duC "to pity", Jt"V^ "to escape",^flVIA "to say", fo^A "to be able"; A W . "to be unable", A K . A "to ask", "to moan", K\H "to take", 7rh./** "to turn to". The form from roots med. gem. is always resolved: *fl/fl "to speak", rfrfc^ "to search into", ? A A "to touch". With
()
:

Cf. TRUMPP, p. 540.In Tigriiia, according to SCHREIBER, 88, the

Gerund even with Suffixes has always the accent on the first syllable.

266

roots primae vocalls the stronger form is made use of: fllAJt "to give birth to", (Dfjti "to go forth", (Ddty " spit"; and in those which are in addition med. guttur.: <D-^*fl "to give", fl>*fh/lf "to flow", <D*"VP "to devour". Roots middle u take always the strong form: JgfT "to sleep", $<9 "to stand", th<RC "to go", fl^k "to come", aoq^lp "to become hot" Job 6,17. Those with middle l either do the same (in older Manuscripts frequently), e. g. oo^ "to turn", l&fl "to be up early", or follow, as they more usually do, the type given in 52: aof*,*^ (mayet, cf. TRUMPP, p. 540), 7 f|, "to set", ( / "to rob", fl^ "to pass the night", ih>ID* "to live". Roots final u also take the strong form: f'hjffh "to follow", 0*ijBh "to pass over"; those with final l maintain here and there, it is true, the strong form as in 0%$* "to rot" Acts 12, 23, [<5 "to bear fruit" Kebra Nag. 106 a 10], and particularly when, by appending a case-vowel or suffix pronoun, the last radical is drawn to the syllable following;but usually the type in 52 is reproduced: rt^hj^ (sateyye) "to drink", [with suff. pron.rt-tp-tf **,Kebra Nag. 138 b 2], flAJ& "to become antiquated", rh4 "to gnash the teeth", "to lay or place", "to pay back"; so with those roots which are at the same time med.guttur.'. (DflJ2,"to burn", Ch* "to see" (with suffix pron. also C/uP-C) Hen. 107,3 [cf. Kebra Nag. p. X V I ] ) ; but a\6?"} ^ f | Sir. 30, 16; and so with roots which are at the same time med. gem.: 7 "to flee" Hen. 52,7. In St. I I , 1 the first radical, as in the Subjunctive, is always bound to the prefixed Stem-sign }\ in one syllable, with the vowel a between; the second has %\ and in roots with final 1 the peculiar formation of St. 1,1 is repeated. Examples: hiVXC "to know", hMl*^ "to thank", "to give thanks", htlfK^ " corrupt" Hen. 19,2, ftft-fc^ "to neglect", Hebr. 2 , 3 , hVL<D* "to wither" Ps. 8 9 , 6 , hfoW, htD-th, hldC, Jtft /h htf, Mr from 2t<f>0D; ftjrjp from fatm &c. I n St. I l l , 1, after the Personal sign of the Subjunctive has been removed, the Stem-Preformative and the first radical take each the vowel a, and the second radical takes v. in other respects the peculiarities of roots middle * and final % (and those of guttural or
t o 1 t o

O [Instead of CtYxJjf* FLEMJIING reads, in his edition of Henoch, in this

passage, (DftCftP* TR.]

124.

267
t

aspirate roots) are repeated: >\ 0Btijt\ "to be fulfilled", "t"H<5K "to be sown", *f"*Ti<i!,C "to be ashamed", f <np "to be turned, converted" Luke 22, 32, but also 4*<wf..fnh G. Ad. 17, 8 [and 'fraofraftiao* Kebra Nag. 120 b 22], "to long for" Numb. 16,15, -VaohjBb 2 Pet. 3,11, +1)19, +<*>'B'h, i'm UP, i r n ^ d , i'V 61P Chrest. 72,1; mediae gutturalis: f '7 fhy** "to withdraw (intr.)", -fiiXXi Sap. 14, 16, [Kebra Nag. 135 a 24]; and from +9dO, *t*9%& "to be angry". I n St. I V , 1 the first radical has the same pronunciation as in the Subjunctive: ht\W*La\ "to rejoice", hi\'l"(\/,Yl "to bend the knees". The Infinitive-forms, besides, of Stems I I , 1, I I I , 1 and I V , 1, which upon the whole do not occur so often as those of St. 1,1, are not yet sufficiently well supported. I n like manner the Infinitive of the Intensive Stem has hitherto been but seldom met with in the form I , 2; but it may be easily formed from the Subjunctive, which has always a after the first radical, modified into e in the case of roots med. guttur. I t is distinguished from the Infinitive of 1,1 merely by the doubling of the middle radical: }ft G "to perceive", "to behold" 2 Cor. 5,19, "to finish" John 17, 4, fatf "to rule over" Esth. 3, 14, 1. AApcr.; 9V1C "to teach". Even from roots middle i it is formed just as in the case of 1,1: n\f^ty "to know exactly" Ps. 21, 18, Jas. 1, 24, [along with v. Kebra Nag., p. X V I I ] . Of still less frequent occurrence is the Infinitive of I I , 2, e. g. hUtUC "to recall to memory", h0h,C "to test" 1 Cor. 11, 28. That of St. 111,2 is more common: ^ A ^ C "to be united" Hen. 19, 1, ' h ^ h . C "to be tempted", ^WljfD* "to become flesh" Hymnol. Musei Brit, and so too 1 W H , ' M ' t f t ' , 4*0 f'fLAjBh, 1*7 &d, ^ f l > t l A ; from roots med. guttur.: - f - A ^ A "to be exalted" Ps. 87,16, -f-JPfcC "to be instructed", -frft%C "to be tortured", *KXh "to ride'^ ). From St. I V , 2, e. g.\ "to prefer" (Encom.). The Infinitive of the Influencing-Stem has not yet been vouched for in St. I , 3 or I I , 3, but it could without doubt be formed. From St. 111,3 we h a v e : i ^ f l . f t "to be assembled together", -f-AUjR. "to play", ' f - " / < p "to buy" Gen. 43,2, +1
, fn J
,

O Of. also: Eph. 6, 15; ^ 0 < g G Numb. 5,6; -|<&fc(02 Pet. 1,21; -f-ft^fl)- Hebr. 11, l ; ' > H | f c ? Hebr. 11,35; Ps. 64,11.

268

125.

XiX "to take counsel together" Matt. 27, 7, 'p'P'ft/*' "to contend" Job 35, 2, -fh,?JP for IrYtiiJP "to fabricate with skill" Sap. 13,11: From St. I V , 3: hMr^VP "to tire one's self out" Luke 15, 8, hh-f^dJO* "to prepare" Josh. 9,2 0 . From Multiliteral Roots: St. I : f"P42T "to break in pieces", "to crush" Luke 9, 39, o^tO " perish", ' H t ' K C * "to knock" Luke 12, 36, ^C7^9 "to interpret", ttXb "to be terrified", It A.A "to distort", 'p'kth "to put in fetters", -f-f^Hx "to mix", (Gadla Ldlibala, ed. PEREUCHON, Paris 1892, p. 39,1. 19), "to linger or tarry" Matt. 25,5, %<g<D- "to take captive" Eph. 4,8; Ps. 67,19: St. I I : h o ^ l ^ / i \ "to reduce to distress", [ f t ^ h V f l "to double" Kebra Nag. 96 a 3], htfafLF* (with Suff. Pron.) "to forgive" 2 Cor. 5,19, "to remove" Chrest. 73,7 and h&g:<Xr "to add" Xe&ra 12b 16 & var.]: St. I l l : "to be brought into distress", i*<wC?*-'H "to lean upon", 'f-fA.rh "to be mixed", "to be put in fetters"; - M A f l / f l "to be veiled", -ft^Oh "to be taken captive", 'Ph**?^?, "to be deferred", 'Mt^fcfl** "to recount to one another" Gad. Lalib. 39,12: St. V : h l & A + d "to spread out", hlpd^Oh "to be devout", Ji'Jm'flm/fl "to drop", K ^ I A / ? "to assemble together", "to keep company with" 1 Cor. 5,4. 2. The 125. 2. T%e Nominal Infinitive usually has a special form. infinitive ^ ^ true that in the Simple Ground-Stem the form described in in the seve- g 124 serves also for cases in which the Infinitive is used rather
t o

ral Stems.

, . .

as a Noun, and it is employed in that meaning tar oitener than the special Nominal Infinitive-form, though that form can be framed from this stem too. But in the remaining Stems the Substantiveuse of that first form is exceedingly rare. I n all these Stems the Nominal Infinitive much prefers to assume a special form, contrived by means of an outer Abstract-termination. Even St. 1,1 may take a form of the same kind. The termination employed is dt> or in abbreviated guise 6, 121, and it always has the accent (TRTJMPP, p. 540). The formation itself in St. 1,1 is different from that which prevails in the other Stems. I n St. I , 1 bt is simply attached as an Abstract-termination to the type of the Gerund, e. g. from rhfcft* "to build", r h f c f l ^ . In the same way: O ^fefl^ "to preserve" Ps. 18,12, t\ % f'\ "to
t t k

( ) Other examples are found in Ex. 18,16, and Deut. 11,14.

269

believe" Matt. 13, 58, ^ f c ^ "to help" Ps. 21, 20, ^f>+ "to seek", V f l j l ^ "to speak", WdF*^ "to come down" Hen. 63,10, "to support", i'HJP^ "to follow" John 13,36, I r t . A ^ , fllArh^, MP*, ISU**, h " * . * * Gen. 48,10, Rev. 5,3, KkG* Matt. 12,29, 0<gM-Deut. 2,3, HT^O^Tob. 12,8, - M U f ^ N u m b . 7 , 1 , H I * * Deut. 17,16, - I f l U ^ Ex. 2,3, fl<e^ 1 Kings 7,13, Sir. 42,6: mediae gutturalis:^tfr't "to spare", hVLA**^ "t able", ftJuT^" "not to be able", h'lfl^ "to take", "to see",
1

D e

Gthjfr't' "to recoil".With radical ? in the m i d d l e : " t o be early up" Ps. 126,3, h>")h "to tread" Hen. 4, but also in an abbreviated form G. A d . 22,11, f n ^ "to turn" Org. With % as final radical: "VCP"^ "to choose", Oftf"^" "to requite". This Nominal Infinitive-form of the first Stem is, however, almost never used except when Suffix pronouns are applied. For seeing that in accordance with 123 the verbal form with suffix pronoun has the force of a Gerund (e. g. in 042fl"" "in their keeping" or "by their keeping", Sir. 30,16), the language distinguishes by a special form those cases in which the Infinitive with Suff. pron. is not to have that sense, so that, e. g. O^fl-f-o *" means "their keeping", i. e. either "the fact that they keep", or"the fact that they are kept". The abbreviated form in o does not belong to Stem 1,10). The remaining Stems of the Triliteral roots and all the Stems of the Multiliterals form their Nominal Infinitive from the Subjunctive ( ) by throwing off the personal sign and attaching the Abstract-termination dt or d, the a of the second radical being replaced in the Reflexive Stems by e; i is very rarely met with after the second radical. Between Forms in dt and in o there is no difference in meaning, but merely a phonetic difference originally. The shortened form of expressiono is employed when there is no special reason calling for the other form, and it is then retained even( ) when the Infinitive enters the Construct state, as in Y\9 A l l * a\p%- "idolatry" ('the worshipping of an idol'), hh9G+h9&JT Sap. 8,8, hh9C-1 Esr. 2,11, WW?*: M>A
1 2 3

J ^ f Bar. 4,10. The original and longer form in dt regularly

0) Yetv. Deut. 15,10 fl>VL0( ) V . , however, KNIG, p. 163.
2

( ) Differing in this from Aramaic.

270

125.

appears before the Suff. Pron. as in flftV* h^YlGi'h "he could not tempt thee", and it is also occasionally used besides instead of the shortened form, particularly when it is required to denote clearly the Construct state or the Accusative,which cannot be distinguished in the other form. Neither of the two formsdt, d can be used in the sense of a Gerund. Stem 1,2: VffG "to look", JHIA "to transgress", Vflrh (nasseho) "to feel penitent", fa'i'T "to give judgment", mfl "to be wise", (DAtf "to exchange", flOGF "to throw", fflfl "to exult", f dhtf "to be gentle", "to search closely", "^AP" "to reflect upon", ftAP* "to pray", rhftP "to lie", UA?* "to be"; but mediae
1

gutturalis: 9VG "to teach" 1 Cor. 9,14. With dt: hixG^, fl ^h Hf ?^, 0&9 )r Chrest. 45,20, ^VG^C) &c.
0 >i

(DA

Stem 1,3: flCh and nClflih "to bless", "JCC and "iCG'V "to found", AAJP and A r h ? ^ "to lament". Causative Stems:St. I I , 1: h^G and httG'V "to love", fcAA-fr "to seduce", hC9H "to be tranquil", ht\9G "to know", YiOh'hP' "to make few or small", ftTGP" "to take possession of", hClP "to open", ftCfl>-P- "to water", M * ? * ^ , J i T d P ^ , t\9 6P, t\Cfi^% G. Ad. 116,11, M * * ^ , M * * , fcAflJ-A aud hihfi Sap. 5,11, h&+ I Kings 3,3; but h^T and M<p* "to place", M f , M - T , ft-fl*. St. 11,2: hM\9> and fcA-fl { P ^ "to instruct", ftrliAP" "to remind", fcAAA** "to remove", h<n>YlG Judith 8, 26, K i P ^ p - ^ Chrest. 44,28, M l ^ T i h : V<P^^ G. Ad. 23, 8( ); mediae gutturalis: JtArtA" "to exalt", ft^h /jh-f. "to humiliate". St. I I , 3: M + A and M ^ A ^ "to show sympathy". Reflexive Stems: St. I l l , 1: -f A-flA and 'pA'flA^ "to
1

dress"; mediae gutturalis: ^ C 1 J "to open (neut.)"; irTrf^h

and

t " } ^ ^ ' from 1*1 fh "to rise, to be raised"; iA-, i * r t J t ^ and -l-AJW^lh "to be expelled"; 'MJJE.f- and. -HJHh "to neglect"; j*0D$(n Chrest. 44,28 "to turn (neut.)", ^aoahft, i*0oa*'}\ 1r and ffTDg^^- "to be conquered"; i*4'>p- "to serve"; ^GftP" "to appear"; -f-AT?* "to answer"; fObtyG and 'hOl4 C?^ "to be hewn"; -p<{.Afn Chrest. 44,24; G. Ad. 11, 19; 127,16; ^aoCth Chrest. 44,26; ^OiCP^ G. Ad. 24,8; -frivflO Prov. 8,5;
: , , m

( ) V., besides, Deut. 31, 27, Note. ( ) Yet v. h A ^ F ^ Gfal. 3, 8,18, with transition from I I , 2 to I I , 1.
2

 126.

271

G. Ad. 53,16. St. 111,2: ^diRfl and -h/hJtA* "to be renewed"; "to obey"; -hiP7JP "to become flesh"; 4 ~fll# and f*fli4 'lh "to make one's self certain"; f f l ^ y and 4*0*7 "to refrain"; *fr&<D'fi; mediae gutturalis: 4*A0A"> i'^ihff-r +>!)?; +9dP and f-{T / ;-and in both Stems with roots which are bothjmmae and mediae gutturalis: frK')?* "brotherly bearing", fMn^ "to be continued". St. 111,3: WIC and WQG^ "to converse together"; - M U A , i ^Tfh', -tPOblf; -tHObP^ Chrest. 45,26; 4 * A H h Gr. Ad. 123,12; + ^ / h A f ^ i&wZ.136,28 &c. Causative-Reflexive Stems. I n St. I V , 1 the two modes of pronouncing the Perfect ( 98) again make their appearance: Kfo -t-dfr-? and h A - M M * / * ; htl-t-Ch?* and Kft-hCfcHh Kh* h-tiP-i htl-th-nF*^ and Kil^K-aF-. St. I V , 2: fcft-f-0'W and fcA+OW*; htl+Wfl and ftA-i^W^ St. I V , 3: Ktl+P-flK and h A ^ - r i K ^ ; JWH-<ha>-ti; h A - h - h M ; Kti-t^?*, KA4* 4.4^. Numb. 26, 63; [KWnlP Kebra Nag. 50 a 1.]. Multiliteral Roots:St. I : fl/HJP and (111?*+, QObfL?* and om-p,?*^, 4T4fn and 4Tfon4-, n c h P - ^ h , T J A v H h St. I I : K ^ t f - f l and It^-JJ^O-lh, KllUC, K^AT, and ft^ dZ?*^, Ktl#&?* Gr. A d . 137,22 and Ktltt?** ibid. 108,12; 135,19; 137,21, K ^ f - ; fc-A4A<f>, K C ^ A ^ A , St. I l l , 1: and 4 - ^ J t O ^ , i^tf*-^, 4-JTJAA, i-laidf, CP, i - A C W + M + A ^ A " ; St. I l l , 3: 4*A?hA- and -fAVhA-*, 4-AVfc? , 4-aiAa>-A-; [St. I V , 3: ft A4~m?<M iefem 2 % . 55 b 2 3 ] St. V : J ^ + A ^ A " Chrest. 76,1 and M + A ^ A - ^ , M A A J " and M A A P * , KTkbW, M A A A r h , MlCIC*, nWP".
i , , 0 % p 1 1 ;

I I . F O R M A T I O N OF GENDERS A N D NUMBERS.
1. G E N D E R S O F NOMINAL STEMS.
T h e

126. Semitic languages have long since given up the disiwo tinction between a Personal and a Non-Personal (or Neuter) in ^ ^ " ^ objects of perception and representation (*). Thanks to a lively and imagination, the Semites have rather conceived every thing that s" on;he. exists as being alive, and have ranked it under one or other of the feminine, contrasted conditions of Masculine and Feminine, natural to everye i g

C ) Y . EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.' 172, a.

272

thing which exhibits life. Even inanimate objects, facts and ideas are thought of as either masculine or feminine, or both together, just in accordance with the view which the genius of a people has taken of them severally. Like the rest of these languages Ethiopic knows only the two genders. To express what other languages regard as Neuter, the Feminine gender may, it is true, appear in Semitic tongues, inasmuch as that gender is the more feebly personal one, compared with the Masculine 0 : I n fact pure ideas (Abstracts) are usually conceived of as procreative and productive powers, and are therefore expressed in the Feminine form. But on the other hand, there are also many facts (or things) and ideas, which do not impress the mind as being so decidedly weak and feminine as to call for an expressly feminine designation. Their names accordingly remain without any special feminine marking; and seeing that the Masculine gender,as will immediately be shown,is similarly unprovided with a special marking, these names, as regards outward form, coincide with entities, concerns and notions, which are decidedly regarded as Masculine. Thus it comes about that both Masculine and Feminine serve to replace the Neuter of other languages. And this is shown not only in the Stem-formation of Substantives, but also when the Neuter of Adjectives or Demonstratives has to be expressed in Ethiopic. For this purpose sometimes the Masculine, sometimes the Feminine is used,more frequently the former however, and particularly in the class of Demonstratives, and in that of words compounded with Prepositions, e. g.HO^h'^ "that is", \\aofi "such (a thing)" Matt. 9,33, h"7l>- "such" Josh. 11,15, "this" Ps. 4 1 , 4 ; 61,11, *it' T H * "after this" Josh. 24,30, fl)<TftA: Tffc' "besides this"; K ^ ^ * "the same things" Matt, 15,18,tf-/V-"all" Josh. 23,14. More rarely the Fern, is found, e. g. s fl-fc "this happened", or the two together: (Dflli:flrh"fc*t*"and only herein" Gen. 34,22, H "this" Ex. 17,14. Even in the case of Adjectives the Masc. is often sufficient:>%C "the good" (or "what is good") Matt. 19,17, fld" "much besides" 2 Cor. 11,28, "evil", "what is evil" Ps. 33,14, 74.JP "what is terrible" Ps. 105,22, u*7 "what is good" Ps. 24,14, ^S\\ "that which is first" (occurring very frequently). But the Fern, also occurs often: V**l&Y "(any)
O fflUTE^ "suckling".

126.

273

good thing", "well-being" Josh. 2 1 , 4 3 ; Hen. 20,5, Ht dft--ftfh "this troublesome matter" Ex. 10,7, "Mlfl^s (OMtl^ "male and female" Gen. 1,27 ; Mark 10,6, fcft/h: Of I * i * " ^ "evil for good" Gen. 4 4 , 4 , 6 ; cf. also tlthfo^* -flll*1 "much roughness" Chr. Horn. 30. When the Neuter comprises much detail, the plural is generally employed, taking usually the Masculine gender with a Pronoun, and the Feminine in case of an Adjective: "great things", "what is great" Ps. 105,22, th^i/V^T "what was new" Hen. 106,13, (cf. Gadla 'Aragaivi 6 a 1: GUIDI, 1895), d & f l ^ "what is astonishing" Gen. 49,3, I f t - J i ^ : "what is secret" Ps. 4 3 , 2 3 , ^ftf** "the holiest of all" Hebr. 9,3 &c. As regards the denotation of the two Genders, the Masculine has no special termination. Its distinctive sign consists merely in the absence of the Feminine termination. The Feminine has for sign a termination which is applied to the Stem, and which originally had the sound at^). I n Ethiopic, however, just as in the other Semitic languages, this termination has experienced several phonetic changes. On the one hand the -sound is obscured into a mere breathing, under the influence of which the a is lengthened into an unalterable a, (only rarely changed into at), the breathing itself disappearing ( 47) ( ). This termination a( ) is not the usual one in Ethiopic, it is true, but still it occurs frequently in the class of Nouns derived from Conceptional Roots, and in the Prepositional class:In one case it has even penetrated into the Stem ( 129): I n a few cases it is still farther dulled into e. On the other hand, by parting with the a, the termination at is shortened into t alone (*), which attaches itself intimately to the Stem. This termination, rare in Arabic, more common in Hebrew,is the ordinary Feminine termination in Ethiopic; and in particular it is employed almost universally in the Feminine form of the Adjective. A farther Feminine termination % , contrasted with the Masculine u, is peculiar to the Pronoun, and will be described along with it.
2 3

( ) On the origin of this termination cf. EWALD, 'Hebr. SprJ 173, a.

( ) But
3
2

v. PRAETOEIUS, 'Amh.

8pr.\

p. 167.

( ) Hebr. 71, Arab. ^ 1 , Aram. p.

145.
4

C ; v. however ZDMG X V ,

( ) Just as in the Verb, v. supra p. 203, 101,2.

18


Feminine Endings, and the Mode of theirAttachment in the

274

127. 1. Coming now to points of detail in the use of these terminations and the mode of their attachment to the Stem, we direct attention, in what follows, first to the usage in the case of
, , ..
ie u or na

SubstmtlVeS. i system ^ '^ f ^' W ^ termination at is applied chiefly to the tiree:- Second simple form, described in 106, a, of Conceptional words Ending at. ^ j ^ ^ l y e type,although, even in this class, in certain derivatives from roots primae vocalis, the pure consonantal termination t has asserted itself 4V**^h 1'd't, Oii't), side by side with other forms of the type C &"ih C'HK )- Apart from these, the full ending occurs but rarely now, and that chiefly with Stems of the First simple form ( 105), in which of course the Feminines in question cannot any longer be distinguished in all cases with accuracy from feminine Abstract-forms which have become Names of things ( 106):X"*7>^ "bat", fr^V^ "travelling-pouch or wallet", and several others enumerated in 105,
o

a Q

a. f.\ also (um+ "garlic" (nwf,

u 2

J^ooi); from

( 105)

year"; similarly V44" "female camel" (Juilj), fttfn^ "ell", and dfl^J- "shrub" (from flii "tree") ( ). From Stems of the Second simple Abstract-formation ( 107, / ) , the Feminine type which, in contrast to the Predicative words of the same formation ( 128), ends always in the at sound, is of very rare occurrence: fl^h'h "blessing", +(1(0+ "succession". This termination is also met with in other cases, though but seldom; from the form given in 108, b: &d+*t "cake" (as well as tD^d/t* "lappet", and an older word ^ f t . V ^ "cheese" (n^a), shortened into *7'flV^; from an Infinitive ( 109, b): lahh^ "sin" (foreign word?, "VpK "to sin" Hen. 20,6); from a Participle ( 109, a):fl<5^h (for sdriat) "spider" ( l / f i l l , cf. ^i>) i from several Common nouns formed from roots med. gem. by prefixing ao ( 116, a) in Arabic fashion ( ):
3

Q) Cf. PHILIPPI, 'Beitr. z. Ass.\ I I , p. 379. On the accentuation v.

TRUMPP, p. 540 sq.

( ) On iVflft'*/' "relatives" cf. 121, d; * f l } ^ "present"

2

and

<*}.{+ "basket" {cf. Zzs>) are of obscure origin: ghT^ is glSLfe.;

3

"slaughter-house" xl*/'

+<?+

"sting" is g U s

(rttj?): |Dfe-> ouy',

( ) EWALD, <Gr. Ar.' 434.

 127. ^RA^

275

"foundation" (instead of the ^i>). Of

"tent" (jU&o); aowtfr

strong form tfl* 1{.CftY, ^ f l A ^ "widowhood" (cf. ^

Multiliteral and foreign words we meet with, e. g.: fk^i'Th "satyr" (xitjJLo), and ao^^r, (rnttp) "candlestick". (6) The blunted Vowel termination a is in very frequent use to form Abstracts from derived Stems ( 111, a). These are distinguished, by their heavier termination, from the corresponding forms in at coming from the Simple Stem, like '7 'fl^'lh ^Affl^h- The termination a is on rare occasions found with the Abstract-form from the Simple Stem ( 106 sq.), and then mostly it interchanges with at: 1^? and 7 ^ 7 ^ "lack"; and ?943- "half"; fa^A and (tiTr&*t "the building" and "the process of building"; as well as 7 \P and "flight"; <p (Judges 19,5, Note) "piece" = <j:ih; < H > < h A "oath". I t is employed also now and then to form stronger Abstracts from Nominal Stems of the First simple formation ( 105): hfC> "salutation", ^AiA (as well as <wchA) "oath", ayah?* "carcase", A'fl'h "formation'^ ). But farther in many Predicative words, of various formations and in many Stems, which from conceptional words have become names of persons or things, especially in those which are foreign or of great antiquity,the Feminine form in a occurs oftener than the one in at. From the First simple formation, 105: "oil of myrrh" \ T "ambush" (rfi-q) ( ); f 3 J 5 "coriander" (8JUD); 0A*P "aloe"; *feA and "feA^ "valley";
1 2

Ending

"sand" ( ^ * > ) ; " c h a l k " ( g j ^ ) ; "cup" ( f ) ; %p "row" (fisaj, r m ) ; and 1^ "necklace" (JboJLo); "perfume"; H,**? "harmony", "melody"; "helmet", "mitre"; % \ "date-cluster". With middle a (from 6):1^* "darkness" (V"nito); *iA "brain" (cf. <Jb and Vjrj}); perhaps also K"? "toil" (/dlif); and
;

"army" (inasmuch as 1ft, means first "freeman" and then doubtless "the warrior" ( ) &c.( ). From Stems of the formation given in
3 4

0) On MIX v. 137,4, Note. ( ) Of unknown derivation are:Yf"*h "willow", *7^ "honeycomb", T^fl? "sound" (Sir. 50,18); on ft"A v. supra p. 90, 47. ( ) I t is a corroboration of this, that th&> now and then means "officer". (*) Foreign words :-"ITA d %i\ "pitch", (fha\ i&ra, J{ "rose", and uH "rice" (Spvfc); ?p "pillory" ( ^ ? ) ; Onomatopoetic:tyfa "raven", f - , ? and [also 7*7\ 7*^ and Kebra Nag.} "night-jar". 18*
2 3 a n 0


a n d

276

127.

107,7 others: rhtfo/j "snow" (Ju^), fl4A "tent"; M% "skin"; hlH "withers", "leg"; hflA "bracelet"; "tip", "summit"; fc&V "humble-bee" ( ^ j J L o ) ; ffJA together with ft*}? "peace"; r/rlH "youth", "youngster" (perhaps 1&A> ll<DA, 4A> 111, a); rthV "sole of the foot" (derived likely from a Pass. Part, of the VpVf). From Stems with ao prefixed, 116, the termination ,before which the foregoing a must be reduced to e,is found, though very seldom:9VCh "booty", jF'UAA "supplication", jP'Mfc "quiver" (ui^M ); n' 'fl^ or aoR^ "wilderness" seems to be a foreign word ("l2n). From Stems which have I after the second radical ( 108), and from Participles ( 109, a) come several Feminines, much disfigured occasionally: hA "meeting of a congregation"
(X^AAT)
1

; flA.Il and AAh "cas-

sia" ( X ^ u X l ) ; fl'V.H "horn-trumpet"; probably also (D&M "youth", "a young man" (with e from %\ cf. also KNIG, p. 117); fHfA "bean" {cf. ^ L ? ) ; 7<54. "punishment"; V^VIA and "refuse", "dirt",

"filth" &c. Quite obscure or foreign in origin are 4*hA "shoulderblade"; "table" {askl^a) &c. This termination is farther in special use in the case of Multiliteral Stems: frfi'trd* "tent"; "buckle"; & " A and "lily" (perhaps:"virginlike") ; fl^lA "waggon"; <OKH 'a bad trouble'; C*7'h "stuff", "cloth"; "cells of bees"; J ^ A " ? or -AT** ? X ^ ^ ^ (Sir. 21,21); ncW "parchment"; d*}H> "lyre"; h(lC(\6~ "nettle"; K ^ h A "thorns". The singular word or M-JjrU (Hebr. 12,8) vo&og appears to mean properly "that which turns away from itself", "that which abandons its own nature" ("[11, J?L>), as if it were h'J&flC, an Adjective derived from St. Y ; in the same way Mlf:h "breast" (from ' H t J t "to knock") will be the Fern, of an Adjective formed in accordance with 112, b. On some Names of plants and Animals, which follow this formation, cf. 131.On H^^J. and fffl^ cf. 113 (beginning of section). Words also are met with, ending in yd (besides those which are explained in 140), which are to be conceived as Feminine forms of Adjectives &c. with the ending I ( 117 sq.): A ^ A , ?
, 7

(i) J T W ; for obscure origin.

j^llV

belongs to 122,/?;

9Hp^

"reward" is of

277

"hammer" (as if from A<CA, / v i B ) ; ttvH&$ "booty" ('that which is got through / J M I A ' ) ; htlth^? "rime", "snow", "hail" from hftffrfc 'ruining'; rT'V? "weed"('that which makes waste, or belongs to a waste', from ^q^)', fit? perhaps also JV}J (for Jf'J
Ending
e

"a buzzing swarm", "a fly" m.&f.)C). (c) I t is only very seldom that this a takes the duller sound of e( ), which seems to belong chiefly to words of the oldest formation. To this class belong first a few words which
2

'

have u as third radical: IPG'S "beam (of wood)" (cf. xj^Ui); h C "beast" ( r n ) ; ftCB "army" (cf. X ^ ) ( ) ; then perhaps these Names of Plants: ^Afl. "flax" (also, 0% "linen"?); hCft. "myrrh"; 'a kind of tree' ('ebony'?); a few names of a n i m a l s : ' m o t h "
4 3

(DD, ^wj.1); 4*& "chamaeleon"; VI "elephant" (TTT); "hawk"; and, besides these, perhaps also %"% "fog, mist" (pj);

Ubft,

"dung" (yJiS);
,

"pitcher", "can" (PI. 7 " 7 A , like

(j^yti, ^ U c i ) ; *fe/*fll ("maw") "last stomach of ruminants". Cf. also "7M1., I . H . , &c. I t is true that as regards several of the words named it is not yet certain whether they do not rather belong to 118,7, or to 120end( ). 128. (d). The closely attached, consonantal ending ^ , before which, in accordance with 88 35 and 36, a long vowel standing in a closed syllable is regularly shortened, is made use of to form the Feminine, in the greater number of Concrete Nouns which do not take the termination a (127). I n Stems of the First simple formation it occurs, it is true, only in rare instances:fth"]Hh "foundation", along with ftVi^^ (cf. I ^ a o i ) ; fbG^ "a hair"
5

Closely
a t t a o

e d

sonant*^
E l l d l n g

(se'ert)( );
C)
1

"door"

tf-A.^
Ex

"kidney" (71^3, l u l f t ;

'Th-flA^, ^flA, ^-flA^ ( - 28) "mantle", "ephod", seems to

be a foreign word (or to be derived from ^?). ( ) Hebr. 71EWALD, 'Sehr. Spr.' 173, sq. and 176, a cf. also Arab.^.1. ( ) Perhaps also tf7*B "bunch". ( ) V . Numb. 19,17. ( ) AB to
c 6 5 4 3 2

fag

and

v. 2 1 ; JA "table" is only a phonetic

change for ft\, f- 47beginning, ( ) On the accentuation v. TBUMPP, p. 541.

278

tf}+ "daughter" (from )|, v ^L); M+

"sister" (from frfr, oiLt) (*).

From httl "man" the Fern, is hltl^ "woman"; fromfl7<>"sheep", MA*; from "ass", h " 7 * and h&l^ (Matt. 21, 2, Ex. 1 3 , 1 3 ; Numb. 2 2 , 2 1 ) ; cf. also JtfD-A* "vulture". This termination is more frequent in certain Stems of the Second formation:From Nominal Stems of the types given in 107, which have taken concrete meanings, occur Feminines like jfl^jP** "winter", & 7 A * "cow", lf*+ "terror", fcfrOd* "finger", ftO/h* "tax" rt<7(VV "testimony", I ^ U l h "field", +aoC+ "palm-tree", 0 7 * "fever", K ^ P * "wall", 0 H * * "well", fl+A* "palm-tree", JAfl C * "palm-branch", 7fhP* "basket", ftUC* (as well as ffUC*) "kitchen-pot"', &A"lh "island". I n the same way fl)A* "daughter" (for flJAJ^** 54) is Fern, to a word = I D A . R " ( ) ' Feminines of lost Masculines of the Second simple formation ( 107 or 108, a) from roots tertiae infirmae either lose completely the last radical,
2

like f\0o+

"maid-servant" (jUl), or replace it by a, like gh l't*C)

l 4

"mother-in-law" ( s t ^ . ) , A*}* "hour" (also, in abbreviated form, fid), A W "hilt" (cf. DILLMANN'S Lex.' col. 60), or ftA*( ) "fire", *h"ih "antiquity" (root Uo', v. 121 under * h f ) , perhaps also AA* "jy"> "malicious joy". From Qualifying or Descriptive words (i. e. Adjectives, Participles &c.) of the type in 108, c there arose a number of Feminine substantives, (formed in accordance with 129, b, /3): A / h tf-* "formation", 1-flA* "bread" ( 57), * C F * "bark", 6$%+ "stumbling", fl^Ml* "concubine", th'd^^'t ocKpaGicc, ft-A*}* "hardship", l * ? / " * "queen" (from fbt**), "betrothed" (from /h0*J&), * h * (from ^ y i h * ) "menstruous". Also H S A * "body" ('having a soul')( ), r h f l ^ A * "column" ('turned') and H-fl G * "fragment" are to be reckoned as belonging to this division, although they have a in the first syllable,perhaps even fiQt't
5

O Of. on the last two examples EWALD, 'Gr. Ar. 409, 411. ( ) On U-fl^ from * habet, *hbat v. KNIG, p. 121.
2

( ) EWALD, 'Gr.
4

Arab:

411.

( ) Like the Hebr. JTj, JlSp EWALD, 'Sehr. Spr.' 137, d. Otherwise
KNIG, p.
5

117.

( ) For it is improbable that "soul".

JpA* is merely a simple Fern, of V<pf)

279

"cake baked under hot ashes" (V^^i "to conceal"), supposing a to have been lengthened into . Such forms are now and then turned into Abstract Nouns: H4*H* "dispersion", Gen. 11, 9 (from scattered'), J^fl^ (in flJtft*^, "opportunely"), (hftjt' "administration" ('that which is administered', from /hfl") Numb, 4, 28 & 29. To Masculines of the type given in 108, b the following are to be referred:(J\(l/t "she-goat" (fllAJ, V ( L * (Judges 4, 4) and M l * "prophetess", VTltftfand hlUhH* "mistress" ( 36), "abbess" ( 36). From Participles of the type 109, acome: fldA* "mistress" (from fldA)> tlYft and {ti/f "the following day" (from AT-J&), perhaps also WtZ-t "ear of corn",and, in a much abbreviated form, V7t*lh "that which is unleavened" (root * l j ) ; also, from an Adjectival word given in 110, a:i^Ad* "that which is of the malef sex". From f^A'k ( 118, y) comes Jw-A'k'lh "maid-servant".
< w n a t i s

Forms with inseparable from Stems of Multiliteral Roots are represented b y J f ^ A * "virgin" (/".) (inasmuch as ^ " J ^ A may also mean 'a young man, still pure'), KCltb'F "scab", "leprosy", S C T C * "quails", Xft'Mft "navel", tf-fltf-ft* (= tf-fttf-fl) "pitcher", "can"; fe-JHft* "lock (of hair)" ( = fe^H?), fll^A/h* "coin", flAd* "rocky ground" (cf. Jo) = %t\6 Sir. 22,1; fl"? d^F "hermit's cell" ( i w ^ ) ; A"H1A* "spikenard" (A?HA, 36); 'CVf'VHh "hinge of a door" ( 26,end), A>A* "night" (root ftMf) of. J U ^ V ) ; K9rh.fl>-* "ancestress" (from ftjP,h,<D, 36). I t has already been pointed out that Feminine forms from Nominal Stems with *f* or ao prefixed ( 111 & 116) take the closely attached ^ likewise. A peculiar form is met with in aoC "bride", "daughter-in-law" ("sponsa", from n<J "espousals",
116); cf. KNIG , p. 117.

Adjectives and Participles, with a few exceptions, 2. Feminine take the consonantal ending ^ . Certain of them have no distinct form at all for the Feminine; while a third seriesand not a very and numerous oneof Adjectives exhibit Feminines of inner formation. . (a) Thus,to begin with the last-named class,Adjectives, P f
129.

2.

Adje

c tiveg

B y

I n t e r

0 l

0 n 0 f

'

in the Stem.

which have % after the second radical, as described in 108, b, like rh-S.A "new", have given up the outer formation. The reason for this was that the I which thus preceded the closely attached feminine was bound to be shortened into e ( 36). This formation,

280

in point of fact, is still met with in the case of a few words, which are used in a more Substantive meaning: A^* "a senior", ('a venerable person, either by age or office') m.; Fern. A U H h (Plur. ML?*), M U M " "mistress", "lady", from h"MJiO But as the Feminines of these Adjectives would in this way coincide with those of the type *7flG> another formation came into use, according to which the Feminine ending, which consists of the vowel a, is interpolated in the stem itself ( ), and either blends with the i into an e, or,as is usually the case, is directly substituted for the % . These Adjectives accordingly take regularly a in [the Feminine instead of i: rh-S.fi, Mil', fllfl/fl, 01041; 0 H / H , 0HH; Afl/fl> ftQ-fl; * f l h ; O 0 J & , 0 f l . From roots mediae gutturalis, which have in the Masculine the form G#h /fl "far", "wide", there is formed, in accordance with 44 sq., &AvQi (Matt. 7,13), and similarly <jX" "pampered" (Deut. 28,56). p o i f j "right hand", 0p9 "left hand", and also (D-^'h "a divorced woman" (Lev. 21,14)( ) appear now only in the Feminine. The mixed sound e, from a+i, is exhibited by ftfl,G and j\i%C "old
2 s

woman" (from a lost masculine h f l . G = ^ u ^ ' ) (*)

The Adjectives

mentioned in 110, & are hitherto known only in one gender, either Masc. or Fern.On the Feminine form of some words, turned Substantives,which belong to this formation with i and come from roots with final 1, like }flj&, v. 128.

(- ) As is the case invariably in Tigrifia: SCHREIBER, p. 28.From So too

667,
2

Vh*G

"strange", "foreign", there is still found V h . G * oiKkorpia, alongside of

4$* as a collateral form to t^ty',

v. DILLMANN'S Lex.' coll.

1099.

( ) V . analogues in the Plural-formation.Similarly in TigrI, in Verbs tertiae gutturalis, is interpolated before the third radical in the Imperf., Subj. andlmper.: v. NLDEKE, W. Zeitschr. f. d. K. d. Morg.' I V , p. 295 [and LITTMANN, 'Zeitschr. f. Assgr.' X I V , p. 45.]This inner formation may also be pointed out in Arabic: Cf. TRUMPP, p. 541, N. 1.Other explanations of this form than the above are given in KNIG, p. 87 sq., and in PRAETORIUM,
l

'Amh.

8pr.\ p. 148.For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP I c.

3

( ) Although the word, which would be 0h%fi in the Masc, is formed rather as a Pass. Part., and is therefore pronounced with an e after the first radical. ( ) *flrh>G and
4

possibly belong to the same formation.

281
outer Formation

(b) A l l the other Adjectives and Participles have the outer formation through the ending ty..
0 0

by the (a) The type given in 108, a, has no longer, it is true, a Ending^*, feminine form, as a rule, because the words concerned are more in use as Substantives; however, see thjfOhT (e.g. Ruth 1,19) from (hya** "alive". Multiliteral Adjectives of the type &1&*7, 112, b, take their Feminines from the type R^lf^. (/3) The type given in 108, c, shortens its u into e; and all words of this type without exception follow this formation^): Afo"fl> A I M * (sekebt)( ); - f l ^ * ; tfV}, W ^ ? * , <WC " I J & C * (geyert); 9aKh (9ah}\), 0 O > - h * ; C l K U , C U C U * ; i * K - C , i ^ C C * . I n some cases i t serves the purpose of expressing Abstracts, e. g. </**rlh* /Xocporyjg. Words from roots with final I adopt the vowel-pronunciation of the last radical, suppressing the e:7iYh) hXU* (eklt); C(B.?, ( C O H ) , CT*( ); A - & , A - & * ('shaven , 1 Cor. 11,5); ft*r]fifc, fffhp.*; from roots ending in u, either the form UAfl*"*> helewwet (from UA<D" Jteleww ), or, with contraction of the diphthong into u: U A * heltit; C\Qh, G ' V - * ; fxb^O^, 3 f A J ? . * [A"fl>-, A J ? . * Kebra Nag. 138 a, 16]. I n words which have a ^-containing Guttural as second-last radical, like ClThft "unclean" (from tVd*(t) the it-containing pronunciation re-appears in the Fern.: G V f * f t * which only by a wrong use ( 42) again passes into C Y h f t * (Hen. 5,4)( ). I n words which have fli, & or f* as last radical the formative *]h blends with the final letter: fri:*, fern, ft** (etet); j f 0 > * or j ^ O ) . * , fern. JPflHh; / V . * , / * " V * ; * / h - * , * / * i * ; h f l - " , h-fWfr fee&e^ (Deut. 30, 11), &c. ( 54 sq.). (y) The Feminines of the type 109, a, are regularly formed by appending -J- without any vowel-change in addition: 2\"*,
2 3 6 +
M r

K"**; A/h*
1

4 -?i*,
D u

flH>, n W > * ; W A A , " f A f t * ;

A/i,

or A r h , * 5 t from 'Pthf^, in accordance with 54, 'PthR is again given, h'ftg? "foolish" has in the Fern, the forms
(*) When
LUDOLF

in his Dictionary adduces not only

"Jftft* from

"JHft "little" but also a Fem. V^ift, the latter is of course to be referred to
a Masc. form l ^ f t which has disappeared.
( ) For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 541.
2

( ) [Along with C f l * - * Is'. 58,11; v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex:, col. 307. TR.] ( ) [FLEMMING reads in this passage G W " A *
4 T B

282

h-tlR, /Vfl"* or Jvfl- (from fctl*) "good" also forms, without any vowel-change, *tC"3h(o) I n place of the type given in 110, a, from which Feminines are not readily formed, comes the type which is described in 117, a, furnished with the Adjective-ending i, and to which the feminine termination + is easily attached. The feminine however, occurs from and even the contracted form iPfc* Judges 8, 32; and from v*$T "trader", we have, shortening the a ( 36), the feminine form i*fp. The adjectives of this type, mentioned in 112, b, from multiliteral roots, appear in like manner to have no feminine forms: the Feminine of %QS\ is the same as the Masc. (Matt. 5,36). oo\ft "unfruitful" "barren" (f.) would be a masculine form used as a feminine, if the middle radical were really double, as LUDOLF represents: it would in that case have to be regarded perhaps like JuoL^O; but v. PEAETOKIUS, 'Tigrina' p. 180. On the other hand IDA? "fruitful" (/".), "having children", may be understood in accordance with 36 (=<DA 'lh)H"? "fornicator or whore" is both masculine and feminine. (s) Farther, the Participles which are described in 114 take * , in so far as they form Feminines at all, and do not as Substantives remain unaltered in the Fern, or pass over to the formation given in 118 ( ): 0i >?<7d3 , <w0tlC*, ^ f t - h ^ A C * , flDfli-^/^rM", 0 ild lr, ^ ^ " M l * , ^ O J A * "midwife" (for (Dfo't; 36), and so too <w>ft"dT "a female perfumer". From roots tertiae i the Fern, regularly gives the vowel-sound to the last radical,a pronunciation which may be met with even in the Masc: aoqi+, from tf<C; a *? ^, from <w>'JAj&; aVWjIr, from tfD'JUJi; m>A,A/!h from tfA,ft( ). On the other hand, roots tertiae u take their Fern, from the type given in 118, instead of a Fern, of their own form.
, 2 a , : a 0 0 3

(0
1

A l l words which end in the Adjective-termination i

1

( ) EWALD, 'Gr. Ar. 298, [where the rule is given: Adjectiva quae e sensu suo non possunt nisi ad feminas spectare, sine term, manent, ut Joels "gravida" &c. TR.] ( ) For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 542.
2

() col. 168.]

is also met with in both genders, v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.

283

( 117119) simply attach'* in the Fern.: tnA\d, <n*lu5*; rnxp-fc, OD<P>fr; -MA., - V l f r * ; ovrilH., <W0AA.*; ""TOP., " " T O P . * ; tWh&A^, a'i&A ffi> * may also be simply attached to the Adjective-termination ai ( 119 end), e. g. "VKhAJ^* "mediatory" (f.), Hen. 76, 6; but most of the Masculines in ai, instead of the Fem.-form ait, prefer to take their Fern, in dwit or It, e. g. hWZ and fc^JSJZ, "old", Fern. hdP^ and K ^ T . * . Thus is it, in particular, with the numeral Adjectives in ai, like Syi *!^* "the second", Fern. / J ? " ? ^ * or f{ l t/t1 0 4 a a

A few Substantives avail themselves of an Adjective-termination, by way of analogy, for the purpose of forming Feminines: Oim "lion", 0 1 ( 1 4 ? * "lioness"; $3*1 "deacon", 3 . W E * "deaconess". 130. Although Ethiopic is in possession of sufficient re- The Gendersources to enable it to distinguish the feminine gender from the Ethnic, masculine by outward indication, and although a host of independent Nouns have a formation marked by the feminine termination, the presence or the absence of that termination is by no means decisive for the actual gender of a word as employed in the language. Not only are there many expressions or names which the language has regarded as feminine from the very first, without marking them as such by their termination, e. g. "mother", J^"> *7V "maiden" &c, but difference in time and locality added its influence to render the outward mark of gender of trifling importance in settling the actual gender assigned in speech. That which was regarded as feminine at the time when its form was put into shape, might at another time be thought of, without difficulty, as masculine. When one conception passed into another,for example, when the Abstract passed into the Concrete, it was naturally attended by a change in the view taken of the gender. The dialectic variations in the several districts, in which the speech was used, have also to be considered in this connection. Owing to the co-operation of these influences, the treatment of gender fluctuated more notably in Ethiopic than in any other Semitic tongue,more even than in Hebrew, which most resembles Ethiopic in this particular feature. The great majority of Nouns may be used both as masculine and as feminine, whether they are furnished with feminine terminations or not. I t is only a few settled principles that can be discerned for dealing with this aspect of the language; but these are not so settled

284

or so binding as to prevent speaker or writer from having abundant freedom in his conception of gender. Still, in those manuscripts which are accessible to us, all being of relatively late origin, an advance may be perceived, from an utter want of system to a comparatively settled system. The older manuscripts show invariably the prevalence of a freer standpoint, while the later ones strive at least to avoid, as far as possible, the capricious alteration of the conception of the gender of a word in the same sentence or section. We cannot therefore pretend to reduce the Gender-usage in Ethiopic to any certain rules, or to give an exhaustive account of it( ). The task of determining the gender with exactness must be left to the dictionary, in the case of every individual word. I t is only the main principles guiding the treatment of Gender in Ethiopic, which fall to be noticed in this place. The Gender is distinguished with perfect strictness and regularity only in the case of living beings, possessing that distinction in themselves. A l l proper names of men, all words which indicate a man or a male agent, like 'fl?iA, A-flfc, VflJR, *M1G, <A% ""AMl, &c.are constantly treated as masculine; all names and appellations of women and female agents, as feminine, whether these words have any external mark of gender or not. But even in this class a few nouns are met with, having the gender common,like J f ^ A , i n particular those which were at first conceptional words or Abstracts, such as tfCrh "leader", m. and/"., 7drt'fl "widow" and "widower", A ^ f l * ('testimony') "witness" m. and f., hlrl^ ('state of an alien') "foreigner", m. and f. (Ruth 2,10), and some which end in It, 120, a. I n names of animals the gender is seldom distinguished by any special termination,in fact, scarcely ever, except in the case of those which are oftenest spoken of, like 0*70 and M A * , and ft"7*, and mtx/t* (not always used); sometimes separate words are employed ( ), like AC "bull", ftT-A* "cow", *|<TA and fl>*AA( ) and (Dj&snA; but most names of animals have only one
J tf 2 3

( ) V . on this subject LUDOLF, 'Gr. 111,5. ( ) [Just as in other Semitic languages; cf. BEZOLD, in H . OSTHOF'S ' Vom Suppletivwesen der indogermanischen Sprachen', Heidelberg, 1900, p. 76.] ( ) [Deut. 14,5, would, however, lead us to suppose that these two words
2 3

285

single form, such as llA'fl vfl, ^fl, 1fMl> "Iff A, and are distinguished in gender as masculine or feminine, when that has to be done,only by the gender being differentiated in the predicate, or in some appositional word( ). I n the case of winged creatures, or those which have their habitation in the water, or in the case of reptiles or crawling animals, even this method of distinguishing the gender is usually given up. Some of their names have a masculine form, some a feminine (C^-fl, 0 0 > , VCVCA; "7**, Aft*^* &c), but they may be treated as masculine or feminine without any regard to their termination. As to the other words, it is true that the majority of Abstracts, as well as of Nouns of action, production, kind and manner, and of true Infinitives are already marked as feminine by their form; but a minority of the forms show that these conceptions may also be entertained in the gender readiest to hand, that is to say, the masculine. And this alternative possibility is continued in the actual gender-usage. Any conceptional word which is unprovided with a feminine marking may yet be treated as feminine, and any conceptional word which has a feminine termination may be treated as masculine, or rather as being without gender, so that it coincides with the masculine, the latter having itself no outward mark of gender. Even those words which in their formation have been kept absolutely free from a feminine termination, such as Names of Places ( 115), may be treated as feminine. A few Infinitives may suffice here as examples: (D*Mi : 9VC 1 Cor. 9.14; f*4-4'C ^9x9^ 1 John 4,18; -fl0-- * 0fcA* * O K D A . ^ * Org.] C * d * hVf "the true faith" [lit. 'right believing' Inf.] &c. Words like A A * K'Hh AhAih ftTA" * may be treated as masculine or
1

as feminine with equal propriety (though fern, in form); and on the other hand words like ftjF, * ^ J & A > thl (though masc. in form) may equally well be treated as feminine. Accordingly Collective Nouns and Nouns of Quantity, as well as Collective Plural-forms ( 135 sqq.) may be used both in the masculine and feminine. I n the department of true substantives and designations of

do not indicate the male and female of one species of gazelle, but are names for two distinct species, TR.] ( ) Or by other devices: cf. the examples in Hen. 60,7 & 8; 85, 3. [and Kebra Nag. I l l b 20.]
x

286

131.

inanimate beings and things, the names of countries, districts, cities, towns are preponderatingly feminine, although OIC "city" itself is of common gender; and expressions, even, like A.^.S's OflJ^ Josh. 11,8 are met with (but otherwise in Josh. 11 ,2; 19, 28). But the names of the various parts of the body, as well as the names of tools, articles of clothing, dwellings and trees are of common gender^). Names of rivers and mountains, of roads, wells, stars (yet Q<h?> may also be feminine), of the powers of the heavens (rain, wind, dew, hail &c), of metals and weaponsare chiefly masculine. 0*>7r&tl "spirit", "intelligence" is of common gender; but when used of the Holy Spirit, it is always masculine. Vhfl "soul" is usually feminine; Vpft* d "body" usually masculine. Victuals also have mostly names in the masc. gender,even ' V M * "bread".
a n

2. NUMBERS O F NOMINAL STEMS.

131. Ethiopic, like Syriac, has completely given up the Dual Number. Without doubt it once possessed it, just like the FaintTraces other Semitic tongues; and a trace of it is preserved in the word Numbers of stem^of a Dual.

JF)Ah> "two , inasmuch as the final e in that numeral can only be explained as a curtailed and blunted dual-ending ( D ^ 3 ) ( ). Similarly in the Eth. Bilinguis 1. 3 the Dual Y?Vh * r . i still met with, according to D. H . MULLEE, 'Epigr. Denhm.'' p. 68. Lastly, the remains of a Dual may be recognised,according to PEAETOEIUS, ZDMG X X X I V , p. 222 & X L V I I , p. 395, in the form ftft, "hand", which appears before suffixes, and in "loins" ( ). When the notion of "both" has to be more definitely expressed, the numeral "two" must be called in to assist. After losing the Dual, Ethiopic preserved only the distinction between that which was a single individual and that which consisted of several individuals or formed a mass. This distinction, however, has produced, in other Semitic languages, and particularly in Arabic, four Clas2 s 3

0) hC/** "body" is generally feminine.

( ) I venture to make the like conjecture regarding the word "door", Plural Deut. 3,5; 6, 9 (as if coming from , ) , and I hold to be a contraction for 'Fl^I. ( ) Of. also TRUMPP ZDMG X X X I V , p. 236. But v. BARTH 'Deutsche Ltrzg: 1887, Sp. 1303: 'Nominalbildung' p. 6.
3 2

 131.

287

ses of Numbers. When, for instance, the ground-form merely expresses the notion of one individual, like "man", a new form is developed from it which expresses plurality, mass, or collectivity, and there emerges the contrast between Singular and Plural. But when the ground-form gives expression to a generic or collective notion, like "hair", a form is developed to denote an individual specimen from the mass, and thus we have the contrast between the collective word, and the word designating one of the Class (Oeneralis and Nomen Unitatis). 1. The latter contrast, as conditioning a special mode of for- i- contract mation, is but feebly carried out in Ethiopic. I n by far the largest ciass-word number of names given to collective notions, in which any indivi- ,
and W o r d
u

denoting an

dual can be specially singled out, the Oeneralis and the Nomen individual Unitatis coincide, although such Names originally denoted either ^Generlus the one or the other, but not both. Thus A'flK stands for both
a n d N o m e n

Unitatis),

"man" (coll.) and "a man ; "an army" and (along withffn.) "a warrior"; ftlflA "beasts" and "a beast"; J>< "fowl" and "a bird"; "JlMl "swarm of bees" and "a bee"; P*f "a wood" and "a tree"; "vermin" and "a worm" &c. Many Collectives, serving in this way also as Nouns denoting individuals, come to take the Plural even,a proceeding not strictly admissible with merely Collective Nouns. Besides, Ethiopic seems at one time to have had the power of deriving Nouns, denoting single specimens, from Collective Nouns, by means of a special form,namely the feminine-ending. That, at least, is the only explanation of the remarkable circumstance that several names of plants and animals have feminine terminations ( ). The ending in question is generally <x( ): (D'dt[ nvyapyo; (Deut. 14,5), - f - ^ fiovfiako; (ibid.), i-VM "male hyaena", -flflfl ' horned animal'; 0 1 0 4 "lion", ft1J\/P "mouse", T-fl "falcon", "hawk", hlfi^l "locust", "grasshopper" (also collective) ; perhaps alsoflld<P"suckling", and /JflA "the (male) young
: 2 a

( ) The case is very similar in Hebrew, cf. EWALD, Hebr. Spr.' 176, a. It is remarkable also that "one" = "a single one" is usually expressed in Ethiopic by the fem. Jtfh"fci and that not only when it stands by itself, as in Oonceptional word, as inftfh*fc:
a s a ru e s 2

hfh't

AhAlri* PS.

26, 7, but also, when it qualifies a Common Noun or

^A

word" (e.g. Josh. 21,43; 23,14),

l 1

although ^ A l > i masc. ( ) As in the Agau dialect*; cf. REINISCH, Bilinspr.\ p. 8 9 ; 'Chamirspr. I, p. 1 0 1 ; 'Qmraspr: I, p. 89.

288

of an animal", rt*7A "fig-tree", H*7fl "cypress". Though some of these words take their plural from the same form, like <*, 'Mrf'A'Th yet others of them start from the ground-form in the formation of their plural: OV'flft 'lh fW'fl'P? KVfr .'lh I n certain other words this a seems to be changed for e, see examples in 127, c. I t may be that these feminine forms are due to the poetic view of the individual as being the weaker, and the class or kind as being the stronger notion; but the individual, in accordance with another and more sensible conception of the relation, is sometimes indicated by the relative Adjectival-ending I as being that wldch belongs to the class, as, e. g. in O'idd "a sea-monster", from and along with 0"JflG ( 118, y). Yet this form is of even less frequent occurrence than the other. The derivation, by means of a special form, of a word denoting an individual, from its class-conception, cannot be followed up in Ethiopic beyond these traces. Ethiopic is more' disposed to confuse the Class-word and the Individualword. Thus words denoting Class-conceptions, which represent a secondary formation derived from individualising-words, are, immediately after their production, again treated as words signifying one of a class, e. g. those which are mentioned in 120, a: *^A<"lh (from *TfAA "passing by") "what passes by", i. e. "people passing by", Mark 15,29, but on the other hand h r l i ^ f . "TfA^* "an individual passing by", Mark 15,21; in the same way $p<%Jt, Judges 19,17; the originally collective word "strangers" ( 137,5) is regu!

larly used in turn for a single "stranger" (== i *7*)2. Contrast 2. The Contrast between the Singular and the Plural, on the singuiTr ther hand, is quite regularly and commonly maintained. I t is true and piurai that a good many words express plurality even in the Singular
(One and More than ..

>

oe).

number, and may therefore be connected with a predicate in the p i i t merely all those words which are Collectives by their origin, such as names of nations, countries and communities, but even names of single beings like nhft* "man" or "men", 0C "enemy" or "enemies". But when it is called for in the interests of clearness, the most of these can either form their own plural, or make up for it by the plural of another word, like 6&(D* for *fl?irt- Actual Singular-Nouns, which are incapable of forming a Plural, like HjMh "an olive-tree" (Plur. used being dl)0) s U^+), are of rare occurrence; and even regular Class-words or Collective Nouns may take the plural, seeing that they frequently
u r a ? n o

 131.

289

represent the Individual-, as well as the Class-notion (v. supra). On the other hand a large number of other Singular-notions, particularly words indicating bulk, are by their very nature incapable of taking the plur.:such as, IDG* "gold", MavS\ "snow", <w>^C "honey", hJr|A "food", 09C "wool", m .fl "smoke", # 4 A * "shadow". And true Abstracts are just as little capable of the' plur., such as Ohb* "burning", f Q% % t "completion", <P^G "love", "thirst", and in particular all Infinitives. But even
i m a : u

such words, in the case of some definite development of the conception, become again capable of taking the Plur.; e. g. 9?G means "earth", but also "land"; accordingly it takes, in the latter sense, the Plur. tx9^C- I n the same way from fl4C "silver" and flC* "brass" appear the Plurals *(K^* "silver pieces" and 'flG;Mh "articles of brass"; and from fflA. "dew" comes the Plur. fllA'Th "fat". Tfl-fl "wisdom" takes a Plur. with the meaning "arts", and 9(hti'F "compassion" does the like, in the sense of "displays of compassion". And, in this way, even Infinitive-forms admit sometimes of the Plural, as I D ' h ^ H * "rivers", from OhAt/fl "to flow", "flowing" == "river"; and hil't"(i^ i^' l* "suppliant entreaties".
t :

But the language on the other hand possesses words which special uses are used either in the Plur. alone, or in the Plur. specially ( ). The " p ^ signification of the Plural, which indicates a definite or indefinite number of individuals, carries with it as such the possibility of conceiving that sum of individuals as a united and single notion (v. infra 141), like "tents" = "encampment". This explains how Ethiopic expresses certain ideas in the Plural form, which other languages denote by words in the Singular. Add to this,that in Semitic tongues the Plural expresses not merely a number of individuals which may be counted, but also the mass, the collectivity, and whatever is the highest and most general form of the contents of the notion. Thus existences and objects, which produce the impression of mass and boundless subhmity, or in which the apex and essence of every individual within a given conception is viewed or thought of, are put in the Plural in Ethiopic, while other languages employ a mere Singular instead. Plur alia tantum
1 1 1

( ) Apart from words, whose Singular cannot, as it happens, be supported from any writings as yet known to us. 19

290

132.

are, it is true, very seldom met with. The language is too well worn and too thoroughly developed, not to have a Singular formed and in use as time went on, in the case of the greater number of words, even though they might have been allowed only in the Plural at a more antique stage. But there is a series of words which are used in the Plural as single notions and with the same force as a Singular. The name of "God", designates him as the highest of the Lords, the essence of all lordship, just as the poetical name j\C^9 designates "heaven" as the highest height. Farther, names of spaces, which have a perimeter and enclose what is individual, or of things which embrace an abundance of what is individual, or which consist of several remarkable portions, are frequently used in the Plural, e. g. hClh "raft", ^"1^+ "boat", "doorposts", htU'(\ "waterfall", h ! ^ "bowels", "the loins", foffi (pi.) = M'i (sg.) (Ex. 4, 6 sqq.) "the bosom", 7flT*fl " rough road" ('a continuation of rough places'), cvp-dC "burying-place" and "grave", tw^^C^ "marriage", "spouse", fl J *3h "between" (literally, 'spaces lying between'), b&W^ "cross-road" (Mark 11,4), %&Ohb "honey dropped from the comb". I n the intellectual region:fl\(\P>d "the natural disposition" (as the essence of many several faculties [lit. 'impressions']), K?AA "image" (inasmuch as it consists of many bits of likeness), "Irh^C "a miracle" (because of its many startling phenomena), h9 \'i "measure, size, sum, duration" (because enclosing within it a mass of individual space-, and time-parts). The same way of looking at things has produced in turn new Plurals out of these Plurals, v. 141. The Formation of the Plural is either brought about by terminations, which are attached to the Singular Stem, or this outer formation is replaced by an inner formation, exactly as in Arabic.
0 a < , aa

(a) Outer Formation of the Plural.

Masculine

132. Ethiopie words form their plural either by means Endin'gin ^ ^ Masculine termination an, or the Feminine termination an-, Fem. at, both carrying the accent (TETJMPP, p. 542)0. The former,
n e

in

at. ( ) The Plural-ending an is found also in Assyrian [(v. DELITZSCH,

x

291

which is paralleled by > B\' ther tongues, seems to have arisen, in accordance with 18, out of on, which at one time might take the place of un. Both terminations have been produced by lengthening the terminations ot the Singular, e (in Arabic un) in the Masculine, and at in the Feminine. The termination an is always attached to the final radical of the Stem of the Singular, thus taking the place of its original vowel-ending. The termination at, in the case of a good many words, takes the place of the Feminine-ending at of the Singular, but in the majority of cases it is applied externally to the Stem of the Singular, whether that ends in at or in some other fashion. I t is by no means the case, however, that every word which wants the Fern, termination in the Sing, takes an in the Plur., or that every Fern. Stem, has at in the Plur.; for while the form without the Fern, termination is the one which comes most readily to hand in the Singular, and the Fern. termination appears only on special grounds, the reverse is the case in the formation of the Plural. Every Plural, as expressing a number or an assemblage of individuals, is a Collective word, and, in a certain sense, an Abstract. But Ahstracts even in the Singular number, are predominantly conceived of as Fern.; and accordingly it is the Feminine termination which prevails most in the Plural Number, and it is the Masculine which only makes its appearance on special grounds. 1. Words signifying Persons, and Descriptive words, i. e.i. Personal Adjectives and Participles, are the only ones which take the Mas- eriptive culine termination an in the Plural. But not every word which words tak7
Deg

ing Outer piurai

nim

signifies a Person takes its Plural in an: several have at ( 133,a), and many replace the outer formation by the inner, which is the
J r J

^ edn.
Detailed

mode followed even by some Descriptive words. When a Descrip- Euies and tive word admits of the Masculine termination an, it takes at the ^!!* same time the termination at for the Feminine. Besides, one set form the Fern. Plur. from the Masc. Plur.^), another form it from the Fern. Sing. Coming to details we must attend to the following: (a) Words of the type given in 108, a, occur but seldom in the Plural, and have an outer formation: ZhpID; thpWi; df^PTr,
E 1 )

ns

'Assyr. Gramm.', 67)]. I n Tigre m is the corresponding termination; cf.

NLDEKE, 'W. Ztschr. f. d. K. d. M: I V , p. 299.

( ) [But v. Note to (6), infra, TR.] 19*

292

132.

bfaP^ (T&n

Hen. 14,6) 0); in the same way MW1 "few" (pi.), and &q?l ( 112,6), fA^Pl (b) Words of the type given in 108, 6, so far as they are pure Adjectives, have usually the Outer formation: rh-?.A "new", thWi, Fern.from the Sing. thMl ( 129, a)rh*J4*; in the same way m f l / f l , flifl.Q1, m f l f l * Often, however, they form their Fern. Plur. from the Masc. Plur. ( ), so that instead of 0fl pfy the form 0 f l ^ * is more frequently found; in the same way mfl.0*; "sharp" (pi) (Hen. 10,5); f e j * * and
2

Some form an Inner Plur. as well as an Outer: 'J'lTl/J? ^(tlSTf and 47111*; 00.$, 0 f l * ; fllO/fl, m f l - n * ( 138): and so too >%C "good", *%6<.7r. Of words of this type which are used rather as Substantives, <w>A.rh "Messiah" regularly takes the form erofo thl; A f c * ( A "the Primus" and "old" has Fern. AVL ^* h+PTfi 5 4*AA "Presbyter" has the Outer formation 4*A.41 as well as an Inner form. The remainder have other forms, so far as they have any Plural at all. (c) Participles of the type given in 108, c ( l l l , b ; 112, b) take, throughout, the Outer formation, and derive their Fern. Plur. not from the Fern. Sing., but from the Masc. Plur. ( ): jf]iP* "manifest", JW*-;M, hi*;Hh; C*0>- "open", C I V I , C W * (rehewivdt). Participles from roots middle u frequently assume (in accordance with 52) the contracted form in the Plur.: {Pfl*** "dead", tf^^l, a"-;*"*; but also jPflHf* "warm", rat-pi and j P m - ^ * , or from a Singular jFflMf: 9ffl.^ 1, 9 0K^''t'I t is but very rarely that these Participles have the inner formation, as in ty(Sh "pure", "genuine", Plur. JlD*ih; as also in the word which is always used substantively IT-/** "king", Plur. V I / * ' * ; on the other hand A*0>* "enemy", AJfPIOf Feminines of this type ( 128) which have come to be used substantively, d4"fl* "concubine" conforms to the Participles
> o r J 3 , o

( ) [FLEMMING
2

adopts here the variant

PC^2U "-

,tfD

TE

-]

( ) [Would it not be better to say Sing.? Just as one form of the Feminine Plural, viz. by adding t, so the other form

O f l ^ * , comes from the Feminine Singular 0OJ&O f l ^ * may be regarded as coming from

the Masculine Singular 0flj&, by adding the same termination, and in the same way; cf. PRAETORIUM, 'Aethiop. Gramm,: p. 105. T R . ] ( ) [V. last Note, T R . ]
3

293

and takes the Plur. d 'fefl^ as well as d^-flj**^- (On the other hand, Te t/^+ "queen", rh-'flC^ "coloured decoration", and others, form the plural quite externally: Tr*Q/ ^ lr, rhWlGiHh). (d) Participles of the type in 109, a, and the like, take mostly the outer formation, when they are used as Adjectives : }]A.?t, h A V J , l A V h Th }, h-W, OCW\ OCh "friend" has an inner formation also; fldA (^Crh? AU9) have only an inner formation. On hUT' v. 133, a. (e) Words of the type in 110, a have still an outer formation, when used as A d j e c t i v e s : W C ? ! ? , tf*if+, hut an inner, when they indicate an Agent, whether they are formed in the sing, with or without the termination i. Multiliteral: thTrhtli rh'JhA'}, hut and 9^fyS{ with an inner formation. (f) Participles and Nomina Agentis, formed with the prefix no ( 114) take, in the Plur., an for the Masc. termination, and at for the Fern., e. g. 09 \)&*'}, c9i)*'i* (*) Some form an Inner Plural, e. g. 09lnC "counsellor", <w 7hC*t"; f same way ao+C'i, tflT>, 0bCC and others. "seer" (of common gender) has either ^Cfi, or "VC^'V ( 133, a), or
a >J %: 0 O ,a m f i e

( 138). ig) A l l Adjectives with outer Adjective-terminations take regularly the outer formation ( 117 119), while the lis hardened into a semivowel before the terminations^): +0?*% f*O/*

9ft; avtiAQ Wi&fiah?'} and ao'i4 ilahf+; so toCMlfl "Christians", from a Singular not in use. Some words ending in i, of the class described in 118, y, and some, ending in di (v. 119), form their Plur. from the termination dwi:0fl. "an Arab", Plur. OiSiahflThe words h?< "an old man", f "shepherd", and T ' T ^ U vavryj have an inner or feminine formation: (from a lost Sing. fcC7), (for ? AoHh), (+f+ ( 133). "robber" and fcU-/5<E "a Jew" are words, denoting an individual, which have been derived from
m

(*) If, as LUDOLF (Ps. 5 2 , 7 ) ,

OoRfoh has tfD&A'P'} l* as well as tf-v<p'> (Matt. 6,2), a Singular 0 D V < D * is the
says,
i n t n e l u r < , a n

basis of it, and there is no need to explain <W>A. P" by of EWALD'S rule, as given in 'Gr. Ar. 300. ( ) [V., however, Kebra Nag. Introd., p. X V I . J
2 1

y application

294

133.

Plurals ( 131), and which form their plur., simply by returning to their respective ground-forms and h U ' * . The most of the substantives enumerated in 118, y, have an inner formation. Farther, the words which are dealt with in 117, a, of the type "lfl<5,some of which are interchangeable with those of the type IflG ( HO, a), usually take the inner formation. I t is only a small number of words of this type, and these mostly used as Adjectives, that have outer terminations, e. g. A f l ^ ? Aflfl* ?7> A f l f l ^ i h . Others admit of both formations, e. g. rh^-A? 7fl*5> and in the same fashion R*fu., SWh^ih l X ' h ^ ^ l (Gr. Ad. 164,4, 20; 166, 29); while some, like 4/J" "the first", have only the inner formation (cf. 138). Yet even these words may take another special Feminine form with an outer termination, as well as the inner formation which may be used for both Masc. and Fern.: <J./J2PJP|-; fhf\fa "singer", Plur. Masc. r h A * "singers" (m.), Plur. Fern. < h 4 * "singers" (/".). Other words, besides those enumerated here, take the Masc. Plural-ending an, but only on rare occasions and in the language of poetry, e. g. bCfi$*l """J &A "spiritual grains of wheat" (ftCi originally an Adjective); or "V^flC "association", "congregation": " V l f l ^ - I "associates", colleagues". Farther cf. 141,5. 2. subatan 133. 2. The Feminine termination at is taken by all other tivea taking Substantives,except the Personal and Descriptive Words mentionOuter Plural . Ending ed in 132,which admit of an outer formation of the Plur. at all, certain t they have a Fern, form in the Singular or not. The mode Masc Per- of attachment of this termination is generally very simple: I t is of Names, more importance to point out the cases in which this Outer Plural formation generally takes place, and this will be attempted in the following survey. (a) Masculine Names of Persons have as a rule, it is true, in accordance with 132 the masculine termination an, but yet there are several cases in which they must take the fem. termination in the Plural. I n particular, (1) All Proper Names, masculine and feminine, have the outer formation in the Plur., and in fact the termination at: ao^dll "Macarius", tfn^^A*; "^0^9 "Mary", ^ C ^ ? * . (2) Masculine words indicating Persons, and which denote an office, business, or position, take the Fem. termination in the Plur., and are to be conceived of as Abstracts of the office or dignity:a plurality of priests, for example, is always
, 1

a n (

w n e

n e r

 133.

295

"priesthood" to the Ethiopian^). Accordingly we have h i l l , JlO "priests"; and so is it with fcftft, fc^ft Pfcft, "monk", "comes". Hence also 4ft4-Th "philosophers", ^ O V * "rabbis" (e. g. Matt. 16,21 sq.), ' M I M * "Khalifs", kCPtt "Pharaohs" ('John Madabb. ed. ZOTENBEBG, p. 173). Farther, we have frflJK, "prophet", J f l ^ ^ ; AlP^ "martyrs"; i*7^.* "guards", "constables"; <wft'f'^'*'J* "lictors" (Matt. 27,27); Aj&^l "Satan", A j & ^ l ? * (as well as the inner formation); "seer", ^C?^ (as well as "YCPI and ^ 7 ^ ^ ) ; Vfcl^ "artificer", Vfcl^ih (together with the inner form); 7 0 ^ . ^ "workmen"; rh*PC "apostle", rh<PC,P'>; "shipmaster", j^^JJ- (from T!*^); perhaps also <{.^^h "robbers" (if this does not stand for ^.jf'h't from .?hj( )- This termination may be applied even to the Phir. fapl "presbyters", to turn the word into the name of the office: A.^"?^ (alongside of A ^ f l K " } ^ 140). Sometimes also this ending is attached to words which merely express a property, e. g. b&*& 't?t "naked we" from b*ty 2 Cor. 5,3 (cf. Hen. 32,6 Note); cf. also hhlVllT' IM* JlCft-fc
1 2 l

?1 " 0 ye fathers of ours, who are solicitous for the Church" (MS. Berol., M. Berh. fol. 12 b). (b) A whole series of substantives, which have a Fern, form in the Sing., take the termination at in the Plural: (a) Singular-Stems which end in t, with the exception of the singular type w*7flC*h and eWQUC'l* ( ), form the Plural in at, in which ^^in ^t the formation itself proceeds in a different way. The greater in riurai. number apply the at externally to the t of the Sing., like 'Jiw^* "year", le/o*^ ( ); only a minority form the Plur. directly from the Masc. Stem and so put t in the place of the Fem.-ending of
s 4

Cf. the

like in Hebr., EWALD 111, f.; in Syr.,

l 1

HOFFMANN p.

253;

and in Arab., EWALD 301. I n Arab, the fem.-ending for official names is comparatively common in the Sing. (EWALD, Gr. Ar. 2 8 4 , 4 ) ; in Ethiopic only a few forms of this kind occur in the Sing., with the ending y

(ab-)-'

Vfcl^ "artificer",

"cheat" (by profession), thWC? "ambassador", "apostle". But this termination yd has at other times the force of a plural,
( ) [But v. 132,#.
2

v. infra, 140, I V .
3

TR.J
1

( ) The following also are exceptions: H>C'}'h Vf" ?^ f^'bC'F,

Ab-^h,
()
4

ftfltvh

ho^, (Dltfr, l - n f l ^ , -IrtUK^, and others.

Fam: p. 73.

Cf. HAUPT, 'Sum.

296

134.

Many Masc. f SingularStems tak-

the Singular. Thus is it with most words of the type hdtt* "wall" ( 128 ad iniL), hiAft\ OH^ "well", OH^-V (together with O H * ^ ^ ) ; farther, ROC^, fl^A^; hl-fr^ "cow" has KT / [ + and ftT^Aih ftUC^ (ffDC^) "cauldron", fttf^, fft)^, (and JUJC;H-); Y l ^ ' V "Winter" (from a Masc. \Hf*VV (or, with the inner formation "island", Ktl?^',irtwC^ "palm-tree", on the other hand, forms +aoC The word ^T^h "nail" may, besides + T^'+, take also the form +t*P+ (for Vf-ft/h "kidney" has tf-AP f* and tf-A and AA.'b "remuneration" has,not diif't',but AA^*1" (Hen. 105, 1), retaining the e and using only a semi-hardening ( 40). For the rest, there are only a few additional Feminines which retain this more original form of the Plural: /hA'Hh "ring" takes the form A ^ ^ " ^ as well as /hA^*^ (Ex. 30,4, from the original Masc. form *rhA4*)- The much abbreviated word ft'Vih "sister" forms the Plur. Y\^f+. There are still a few more words which belong to this class, but the examples of them hitherto found occur only in the Plural: "goads", "spurs"; (D&V'lr "javelins"; frltt "raft", "cordage of a ship"; ^IH+ "doorposts"; dC-Tfrfl*!* "female camels". The others apply at externally to the + of the Singular. But the assumption of a plural-form is mainly confined to concrete Common Nouns, like A7lh "hut", A A ^ "day", Aflih "shrub", jPi*lh "hermitage" &c. Pure conceptional words appear in the Plur. much more rarely, as TMlfli;J"Th "strokes" (Hen. 69, 6), T 9 Of* (Hen. 8,1), ( \ ^ + (Hen. 71,12), (Cant. 7,2), 0p.^.^.;|. (0. Ad. 124, 7), "benefits", "tm^'T* "turnings" &c.Some words belonging to this class, e. g. t i+ "door" and JflAAA'h "sheaf", take both the inner and the outer formations. (/3) On the Fem. Singular-Stems which have a vowel-ending v. infra, 134. 134. (c) Lastly, many Masculine Singular-Stems take this ^ p ._
( ; rt a o r m o f l u r a l

I t is most largely adopted, without exception seemvixusT inglyC)by all those words which have long a before the final Ending at radical, plainly because the presence of this a already in the ' Singular-stem is unfavourable to an inner formation involving the
(a)
T)

O JflAJt "neck" takes both the outer and the inner formation.

297

interpolation of another a. Accordingly we find: (1) ^A, ^ A ' V ; 7 ^ " ; (2) foil, "child", M t t , and in like manner ^&,<, dent, H<;r, fr*A, *Vi& ( W ' H APA, < ^ A > ^ 7 ^ * 7 , / h ^ f l A , A l H - n and many others; (3) ( l ^ A "feast", i T J V h HA, rt"7, JA (4A^^ and ^ A ^ ) , rtj&11 and others; (4) / ^ A " 1 7 "dominion", / " A " ! ^ ; -flCVJ, + A ^ 9 , #flC,-5/i"C, C T J , V7"J^^J^ and others; (5) 'ThfrHTf "command", '>KHH*V; I'tltl, ^ J t f l ' f l ; (6) almost all Names of places, of the type 9(h ^JT "temple", ffa^Y, FP^O, tn>Wi, <^*A^*, &c; also jF"7flC "way of acting", "mode of action", and similar forms. A number of other Stems, which have a long vowel before the final radical, also take this external Plural-form: AidC "silk", thd^ "silk dresses"; H^C, -AW-*!*; 1 M I . C "land", - f l r h , ^ (as well as the inner formation); }\(\>C "old woman", hflni-'lh and M U ^ ; h-FJ, M)AA, A,f-(1,A, l f and others. (jS) The greater number of Nominal Stems which end in long vowels form the Plur. in at, whether these vowels represent Feminine-endings, or have some other origin. I n the case of those which end in a, the termination at blends with that a, e. g. "fish", t\^\ At^lA "waggon", <wV "cloud", t x t ^ h "breast", JPT^A "quiver", (A?H>> A i m , h ^ " 7 , tfvh, -f-^, W A , 'TK G-Ad. 5,1, and others):Also f? "body", /^.P'V; "whore", U !^'] ft? R*A "tabula". Even Abstracts in *j:*VA/i "faculty of thinking" and fj "smell" form the plurals 'hhfih* O and ft,*^ (G-. Ad. 4,12). Stems ending in e form the plural by changing it into yat, (lengthened from yat), when that e is the Abstract-ending spoken of in 120 (sprung from ia or iat):0AA "similitude", "parable",
0

r A A ^ , nm*, rim?*, rm, r A n r h , , A O A ^ i h ; OWSfl,, OWiA^lh tf>*Am, "the interior", fl^AT,?^- On the other hand e undergoes semi-hardening ( 40) before at, if it has come from a and a Radical or is of obscure origin: d% "vermin", and doffy; in like manner R% "flower", 7,h. "rabbit", "fruit", < p & ^ , and QC?^ (the last not good); Yh "elephant" has (Hen. 86,4). Farther, % & "time" has T.H.
( ) If this is not rather to be explained in accordance with 122, /?. rt+A, rtK, 0 7 I 1 A , -MrtA, fc?fc/P, a>A;*-, H-fUJ, - n * M - , have the Inner Plur.-formation. KTtK?,
x

 298

134.

and "door" ftX^h (cf. supra, p. 286 131, Note 2); "fog", "sickness"; ; ^ V . "pitcher", which generally has the inner formation, may take the Plural and (from ?jPA) 79 J-> (Numb. 4,9 Note) Words ending in which take this Plural are rare. The only such Plurals yet known are 7fl<P|* from 1(1 "side" (of the body); $&<P+ from "basket"; <fl<P'1h "myriads" (5%. 121); and *7A*P'Th [but also 7ACP'>> Kehra Nag. p. X X X I I a], admittedly from a form ( 121, yS) *7A "carved work", in all of which is resolved into aw before dt{ ). On those words ending in i which do not belong to this section, see 132. (7) A few stray Nominal Stems, of comparatively simple form and ending in a consonant, take the outer formation at in the Plural. The following are the most important and most frequently occurring of these: ftjP "mother", h " ? ^ ; 18" "face", m A "dew", U4 "skin-bottle", -fl "bear", "foundation", VPA "soul", *1A "power", HCT- "ornament" AC^'Th "YftJt "table", flJA "grace" "favour", 7*"fl "axe", "incantation" [Hen. 65, 6], "box", #-4 "alms", H^C "tomb", J t A ^ A ^ "an earthquake": Also Tfl*fl "wisdom", Plur. T f l f l ^ "arts"; farther, llf A "stag", tUClK "crocodile", A l A "divination", h?C "air", HtfD-J "time", O ' J M * "water-lizard", ^A9 "world", flrhC "pearl"; <&A "letter of the alphabet" ( ). Others admit of the outer formation in at, along Avith the i n n e r : ^ A A "wound", *7flG "thing", wfy "sack", A?C "productiveness", fl^A "plant", *l<wA "camel", hA *fl "dog"; and with differing meanings Vl ^'t* "affairs", "things", MPC "languages". The Plural-formation in all these stems proceeds without any change of vowels; but h A ' f l forms hA0^( ).
ol % 3 4

O The inner formation is taken byACU, KC*B dlCt and ( ) OOhH "storm" takes the form 0fl>A;H-. a*>fift$ a n d ^ C l f
? 2 0

take the inner formation.

30,38, and A&'P^ Mark 11,4 can as yet be supported only in the Plur. ( ) To be explained in accordance with EWALD, 'Gr. Ar. 300. Other views of the point are represented by ZIMMEKN, 'Zeitschr. f. Ass.' V , p. 385 and PHILIPPI, 'Beitr. z. Ass: I I , p. 377, [and especially NOLDEKE, 'Zeitschr. f.
4 1

( ) l-flA^h, Gen.

Assyr: X V I I I , p. 70J.

 135.

299

Nominal
w i t b

(d) Nominal Stems ivhich have the formative prefix ao, 116, usually take the inner Plural-formation, either with or without a
J 7

Prefix (jo,
w n

Fern, termination, hut sometimes too they take the outer formation: ich aottoC "miracle", Wftl^H*, in the same way aoRW*, aofj; *f27 4*Jt; oof^aoC "line", 00^00^+; aona^C "psalm", tfhG outer For"spade", aoTfYia^C "wheel" ( ): OD$iPt+ "castigation", aoty ^TviuZ. I P ^ - H ^ ; aotyfr+ "pot", OD+frp+, "tblXft "mitre", IbAC I n others the outer formation appears, as well as the inner: "VIAJt "tower", <pl- "flood", ^ f t C "dwelling" (^1^+ Hen. 59, 2), "fhtlC "bond", a{\l)ty "principalship" (ao&v$>+ Gad, Lalib.); ^/hft.^, ldm'i t*, aBp><pb+. There are, besides, a few of the Feminine Stems cited towards the end of 111, a, having + prefixed,which admit of the outer formation: +9%+ "wish", +9%$*+; ^ft^C'Th "mark or sign", "miracle", +h9C P'+\ 'T-VrfoH- "joy", ' ^ W ; ^O^AJt "race", "family", 'Thfl^AJH*-Ih'Jfl^ih"prophecy" forms, in accordance with 133 b, a,
x a :

On a farther employment of the termination at, v. 141. (b). Inner Formation of the Plural. 135. Agreeably to the natural bent of the Semitic lang lia- General ges to replace the Outer formation by Inner vowel-change, an Grimier* Inner Plural-formation has been also developed from the Outer ( ).
2 P l u r a l o r

Collective

The lengthening and broadening of the terminal sounds, by means of which the Plural-forms, given in 132134, have come into being, may be turned into a lengthening and broadening of the inner vowel-utterances of the Stem. Just as happens in forming the Imperfect ( 91) and the Feminine of certain Descriptive words, i. e., Adjectives and Participles ( 129), so, in order to construct a Collective word out of the word which denotes one of a class, a long or short a, more rarely a u, penetrates into the middle of the Stem as a kind of remains of the Feminine Plural termination at or the Masculine an (on), occasionally dislodging a-sounds of the Singular Stem and turning them into prefixes. This formation of new Collective-words by means of inner vowel-change, is therefore only a continuation of the process of Nominal Stem-formation;
( ) Cf. also jPft*7d "firmament", 9K'} }+ ( ) V . on the other hand KOKIG, p. 86 sgr.
x 2

Form,

and

9^^+.

300

and since the language regards and treats the new forms not as properly words indicating several individuals, but as abstract Collective Avords, they are with more propriety denominated Collectiveforms than Plural-forms. I n the multiplicity of these Collective formations Ethiopie approaches Arabic, in which precisely this tendency of the language luxuriates most; but even here it again exhibits its more frugaj disposition in the development and use of forms ; and inasmuch as it employs only the most important of possible types of this formation, it is well calculated to elucidate the complicated Arabic system. A l l these Collective words, as falling under the general notion of Abstracts, may be conceived of in Ethiopie as feminine, and they sometimes even have in their formation a feminine 'ThO- I n the usage of the language, they may whether with or without a feminine terminationbe treated either as masculine or as feminine, just like the ordinary Abstract ( 130). Farther, in their character of Collective w ords, they may be regarded either as notions suggestive of unity, and be associated with a Singular in the Predicate and the Apposition,or as notions suggestive of a number of individuals comprised in them, and accordingly be connected with a Plural in these parts of the sentence. Thus, for example, the expression "those days" may be rendered either by Ohh'fe : w^PA A or by fL'h'fc s en>*pfo or ft" " 11: : fjotpfr or V T * * <w"PdAThe formation of a Collective itself is invariably regulated by the form of the Singular-stem, and accordingly such Collective formation falls into three main divisions : (1) Forms from triliteral Nominal Stems of the simplest kind; (2) Forms from longer Stems, especially from Stems of tri-radical roots containing a long formative vowel after the first or second radical, from stems with outer additions in the shape of Prefixes or Affixes, and from Stems of Multiliteral roots; (3) Special Forms, standing midway between these two divisions, of certain Descriptive words and Nomina agentis.Several Nominal Stems have a two-fold or threefold Collective formation,for the most part, however, without any difference in meaning. Alongside of these leading modes of the Collective formation, which are still active in the language as used,
r 0

( ) Not at, which would of necessity turn them into words expressing a number of individuals, *. e. into Plurals.

301

there occur in rare instances remains of other formations, still preserved in Arabic, which indicate that at one time Ethiopic also had a greater number of forms, but parted with the use of them, with characteristic frugality. On the accentuation of these Collective-forms in general, cf. TEUMPP, p. 542 and KONIG, p. 159. 1 3 6 . I . Collective words from Singular-stems of the sim- x. collective plest formation from Tri-radical roots. To this class belong only ^ * g #Singular-stems without the Feminine termination at or t\ for the stems of the
f m U ]

.
f

Simplest

Fern. Stems (with the exception of A ^ T J / ^ O G T ? 1 ^ 9 T ? T T J Formation f l l h - i h ) take the outer form of the Plural ( 133,5) or have other ^Jf" Collective forms. Then, Singular-stems of the types *7flC *7flC ^ and *|flC do not appear in this class, because the first of these three types has generally no plural at all or at most only an outer plural, while the other two types, in accordance with 134, c, a, confine themselves to the outer Plural form. Accordingly the Singular-stems which fall to be considered here are those after the types *7*fl, *1*(IG, 9flC> as well as a few Stems of the type PUG following the type 141C1. The first and simplest Collective-form, Type * 7 f l C comes l.coiiective from Singular-stems of the type "l-UG and is produced by establish- ' ^ ing short a after the second radical, which is vowel-less in the Sing. Judging by the Arabic (*), we might even have this a lengthened; as yet, however, a can be supported only in the case of f^ft" from <Jr-K "leg" (Cant. 5, 15; John 19, 31, together with h<P-$ix Ps. 146,11; Judges 15,8) and from <p*r*h "way". For short a v. e. g. tYYlt "ear", A H 7 ; mediae geminatae:^h7 "law", / h T 7 ; "Ml "pit", *7fl*fl; tertiae infirmae: f^Ctt** "root", /**<iflK Farther, this formation is specially adopted by these old and much abbreviated words ( 105 ad fin.): A"fl "father", fti""brother", " "hand", A "mouth", "man", bb "tree",in which u appears as third radical: Afl (0*. A ' V D * ( 44), A&<0"> h&G**, b?JS)~, bQO** The names of the parts of the body in men and animals frequently have this form of the Plural: *(\G\l "knee", AH? "ear", (^J&ff), fab! "bosom", * 7 C "foot", W^. "wing", fr^G "nail", T G A = 6 C A "molar tooth"; and besides these:
0 0 t 8 :

f o

p e

(!) EWALD, Gr.

2

Ar.' 307.

( ) [If this form is not rather to be compared with Arabic ^ J l x i ;

cf. PRAETORIUM, ZDMG L V I , p. 694.]

302

136.

ATMl, ^ A 9 , h-fl?,flr?<p,A-flC "colour", ?A A , 4*A A, -^A4>S (Plur. 1^4"-), X T ^ A , Af"-C, MlC W ? , T">$ hd*(D- "frankincense" may also be a Plurale tantum. Yet many of these words admit also of the Plural-type K*7flC (v. infra No. 2):/**Cfl>*>
0

4*x*, ^ A J T M T , -ach, wt, v m , w

-MI,

frsc,

and /ShTMl, one plural of which, ,'hlHl signifies "tribes", and the other htl\H'(\ "nations":there is a similar result in the case of fify, v. infra. That this type *7flC was at one time exchangeable for another type J u x i or J^.*i cannot be proved. 424* "sons", which is always employed in a Plural sense and which therefore might easily be regarded as a Plural of 3f, is rather a Singular used as a Collective ( 131,2), as the mode of attachment of the Suff. Pron. indicates. I n the same way fl)A*Jt "children" appears to be both the Plur. belonging to CDAJt and also a Passive Part, used as a Collective; but yet in certain passages it seems to denote "sow" in the Singular (Gen. 17,16; 18,10& 14; Cant. 5,10). I n like manner AJtfl^C) "men" (Ps. 138,18) might be conceived as a Collective Singular (instead of the usual #) ( ): So long, however, as such a type of the Singular is not otherwise supported, it may perhaps be permitted to regard dg?0h 'edewive as rather
2

2.Collectivel 0

^^

p e

(agbar)

a Plural, of the type J ^ i i (for dJ$.Oh, like y j [ "brothers"). 2. A second Collective formation, and the one in fact which is most frequently found with all Singular-Stems of Simple f > takes d after the second radical, and h as a Stem-prefix forming one syllable with the first radical, but never lengthened before Aspirates: Type ft*7flC- This form is adopted first of all by Singular-Stems which contain an a-sound, in particular by those which have an a after the second radical. Accordingly the prefixed J\ may be considered as an a of the Singular-Stem which has been thrust out of the stem by the interpolated a. Singular-Stems,
rm

O Cf. also L U D O L F S Note on Ps. 72, 5. ( ) [DILLMANN gives a very different account of this word in his 'Lex. Under he says (col. 1011) :"Ps. 54,27. 138,18 exhibentfl*
s 2 1

0 "

hostes sanguinolenti, quamquam primitus sine dubio A ( D ' 9*9 (col. 1012) "In libris Mss. passimfyf!?Q)* cum mutatur". TR.]

legebatur ;

cfr. etiam Ludolfi annot. ad Ps. 72,5"; and, again, under A"ID* adversarius

A&fl*"

perperam per-

303

which contain no a, share also in this formation, hut only as a series of secondary importance. Very seldom indeed does this form take the Feminine termination The intruding a is always long, with the exception of WbQGh "trees'' (along with A0tfH)*rrom bb (and h^P't' v. infra). (a) This Collective form is the one used almost exclusively in the case of Singular-Stems of the type iflGC), 6. g.: *i*\C "speech", KiPC "languages"; HWl "tail", M i ? * ] ; " " trict", n " P A , and like manner: A*7, (htfl>C, Wart, fl^C, + A n A A A , nrhVf", h C , 0**, H<w*>, H<w-, I R C 1<wA,
d i s i n

SHOT < U A .

(5) I t is very common in the case of the Sing.-form *H1C (from which, it is true, the Collective forms ft*7*flC*f* and h l'QC also are often taken, v. infra):09?: "column", ftd ?^; &flC "mountain", KJtflC; mediae geminatae: wty "sack", OC "enemy", hb^-C] primae vocalis: WCA "month", f\0-&/li; (D&Tt "wine", hahf} "vines"; mediae infirmae: P9 "tree", f\b <P9, P< bird", JfcA<P ;<(),-> "house", M t f * . Besides. rh -flA, "A, i*C*, *"C7, Vli, eZ9th, dt\, fiC9, AC, Afl>"P, 4*?"^, fl/H, ^ 9 A , ^ f l J ^ , ffl^C, flJ^-fl, U<--, 0*A, \iah% 1 A d , ->C, "l-A K C f l n O "myriads" (from
a 0

ibj) is a Flurale tantum. The plural of "fft*} "shoe", hf^hTr is also written ( 47) h^ltVi (v. Gren. 14,23 Note). The words rh4A "held", A*P "sword", fV> "shoe", fl'^C "rod" have, along with this Plural, other forms in addition: ft/h^A and h(h * A ^ ; htl?< and fcA<h'lh fc/"V> and fc/^VJ; fc-fl^C (Numb. 17,17) and Ml'ThC(c) But this Collective-form has also come into use in the case of the Singular-form *7flC, and with even greater frequency than No. 1,a circumstance which is the less remarkable, that many words vary even in the Sing, between the types "I'ttC and MIC Thus ADA "garment" takes fcAflA in the Plur.; 9:C "land", h9HC; bl^ "preciousstone", ftA?4>; "hundred", KFM", A H "heart", JtAO-fl; 9^ "husband", fc?;Hh flJT
O Only a few have the Collective-form ft7flC ( ) > M again take the outer formation ( 134, y). ( ) [Again a retreat from the position taken up in the 'Lex.\ and an acknowledgement that LUDOLP was right, TK.]
2 137 a n f e w

304

"companion", Ml^ft"; "Land", hMO**, as a side-form to the usual h&a>-: fCW* "root", h p " b e a r d " , hK<h9 In the same way (besides those already mentioned under No. 1): CV-fl, -nC6 "JlMl, 2iA<h, h ^ A , Cfl, M J t , T ? , frC/h, X*Jt^j ^rhy**, d from a Feminine Singular - Stem "winter", Ml6-9 (along with the outer form h^^M", 133, & , a). To this section perhaps belongs also the Plurale tantum h7r%C "view". Very seldom does a Feminine termination occur with this second Collective-form. It is possible (in accordance with 36) in words from roots tertiae gutturalis: K^ ih\'V $1 oTroopa (Rev. 18,14), from +9^). Farther, from rhfr "arrow" (Vdtffl-, 'f- fD), hih%"t"- So too from 'P'fl "the female breast" (originally tertiae infirmae) hffl'lh and from "name", htl ^^From d.O(0* "adder" (tertiae infirmae) comes the Plur. Yx^Ph* (*V being applied to ft<P0O>, from &<*>(-) ( ). In hm>+ "maid-servant" and rth^h or (Vfl't "street", the fern. + is treated as belonging to the root, whence hh^^ and ftf)h t* or KfttvH ). .s.coiiective 137. 3. A third Collective formation, but one which was A7frC ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ y dying out, contains an accented (TRUMPP, p. 542) u after the second radical, and,like No. 2,ft as a prefix, Type (agbur). ft*7ft*G( )- This form is adopted by several words indicating per3 } a n ai ( 0 2 : 8 f Pe a r e a ec e 4

( ) But into ftflft'h,

ft#flft*ih
a

"wars", from (Hlft, which LUDOLF quotes in his

'Lex.\ col. 606, in accordance with his 'Gramm: p. 108,should be amended doubled Plural. [But yet PLATT retains the reading (in ftflW^flTh*
A S

Mark. 13,7) which LUDOLF quotes, and so does PRAETORVUS in the reprint, TR.] So too, in Judges 8, 26, the word is not LUDOLF quotes it in the 'Lex:, but ftflh'Kfl'h a doubled Plural.
()
2

Of. PRAETORIUS, 'Amh. Spr.'

p. 189.

('*) [A peculiar use of this second formation,viz. its employment to form the inner plural of singulars representing the Arabic elative J u t i f , is exhibited in a passage of the Kebra Nag. (74 b 2 3 sq.):ft^rfJ-X*i

flfttfl

hth^C' hnfRi
LJxif, \S\)
4

KMC

"precious stones, red ones along with

black, and dark-brown with white ones", the respective singulars (t>.Af, .4.2 t, being directly imported from Arabic]

( ) I n Arabic, Jotil, which in Ethiopic must have the sound of

ft'7'flC,does not correspond so well as does J^.xi : Cf. D. H .

MLLER,

 137.

305

sons, and by tbose notions which are usually apprehended as Masculine,which fact perhaps explains the presence of the vowel u instead of a: " a s s " , & M / 7 ; rh$A "field", hfo'kh (as well as hth?& and hthtyfrfy; Off* bough", fcAfc.* ( , j j d i ) ; JiffC "fence", hfo&C, thW "vine-shoot", hdi^l, VIC "city" and "country", KU7-C (KUT^C); l ^ f t 'small copper coin', ft ? im-ft. Without S i n g u l a r : " J e w s " , ftflM "ear-rings"; and from a lost Singular, YxM^l "old men" (used as Plur. for
4

4. J. fourth Collective formation contains short e (at first 4. Collective probably u) after the second radical, and likewise ft as a Stem- ^ prefix( ):Type ft*7"flC- This form is rather less frequent even (gber). than the foregoing one, and seems to have been supplanted partly by No. 2, partly by No. 5. The most of the words which adopt it have another Plural-form besides:(DlC "hill", hdhlC {auger)) feR'A "leaf", fc^ffAC ); iMhC rod", M l > C (and ft-fl^C); "VIA sack", M A A (and M A A Gen. 42,25; 43,22; 44,1); 7 T C and J T C "gleam", fcfTC; flrhA "bowl", ftfrAA (and ftJV^A^); fl4A "mule", M l * A (and M l * A * ) , "/h? '"shoe", he^Ki (and ft/** ft*}). The Plur. hthCOf "swine" (ahreww ) belongs probably to a lost Sing. tUCOh; in the Sing, the form (h6*a)*? is used (Ps. 79,14; Lev. 11,7)( ), which no doubt is also a Collective. 5. Of much more frequent occurrence, however, and, next to 5. collective No. 2 of this Class, the form in most general use,is the form ^ ^ ^ (agherty
f S 2 5 6 4 e

ZDMG X X X V I I , p. 366. It is remarkable that nearly all words of this form come from roots primae gutturalis. O
2 0 n

ftftWl

f- DILLMANN'S Lex.\

col. 771.

( ) J^.*i! answers in ArabicOn the Accentuation cf. TRUMPF p. 542. ( ) Not his Lex.\
l 3

'feJVA,

a s

LUDOLF has it in his 'Lex.\

[What L U D O L F has in

(col. 221) under this word

feffA,
1

i a

the following:"PI.

ft*A
form

Marc. 11,8,

& feftA*

Deut. 12,2". LUDOLF was thus well aware of the here; and as for the other plural

pl.-form which is given in the 'Grammar

*feftA,

which he cites, Prof. BEZOLD communicates a conjecture that

"most probably LUDOLF'S

4

feftA

is a misprint for TR.]

l^-ftA,

which actually; /

occurs as plur. in Kebra Nag. 93 b 17".

( ) [Cf. also Tab. Tab. 59 (Chrest. p. 121) and also TRUMPP, ZDMG X X X I V , p. 236 sq., and CORNILL ibid. X X X V , p. 650. Also Cod. Mon. Aeth.

11, fol. 48 v reads there

fllArh^O"^.]
20

306

just dealt with, 4, increased by the Fern, termination +:Type (a) This form is taken only in a few cases by the SingularStem of the type "MIC: Cftfl "head", ftCftfl*, IhC "eagle", M f t r t ; "TfM "wolf", MlK-ftf-; tVii bee", K-JiMl^ (as well as ft*>y*fl) (say emsertf &c). (&) The form is usually found in connection with the SingularStem of type "MIC, or even from PHC OfW "eye", hd&Tr^, fl"> "corpse", ft4l-*>^; flrhG "sea", ft-fl/HC^ I n the same f a s h i 0 n - 4 . h r , "Will, IH^-A, -MflA, *9C( ), V*d, hA-fl 0ff?, OX" ?, HGft, 7 Ad, "MIC, ft Ad, 0 C * , 0Cd and flCd, ^ A Also, from rh4A "held" (v. No. 3), fl^A "mule" (v. No. 4), flAA "bowl" (v. No. 4), ftp.^ "sword" (v. No. 2). From 4ft*3h "bow" comes Yx+h'V (for ft'J'fl'Hr*), "I* being considered as a radical. From unknown Singular-forms:h9't*'i't' "sinews",
2 1

ft/^UG^

"new-moons";

ft^G*^ ftfD-fl^

"the young of birds" (Ra^if, "birds of prey" (Hen. 89,10( );

3

Q^nhSS): probably also

.90,2; 96,2 for

htHD-fcl from m, c J U ) : From A09 "ox", ftA

0 9 ^ ; h "helper", ftCJtft^ (as well as ftC>!ft); fldA "rich", ft-fldA^; <*>Cfo "guide", "leader", ftjPC/h^.; OClfl "friend", KdCh'h- Also the word hA "serpent", may form, from hj&ft, the ending I being left out of account ( 118),the plural ftft JRft^, and in contracted form }\\VjtV^ (Hen. 20,7) ( ), while from hUfrll^ is formed ( 140). I n like manner fl'HM "lion" ( 131) forms O^'flA'h (from 070ft, without prefixed ft, because (I is taken for ft, the formative bent having here proved misleading). / ^ d C ^ "hair"( ) forms (from fflC) ft/^dC^4 5

( ) Arabic j U j i i f . O n the accentuation v. TRUHIPP, p. 543.

3

( ) [The plural of this word is given in 'Lex.' as

ftCj^G^, but ft*}

DILLMANK'S

JT'Ch i ^
s a

s o

given there on reads in

LUDOLP'S 89,10

authority,

TR.]

( )

[FLEMMING

ft'JfiG'f* instead of

ft<0"

tl + .

TR.]
4

( ) [PiEMMiNG reads here fthj&ft'lh instead of DILLMANN'S ftfa^ftT", besides adopting certain other slight variants of form and order, TR.]

( ) As if yCfr
a Collective sense, Ps.

were a nomen unitatis (' 131) and

u s e d

AC
u i t e a s

o r

/ dC

were only derived. But in point of fact P'CH* is

39,17,

readily in

as in an Individual sense, Matt. 5,36.ft'J*7R

307

138. I L Collective words from certain longer Singularn. Stems of tri-radical roots. Several Descriptive words of the type wordJ given in 8 108, ~b, c, as well as those Adjectives and Nomina agentis ^ certain which have been formed by doubling the Second radical ( 117), longer have a peculiar formation, differing from the Collective-forms of gfems^-the the other longer Singular-Stems. That formation is brought about collectivee f r o m

form being

by the essential vowel of the Singular-Stem after the second radi- of the Type cal being superseded by a short a, the fern. ^ being appended TACS* at the same time. To this a and the force of a Collective Ab- ^Mart.) stract becomes attached. Moreover the transformation which passes over the Ground-Stem is so marked that this Collective-form looks more like a new formation directly out of the root:Type 7fl 1. This form comes into use most frequently in the case of Singular-Stems of the type 7fl<5. For these it is the only practicable type of a Collective formation, and meanwhile it occurs oftener than the outer Plural-formation ( 132, g). I f it is allowable to come to a conclusion as to Ethiopic, from that which is observed in Arabic, then we may assume that, in forming the Collective in these cases, the doubling of the second radical is given up (as in a^i"! from ^l5^(), although it has as yet been impossible to prove this from Ethiopic itself; cf. TEUMPP , p. 543 ( ). Examples: W*% "the first", ^ 9 ^ (qaddmt)) ftthi, "writer", "scribe", R r h ^ ; AJV. "swordbearer", A f ^ ^ ; rhAfc "singer", fhAJE-'h; "hunter", frfliD-^lh (na aut). But in words tertiae gutturalis we have: IP'P'Y , "sacrificer", "priest", iP'Pfl'lh; and from roots with final fli or &: tfoAfll. "rapacious", <wAT; 07*3. "reaper", 00J* ( 54). The same formation occurs in the case of
2 (

"Vi<5, MK,

Ml,

ffl'Hk -M -iLv +JMi.,

0 ^H> 1 * 1 ^ fl^A,

ft^, 2<5,

R<I'fl and others. I t is also met with, along with the outer formation, in rh^A., * ? f l . , fm

"condition of a foreigner" and "foreigner" (from a Sing. based upon a corresponding form in Arabic

he

^uuLxif.
JJti
or

(*) The corresponding form in Arabic is Ar.' 312. ( ) V . on the other hand KNIG, p. 95.
2

jJii,

EWALD

'Gr.

20*

308

139.

7fl*5- IIT'E "priest of false gods"^) forms 7VflHh and, with the mixed sound, so too f^iH "shepherd" (from the original root bni + awi) takes TA*"^ (for TAflHh), as if (D were a part of the root. Compare also m"}#A "soothsayer", fli'J'feAlh Farther, the name &0$ft "giants" is no doubt to be derived from a Sing. {fi^i f originally "shepherds", "shepherd people". 2. A few Descriptive words, having % after the second radical, also adopt this formation (as well as the outer formation, 132,1,&); Qatf "thin", 4m->^; m f l / f l "wise", mfWtf-; OflJK- "big", on $ft: So too the Substantive rhfl. "warranter", JiflJ&^h; in contrast with which, other Substantives of this type have the formation given in 140. Finally, the much abbreviated word "7^ "seer" ( 114, c) has ff^JR^ (as well as *7r#7 and IC?^)3. Of the Participle-type *7ftC> ty&Q** "pure", "genuine" has this formation, 4ft<0"^h, unless it be really founded upon a Singular ^fiJD*. And thus too Y\f* 'Y "kings" might be derived from Trf*^, and it would be unnecessary to refer it to the Singular which has become of rare occurrence in Ethiopic( ). ux 139. I I I . Collective Words from longer Stems of Triliteral woxdJ ^ Multilateral Boots have but one single type:long d after from longer the third-last strong Stem-letter; before it a syllable with a short Trilateral > which only very seldom is reduced to e (or in Quinqueliteral Stems two syllables with two short a's), and after it a syllable
n u s f 2 C 6 an a a n d

Multiliteral
a o m m a

Eoots:- with a short e ( 60)(): Type 7flCC- This type is followed by IQLCC ^ ^ l Stems of Multiliteral roots (*); by all Stems of Triigabdrer) dical oots formed by external increase (*); and lastly by several
ra, r

(*) It is a matter of doubt whether this word is to be derived from the root

7Vfl> = 7VP
2

or from

p^ },

+ awi=J_L>.
s

( ) ^(Sh^h, which appears frequently in the phrase K*}A

"7l0"^*

"orphans", and also in another connection in Lev. 11,40. and Deut. 14,21, Note,is a word sui generis. I recognise in this word the Collective form ^ J L x i (EWALD, 'Crr. Ar.' 313). vyffh^h answers completely to the Arabic
1

^iyo

from 0 0 ^ 5 SO that

J r ) A "7<0"^" means

literally: "children of

those who are dead". But fll^tD* "Pleiades" is merely the Ethiopic pronunciation of LS^J. ( ) Just as in Arabic, EWALD, Gr. Ar? 314. ( ) With the exception of those which take the outer Plural formation.
4 3 (

139.

309

Nominal Stems of Tri-radical roots which have a long vowel after the second or third radical, inasmuch as by the laws of Sounds, such long vowels are equivalent to strong radicals in phonetic value. Sometimes, in obedience to laws farther to be explained, the Fem. J* is attached, in connection with which the fundamental rule generally holds good, that Nominal Stems which have *|* in the Singular, seldom have it in the Plural. On the accentuation (./.
TKUMPP, p. 543 sq. 1. First then, let us consider Collective Formations hound ^coiueuveto various kinds of Singular types, ivhicli proceed from Nominal ". * Stems of Multiliteral Roots: rt"}rtA "chain", (WrtA (sandsd); Nominal
f0 f m

Aahiiat- "ladder', AVtlOh, flvfl7 "a fur-coat", mfl"J; "J 2mmli 7A "virgin", i "7A; + * T * \ "fox", fcTX A, but ^ - ^ . A * -candela", fS'-?.A (the I being retained). Also from Singulars which are not yet supported by any passage:rt'P'T'A* 'i'^-^'i, 7*?"i ti- Farther, with ")*, from Singulars which do not have a Fem.-ending (especially words denoting persons, and Names of animals) we have: "Satan", fl^T"*"!*; i ' ^ l l A "ambassador", 'I-V-IIA-I* and -f-TnA; ma/l "lion", OT-flftV; o^i-a "scorpion", O ^Cfl'lh; OldC "sea-monster", tK-nC'V; "lip". hWCt and hVPC; +CW. "eye lash , ^ . " J n r Vice versa (^* of the Sing, being thrown off in the Plur.): 'fe'JHiVr' (and 'ktn'h) "lock of hair", feS"11?i: flA.^" "rocky district", ftP Ad- Also with "J", from Fem. Singular-forms: hAftf)')* "sheaf", hAftft^; m^A*)ri"l" "piece of money" "drachma", m i - A f h ^ (as well as m4>Arli); iVflfc-'J* "viper , AqXrt)*- [and AflJ?** Kebra Xag. 127 b lo rr.]. If the Singular-Stem has other terminations, c. g. a, i, they are thrown off in the Collective-form: "tent", M+C K'JftA* (.TttA.) "cymbal", RTfrA Farther, Nominal Stems which have come from Alultiliteral roots through abbreviation, and have become tri-radical, follow this formation: hW*A "stone", hVYjih (the Palatal-Guttural being separated from its it); Vih-fl "star", h'Ph 'frlh P*Clf "cock" and "hen", <PCU; "door" (V^m-itfD), -Wl-Oh; A.iV.ir
1 Root , h,

"night" ( / A A f ) , A,FA (JLJ); and the foreign word fl-Jltf"Sabbath". rtV'flfr- ft"}^ "ny, or "swarm of Hies" (for f f W } ^ ) retains f, to compensate, as it were, for the lost Tr:


2 Collective^Nomfnai
1

310

2. All Nominal Stems formed by means of Prefixes and belonging to Tri-radical Boots, follow this Collective formation, Nominal Stems having ft prefixed, however it may have originatedftl-fld "tear", ft?-nd; ft7fl"i "locust", ft^-flT; YxTi+fC "door", h^+K: And with Feminine-ending (Names indicating Persons, and Names of Animals):ftJJfhfl> "ancestor", ft"?^* (for h^ah+y, hl&W "mouse", ftTft^; h9<\h "God" (although itself a Collective-form, 136, 2). ft^YAh^- A theological term has been introduced from the Syriac through the Arabic (from J^oxo, Ar. PI. stance". (b) Nominal Stems having + as prefix (rare): ^ftJPC'lh "sign", +h9C\ "camp", (c) Nominal Stems in great number formed by prefixing ao. Participles and Nomina agentis, it is true, have mostly the outer Plural formation ( 132 /".), but sometimes also the inner, and indeed (being Personal-words) taking that form with + appended tfB^hG "counsellor", tfo^YYlC^; ah b<'} "prince", 00^"}+ ao+CTr "trumpeter", tfo^CVih ytl "joint-heir", tnKPCtl^ 0dCG "mischief-maker", ao^CC^', f \\o'}'} "judge", uoWi^. On the other hand ao+foffh "he who follows", "successor", forms aopfiitth without + . Names of localities also, of the type AC which mostly take the outer Plural, in accordance with 134, c, a,participate to some extent in this Collective formation: JPtfvJWl "temple" M ^ A x ) , tf^C'fl'Th VblR "base of a column", rn>^jpJ^. This form rules almost exclusively in the case of the remaining words which are formed by prefixing ao, 116; and then those Singular-stems, which have not the sign of the Feminine, generally take + in the Collective-form, especially Personal-words: aoAftVl "ambassador", tfnAftVrh; 0'}&.tl "spirit", tfnV^fl^; aoCT "key", 006,^+, <F/ft "antiphone", <w P/ ft*1h; "stool", GvilfLR- On the other hand we meet with ^chfifr "mother's lap", aoAxfy'i (Gen. 49,25); "7/hftft "a young one" ('lamb or kid' &c), ODAxifix, "VI&C "dwelling", <wr5"G; or with double form: tffl ^4 "lightning", <nflc4 and " 'i(\C "throne", 00+
D < v D

Stems yjz.; which, have Prefixes

( a _ C )

J*AJU'I ),

viz. ft^^JF* "essence", "sub-

140.

311

t l A "nail", &o.C). Feminine Singular-stems generally take the Masculine form in the Collective: 0Of*\cft "net", e' i lC; a&. PtW "jaw", aotx^hi, <*>0A^ "day", (from ^ O A ^ ) , <w*}A*lh "temptation", ao^liah (mandsew or mandsw )\ aoffiify "window", aofftioh, ao&fir^ "weight", tf^A<D; ^ f t A / l h "a talent", <riiA (makdly for makdley ) or <w>hA; ^ f t V h . ^ "mirror", a*>%(h>; 0 C1b 1r "herd"( ), ao<V>b$> (mard'y for mard'ey ). Very rarely do they take the Fern, form then, as in flGfl*fl'lr "net", <w^-*fl'fll" Oftener they have both forms side by side: <n>T O r h ^ "knife", <fl>flM|fh and <i>flMI/)rfh; and in the same way ero"} tyd't*, 'Pf^Ovfr- This occurs with special frequency when the Sing, has already both Masc. and fern, forms: *n'Hl<h and ao^\\^^ "region of the shoulder", CD^YlQ and ^^"Vl^'Th; in like manner "7Aft and l6% t "lock of a door"; <nfflDC and aof^OiC^ "carrying pole" &c. From Quinqueliteral and longer Stems: tfAA/h "joint", ^ A ^ A J f c ; t> (l'}$ "cithara", tmhStyah and O D A V * ^ ; tfD'JfnA A^* "curtain or veil", tfDT-m'PAd ^ ''"'Jfll'PAA'l*. 140. 3. JT^e same formation occurs with many Nominal 3. same Stems belonging to tri-radical roots, which have a long vowel after occurring the first or second radical or have a Vowel-termination, as well as y
ou a 6 e e e D i 2 6 e , , ; tn : n a n < w i t h
m a n

with those Stems which have been produced from Multiliterals abbreviation. The language, by inserting or attaching semivowels or by employing ft as a Stem-prefix, endeavours in various ways^owei to enlarge these Stems, which generally have too small a number ., r of firm letters to be capable of taking in the three syllables a-d-e, y* * the last of which must be a shut syllable. The choice of the means termination adopted in such a case is usually guided by the form of the Singular. * (a) I n words which have i or e after the second radical, being originally Infinitives or Descriptive-words, two vowels come into contact, when a is interpolated after the second radical and the i or e passes into e. I n that case the two vowels are first of all separated by means of the semivowel ( ) taken from the i or
a f t e r

Nom. Stems by of Tri-rad.

Bad

(a-c)

O OBp^P^Y ( ) OOQ^
3 2

"opponent", "enemy", and OD j*lpO'l* "counterpart"! Jforms OO^fyOh, 317. but with the 0* "bride" (VTjHD)

are to be conceived as Pluralia tantum. usually passing into 0D ( ) I t is the same in Arabic; EWALD, 'Gr.Ar.'

312

e; and then Oh is usually substituted for this in Ethiopic, in accordance with 41. Thus from <Drh/H "river" we have still (D*h pU+; from ' V n . f t ^ "sin", -T^nj&ft (Lev. 16,16 Note; Josh. 24,19); from JV^4^h "cake", with , as also in the Arabic word Hind "natural disposition" {^CJo from XJ L U J O ). On the other hand Oh has been inserted in all other cases: "lifluK'ih takes oftener the form "ViUHft; "iron", mahTf^ "iron tools"; +tlM "presbyter", +iiGhl\+. I n like manner Pdity, has o H h O and +pGhfy+ ("Minutes" Hexaem. p. 27, lsgg.). So too we have ft^flJ-d "dropped honey" (gJLa); flftfl>*d "performing of marvels" (gSj); and (I'hahC^ from -flrh,C "land". But Mliji "lord", which possesses a fourth firm letter in its prefixed ft, throws off the l without leaving a trace of i t : ftpftft^h ( 57). Similarly ftflh/h "testicle" ( 120) has ftflh^ [according to LUDOLF ] (and ftflh^Deut. 25,11). The plural form Q9 Oh'i+ "doorkeeper" also seems to belong to the Sing. 0ft; cf. DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 1022. "Words, having a or u after the second radical, follow the same formation. Thus faA* "neck" has the form \}tl0h? (and hAfl ^Jt), and 4 ?'3h "girdle" has +10^+, without even the interpolation of a in the first syllable. From I^U'lr* "field" comes 1^. Wi); from ^'flft^ "bread", "loaf" (Fern, of ^fl -U) -^fla^Tf. On the other hand 0*PC "blind" ("NJJ), with the second radical doubled, has the form OVa^C^ (Matt. 15,14 old ed.), and ftfrfld^
i l ,<

"finger" has hi\'(\(l

(gUol).

From the PI. (^pt

t m m

"seniores",

"principals" comes a new Collective-form & (D '}+ (as a designation of office). (&). Words which end in a or at, must first of all reduce this termination to 1 or iy , whether it has come from aw, dwt or is merely a feminine termination; but in Ethiopic ew or eiv is always employed instead and all the more readily, when,as in several of these words, a final radical it has fallen out( ). Thus AM
e e 2

(*) This is the form also which is adopted by the editor of the Eom.
N . T., TESFA-ZION [as is pointed out by LUDOLF in his 'Lex.
2
1

TR.]
a n (

( ) The corresponding Arabic formations in this case are ^ l i t i (JLxi, from J i

and i^Jti. I n j^U "ways" Lev. 26,22; Deut. 28,7&25;

140.

313

"tent" has the form A^AO>; AhV "sole of the foot", AVJflH; *Hl4 "shoulder-blade", -hhAlD*; (D&H "young man", with fem.ending <D4-ftfh a A ^ "shield", fDA''I"fl>- H - f l l "hide", "pelt", HflfrflH, "series", ft<Hh<D; %jbf\ "white", tfgah, A A / i "page" (of a book, askila Ace), AAJtfl*-; 7fl;J* "plate", "platter", Ifl^flK From yf*9"3 "stabbing-weapon", for which h**?'^' is also used, come jflop'JCU" and frptOh (cf. supra \}f\ff)*). But words which end in a formative e retain * or y in the Collective-form, without changing it into we; generally, however, they take the Fem.-ending at the same time: *7j^*i, "pitcher" forms l^df* (and 77AflK) together with 7 ^ ^ ^ and *7JT J h; while ACB "army", KC*B "beast", ghCI "ram", have A ^ ^ , fc^^, thfUX^. So too > ^ V T h " region of the neck" ("neck") is probably just a Collective form from 7*C*^ (cf. b^NJX),andft^J.'V.'t*"the region of the haunches", a Plur. in like manner from a lost Sing. RCi,. (c). Several other Stems take ft as a prefix, in order to possess four firm letters. Thus from p^t "ghost" "demon" comes ft-PTJ^; from - n d ^ "draught animals" (Y#a), Mbi\ and from hj&rt. "serpent", M i f | ^ (as well as hhj&ft^ 137,5,6), and in like manner K'^d-'lh "bowels", from a lost Sing. (cf.
e ,< ; 1 t n e

b w | and D^fi).

From *nd<p "young of the flock" comes

l

K")d*P, retaining the concluding d( ) (Hen. 86, 2). Curiously enough, several tri-radical Stems even, of the simplest formation, take this Collective-form( ): Yf\(i "rust in grain", h'i'tf'd and ftV "insects that injure the grain"; n*7A and 0*7d*h "sheep", frO 7A^ and K i n d ; fllA. and m A . ^ "goat", K"1A.5 ^9C "tiger" (besides hlVC'Y 137,5,6), M ^ C ^ ( ). Farther, fl)A^ "daughter" takes the form K'PAJ^"IV. A much simpler kind of Collective formation, which
2 3

Judges 5,6; 20, 32 (from ), a fem.-ending is attached (^) Cf. EWALD,

l

Gr. Ar.' 319 s^.

C) Cf. EWALD, Gr.
2
l

Ar:

319.

. of of ( ) Just as in the Arabic Jjof, \jy, EWALD, 318. ( ) These formations may be regarded as constituting a new Collective form taken from the most obvious Collective form, such as Y\^\i &c, just like ft^VAVl^ "gods", from KjFAh3

YvfiP

314

141,

rv. Traces however is now recognisable in Ethiopic only by a few remains, is collective produced by the use of Abstract terminations proper to the Fern. ^oxmation, w rp f h professional designation "artificer" contrived . . , by applying ( 133, a, Note), the Collective may be formed externally, as ft, J TMISM( * P )> termination fltf coming into the tionB proper place of yd, as Yhtt and h.V^. From "cake baked under smg " hot ashes" comes the Collective Jtfpjp (v. Gen. 18, 6, Note). I n particular the termination yd, iya ( 120), which has been derived from the relative pronoun, is employed for this purpose^): ft'JA'lh "woman" may, like 'fihtL "man", be itself used as a Collective; but when the Plural has to be expressed definitely, the forms t\i ft-fc^ and t\iti't'9 "women-folk" are used. I n like manner we have hiAhf "rings" (Ex. 35,10), and hCl? "Heathen" (from ftC*7 = h l E) Rom. 10,12 (old ed.). While a Proper name is held to be indeclinable, it may be raised to the Plural in outward form also by prefixingft/V= "those o f : f t f t : p&ftth "giants" Gen. 6,4; 14,5, although ^ C O A may be put in the Acc. .PCflrh, Gen. 10,8. So too hA flflfl1= "the Seven" (LUDOLF, 'Lex.'). (c) Plurals of Plurals. piurais 141. Besides the power of forming the Collectives which
n u s r o m t e
V

su

ra

D u t

a l s o

w i t n

t n e

t0

tn t

piuriis. h been described, Ethiopic possesses a peculiar aptitude for deriving, from Collectives produced by inner formation, new Plurals by means of outer, and in fact feminine, Plural-endings. Of such aptitude it has made so extensive a use, as to be in this matter unapproached by any other Semitic speech ( ). Every Collective, in fine, is capable of being regarded as a single compact notion; and when such a notion has to be marked as presenting itself in multiplex form, a new Plural of the same may readily be fashioned. A language, endowed with such an aptitude, enjoys a peculiar brevity in expression, and is enabled to render in a single word notions which in other tongues stand in need of several words for their description. The possible applications of this faculty are, however, manifold. 1. Several words in the Plural express only one single notion,
2

a v e

C ) Of. EWALD, <Gr. Ar: 323. ( ) On the Arabic cf. EWALD, 'Gr. Ar: 326.
2

315

and therefore admit of a new Plural in the sense of a number of these being present. To this class belong the conceptions brought forward in 131,2: h9*\Yl "God", Kj^AA "image", hp "!*} "measure", hC?9 "heaven", h Kh'Y "bowels", "writingappliances", aop'ftC "grave", -fhrC "sign", tm^CI "ladder" (from "ydCI "step") & c ; and accordingly we have the Plurals: h^Ml* "Gods", (cf. infra 5), Jtl^AA*, hrm?*, hC? !*, h 70<P 3h H ^ A ? ^ , a o ^ i ^ (Matt. 27, 52&53), -fhf^, ao'tCP'Y- So also A f l ^ "groves of trees", Deut. 28, 40, 42; and from 0R" "court", hfag: "farm-yards" and K d K ^ "several farm-yards" Josh. 16, 7 &c. 2. I n particular the Names of rivers, lakes, mountains, roads, localities, circles, doors, instruments, times, months, countries, and nations,may, with reference to the parts, of which they consist, stand in the first Plural but with the force of an ordinary Sing.; they then easily admit of a second Plur., often where the simple Plur. might have been expected: ft<PA*7 and h^PH"rivers", hd?"! and hoppfy "lakes" (Lev. 11, 36), flC and KJtfl^-^" "range of mountains", and <pS Pih "ways", "roads", hdWR and ftA'P/J^ "seats at an assembly" ('circles') Matt. 23,6.Also hR^t and hKW'V "fortifications", hC^S^-H and KflJ-Kfl^ "ear-rings", hff*-?^ and ftfl^i-lh "bracelets", ODtROh and ao'iK'p^ "doors" (inasmuch as a door itself frequently consists of several parts), RVffA and ftVX'A'lh "cymbals", ooftfii^ and tfuAV'fe^lh "citharas", ao^t^Oh and an'y\^:\' "lamps", K U T J and M W r t " "times", hah&A and hOh^-Y "months", hlPf^ and M^ffr "tribes", hVtC and tiWb&'t "cities". I n many cases in which those second Plurals are employed, the underlying idea is, "in their various kinds", e. g. YiWl^ ^ "times", in their various kinds, such as'seasons of the year, years, months &c.'; Y\G***P$sY Hen. 8,1 "rings of every sort", &c. 3. Every Collective may be raised to the second Plural, with or without the accompaniment of flHV "much", "many", or Vf-A* "all", for the purpose of expressing Multiplicity, Multitude or Universality. Thus: h&V92*")r * tf'Ar^C) "all oxen"
0 tn L 0 tf ; 0 ,< ; 1 /

( ) [FLEMMING

reads in Hen. 8 7 , 4fiJ^A**** *;in 70,3 ft^hQA; and

TE,]

^fldA'lh

i n

5 3

> -

316

(Hen. 87,4), tf*fr* hthptft "all the districts", Gen. 13,10; tf-/K>: ftWtf* "all herbs together", Mark 4,32; hl ??^ "all the coverings of hair", Numb. 4,25; ft0<P4ih "all birds", Gen. 8,19; hKdh^ "all wars"; KMAJf "the nostrils of all the people", Numb. 11,20; ft7$d;Hh "every fountain" (Hen. 89,3); or ftft 1<L ftftAtf-'T*"myriads of myriad-masses" ('hundreds of millions'). 4. I f the Plural of an idea is already assignable to a single individual, the Plural of that Plural is formed, whenever it falls to be ascribed to several individuals. Thus, for example, a single man has h^fb^ "bowels", but several men have hWb'P'VHen. 70,3 reads: 'The angels took ft/hflA'f'O) "cords'", because each took ft/hQA (although in the corresponding passage 61, 1, only ftrhOA appears). For the same reason exactly, <w>fl#AH ) "tools" appears in Hen. 53, 3, 4. One "code of laws" is avKthd*' but "codes of laws" can be expressed by ffoftth^'fr : rhl pfy. Thus one may say HflJ\fl>*d ('a man of enchantments') "a wonder-worker", "conjuror", but in the Plural ft A flfifl*" }"^ quite as well as ftA ' flH#Wk5. A distinction must be drawn between the cases which have been named, and cases like the following; when, for instance, f^^Tr "principals" and Ylt* ^ "kings" enter upon a second Plural for the purpose merely of denoting the dignity still more specially, as in A^V'Th and ti\^Wi^T, hit*$*'t* \ or when external Plural-endings, either masculine or feminine, are annexed to a Collective-form of a Personal-word, simply to. distinguish the gender more definitely. Thus if one means to use with more precision the word tfo'Jft'fl (from "YdfWl) i. e. "widowers" or "widows", he says tf Jf|fl7 "widowers", and <w>^ftfl^ "widows"; and so too 0 }*t*(\'} "watchmen". The termination at is also appended to ft'PA.K" "daughters", making ft'PAI'lh to indicate the gender more exactly. The formation of this second Plural is effected regularly by appending the termination at (seldom an), and is therefore an outer form; it is only in the case of ft jPAVl and A ^ ' J that the new Plural takes the inner form ( ). "The ending at is also com33 l ; 1 1 1 3 < Dt 2

(*) [See Note on p. 315. TR.] ( ) Irregular forms, influenced by Ambaric are found in tfD^P/h*!*,
2

142.

317

monly applied externally to Collective Stems which end in the Fern. YxMV ^, ftAU?;H"; hut when the Collective Stem ends in Ut, the form wot is preferred to tt, although the former is not absolutely binding ( 133, b,a):hl(h%r, h^*?^; ao*$
0

I I I . F O R M A T I O N OF CASES. 142. The various relations, upon which a Noun may enter i. The in the course of a sentence, commonly called Cases , are ^"^a*" represented in Ethiopic, just as in Semitic languages generally, vocative, only by a small number of special formations. A noun takes its place in a sentence, either without being dependent,in other words as Subject,or as dependent, whether on a Verb as Object, or on another noun as a Genitive. On these three leading positions, assumable by a Noun in the sentence, rest the Cases which are possible in Semitic languages generally, and which in Arabic, the most perfect of these languages in this respect,have received the impress of special Forms. These Cases are: the Nominative, which may also be regarded as including a second species of the independent Noun, viz. the Noun when used in address, or the Vocative-, the Accusative; and the Genitive. A l l those farther relations of a Noun in the Sentence, which are indicated in other languages by various other Case-forms, must in the Semitic tongue be either expressed with the help of Prepositions,in particular the Dative by means of the Preposition A ( 164),or made up for by a wider application of the relational powers inherent in the Accusative and Genitive. But even these four Cases, which alone are possible in Semitic, have been by no means completely developed in all Semitic languages; and in Ethiopic some of these Cases have received only a partial development ( ).
2

1. The Nominative, as the Subject-Case, has by way of antithesis the Accusative as the Object-Case. As Subject-Case it
( ) A remarkable form is the irregular }\l0*''^i ^f\'t'
x a

(LUDOLF, 'LexJ

col. 274) which LUDOLF derives from "TftfD^^^y. [V. also, on a few Plur.Plur. Forms not yet registered in the Lexicon, Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X V I I I . ] ( ) I n ZDMG X X X I V , p. 758 HAUPT very properly opposes the view put forward by HOMMBL,that the original Semitic had a distinction of Oases.
2

318

142.

is without relation; while the Casus obliquus invariably involves a relation to some word on which it depends. Originally the unrelated Case was not denoted in Semitic languages by any special formO; but the pure Nominal Stem, affected only by gender and number, was able to take its place in a sentence at once, as independent word, when that was called for. Northern Semitic tongues, at least, have remained at this stage. Arabic, however, has advanced a step. As i t denoted the dependent character of the Object by a termination affixed to the Nominal Stem, so it denoted also the circumstance of independence by terminations ( ). Ethiopic in this matter rather sides with the Northern Semitic. But at all events it exhibits in the greater number of Nominal Stems a different vowel-ending for the independent Case from that of the Object-Case, and thus in a certain sense shows a Nominativeending contrasted with the: Accusative-ending. I n the department of the Pronouns the Personal Pronoun in the independent Case has the ending t*="he", for the masculine gender, and ? = "she", for the Feminine. The same thing is found too in several other words, particularly in the Numerals, e. g. hthfy. "one" (OT.), ftjfrfc "one" (/".). Now, seeing that Arabic also takes u as the termination of the Nominative of a Noun, and that a like phenomenon presents itself in kindred languages ( ), and that farther it is to be assumed, in accordance with phonetic laws ( 38), that Ethiopic Nominal-Stems also ended at one time in vowels, and that some other vowel-ending must thus have existed wherever the vowelending of the Accusative was wanting,we are brought to the supposition that in Ethiopic also, those Nouns which now end in the third radical, had once a vowel-ending in the independent Case. Various traces,chiefly in the written character, indicate that this ending was the short indeterminate e(*). The fundamental antithesis between Subject-Case and Object-Case was thus at one time also signified in most instances by contrasted terminations. But Ethiopic seems never to have made any attempt to denote in addition, by means of different vowel-endings, the other contrast which
2 3

O V . EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr? 202, a. ( ) Exactly as the relations of the verb are, or were, denoted by the kind of vowels which form the terminations. ( ) V . EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.' p. 450, Note 1.
2 3

(*) Otherwise BARTH, Z D M G X L V I , p.

685.

319

obtains between Nominative and Genitive: it was Arabic alone that took this forward step. The one termination e was charged in Ethiopic with signifying both the Noun in its independent condition and the Noun as depending upon another Noun. I n this way any specific meaning in that e as a mark of the Nominative was taken from it. Besides, the entire development of vowel-expression tended to render the short e more and more fugitive, and in certain circumstances to oust it altogether ( 37 sq.); and therefore, in the end, Ethiopic completely gave up marking the Noun in a merely general way, and as a consequence the Nominative, by any vowel-ending,while on the other hand it continued regularly to mark the Accusative. I t was only in certain cases, viz. those in which the demand was enforced by syllabic structure or by the phonetic character of the last radical, that the e o f the Nominative-Genitive had to be more tenaciously retained, as has been pointed out in detail in 38. And if even the Nominative is not outwardly marked, still less is the Vocative, which does not present so direct an antithesis to any Case, as the Nominative does to the Accusative. The Nominal Stem, as a rule, suffices for the Noun in address. And yet Ethiopic from another side has made a start in the independent development of a Vocative. Just as in other languages, the Vocative may here also be indicated outwardly by the apposition of an interjection,the accented (TEUMPP, p. 544) particle ( 61), e. 9- hl'f\C'-'%C " ( 0 ) Thou good servant!" Luke 19,17; hhttl " 0 my wives!" Gen. 4,23; K ^ O ^ A J t 6fc")r " 0 perverse generation!" Luke 9,41; J t M l * "Thou fool!" Luke 12,20; 7rt "O So-and-so!". I n Ethiopic a farther step has been taken, and Yx has been appended to the Noun (*), and a beginning made of a true Case-form. This kind of Vocative-form may at one time have been more extensively used in the language, but it is now confined to a few words which are frequently employed in the Vocative. The aspirate then regularly falls away from \\ ( 47) ( ).
2

( ) Just as other Oases, in Semitic and other languages, have originated in the attachment of short words, chiefly from Prepositions or Pronouns. ( ) That the relation of the Construct State is not affected by this form is maintained by LUDOLF, 'Gr.' 111,7, appeal being made to Ps. 83,1&4;
2

320

143.

Thus we still frequently meet with ft*7ltft "Lord!", e. g. in Ps. 8,1; Matt. 7 , 2 1 ; ft<p (Org.) and ft<K* "mother!"; flftrt-f. "woman!" John 4,21; 20,13 & 15. How largely ft in this combination has parted with any emphatic meaning which it had( ), is evidenced by the fact that now and then a second ft is prefixed to a Vocative which has been formed in this way: h'H'hti^ " 0 woman!" John 2 , 4 ; Matt. 15,28; cf. PEAETOEIUS , ZDMG X L V I I , p. 388 sq. Besides, it is only the word ftfl "father", which possesses a special Vocative ftfl (Gen. 27,18; 22,7; Matt. 11,25; Luke 15,18,
x

>

- -

T h e

21 &c),probably an Accusative (as in the Arabic LJ ), since the Accusative of ftfl, at least before Suff. Pronouns, has still the form ftfl ( 154) ( ). I n the large majority of cases, however, even in Ethiopic, the Vocative is expressed by the pure Nominal Stem: MIC* ftfc "wicked servant!" Matt. 1 8 , 3 2 ; 25,26. S 143. 2. The Accusative. Of the ancient antithetic markings
2

Accusative: usual

of the Nominative and the Accusative, Ethiopic has retained and w^en^uch carried on the latter at least. I n contrast to the e of the NominaMarking tive-Genitive, the Accusative was denoted by a final a, both in exhibited, the department of the Pronouns and in that of the true Nouns. In this respect Ethiopic completely agrees with Arabic. But this a, in certain cases, takes the fuller form V ha\ and, when everything is duly considered, there cannot remain a doubt that y is the ground-form, of which a is only a truncated remnant. This is an impersonal demonstrative particle ( 62) with the force of "here" or "there" ( ), and in origin it is certainly identical with the Hebrew n of direction. I t thus indicates primarily direction towards an object,towards which the action is directed as being its peculiar object: h^&d "flftA.*!" " l ( direction
3 n e v e s m t n e

but in his own edition of the Psalms he has printed, not ft^H^ft s but ft7H.ft * AT [ft*7ltft
!

bowever, appears in the "Book

of the Mysteries of Heaven and Earth" (ed. J . PEEBUCHON, Paris 1903), p. 9, 1. 1; cf. also PEAETORIUS, ZDMG L V I I I , p. 487.] O [On the farther development of this ending o, cf. NOLDEKE, Beitr. z. Semit. Spr.\ p. 72 and Note 3.]
i

()
3

Cf., besides,

[and NOLDEKE, 1. c. p.

71.]

( ) Of like meaning are the similarly enclitic and the affixes % and *g ( 160) derived from another demonstrative root; the Amharic Accusativesign en proceeds from \ .

 143.

321

of) a woman". And this explains at once not only the appropriateness of such marking to indicate the subordination of an Object to a transitive verb, but also the peculiar use of the Accusative (in Semitic generally, and therefore in Ethiopic) for relations, which in other languages are expressed by other Cases. The Accusative is employed here, like the Locative in Sanskrit, in spacereference to express continuance in a place or motion towards a place, in time-reference to reply to the question'When?' or 'How long?', and in fine to indicate any reference whatever in a statement, e. 9- "f"! A f l f l ' h 7K "she was veiled,as to her face" (v. 174 sqq.). These various meanings of the Accusative are fully explained by the fundamental signification of the particle y. The following details regarding the Accusative-formation fall to be noticed. The original form of the Affix y, which invariably takes the accent (TKIJMPP, p. 544), still appears in Proper names pretty regularly. To be sure it is not absolutely necessary for a Proper name to take the sign of the Accusative, in order to be turned into that Case, for, precisely as being a Proper Name, it is accounted fixed and indeclinable and never enters upon the Construct State, and is thus enabled to dispense with the sign of the Accusative. Indeed in the majority of cases occurring in existing Manuscripts, the Accusative-marking of Proper Names is wanting, especially when the Accusative is easily recognised as such from the context, e. g. Josh. 22,23; 24,4. But when a sign does make its appearance, it is always ha (never a) ( ), because it is not so closely knit to the Stem as is the form a, but is more externally attached, and also because it does not alter the ground-form of a Name which ends in a vowel. Above all, in the case of Compound Names,which are very common in Ethiopic, this more external attachment of the sign is altogether necessary. Thus: J&lh/jy "Judah" (Acc.)
! !

Matt. 1,2; H C K ' ^ C W ; MVLh-thJCf ] &-fl i Ifj &W. For numerous instances of Proper Names in the Accusative, with and without y, v. Matt. 1, Gen. 4. This y, so applied, denotes farther all the relations which are otherwise expressed by ttje Accusative, e-9- fli* Arfb9y "to Bethlehem" Matt. 2,8; but they may also be conveyed without y, e. g. Dfl<CJ% s 4*CVU ? "and when he came
! , ia

( ) [And yet a seems to occur in the Kebra Nag., p. 12 (Note 14). where in four MSS. the Acc. of VJR "India" is given as tflA-] 21

322

to Capernaum" Matt. 8,5. y is frequently met with.in poetry, attached to words even which have the A of direction prefixed to them: AA9 ?W1A A J b C P A P W 4A.fl (LUDOLF, 'Or.').But even in appellative Nouns this y appears, although very rarely, instead of the usual a, e. g. ")Ay "the cave" (Epist. Zar'a-Jacob, in LUDOLF'S 'Comm.'); cf. also hid*'/Moreover it is still preserved as a (without the breathing) in a few words used adverbially, 163. The sign of the Accusative is usually attached to appellative Nouns (Substantives, Adjectives, Infinitives) as an unaccented a( ) (cf. TEUMPP, p. 544 sq.), both in Singular and Plural forms. "When the word ends in a consonant, after parting with the e of the Nom.-Gen., a is simply annexed: T'T-/*' "king", ttiv, Plur. >7 / * ^ ; so with Kfl "father" (Matt. 3,9; 15,4); dtp "precious stone", dfk, "brother", ft>, Gen. 43,6 & 7, or K1<D Gen. 24,29. Words which have a in the last syllable, lengthened by the influence of an Aspirate, retain this a in the Accusative, e. g. *l"lft "want", Acc. *7"lK- But when the Stem ends in a vowel, a distinction has to be made between e, o, a on the one hand and i, u on the other. With e, 6, a the Accusative sign does not combine in the form y as might have been expected, but a blends with these vowels into e, o, a, whatever their origin may have been ( 39). Forms like fl^H^ "cithara", R1 flower", K M "beast", "army", 0(1 "dew", 7AC "carved work" are the same in the Accusative as in the Nominative; and possible ambiguities may have to be avoided by a periphrasis of the Accusative with the help of a Suff. Pron. and a following A ( 172). There are no Nominal Stems ending in u. When u does occur, e. g. in Vf*A* "all", or in Krh-S "one" (m.), it is of Pronominal origin; and these words accordingly form their Accusative after the manner of Pronouns (157 sq.). Of words ending in I, those in which I is a Suffix Pron., like Kffi"fc "one (/".)", also fall under the rules of the Pronouns ( 158). But, over and above, there are many other Stems which end in a radical I (e. g. tnQ "fruitful"), or in a^formative i (e. g. fllA* "goat" for fliA.J&), or in the Adjective-ending I: I t is the rule for these not to harden the I into y, but to turn the i-a of the Acc. into its equivalent e, in accordance
x

( ) There is a special reason for the length of the a in the Accusatives of several words, before Suffix Pronouns ( 154).

323

with 40: HhfL " a n " takes the form *nK&; R-fl^ s tf'^'B Gen. 10,30; thWB* 'flhfi* Gen. 49,15. m A , also forms mA; and only in cases in which l alternates still with ey ( 51), as in <n><pc. and tn>td, tfhv and <w>hA.> flrhC and flduS, is the Accusative-form tfCf, ^flAP flrhGP the usual one, although the other is not impossible. Alongside of this,' the usual Accusative-form with the majority of Nominal Stems, cases occur, in which the form is abandoned, or is not exhibited. The discussion of these cases properly belongs to the Syntax, but still it seems more to the purpose to bring them together at this stage. 1. When the Accusative-construction is continued through several members of a sentence, it is now and then parted with in the later members, after the Accusative has been indicated in the first member of the series, or in the opening members, e. g. Numb. 19,16; Hen. 22,1( ), or in the case of a word which is set in apposition to the Accusative, as in Ex. 31,18( ). 2. When the Accusative is definitely determined by means of a word introduced by H, whether this be a mark of the Genitive, or the Relative, the form of the Accusative-relation may on that account be renounced, e. g. Ex. 35,22 (F. H.) hah?A: fl)1rf"A- * ACT HflJC* (for <Dtf -/f: rtC; Numb. 8,8 AU? * fl*J<Hh
e J 2

(for AU<w>); Numb. 19,10 & 21 frfr-} s HA*JA0 (for fa% e. g. Gen. 17,7) ( ). This is explained by the Attraction of the Noun, very common in Ethiopic, effected by the Relative pronoun; and if H as Genitive-sign exercises the same influence, this is simply the result of the very lively consciousness, possessed by the language, of the original relative-force of the Genitive-sign ( ). 3. Finally, when Suffix Pronouns are attached to the Accusative, the Accusativemarking, in certain cases, gets lost. The same thing occurs when an Accusative is found in the construct state ( 144).
3 4

( ) [FLEMMINO'S reading here has the Acc.-construction throughout, TR.] ( ) On the phrase A A ^
2

MAKN'S 'Lex. col. 925; cf. also

3

?i0 AA 'lh or UlC* h9OlC

fc^AA^:
Sir. 36,31.

A A ^ v.

DILL-

( ) Cf. also Chrest. p. 52, line 5 ; PLATT, Didasc. 43,9 &c. (KOOTG, p. 70);
also LUDOLF, Gr:
4
l

V I , 2, 13.

( ) On the other hand it is not to be considered a case in point, that after h<M "like" or "as", the Acc. can never stand,a circumstance which LTJDOLF found so very remarkable (e.g. Ps. 37,21; Cant. 8,6); for \\0O is a Prep. and always stands in the Constr. St. with reference to what follows. 21*

324

144.

3. The 144. 3. To express the third of the possible relations, viz. Edition- * lenitive relation, or,to use more general language, the () The relation of subordination of one noun to another, Ethiopic makes sute nse of that device which of old has been the common property of all Semitic tongues,the so-called Construct State. Although this Construct State does correspond in many cases to the Genitive relation of other languages, it is capable of a much wider and more multiform signification. I t may indicate every possible form of subordination of one noun to another, denoted in Non-Semitic languages by means of Prepositions or Compounds. But besides the Construct State, Ethiopic makes use of still other expedients, to indicate the Genitive relation, in the narrower sense of the expression. (a) The Construct State. The oldest Semitic has a device for subordinating one Noun to another, which is not unknown even to the Indo-European tongues. I t is a kind of combination or apposition of words, in which the more general idea, requiring to be more precisely determined, is placed before a special and determining idea, associating itself therewith and subordinating it. The meaning and force of this condition lie just in the close association of the two words, and in the emphatic accent assumed by the subordinate word as being the determining element, just as if our own words 'Landlord', 'Householder' were written 'Lord-Land', 'HolderHouse', meaning 'Lord of the land', 'Holder of the house'. NorthSemitic farther shows that by merely uttering the two words more closely together, and at the same time accentuating the last, and thereby of course pronouncing the first as short as possible, this relation is established. But a relative particle may also be inserted between the two words, expressly announcing the relativity which obtains between the two. This is the variety of the Construct State formation which appears in Old Hebrew,in the so called 'binding vowel' of the Constr. St., and it is this variety which has become the predominating one in Ethiopic. But the particle of relativity is not prefixed to the second (or determining) word, as in Amharic, nor affixed thereto, as in Arabic,by which latter proceeding the second word would be reduced to an ordinary Genitive, and the necessity perhaps removed for placing the two words together at all. The particle is, on the contrary, attached to the first word,the word which is to be determined,
n e
C < U C t

144.

325

and marks it as having a relation to a second and immediately following word, so that the arrangement of the two words, in the order of succession thus marked, continues to be an absolutely necessary one. This particle then, which is appended like a termination to the subordinating word, in the case of such a pair, that is to say, the Ending of the Construct State, in Ethiopic is invariably a. Now such a termination coincides externally with the termination of the Accusative, but it is self-evident that it cannot be originally identical therewith, as it expresses something entirely different, and is appended, not to what is subordinated, but to what subordinates. Before Pronouns, which are subordinated as Suffixes to a Construct State, this Ending takes the form of % ( 153) and in several cases the still fuller form of ia ( 150). And when it is farther considered that even in Hebrew an l appears as the binding-vowel of the Constr. St., and that Amharic expresses the Genitive by prefixing the relative particle f (corresponding to the Ethiopic If),the inference is unhesitatingly drawn, that the termination a is merely an abbreviation of the fuller ia, and that ia itself means nothing other than "theof" or "who", "which" and is developed from an original i, just as is H from H ( 65). For example, 'f'i'fr: fl*|h means originally: "doors which house", "doors relating tohouse", "doors of a house" or "house-doors"^). But the termination ia did not become e, as it might have done, according to Ethiopic phonetic rules,for there was no need to establish a long vowel dwelling on the Tone between the two closely united words, but as a rule it was curtailed into the shorter a. I n many cases, however, as we shall see, e has been maintained ( 167), but in those cases it is perhaps of a different origin. An Ethiopic word then, whether Sing, or Plur., is put in the Constr. St. by attaching to it the unaccented (TEUMPP, p. 544) termination a. Accordingly when such a word enters upon the Constr. St., its termination is undistinguishable from that of the Accusative,
( ) TEUMPP adheres to the above explanation of the termination a (pp. 544, N. 1; 557, N. 1): v. on the other hand HALEVY, 'Journ. as.' V I I , 1, p. 453sqq.; and PKAETORIUS ZDMG X X V I , p. 433; X X V I I , p. 643. PRAETORIUS seems to be,right in emphasising (Amh. Spr., p. 126) the fact that the Amharic p cited by us is itself only a weakened form (through *Jf) of HX

326

145.

g- &h(R i Rrh^'J" rhTMl "he sent the learned men of the nation". The rules for attaching it are the same as for the a of the Accusative ( 143). To words ending in a consonant a is simply annexed: e. g. *w*}7/>f i fl*^^ "kingdom of heaven" (from < w > " J Iffy; %th 't' rhU 'fl "the learned men of the nation" (from ft*h<P'*!*); M l 9 "avenger of blood" (from ft-fl "father") ( ). I t is to be noticed that words ending in an Aspirate and having a in the last syllable retain this a in the Constr. St., as ^"Jft, ^"lft; Ad Ad, AdAO- I n the case of words which end in a, e, 6, a disappears in these vowels: h'JflA: 1/59 "beasts of the field", ^ft -f ' Mli^ "course of a woman", %IU s *f AA A W "time of the third hour". Words in u, like Yf'A*, hrhJ?., do not admit of any Constr. St. at all ( 157). With words in i, a blends with % into e, following the rules given in 143:-flhrt. "man" forms I t t r t , ; 7fl<5, 7 * U , rhll! JPft^ "centurion" ( R prefect, rhfl,, of a hundred') Matt. 8,5: but trotl-fild has <w>JH"?|CP, and in like manner <*7^ "seer" has Alongside of these, and the like are also possible at least, although on the other hand, in the most ancient times, such a form even as *flhftf seems to have been in use( ). There is no Constr. St. from Proper names.On the significations of this Constr. St. relation, see 184. Periphrastic 145. (b) Periphrastic indication of the Genitive. The exof7he P i f the Genitive by means of the Constr. St. always deGenitive raands that the two words,the word to be determined and the prefixing determining one,be ranked immediately together: no third, ex^ ' traneous word, as for instance an adjective, can ever come benetermin- tween the two ( ); for otherwise the ordered combination, which is the ing Word. very condition of the Constr. St.-relation, would be destroyed. I n this way the language was much hampered in the arrangement of its words. Besides, there are many words, such as Proper names, which do not admit of any Constr. St.; and there are others, like those which end in a, e, o, which present no difference in form whether they are in the Constr. St. or in the Absolute St. Finally, the marking of the Accusative cannot be distinguished from that of the Constr. St., in those cases in which the word to be put in
t x 1 2
l n n

r e s s

0 1 1

E e L

r o n

(*) I t is not accurate for LUDOLF to say that ftfl, J T V*, ( ) V . the 'RUPPBLL Inscriptions', 1 , 1 ; I I , 2.
2 3

d\9> f\Q

must indicate the Constr. St. circuitously by means of Suff. Pron. and A( ) [ V . Note to 185. TB.}

 145.

327

the Constr. St. enters at the same time upon the Accusative. Accordingly it is not to be wondered at, that this, the oldest method of denoting the Genitive relation, was found insufficient for the language, and that a new method was contrived, conducing to clearness of expression and freedom in the arrangement of words. This new denotation rests, it is true, upon the method of indicating the Genitive relation found in the Ethiopic Construct State. Just as in that case, recourse here is had to a Relative Pronoun to indicate the relativity of the situation. But there is this great difference between the old and the new method, that in the latter there is no necessary apposition of the words, and that accordingly the Relative Pron. is not affixed to the word which has to be determined or limited, but is prefixed to the determining one. The Relative Pron. which is employed for this purpose is not the more ancient f ( ), but the form which in later times became the common one, viz. ff( ),a circumstance which is itself a proof that the whole of this mode of marking is of secondary origin. The force of this Genitive-marking cannot be attended with any doubt: MlAA * WGiGty is " crown-which-gold" or "crown-related to-gold", that is "crown of gold" or "golden crown"; X*7H?i Hfl.^ "lord-relative to-house", "lord of the house". The position taken in the sentence by a Genitive formed in this way is completely unfettered. The expression may run H<DC4f M l A A quite as well as M l A. A HfflCfc or M l A . A 0flj& ' li<DC4*- But the vigorous life, which the original relative meaning of this Genitive sign still exhibits in the language, is witnessed to, not only by the proof incidentally brought forward towards the close of 143, but by the circumstance that this sign may, just like the Relative Pron., assume the distinctions of Gender and Number. True, it is allowed and is by far the most usual practice, to denote the Genitive by Jf merely, even when the Noun on which it depends is feminine or stands in the Plural, e. g.fl*f** Adh9 - n^lhH "Bethlehem in Judah" Matt. 2,1, or Mid *
x 2 s :

C) "Which, is still retained in Amharic for this purpose. ( ) Ethiopic in this usage agrees wholly with Aramaic, which employs
2

} for this purpose. HALEVY farther compares ^ j ; v. MORDTMANN, Z D M $ X X I V , p. 191 sq.|J is prefixed to the word, which it has to put in the Genitive, invariably without 'separating points' ( 147).

328

Hi'rhT'A Hfl*f" t\h/.'Ki\ "the lost sheep of the house of Israel" Matt. 15,24; but when the governing word is feminine, the feminine form ht't at least may take the place of H e. g. Mi- ?b$'(i "Maria Jacobi" Matt. 27,56; Of/Yd : M-Y' VITr "thine eye of the right side" ("thy right eye") Matt. 5, 29; M%K'hi* h Hlh'f\ih,C "the gate of the Lord" Ps. 117,19; and when the governing word is in the Plural, the Plural Genitive-sign hti may be used: h&A)9 ')r hfi * (D'h't* "the oxen of that farm" Hen. 89,5; h&dd i $(\&J\r : h \ld9 lr "the mountains of the murkinesses of Winter" Hen. 17, 7. This denotation of the Genitive by means of H has so completely gained the upper hand, that it has pretty much pushed aside another method which is possible, and which is in very frequent use in Hebrew, that namely which employs the preposition A (b), v. 186. On another possible method of indicating the Genitive, by means of a Pron. Suff. with following A? v. 172.
8 a a o!

B. PRONOUNS A N D NUMERALS.
I. PRONOUNS.
I.Pronouns:
_ 1 D m o n

Many peculiarities have been admitted and retained : * " i n the formation of the persons, numbers, genders and cases of Pronouns. Pronouns, which have never found admittance with Nominal Stems derived from Conceptional roots. 1. Demonstrative words developed into Personal Demonstratives (Pronomina Demonstrativa). (a) The Demonstrative word, readiest to hand, is U "this" (m.), 62, pronounced ze with a short, sharp utterance, and always accentuated (TEUMPP, p. 546). I n its first form (Nom.-Gen.) i t ends, like other Nominal Stems, in the short, indeterminate e. I t forms its Pern, with the feminine ending a ( 126) fl "this" (f.), and the Accusative with the usual Accusative-ending a.( 143): thus the Acc. masc. is JJ "this" (ace. m.), e. g. Ex. 20,1, and the Acc. fern. I | "this" (acc. f.), e. g. Matt. 17,9. This pronoun is still used pretty often in the Nominative, but not so often in the Accusative. As the particle is a very short one, it usually rests against the preceding or succeeding word, e. g. Ti/hU 'fl Matt. 15, 8; h^g, 'Mll /A'H Matt. 1 9 , 2 6 , Tftf-A- 1 3 , 5 4 ; AH 8 , 9 ; /HA 2 7 , 4 7 ; fl'h
146.

329

Gen. 43, 29; {PftAH : ^flJ-AJ?: Matt. 12, 41; n^ah&& 24,34; 1\\ 26,13; fl)7JtlV 21,4. Only very seldom is it separated from the following word by s as an independent word, as in Gen. 42, 28. Precisely on account of its shortness the unsatisfactory form of this word made itself felt in the language even in early times, and it was therefore combined with another demonstrative,with *[ ( 62), originally akin to H ; and as j is attached at the end of the combination, it takes the signs of gender and case. I t adopts the vowel u in the Nom. Masc, and in the Fern. r ( 65) = "he", "she": -f: "this" (m.), "this" (/".)( ). Instead of this u and i, a appears always in the Accusative of both genders, thus *\* "this" (ace. m. & f . ) . The compound in the Fern, is simply H*fc "this" (Nom.), Hf" "this" (Ace), e. g. Ruth 3,13. But in the Masc. instead of H i : , Hi*, the form becomes ( 58) UTrJp zentuQ) (Npm.), H'J'f- zdnta (Ace). Both elements of the compound are inflected. This longer form T/?ir, H"fc, M7*f", Hi* is much more frequently used than the other.
1

The plural of *tf, H is formed from another Demonstrative root, as happens too in the rest of the Semitic tongues, viz. al, la ( 62), and in fact by the combination of these two forms,so that in this way the notion of plurality is conveyed by "the (Sing.) + the (Sing.)"= Hhe (Plur.)", "these". The rendering in Ethiopic is Masc. ? IA *( ) J Fern. ftA (ellu, elld),forms which probably have been curtailed from longer forms ellum, ellom and ellan (v. infra). Both are used with considerable frequency. ft/fc in particular is very often used, e. g. Matt. 15,20 & 32; but occurs too, e. g. Matt. 5,19; Ps. 89,11; Hen. 22,3; 71,12. They have been too closely pruned towards the end, to be any longer capable of a special Acc.-form, and they are accordingly used very seldom indeed in the Accusative (e. g. ftft Hen. 37, 3). The Accusative is either indicated by Suffix Pronouns and A, or is expressed by means of the Compound form. The Fern. hfrTr is met with as well as M , e. g. G. Lai p. 55, line 20; p. 56, lines 4 & 1 9 ; p. 59, line 23.
3

( ) I am unable to agree with the explanation of this "fc given by

KONIG, p. 124. [Cy. now BROCKELMANN, ZDMG L V I I I , p. 5 2 1 ; FISCHER, ibid., p. 871 sq.; and BARTH Z D M G L I X , p. 161 sq.]

( ) This is also LTJDOLF'S accentuation; but see TRUMPP, p. 546. ( ) Corresponding most nearly to the Rabbinical
3

330

146.

Now just as the Singular Tf, tj is generally strengthened by the addition of "J:, so also is the Plural, by the application of - j * to the original forms, ft/V* and M:hA-'J'fo more rarely KA*7i* "these" (m.), hM*, more rarely M'J'fc "these" (/".) (*). I t is remarkable in this compound that the second member indicates no distinction either of number or gender, manifestly because, if the element were also to form a plural (f>tf *, <#*}, 148), the Stem would become too long; *fc in this case on the contrary abides in the Sing., and that with both genders, having the force of a strengthening "there": as it were "these there". I n the Accusative, inflection does not appear in the elementsftA***^hA'J* which have no longer a vowel-ending in which such inflection might become audible, but in the element - j : , which (ut supra) passes into 'I*: more rarely hlirli' "hos" (Hen. 93,2; Matt. 10,5; 13, 53, in the last passage, accompanying a feminine noun), frA'J'f" -"has" (Hen. 82,1; Ruth 3,17, et saepe). I n signification H, HTfP &c. always refers to what is at hand and well-known; and only when it is repeated, as in U"}*!* s AH "thisto that", can it denote on its second appearance what is at a greater distance. Both Masc. and Fern, may be used impersonally (i. e. as neuters); but the Masc. occurs much the more frequently in such a use. (&) I n order to form a Demonstrative which should point to what is more distant or unknown, the demonstrative pronoun, just described, was combined with the root ka, developed personally into kit ( 62). Such is the origin of the Masc. TfYl" seku( ) "this there", i. e. "that" (m.). Por the Pern., however, ku is not combined with H but with a feminine form ft'J'lh (ent) "this" (/".), derived from the root an ( 62), making VJ^Yb "that" (f.) (e. g. Hen. 85, 5), not VJ'Hl., VH has become rigid and admits of no distinction of gender or number. Even the differentiation of the Accusative is not common with ku, and when it does occur u takes refuge in the
D 2 a s

O rest,

ft*'>iv

1 4 8

) correspond exactly in form. For the

7h(\rTr
2

appears to have come from

JtA ?

i f'

fl*"?i'< ); influenced
s

,ov

by the following t. ( ) But according to TRUMPP, p. 547, zelcu.The particle A i sometimes inserted between the two elements:

TfAVb;

v. DILLMANN'S 'iear.' col. 1057,

line 1. [But contrast PEAETORIUS, 'Beitr. z. AssyW I , p. 26.]

146.

331

guttural, and Yl- becomes The Accusative Masculine has accordingly the form *W\\a (the first member remaining uninflected), Hen. 89,44, 51; Gen. 27,17 (Note); and the Accusative Feminine runs M^X*, Ki^fo and Mi'Xb (Frov. 15, 18). Seeing then that the concluding Vb has lost to some extent its susceptibility of inflection, this form of the pronoun was still farther combined, taking i n , as an additional element, *fs (v. supra under a). But instead of "HYKfowhich never occurs^),a shorter, dissyllabic form was used for the Masc, viz. UYf"i2 and U f a i : (zekuetu and zektu) "that" (w.), 3 6 ; and instead of ft'J'hYHfc, or in its shorter form M t*\}*fc, the form MPlniZ (entdkHl) "that" (/".) came into use for the Fern.,contrived by the insertion of a feminine a bearing the accent of the word (Mark 11,21; 14,25, et saepe). The Accusative is regularly formed also from the strengthened Mascform, thus: HYli* and 7J1nM* "that" (m. ace), e. g. Gen. 27,16; Lev. 1,8; Numb. 5,18 & 25; Josh. 21,40. KiPM as a fern. acc. for "that" has not yet been met with.
:

As hlr't' has no Plural, the Plural for both genders is formed from ella; and from the shorter form HVh? 2VJ*Hl the Plural is (m. &f.) ftAfr, while from the longer TiW"f2, ltii^*\l't it is (m.&f.) foMt"fc or ftAhi^ the fern. JvAhi* i also met with, Josh. 4,11. The f\ A in this compound has been deprived of its vowel-ending( ); and the doubling of the A has probably been also given up, if we must read elkuetu, elketu and not rather ellekuetu, ellektu. On the feminine use of ftAfr and ftAJni? v. for instance Matt. 25,7,8, 11; Hen. 9,8. ftAYt* n no longer form an Accusative, but there is taken from ftAh'fc the Accusative J t A h i " or ftAW"i"j e 9Ex. 34,4; Hen. 89,60. This plural is, besides, often replaced by
s 2 c a

ho^Tr-t:, ft"?"}*. With special reference to the signification of this word, it is to be noted that the forms Ufa*, ft'J'Mfl* &c., because they are used in pointing to the unknown, are employed also in the sense of an indefinite article, like "a", "any", when a speaker is introducing a new subject, known to him but as yet unknown to the hearer, e. g. Hen. 89,29,or for what is undetermined and yet
(*) For the passage cited by KONIG, p. 53, viz. 4 Esr. 11, 25, some farther examination of the Manuscript is recommended. ( ) Like V from nV.
2

332

147.

2. Relative and interrogative

is under a certain degree of limitation, like "the (person) concerned", "the (porat) vn question", e. g. Hen. 72,3, 5. I t is also used in a contemptuous sense, like iste, e. g. in Gen. 37,19. Neither a Demonstrative nor any other Pronoun can enter upon the Construct State. They may, however, appear as Genitives dependent upon words in the Constr. St., e. g. s Ufai* Gen. 9, 6 (v. 184), but they also frequently form their Genitive externally by means of the prefix ff. 147. 2. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. /^A rp^g demonstrative root TJ serves as Relative Pronoun Ethiopic, without any farther combination^), but it differs from the H which means "this", by its being always pronounced with a, as H "who" or "which" (m.); for the accentuation v. TEUMPP, p. 547. The corresponding Pern, does not take the form H (for a reason to be mentioned presently) but hi* "who", "which" (/".), derived from the Stem an, which also appears in fern, form as hi* in h1*\[*i 146, b. The Plural of both of these, without distinction of Gender, is K A (ella) "who", "which", derived from the Compound Pron. el-la, which is present also in hfc and ft AYb ( 146). When it is considered that these three forms end in a, and differ as Relatives from the corresponding Demonstrative-forms precisely by this ending, no doubt can remain that this a is responsible for the Relative force of these forms. Accordingly, since a already exists as an essential element in the Ground-form, no Accusativeform is admitted in these three words. Just as QfC* signifies both "gold" in the Accusative and "gold" also in the Ace' and Constr. St. together ( ), so fl, hi* hti may be employed directly as an Accusative. These Relatives may take the Genitive by subordinating themselves to some Construct State, as in *f\h(l.* H'P* "the wife of him who is dead", or by having prefixed to them the external mark of the Genitive, UHH "whose" (m.), Hhl* "whose" (/")> HKA "whose" (pi.).But just as in some other Semitic tongues the relative pronoun has become rigid and no longer susceptible
2 r s

Pronouns. LU

( ) Like J in Aramaic. ( ) [This is a somewhat obscure statement of the fact that (DC* or any ordinary Accusative-form, stands not only for the Accusative, but also for the Construct State, whether that Constr. St. happen to be Nominative, Genitive, or Accusative, TE.]
2

147.

333

of the distinctions of Gender and Number, so in Ethiopic the form U may be used not only for the Masc. Sing., but also for the Fern. Sing, and for the Masc. and Fern. Plural; and this use of H, as a general Relative-sign, is almost as common as the differentiation of Gender and Number, e. g. ftflfl)-: H i V ' f l h . s "the fathers who assembled in Nicaea"; "h^TfU ' H"^G hae quas elegerunt". This is particularly the usage, when the notion, referred to by the Relative Pron., is expressly set forth in the relative sentence itself by means of a Noun or a Suff. Pron.
u

[the Arabic JoLe], and when accordingly a general Relative-sign is all that is needed at the beginning of the sentence, e. g. Uf 'fr't' ilftA.'h "quae mortua est femina", or HftS^kV ex qua", ti&9 ilP0' "ex quibus". But of course ft"H" and ftA can never be employed as general Relative-signs I f the impersonal "that which" or "what" has to be expressed, H is usually employed for that purpose, not ft'H*, e. g. Hfr't ihOttl "that which moves" (Gen. 1, 24); tt?th<f>C "that which goes" (Ps. 8,8). The correlative notion, "he" ("he, who"), is included,as in all Semitic languages, in relatives like H, V J i * d ft A, whether these be in the Nom., Gen. or Acc. (v. 201); but the notion may be farther and specially brought out, i f any emphasis attaches to it, by means of fl>*fti: or some Dem. pron., e. g. in fD-fti: : H ^ f f f t "he, to wit, who has come". Farther \\ may express the notion contained in quicunque, "whosoever", e. g. Matt. 10,11, 14 (v. 201), or it is doubled,at least in the form H (though scarcely in the formsft"3"f*and ft A), in order to gain this meaning, thus:HH "whowho"="whosoever". The short particle H, like *H ( 146), almost always rests against another word,on rare occasions against a word that precedes it (a preposition), but usually against the word which comes next after it in the Relative sentence which it introduces.
u o a n

(b) The Interrogative as Substantive is co'frC) "Who?", compounded out of the Interrogative root ma ( 62) and the Demonstrative root na ( 62), which, by means of an appended u,
O In the sentence quoted by LTJDOLF,ft*7H.ftflrh.C ft^i" ' 4*C
s

?i".K*4>ft")"f*does not stand for H as relating to God, but is a Conu 2

>

junction=ft"JH, thus, Deus justitiae amans". ( ) On the accentuation v. TEUMPP, p. 547 sq.

334

147.

has a personal turn given it, in the form of nu (like tu, ku, 146). It is always used personally and substantively, exactly like our "Who?", e. g. h^'h "From whom?" (Chrest., p. 97, line 11), and it is employed farther as a rigid form, alike for the Fern. Sing, and for the Masc. and Fern. Plur., e. g. ao'h &tvk Hil "Who is this (/".)?" (Org.); < w > 7 - : fc^tf** "Who are ye?" (Ex. 10,8); <w>^ Gh'M^ ' "Who are these?" (Hen. 40,8); and only occasionally is it expressly put into the Plur. by prefixing ftA (in accordance with 140 ad fin.): ftA "*t* ' h 'r'P * K*1ffl*"f "Who are my brethren?" Matt. 12,48; Hebr. 3,16. But tn>y, like other pronouns ending in u, may form an Accusative: "Whom?" (e. g. den. 37,15; Josh. 24,15) C).
s ! ! s a M

This word oofy, as being the Personal Interrogative, must always be used, but only then, when enquiry is made after Persons. I n the case of things (masc. and fern.) recourse is had to an Interrogative with an Impersonal or Neuter formation, 9'i't "What?", fashioned from the Stem tro'y (which is also involved in troy-) with the Fem.-ending *J"( ). This jP'H" is (like found both in the grammatical Plural and the grammatical Fern., e. g. 97r'\' fr H"fc hfitl "What manner of transgression is this?" Josh. 22,16; 9'}* Ohh* ' hA- * 7x^1*C) "What manner of things are these?" Hen, 52,3; and it likewise regularly forms an Accusative FTft "What?" (Ace). Both iWt* and 9Tr't' are employed alike in Independent and Dependent Interrogation, e. g. Matt. 10,11; Hen. 12,1, and both are often strengthened with interrogative particles ( 198). In a negative sentence, whether it be a direct negative or an interrogative sentence with the force of a negative, both forms
2 , :

( ) In the Org. LUDOLF even found */ ( 143) combined with Isaiah 51,12
2

tfDj:

hftoO^b "Whom shall I call?". Cf. also Matt. 27,21, Roman Ed.;
var.Notice the change from OD*/ to # W Y "
m

Chrest. p. 104,

line 25 sq. and p. 105, lines 3,5. ( ) This *[* accordingly represents the neuter gender here, in the department of the Pronouns, where the Fem., when used with reference to persons, has or a for its sign. On this point and on the connection of * with the Indo-European Neuter-ending, v. EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.' 172, a and 173, a. reads here last two words, T E . ]
( ) [FLBMMING
3

J\ * 'i't* "ftA*?changing the order of the

0m

 147.

335

assume the signification of an Indefinite Pronoun = "any one who", "anything which" O ; and then with the help of ft^ they indicate the notion of "no one", "nothing",in which combination the enclitic particle % or Jr "also" may be applied, and fl) "and" be prefixed over and above, e. g. h h L "no man" Ex. 34,24; Matt. 8,28; wYvjaoYL "no one at all" (acc.) Matt. 17,8; (0^9 7 ^Jr "nothing whatever" Cantic. 4,7; I D f t . ^ ^ V L Matt. 27*12; (DKM 9 7 t "and not as anything", i. e. "as nothing", Ps. 38,7; h& Y A tn*Vl. "How can any one?" Matt. 12,29. Both forms may also fall into the Genitive by having a noun placed before them in the Constr. St., or externally by means of H,litf*^ "Whose?"; nf*!^.
intl t m 00 8 a :

Besides the neuter 9 7r'i another form also makes its appearance, viz. "What?" (On its origin cf. 63).. This particle is often used, it is true, as a mere Interjection or Exclamatory Adverb, "How!" "How much!" (e. g. *^.flH'Y- "How many are!" Ps. 3,1), but still it often also has the force of jp*}^- "What?", and in that case it is nearly always joined to the succeeding word: "ZUiiOiYiao* s ^704- "What will ye do (then)?" (v. 89), Hen. 101,2; "tUbM "What is that to us?" (lit. "What upon us?") Matt. 27,4; John 21,22; [tAflAP "What is that to me?" Kebra Nag. 84 b 18;] %ti^ * ID Ah "What have I to do with thee?" (lit. "What to me and to thee?") 1 Kings 17,18. But upon the whole this % is obsolete. (c) 0oY* at least cannot be used directly as an Adjective; on the contrary a periphrasis must be employed for that purpose, made up of < n > V - and J|. e. g. "What man is able?" ao*^: II>*V|ss rtilK H f t A i- e. "Who is the man that is able?". As to the Pronoun 9'}'l , although such a periphrasis is likewise employed with that interrogative, it may more readily take another noun in apposition ( 198). But, over and above these, the language has also a special Interrogative Adjective ( 63), ftjB( ) "Which?" or "What?" (adj.), "What sort of?", which has been developed into an Adjective out of an old Interrogative particle and takes numbers, genders and cases. So much of its original inflexibility,
m 2

(*) [The indefinite pronoun may also be expressed by H ( f- supra)

c

or by ftjR (v. end of this ), and occasionally also by flftrt. (cf. 173).] ( ) For the accentuation v. TRTJMPP, p. 548.
2

336

however, still adheres to it, that i t has no special form for the Fern. Sing., nor, so far as known hitherto, for the Masc. Plur.; and as in all probability i t is not nsed with reference to Persons, but is only connected with words descriptive of things and notions, the other possible forms suffice for all cases. Thus the usage in the Singular is fth>-- ^ ^ 1 1 "By what authority?" Matt. 21,24; M* " A t what hour?" Matt. 24,42; A f i : tf<PflA "For what time?" 1 Pet. 1,11; flVH s ft : -1m.ft^ "On account of what sin?" Hen. 21,4; and in the Plural \ \ $ * "Which?" (viz. ^fc HH^) Matt. 19,18. I n the Acc. Sing, i t takes the regular form ft?, e. g. h?W ' fl+ "What house?" Acts 7,49. Like a\* and jF ^-l* i t is used both in direct and in indirect interrogation, and like these too i t is often strengthened by enclitic Interrogative particles, particularly by ^ (Matt. 22, 36; Acts 7,49). On h as an Indefinite Pronoun = quicunque, qualiscunque, quilibet, quisquis cf. DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 795. sub (2).
i

3. Personal Pronouns:

148. 3. Personal Pronouns (Pronomina Personalia). (a) The Third Personal Pronoun, in accordance with 65, takes the form flHft'fc in the Masculine and J&ft'fc in the Femiine, "he", "she"C). Like the other personal pronouns, i t is originally Substantive in character, but i t is also used quite generally, just as the Hebrew fcMn( ), as an Adjective in the sense of ccvTog, "same" "even the", and also, in contrast with H and 'U'i'P for "that"( ), to indicate what is somewhat remote; or, when united to H or UlTb to express "this very", "that very", e.g. Hen. 89,9; 106,16; or when united to fl, "who" "even he who", e. g. HOh'h'ti "even he who" Matt. 10,4; Hen. 15,4 (pi). Now in so far as flHft'fs is a Substantive Pron., i t takes no independent Accusative-form (v. 149); but as an Adjective i t admits of an Accusative, which is contrived, just like that of TfJis and lffc> by
2 3

(a) The
Pens* pron.

( ) For the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 548 sq.

( ) In Tigre Hi*p, tt\* &c. have still retained the original n of S11;
cf. NLDEKE, ' W. Zeitschr. f. d. K. d. M: I V , p. 294 [and LITTMANN, 'Zeitschr. f. Ass.
1

X I I , p. 193]. V . also D. H . M L L E R , Z D M G X X X V I I , p. 349 and ZDMG

N . 2j 393, N . 2 . - O n the % in the formation of the Fem., v. BARTH,

X L V I , p. 685 sqq.; on the secondary form

3

v. KNIG, p. 119.

( ) Often in particular it takes^he place of the Plural of HV.

 148.

337

changing -J: or fc into *h, thus:<0-fti, ft-f-. The word has two forms of the Plural, according as emphasis is put on the first or the second member of the combination. I n the first of these cases, |J continues unchanged (as in 146), and only the elements I0*ft and f t are put in the Plural, which then takes the form ft<n-*>fj emUntu (originally umumtu) in the Masculine, and ft7 l+O) emdntuC) in the Feminine, like ft/K3"f:, Mt'PI f the emphasis rests upon the second element of the Compound, the Plural takes the form of | D - f t ^ < K - for the Masc, and flf-ft-^*} for the Fern. I n this case the element (D-ft is used without change for both genders, and thus comes to be employed in the Fern: instead of the f t of the Singular.In the Plural - ftf(where o seems to have sprung out of u by a farther broadening of the vowel), the final u is to be judged of, just as it is in ^je [ = Assyr. hmu] the side-form of jjja. I n (a formation from 4:, not from -fc, and sprung out of tu-dri) the final vowel a, which is possible according to the Arabic JJjo, has never been made use of, or, if so, has fallen away again. The distinction between these two forms of the Plural appears originally to have been that the first was used rather for the Pronoun as an Adjective, and the second for the Pronoun as a Substantive. But later usage has almost wholly obliterated this dis(

(*) "When it is considered that the Plurals formed from ^

are

#1;

from ^ , \f>in>* and \f

and from ftA, ftft7 and Ml,the

in-

ference drawn here, as well as in 132, is that one mode of forming the Plural is the lengthening of the Singular-ending combined with a nasal utterance. Accordingly a Plural urn is expected from the Sing. u (<0"ft), while from i (j&ft) no Plur. at all seems to have been formed. This um was then strengthened by the farther attachment of the Plural-ending dm, an, by which the Gender was denoted at the same time, and the first u was thereupon shortened: whence came umum, umdn, as in )l)3n, I^K', v?"**' The difference in gender in these Plural terminations is signified by a difference in the vowel, u marking the Masc, and a the Fern.,just as in U and y, while m is the Nasal corresponding to u, and n the corresponding one to a. V., however, TRUMPP, p. 548, N. 1, [who gives a very different account of the origin of the Form, TR.]
e e

( ) [PRAETORITTS, 'Aeth. Gr.\ apparently does not recognise the distinction noted here, for he marks the accents, p. 23 like TRUMPP, emuntti, we.'etomu, emdntu, we'eton. TR.] 22

338

tinction, and retained only one trace of it, in the preference shown for Qhhtf* * rather than for h ^ l * , whenever this Pron. represents the copula ( 194). There is no Accusative attached to either of the two forms of the Plural; when called for, it is usually indicated by a suff. Pron. followed by A O (b) The Second Personal Pronoun has the form hi* "thou" ( 65), and although no u makes its appearance in this Masculine form, as might have been expected according to 146 sqq., manifestly because ta itself is just an abbreviation from twa ,yet it is faced in the Feminine by the regular formation in I : hi*The Plural in the Masc. is h1*<**, in the Fern. h1*1hi *ao* is manifestly formed from h i * , after the analogy of the Plural. Ohh'f ' *' from G^h*, by tu becoming turn and, with the addition of u, tumu, the u of tu being finally shortened into e ( ), as the accent rests upon cm-( ). With less certainty can it be determined whether the Fern. *1 is formed from * or -fc,
110 , n

and whether accordingly it was at first ton or tin (cf. ^Jtif and
The First

(c) The First Person ftV " I " is of common gender. I t has

Pers. Pron.

arisen, it is true, like the Arabic LSI, out of an original "OiN ( 65) by casting off the last syllable "0; but the Suffix Pronoun jr ( 149) 0 shows that at one time a second form i } was known also in Ethiopic. The Plural has the form lltfi (nehna), and has come, like JjJsOJ and titf38> from ipiK by repeating the entire Stem anahanah ( " I " + " I " = "We"), and gradually shortening this double form. Formation 149. Formation of the Accusative and Genitive in the PerAccusative sonal Pronouns. The three Persons in these Pronouns, in GenMve Ethiopic just as in the rest of the Semitic languages,whatever Pers. Prons. in the be the gender or number, share in the peculiarity of no longer
O But cf. e. g. Numb. 21,25 [and Kebra Nag. 52 b 3.] ( ) According to KONIG, p. 120 this alteration depends upon a kind of Dissimilation. ( ) [But TRUMPP says, p. 549: "It has farther to be noticed particularly, about h1*Q* that the Tone does not rest upon hi: DILLMANN thinks, but upon emmu". PRAETORIUS, Aeth. GrS p. 23 also gives the pronunciation r-antemmu, TR.] ( ) Also the Amharic ftfc.
2 3
A S

 149.

339

possessing any independent Accusative-form. They cannot even, su/fix like the other Pronouns, be subordinated in their independent form to a Constr. St. O, nor do they admit of the prefix H by way of Genitive-sign. But In order to meet both cases of subordination,both that under the Verb, in the Accusative, and that under the Noun, in the Genitive,forms of the Pronouns specially abbreviated and sometimes greatly altered have been contrived, which are joined to the Yerb or Noun by way of attached particles (enclitica), and which are therefore usually called Pronomina Suffixa. These particles blend so completely with the word to which they adhere, that the entire combination has only one Accent. The same Suffixes are used for both kinds of Subordination; but, in the case of the First Pers. Sing., a somewhat shorter form has been developed for the Genitive-Suffix than for the Suffix of the Accusative,which is to be explained as being after all merely a result of the different method of attachment in the two cases. These appended forms of the Personal Pronoun are as follows ( ):(1) for the Third Pers. Sing. Masc. fr, Fern. V; Plural Masc. lfn-( ), Fern. iff. They are abbreviations ( 62) of >p, *h, f^'i, as forming seF r o n o u n a 2 3

cond member in <D*?i*f3, Ohti^ov* &c. To be sure, the form of the independent pronoun in the Fern. Sing, is JE-ft-fc and not JR?i^", I being more widely used in Ethiopic in general as the corresponding feminine to u in the department of the Pronouns. And yet H, confronting H , and ?i*3;J"fa*fc show that even here a was a possible vowel for the Fern. Pronoun. Besides, after was reduced to 0, a associated itself more readily than % with both forms, through the influence of the Aspirate. I n this respect Ethiopic coincides completely with the other Semitic languages. (2) The form for the Second Person Sing. Masc. is h, Fern. \%; Plural Masc. (kemmu), Fern. V)*} (ken). These forms too are just as clearly abbreviations offt"J"f*,ft*J"fc,&c, except that, in accordance with 65 and 101, t has in each case passed into k,a
,

(!) But cf. (Dh9^d

3

ahh-U : Wild*

164.

( ) For the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 549.

(2) That
Luke 2 , 4 ;
1

may stand for the Sing. U, cannot be proved from

Acts 1,20, as is the opinion of L U D O L F DE D I E ,

John 1 9 , 2 7 ;

'Critica Sacra , p. 226 on Is. 53,6, and of GESENIUS, 'Lehrgeb.'' p. 216,6, and SCHLOTTMANN, 'Inschrift Eschmunazars p. 111. 22*

340

149.

transition which here came about, all the more readily that the introductory syllable ht had fallen away, and that the retention of -f* (t) was no longer called for by the proximity of a dental Nasal. Farther, in Yin** which invariably has the accent, the long (kumu), although no longer retained, is yet made up for by the doubling of the m, just as in ^f, nan &c. (3) The Suff. Pron. of the First Person takes, in the Sing., the form as a Verbal Suffix, and f as a Nominal Suff.In the Plur. the Suffix is V for both Verb and Noun. Of these Suff.-forms \ is an abbreviation of h\a possible side-form of ( 148, c), while \ has been shortened from tfM- P however has been developed in the first place from I,which still frequently occurs in Ethiopie^),in the same way as ^ from ^__( ), specially to avoid confounding the Suff. Pron. with the binding-vowel % ( 153). The itself is manifestly nothing but an abbreviation of n,a very ancient abbreviation, however, common to the Semitic tongues, and to be explained in fine by the fact of the Suffixes aiming at a still closer union with the Noun than with the Verb. A l l the Suffixes thus start with a consonant, although the four forms of the Third Pers. easily part with their Aspirate. The forms h" ") h*}, \fn', \ft are always accentuated: the others have given up their accent, \, J, f, y, however, merely transferring it to the immediately preceding binding-vowel, whereas h? leave unchanged the accent of the word to which they are attached ( ). A special observation must be farther made, on the signification of these Suffixes,viz. that the Suffixes of the Third Pers. may refer to the Subject of the clause, and may thus have a reflexive meaning. This holds good with the Nominal Suffixes in particular, e. g. "for himself", Gen. 5,3; "V<2lF0* "behind them" (hinter sich), Gen. 9,23.It is not so common with the Verbal Suffixes, 151. I t is in the guise of these Suffix-forms then that th Personal Pronouns are usually appended to Verbs and Nouns, when they have to take the Accusative or the Genitive. (On the manner of
0 3 2

C) In A / J " ( 166), 0, ( 167), K*f{% ( 163). ( ) EWALD, 'Gr. Ar.' 97. ( ) [But cf, on the whole subject of the accentuation of the Suffix
2 3

Pronouns, TRUMPP, p. 549 sqq.

TR.]

 150.

341

attachment v. 151 sqq.). But seeing that cases may also occur, in which such attachment of the Pronoun is not available, or in which a special emphasis rests upon the Pronoun, which cannot be suitably expressed in the form and position it has as Suff. Pron., the language has fashioned some other special forms by means of which a Personal Pronoun may be placed independently and emphatically in the Accusative and Genitive, and even in the Nominative. 150. Expression of the Acc., Gen. and Nom. of a Personal Expression Pronoun, on which a special emphasis rests. Acc^G-en (a) "When a Personal Pronoun in the Accusative possesses special emphasis, by being either tacitly or expressly set over- p . against another Person, and by having on that ground ( 196) to ^ be brought into prominence by means of an independent and Emphasis emphatic position in the sentence, Ethiopic may employ in such Emphatic a case the expedient of combining a Pronominal Substantive, " . Pers. Pron. meaning "self" ySelbstheit], with the Genitive Suffixes of the Personal Pronouns, in the sense of "the self of me", i. e. "myself" &c. This Substantive is (v. 65) to which the Suff. Pronouns are applied^): Sing. Plural.
a n d N o m
r o n o n

h l c b

A c c

f o r m o f

st

Pers.

h ^ f

Pers.

\xfr

|f
>rd

K?K
Q

If
rd fm.

turn
tLfir**

fm W l h i ru^y

If

win.

This Accusative is in very frequent use, but it is available only when a certain emphasis is associated with the Pronoun; HtU^P t Q>Yl& "f*<DjflC AH ^VlDJ: "he who receiveth me, receiveth him that sent me" Matt. 10,40; tl\?0* ' flrh'fc'fr ^9M} "him only shalt thou worship" Matt. 4,10; ftC : }\ih ' W h " * "how much more then (clothe) you" Matt. 6,30; XufV "even i t " (the city Gazer) Josh. 16,10. A t the same time an impersonal use may be made of the Third Pers. Sing. Masc.: ftflfr- h / h t M l f c ' H?UA * J&'MK- "do not even the heathen the very same ?" Matt. 5,48. And such a Pronoun may even be more exactly
: m m !
0

C ) For the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 550.

342

Emphatic Gen.-form Pers. Pron.

determined by means of a Noun in the Accusative, employed like an Apposition: X\+9*i > 9K?d "even it, the land", i. e. "the land itself" Josh. 12,6; yf-A" s 0Kdid. "actually the whole book" Hen. 89,70. 77; ( H l ^ U " } : tf<PAA. & Taig fjjjMpaig kmmig Judith 4, 6; 6, 15; 8, 1. And in Hen. 67, 11 the pronoun even stands with an Accusative (orNom.) set in anticipation absolutely^): (DtU?0* "and to even it, the water", i. e. "and the very water". Cf. also <Dft AAA : JiAflA YuFlh Chrest. p. 29, line 25, and athb i hjh flA-fcfrh G-. A d . 40, 7. (&) I n order to form an emphatic, or even a merely indepenGenitive from the Personal Pronoun, the three forms of the Relative-sign, which is also the Genitive-sign, If. VJ-f ? KA> are combined in Ethiopic with the Genitive Suffixes of the three Persons, the binding vowel i-a ( 153) being interposed ( ).
J s a s

Sing- tnjit
m

H.Ml

H.MU

tlhlh

Xtf\1

Bur.

[Ki'th'i ftxkte 1&A.M

M-thba~ .fcl-fchttf . I M K l f f l ^ . M - f c h i T l txtsj\\\ htUMh hti.M haMi^ hbjhm hti+hira* hti.h\n

I n signification these forms have always the force of Possessive Adjectives: H.fcP, hlfth?, ftA.fr f mean "mine", [lit. 'who or which (m., f. sing., or pi.)of my possession'] referring respectively to possessions which belong to the Masc. Sing., the Fern. Sing., & the Plur. But they are never placed simply beside the Noun, like other adjectives (after the fashion of uxor tua), but demand always the Constr. St. in front of them, thus: flftA.'f* hl'fcMl "the wife of thine" i. e. "thy wife". When then they have to be dealt with as ordinary adjectives, they must once more be preceded by the Genitive-sign: flftA/)h ' HftlHlfth "the wife who is in or of thy possession". Thus: fl^^flJ'f*: ft7"fcfr U" "by his own lust" Jas. 1,14; HW*A- Ctf*A H.frlTl "in all their (f.) impurity" Hen. 10, 11; 41, 5 & 8; 63, 3; and in A c e , C W ' MM HfrU "we have seen his star" Matt. 2, 2; 6, 33; or OOh&: H.frU "in that circuit of his", i. e. "round about him" Hen. 47, 3. I t is only when the noun,
s

( ) [i. e. by way of absolute*' Vorhalt.] ( ) For the accentuation v. TBUMPP, p. 550. [For the lengthening of the ft before the suffix in old Mas., v. Ifcbra Nag., Introd. p. X V I . ]
2

 150.

343

to which these forms refer and by which they regulate their gender and number,stands already in the Constr. St. (whether because a Suff. Pron. is already appended to it or because another word depends upon it) that they can be set beside the noun freely and simply, e. g. flfc* * h M * Kihlb (for fl" s h " i O h * A") "his double cave" Gen. 23,9; < D V L * VhAVL * MKlh (where h.t'fchth merely emphasises again the o of V ^ A ) "and even his own life" Luke 14,26; hC^KM ' ftA.Ml "thine own disciples" Luke 5, 33; in the last case the Possessive may be placed first: tiha+hV* ' hGfih.O' "to his own disciples". Farther, the Relat. Pron. may fall away, if the Possessive come first in order: "hTrfch. Woo* s Hi^at^ (for Hft") Hen. 38,6. Since in this way then the Possessive is always conceived of as a Substantive to a certain extent, it may easily assume the position of a Predicate: Hjf\\\ V f c follf**^ "Thine is the kingdom'^ ) Matt. 6,13, or that of a Subject:-frfthfolP ' "hlijMh "his (followers) asked him" Mark. 4, 10. I n particular, the form that comes first to hand (masc), H+h?> I f . A h &c., has often completely the character of a Neuter: "mine" [das Meinige] &c.: hJPHhP "of mine" John 16,14; fl^fl"!*' lt.AU" "unto his own" John 1,11; or, omitting the Noun, to which it refers: ftftr/n : Ji^ : m>Yl6.&i-f- ' ' Aft^fe4* J&tf-'i * 0fl,P h95 H L A l f 0* "for the portion of the children of Judah was larger than what properly belonged to them" Josh. 19,9, although in such cases the Relative may be prefixed a second time: J&ft-'Jh ' A h i 1/II .Ml loro aoi rd ad Gen. 33,9. The inflection of the Relative Pron. which appears in this Possessive as its first element, following the Gender and Number of the Noun to which it refers, is farther attended to in this case with a greater sense of urgency, on account of the independent position of such Possessives, and consequently with a stricter observance of the rules, than in the case dealt with in 147, a.
1 ao s

(c) But the Nominative also of Personal Pronouns has oc- Emphatic casionally to be brought into special prominence, as contrasted ^ with other Persons, e. g. "even I " , " I myself" & c ; and this case re. Pron. sometimes extends also to Demonstratives: "even this", "this very" &c. To express the idea of "idem", "even the", it is often enough, in the case of the Dem. Pron. ( 148, a), to compound it
N o m f o r m

( ) Properly: "Something belonging to Thee is the kingdom".

344

150.

with Ghh*, $>h* &c. But the language may place another special particle beside Demonstrative and Personal Pronouns, Y}tro "nearly", "just", "only" ( 162), which always stands next after them, and may be applied to any Case, e. g.: "from eternity to eternity hi* ' thou art the same" Ps. 8 9 , 2 ; 9 2 , 3 : tUffr ' - Pti "the very same word" (acc.) Matt. 2 6 , 4 4 ; HI* s \\ao s AYdtb "this very thing have I heard" Ps. 6 1 , 1 1 ; *M1: h"?!* s \\o* "he did the same thing" Matt. 20, 5. I n order to express the idea of "self" in the case of the three Persons, the particle AA "he, he" i. e. "he himself" (cf. supra, p. 117, 62, 1, c) is, in Ethiopic, compounded with the Genitive Suffixes, by means of the binding-vowel lC): 1
ST

Sing. Pers. AA.P

ST

Flur. Pers. AA.V

Instead of AA.P> AAP (laUya) also may appear, in accordance with 153, e. g. 1 Cor. 4, 3; Ps. 5 0 , 4 ; Gen. 45,12 Note; AA? also occurs:-Gen. 45,12 GC (KONIG, p. 153). This compound is always used as a Nominative. For the Accusative the compound with \\J$ (v. supra under a) or with Chtl ( - infra) is employed: Afl \tYl ' AA.V * Chiti "if we would judge ourselves" 1 Cor. 11,31; A A . 1 T ?hV*r "they themselves know" Acts 22,19; HAA.il * "itCXl "which Thou hast founded" Ps. 8 , 4 ; AAy * W f>ao~ s dtyQ-f-a**' "it itself, their path", i. e. "their very path is the occasion of their fall" Ps. 4 8 , 1 3 ; cf. also Josh. 1 0 , 1 , 4; 17,18; 22, 2; 23, 3. And in this signification AA is frequently introduced alongside of the independent Personal Pron.: (D~h* AA.U* hDlhlldhC Josh. 2 2 , 2 3 ; {D~h* AAJ* h,P-9 Ohh* avrog hariv 'Ebcaju Gen. 36,1. The notion of "self" may be indicated periphrastically, for every case except the Nominative, by means of Chtl "head"( )
v s
0 0 9

(*) For the accentuation v. TEUMPP, p. 551.

( ) Which has become in Amharic completely a Pronoun of the Third Person, as ftCrt"-

 151.

345

with a Suff. Pron. appended. I t occurs very frequently: ao^ s Reflexive ^&A ' CKrth "whom makestthou thyself?" John 8,53; Matt. 8,4; ^ G-en. 19,17; " / f m hO\^ : ^ H A D "(that) they may buy ^ themselves food" Matt. 14, 15; also Hen. 10,2; Numb. 31, 53; guff. p on. Josh. 11,14; direst, p. 24, line 4; p. 43, line 8. This periphrasis is employed, in particular, when the Pronoun is subordinated to a Preposition, e. g. t\bt\' Gftflh" " "against yourselves" Josh. 24,22. Chtl may refer even to things impersonal in themselves, but thought of as persons (i. e. personified): 1 A { P AGJiA ' *KhA. "the morrow will take thought for itself" Matt. 6,34. The word VPfl "soul", "life" is less frequently employed to indicate "self, and is only made use of when the same idea may stand for "self" in other languages: tfDfTifl) : : Al^* "he delivered himself to death" (Liturg.); Gen. 19,17; Josh. 23,11; G. A d . 5,3s#.; 7, 4-(where
f c d }<j?fl
r

will stand in the original Arabic) &c. 151. Attachment of the Verbal Suffixes, viz. to the Per- Attachment feet, Subjunctive and Imperative. On the Infinitive v. 155. suta** The Suffix is attached to the Verb by* way of Object, and Bindingthus in the Accusative-form of subordination. I n by far the greater ' number of cases also, the Suff. Pron. with the Verb represents the Accusative of the Personal Pronoun. But since, following 143 and 174 sqq., the Accusative in Ethiopic admits of a much wider signification and more manifold use than in other tongues, and indicates often the notion "with respect to", the Suff. Pron. is naturally employed in Ethiopic not only for the Accusative, but also for the Dative of the Personal Pron.,the Dative in fact which in an independent word is throughout denoted by the preposition A "with respect to", "for". Attempts at a Dative-use of the Suff. Pron. are met with, as is well-known, in other tongues also^). I n Ethiopic all Intransitive, Reflexive, and Passive Verbs may assume a Suff. Pron. with the force of a Dative: fftftA) "suffices us" Josh. 17,16; ^^O)^^ "it shall be opened unto you" Matt. 7, 7; ^ J R , A h "it is better for thee" Mark 9,45; ^ 3A# "is reckoned to him" Rom. 4,5; j&-flfeAh "it shall grow for thee" Gen. 3,18; h<gfthll " I will give thee more" Tobit 5,15. I n particular \fi and OhtD "to be" take this Dative, e. g. "htf^t*^ * d.'thi' * >\UD*'r\\0t>' "they shall be to you for judges" Matt. 12,27;
IJ*J
1 v o w e 1

O EWALD, Hebr. Spr. 3 1 5 , 6 ; HOFFMANN, Gr. Syr: p. 315.

346

151.

frVfc "it has happened to me" Tobit 8,16. A Suffix of the third person may then take a reflexive meaning ( 149) \\ao ^ I b f ' "flftA.'F (*) "that she may become his wife", (lit. 'that she may be to him for his wife') Gen. 28,9 ( ). To be sure, this Dative use has really its origin in the Accusative use; and accordingly the Suffix is joined to the Verb in the same way in both cases. The same vowel a, which is the mark of the Accusative with the Noun ( 143), is placed here before the Suff. Pron. to denote the Accusative, by way of binding-vowel between Verb and Pronoun( ). I n combination with the binding-vowel the Verbal Suffixes (cf. 149) run as follows:
2 3

st

Person.

Sing, a-rii. Plur. d-na.

Person. 3 Person. m. f. m. f. a-ka; a-ki. d-hu, contr. d; aha, contr. d. a-kemmu; a-ken. a-homu, 6mu\ a-hon, on(^).

nd

rd

But this intervening vowel does not appear regularly, except when Suffixes are attached to those personal forms of the Verb which end in a Consonant, and even then not invariably. When such forms end in a vowel, the binding-vowel is often pushed aside by these vowel-endings. The Subjunctive, even in such of its forms as end in a consonant, constantly rejects the binding-vowel before the four Suffixes of the Second Person ( ), because short, compact expression is characteristic generally of that Mood, and because the binding-vowel is not retained by the Accent. The Accent, in fact, is always attracted to kemmu and ken, while ka and kl have become entirely devoid of accent, and even the binding-vowel, where it does precede them, is unaccented ( 149). The four Sufe

( ) [This is hardly an instance of reflexive meaning in the Suffix, for the Suffix of the third person here does not refer to the grammatical Subject of the clause, TR.] ( ) [A peculiar use of the Suffix occurs in Eebra Nag., p. 65 b. 3: ft^fllT
3 : 2

rh*fc*f* he 'hurried the questioning with respect to him', i. e. "he

l

asked him quickly".] ( ) Cf. EWALD, Hebr. Spr.' 247, b. On the other hand v. KNIG, p. 141 sq. ( ) V. on the other hand TRUMPP, pp. 551, 554sq.
4

( ) So that e. g.

^YbiYl* *

10

Matt. 9, 29 in PLATT'S edition is decidedly

0

inaccurate; [the Reprint, however, has the correct reading, ^ V h ^ y ! " " ' ]

 151.

347

fixes of the Third Person are mostly contracted, after 0 has been thrown out ( 47), particularly when the Verbal-form ends in a consonant. The following are the detailed rules for attaching these Suffixes to the Verb. 1. A l l personal forms of the Verb which end in a consonant, i . Attachwith the exception of those of the Subjunctive, have the Suffixes p ^ * * ^ ^ of the First and Second Person attached to them by means of the the verb binding-vowel, those of the Third Person being applied in their consonant, contracted form. The Persons of the Subjunctive which end in a consonant have the Suffixes of the Second Pers. appended directly, without any binding vowel; while the Second Pers. sing. masc. of the Imperative does not admit of the Suffixes of the Second Pers. being appended at all. The Second Pers. pi. fern, of the Perfect, as V?Ch"J> y seldom appears with Suffixes( ), and then it transforms its Yft into Ji, acquiring thus the same final sound as the Third Pers. plur. fern.; cf. <:rthl> ' AflWJrt,: ^"Vnl * Mlft -rh Cyr. a Reg. in Tub. MS. fol. 25, b. A t the same time, we do meet with forms like /hOtWlh, thWWlh?) 2. Of the Persons of the Verb which end in a, VlCh, % when hlCh, the First Pers. Plur. Perfect retains its a even before the y binding-vowel a. The short a blends with the latter into d, and contraction with the binding-vowel is thereby usually prevented, even in the case of the suffixes of the Third Person ( ). The Second Pers. Sing. Masc. Perfect,which is never folloAved by the Suffixes of the Second Person, gives up its a before the bindingvowel d, regularly in the case of Suffixes of the First Person and
of v e r x
t h e

n d

i n

( ) Examples: E x . 2 , 2 0 and Can tic. 5 , 8 (where LUDOLF has introduced an inaccurate correction into the text). ( ) V . CORNILL, 'Das Buch der weisen Philosophen (Leipzig 1875), p. 61; and cf. KNIG, pp. 133, 141; PHILIPPI, ZDMG X X X I I , p. 71; and NLDEKE, ibid. X X X V I I I , p. 417. V . also PRAETORIUS, ibid. X L I , p. 690 [and BROCKELMANN, ibid. L I X , p. S31]. ( ) I prefer the explanation of the long given above, to the other explanation, defended also by KNIG, p. 141, according to which we have in this *j merely a return to the original pronunciation of the g, as it appears
2 1 3 l

in the Arabic LS. I n fact in the Josippon, at least in Cod. Frcf,

0 0

the forms

iflCT, iflGftf -, iflCffr occur rather more frequently than lC^th, iflCVlT" * and idCSifTi; and they occur also in Sec. frequently, e. g. flhAf Sx. Genb. 2 8 ; ^h-flV = ^tl-fl^y, and = fflC^V
Sx. Genb. 2 8 Enc. [Cf. also Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X V I I I . ]

348

151.

3. Attach-

Plur. Suffixes of the Third Person, and occasionally and capriciously in the case of Singular Suffixes of the Third Person, the type in the latter case being either V*|ChO-, hlCW or VlCfr, MChC)The Third Person Sing. Masc. Perfect gives up its final a before all Suffixes ( 91), and takes the Suffixes of the Third Person invariably in their contracted form. 3. I n those Persons of the Verb which end in a formative-w,
a s

ment when Pers. Forms formativeu.

^
,
e

ilCJTI^,

^74

11^,
_

tl^,

end in the binding-vowel a is thrust aside by the u before all the Suffixes ^ First and Second Person. I n such cases u takes over the
Q 0

t h e

accent, whenever it must have fallen upon a, if that vowel had been retained (e. g. in l l C f a " ^ ) * Suffixes of the Third Person are always attached in their shorter and vowel-commencing form b, a, dmu, on, originating in contraction with the binding-vowel, u being at the same time hardened into w before these vowels, e. g. 5r7CP> although a mere semi-hardening ( 40) is often exhibited in this case, particularly in the older manuscripts, e. g. Arh frf, iaCh-P<*>*, i f l C h ^ F l ) , tihahlMtP Amos 9,7 (A), K ^ r t T h " " ? ' Herm. 22 b, 19. i. when 4. The Persons which end in the Pern, formative-?, *i1Cft\*i Fem " l h V * 7 < > Th7*7<5 "J*7*> do not assume any Suffixes of the Second formative -i p The Suffixes of the Third Person are attached in that form which begins with a vowel and which originates in contraction with the binding-vowel, the I undergoing sometimes complete hardening, sometimes semi-hardening.The semi-hardening is of specially frequent occurence in the older manuscripts: e. g. 'JhA Ruth 2,8; Afl'JP- and /hfljrf- Ex. 2,9 (Note); 7flC and 7(1 &f Gen. 16,6 (Note); [cf.Kebra Nag. *p.XNIII];fcff'J'V.e-Gen.21,18 (Note); ihrtJF'frf- Chrest. p. 74, line 21 ( ). On the other hand the Suffixes of the First Person admit in this case of no bindingvowel or hardening of the I into a semivowel, because doublyclosed syllables would thereby be produced in most cases within
2 0
d

e r s o n >

O
contains

According to

NLDEKE, Z D M G

X X X V I I I , p.

413, N . 1,

YlChO*

an originally long , like the Hebr. HFlt* overagainst o o f .

KNIG, p. 132 explains the length in t\ by extension before an Aspirate. On

the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 551 sqq.

( ) V. DILLMANN's ed. of the 'Octateuch ', Comm. p. 5. ( ) According to KNIG, p. 127, this takes place to avoid a hiatus.
3

 152.

349

the word (like i f l C h f fc, ^ i / ^ ffc)\ but the Verbal forms concerned w eaken their final I into eC),which then probably receives the accent,and attach to it \ , V without a binding-vowel. I n this way forms are produced in the Perfect like V"f Gen. 30,15; h9th6lffl Cantic. 5,9; fr'Jfafc, which seemingly must be pronounced naMkeni, amhalkena, konkenl; while in the Imperfect, the Subjunctive and the Imperative we have forms like *|h?'ftC3", ^ V f c f c Gen. 3 0 , 1 5 , T7Cfc Gen. 2 4 , 2 3 , 4 7 ; fc-ftfifc Gen. 3 8 , 1 6 ; fMlfc Gen. 3 0 , 1 4 ; Gen. 3 5 , 1 7 ; fcft^J&Jr, (from
T l

htl^fr) Gen. 24,17, 43, 4 5 ; [ W , IM1V, M A f c *e&ra Aa#., Introd. p. X V I I I ] . These last forms are probably to be pronounced tegdbreni &c. 5. I n those Persons which end in a, >*7*J, Th>*7^, 5. when 1**7^, ^ 7 ^ , 7*7^ the binding-vowel a blends with the a ^ into d. Contraction in the Suffixes of the Third Person is accordingly not permissible. 152. The various individual forms which are possible in this connection may be explained by these rules. A survey is given ^ in Table V I I . One or two cases, however, deserve farther and Attachment of Verbal special mention. Suffixes. In attaching the Suffixes to the Subjunctive it may happen, in accordance with 151,1, that the first letter of the Suffixes of the Second Person, yj, is brought into immediate contact with the Radical Palatal-Guttural, 4* or ft. I n that case, when *7 or 4* is concerned, the Jf| of the Suffix passes into *7 or 4 ( 54): J?Crh4* "(that) he withdraw thee" Deut. 13,11 ; ftlJ^T. "(that) I should leave thee" Ruthl ,16; A^^Crh4^^/7reraJ(7avffProv.3,3; a>-4 Sir. 12,16; 9bC1 G. Ad. 43,24. Instead of hh, when ft is the Radical, only one character is written ( 5 5 ) : ftOCh " I will bless thee" Gen. 27,7,10, 25; Ruth 2,4; J&'Jflh "(that) he bite thee" Chrest. p. 44, line 11. The copyists have in this case often gone astray, and, because they no longer recognised the Suffix, they have set down sometimes the Verbal form without Suffix, e.g. h'ttCh for ^OCh Gen. 27,4 ( 2 8 , 3 ) , and sometimes they have made a Suffix of the Third Pers. Masc. out
t b e y S p e c i a l s o f C a o f V e r b a l

n d i n

( ) T h i s feminine i, on being brought into the middle of a word, would seem to have a general tendency towards KONIG, pp. 120, 153 assumes p. 72, 36. a more fugitive here. pronunciation. supra, a Dissimilation Cf. also

 350

152.

of a Suffix of the Second Person Masc, e. g. J&flCh for J&flCh Gen. 48,20 et saepe^). When a vowel-commencing Suffix, or one which is attached with the binding-vowel a, is applied to those Persons of the Imperfect, the Subjunctive and the Imperative of verbs tertiae gutturalis, which end directly with the last radical and so have the foregoing a lengthened into d, as in p,9%h, 9%h, J&^rfC/fA, ffi^ih &c.,then the same changes emerge, which appear in the conjugation of these verbs in applying to those forms Personal-endings commencing with a vowel ( 103), thus: 9 %h, P>9Kh\] ftoy, fl{J0fc, [It^h sume earn' Kebra Nag. 55 b 14]&c. ( ). On the other hand, Roots which are also mediae infirmae maintain the a, just as they do in the inflection ( 103):j&fl?i, flftfc, g,i\Y%av~ &c. 900 may also maintain the , e. g. K/t'te^'iP "be not angry with him" Gen. 44,18, as well as "HhtfDfldfc; cf.
l 2

KNIG , p. 85.

Hoots mediae geminatae may contract the repeated letter, exactly as in the inflection ( 103), whenever a proper occasion occurs, that is to say when a Suffix, introduced by the bindingvowel a, or one commencing with a vowel, is applied to a form ending in a vowel-less radical, e. g. or V"flfl> from J&WM1; ftjjo^tfo- or h^OP** , from t\9 &c. Verbal forms from Roots tertiae infirmae, which end in or i as third radical, must harden the or % before the binding-vowel into w or y, (exactly as in the inflection before vow el-commencing Personal terminations, 103) ( ), e. g. J&'lhA'P from jMhA*> *hA <Dfc from *fc, ?th?,p from ^rhP, fcAj&flJfc from fr/hft, frA-fl <Djr from frAfl- (Ps. 118,34):but in the Subj. with Suff. of the Second Person we have ft"hA*h (Matt. 8,19). Parther we have J&<{, frP- from c f t f \ from C J u , -Yh? from W A . , hCW* from hCK> But yet the semi-hardening process is also met with in this connection here and there, e. g. ^OlLffh Gen. 28,3; Ex. 30,4; Numb. 12,11; 7x&il$* Amos 8,10 (A) et saepe.
09 T 3

( ) In G. Ad. 29,10 TRUMPP has restored some of these forms on his own authority. ( ) And yet we have also the reading fJA/' Deut. 12,18, 22 instead of
2

flA/ as in Deut. 14,23; 15,20. In Sirach 6,12 some MSS. have jR^"ifl
Ml for 3 " W i h t i . ( ) For the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 556r
3

 153.

351

The shortened form J&fl, "he said" (^Q,, htt,, 7fl,, 103) must also make the A appear again before the Suffixes: J&fl,A,
fl,A & c .

Like Arabic C), Ethiopic has the faculty of appending two Suffixes to a Verb at one time. Verbs namely, which may govern two Accusatives ( 177), may also assume two Suffixes. The rule of precedence with these Suffixes in such a case is this, that the First Person precedes the Second or Third, and stands next to the Verb, while the Second precedes the Third. Examples:(D(MlYl Jltf. Numb. 18,8; hlMUV Gen. 15,7 (cf. KNIG , p. 133); f|V Deut. 28,30; e(Mlhn-<P and f fj -fltl? ? Josh. 9,22; f f l ^ f - Luke 9,39; WO(['}?* G. A. 109,10; m\9 Gen. 29,21; f r f l Aflfc^ Ezek. 3,2; KflJ^Pfce* Gen. 42,37; Ofr^? Gen. 23,9; WO {tip! Gen. 31,9; -HI1K7 G. A . 57,2 [iMftf- "give (f.-Sing.) it me" Kebra Nag. 99 b 23]. We also conclude from these examples, that, when the first Suffix ends in or i, and a Suffix of the Third Person (, , m, or n) is added, the or % may undergo either complete- or semi-hardening ( ); still, the latter process is the more usual one (cf. KNIG , p. 153 sq.), the accent in that case falling upon the second Suffix (cf. TEUMPP , p. 556). I f the first Suffix ends in a, the Suffixes of the Third Person are always applied in their original form (h, h, hm, hri), and the foregoing a is generally lengthened into ( ), under the influence of the Aspirate and of the accent which it then takes. 153. Attachment of the Suffix Pronouns to the Noun. Attachment Pronouns are subordinated to the Noun just as other nouns are g^xeT. ( 144), that is to say,in the Genitive relation or possessive Bindingsense. Of course, as is pointed out in 150, Ethiopic is fur- vowel. nished with an expedient for deriving from every Personal Pronoun independent Possessives which it may employ with the force of a Genitive. Their use, however, is almost wholly restricted to cases in which a certain emphasis is laid upon the Genitive, or in which the attachment of a Suffix is impracticable on other grounds, for instance when a Construct State has to be dealt with. But
0 2 3 al

( ) EWALD, Gr. Ar: 674. ( ) And yet in the very ancient Cod. Laur. there occurs, in Zech. 3,1;
2

( ) V., however, Numb. 14, 8; Deut. 6, 23; 9, 6.

352

153.

i. AttachSuffixesto piurai

when such special cases do not present themselves, every Personal Pronoun, which has to take the Genitive, is even in Ethiopic attached usually to its governing Noun as a Suffix, e. g. <w>PdAjJ "the days of him", "his days". The power to subordinate a Pronoun to a Noun in this waydepends upon the process of juxtaposition, just as in the case of a Construct State ( 144); and wherever Suffixes with the force of a Genitive are appended to a word, it is really a Construct State-relation which is then constituted. Now ( 144) this relation may be conceived, and in other languages may even be realised, without any outward formative expedient, so that by ranking the two words close together and accentuating them in a certain way the whole force of the relation is embraced already. Accordingly it might be thought that even in Ethiopic the Suffixes would attach themselves closely to the Noun without recourse to any farther contrivance, and give expression to the Genitive relation by thus blending together the two elements into one single word. I n actual fact, however, this is not the case. For in Ethiopic, just as the Construct State is invariably formed by means of an Ending, so the Suffix in every instance is attached to the Noun by means of a Binding-voivel corresponding to such Ending. But this binding-vowel is no longer retained in all instances with the same fidelity to its original form. I n order therefore to understand its essential nature, it is necessary to distinguish the different cases which-occur. 1. The Binding-vowel appears in its purest form in the case f ^ attachment of Suffixes to the Plural of the Noun, whether outer or inner Plural. Plural-forms subordinate the Suffix by means of the binding-vowel I, which always carries the Tone, except when the Suffix itself requires it, as infam*",YlTr, Iftf *", If} ( 149). This binding-vowel is of such essential importance, that, for the sake of it, even the a of the Accusative is given up; and accordingly when an Accusative Plural has to take a Suffix, the sign of the Accusative disappears, and the Accusative relation is recognisable only from the context. I n this i, which agrees in a remarkable manner with an ancient ending of the Construct State in Hebrew, we can only discern a Construct State-ending; for seeing that the fuller form la is given in the cases adduced in 150, b, it is probable that both the usual Ethiopic ending of the Construct State, a, and the^inding-vowel, l, are merely two
, n e 1

353

different abbreviations of one and the same fundamental form la ( 144) (*). This binding-vowel i is reduced to the feebler e on phonetic grounds in two cases: (a) before the Suffix p, by i+ya becoming eyya, or again by I being weakened into e before ya, producing eya( ). Yet this is by no means always the case; in particular, forms with lya are often exhibited in older manuscripts, like ft&^P, h?Ahf - ; cf. KNIG , p. 153; [and Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X V I ] . (b) Before the Suffix I may be shortened into e, plainly to obviate the necessity of two -Sounds being heard in immediate succession. The Suffixes which are attached to the Plural accordingly take the following forms (cf. TKUMPP, p. 5 5 7 ) :
2 & c

II. m. f. m.

III. f.

Sing. e-ya. Plur. i-na.

i-ka, l-kemm,

i-kl. . ^_ l-ken.

i-h, i-hom,

i-h. i-hn.

For Examples v. Table I X . The form lya e. g. is given in ftfl^P Gen. 32,10; 4 7 , 9 , 30; h9<iM Gen. 4 8 , 3 ; M W Judges 8,19; the form Ikl in Afl'ClU P - 4 4 , 1 8 ; eki, ft A Hfl Ii Cantic. 4,11; hTCCh ibid.; Ruth 3,3 (G). I f the Plural-Stem ends in ft, then the approach of the binding-vowel produces & ; but before Suffixes of the third Person ft, occurs only rarely, as for instance in J\\\$.lb (a side-form to fthj&U), v. DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 789; inclines rather to blend with the ?-sound into ji, (cf. TEUMPP , p. 558): ao^fy^w mard -i-h = mard ihu( ) Gen. 21,22; 2 6 , 2 6 ; ao^o^ifao' Gen. 3 4 , 2 3 ; Yf-ft" : 1<P>0' (Acc. and Cols ( c ( 3

(*) TRUMPF also, p. 557, N. 1, holds i to be the remains of an old Constr. St.; cf. supra, p. 325, Note ( ), as also KNIG, p. 142. ( ) There is no express announcement that y has to be pronounced double in this case, and the alternative possibility is brought nearer by the shortening of the l before into e. ( ) [It looks more like mar'yeh, as if ih had also been shortened into e-h, and applied to 0lcbf*i thus maray -eh, which easily blends into marayeh; but not so obviously does maray" and ihu blend into maraih. However DILLMANN thinks 0D*0* should be pronounced as if
] 2 3 e

it were written 0DJ^

(v. 51 sub

fin.).

TRUMPP'S pronunciation of

the

word is mar-eih. Perhaps too the binding-vowel has disappeared in these cases, v. infra, TR.] 23

354

lective, v. infra 155) Gen. 3 2 , 2 4 ; M t f (Acc.) Tobit 1 3 , 4 ; and also with Suffixes of the second Person "J'Pj&jfltf - (for 'J'pfk h<n>-) Ex. 1 0 , 2 4 ; l^d^lfi Matt. 2 5 , 4 ; and in Ex. 38,26 there occurs even <wK0J&P"7 from the binding-vowel having been hardened into a semivowel and the h thrown out (but see annot on the passage). And yet, seeing that every Plural in Ethiopic, particularly the Inner Plurals or Collective forms, may without difficulty be conceived again as a simple Singular notion, it is not much to be wondered at, that Suffixes are frequently applied to Plural forms after the fashion of Singulars; v. infra 155. 2. Attach 154. 2. When Suffixes are attached to Singular forms, suffix! t binding-vowel I is shortened into e or is entirely given up. A t singular the same time we must distinguish between Nominal-Stems ending TO Nominal vowel and those ending in a consonant. stems ( ) Nominal-Stems, ending in a, e, or b,in whatever way
0
m

ending in

a, e, or 6. the termination has arisen, have the Suffixes attached without any binding-vowel, in all the Cases of the Noun, just because the latter vowel is absorbed by the long vowel, e. g. f**lfS*fr "bis glory" Ex. 2 4 , 1 7 ; ^a^^tro. "their impurity" 2 Esr. 9 , 1 1 ; *&&inaO' "their separation" G. Ad. 1 1 , 1 9 ; ^ I f l ^ (instead of *\\Wi) M. M . f. 192. I n ft*;)"^, even the e of the Nominal form is discarded; cf. DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 367 (v. Table I X ) . TO Nom. (&) Nominal-Stems ending in a Consonant. stems /^x When these Stems stand in the Accusative, the Suffixes
i

ending m a

are appended to thern^) in like manner without any binding-vowel, t he's easterns inasmuch as the a of the Accusative is too important to be thrust stand in the i d and the binding-vowel is unable to obtain a foothold alongconsonant; Accusative.
a s e )

side of it. I t is true that a and i might have been contracted into e, but such mixed sound did not come into use with the ordinary Noun, and it is exhibited in the case merely of a few Prepositions which have Suffixes attached ( 167). I t is only before the Suff. \f, where the binding-vowel * or e has a support in the y, that it is regularly strong enough to dislodge the d of the Accusative, so that /IhTffl + Suff. f runs,not /hUflP, but /hTMlf hezbe?ja( ).
2

(*) For the accentuation cf. TRUMPP, p. 556 sqq.

( ) Of course the form an original

/hH'flP

might be explained as coming from

/JhUfl,; and

thus it might be supposed that the a of the Accusa-

tive was in this case displaced b y l h e Vowel-Suffix i ( 149); and in like

 154.

355

Now seeing that the binding-vowel, except in this one case, disappears, the a of the Accusative must assume the accent which the binding-vowel would have had to sustain: as d-na. But instead of d-hu, and d-hd, 6 and d are always given in pronunciation, the Aspirate being suppressed. Thus: ^iliflV, rhUO* rhUfl; but /hU flh, rhlffltl. with the accent on the tone-syllable of the Stem; farther fhUfllfttf ", jhUAlfl'} with the accent on the Suffix; and finally, instead of ZhTifllfA *, rhTffllf}, always the contracted forms /hlin^ *? rhUfl'J, the Aspirate being rejected. Even before other Suffixes than p, it happens occasionally that the a of the Accusative gives way to a binding-vowel e, e. g. rh*7h in the Ace, Numb. 18,3 (F); fcUAhh Lev. 25,36; YxFWflf* ' Lev. 25,38; 26,12; 3 Kings 1,14 where the oldest manuscripts have V7Ct! for M t f U ; cf. also ChAhfc Sir. 38,21; fchftfhh Tab. Tab.C) 60 (Chrest. p. 122 [where Cod, Mon. Aeth. 11, fol. 49 v reads Kh9Gi-ti\); JWfc*Hl Tab. Tab. 79 ( . p. 126 [Codd. TRUMPP, Francof. and Mon. 11, fol. 57 v give "h 'Hl]); P L A T T , Didasc: p. 5, line 10 ( ); /h*7h and in Laur. 4Esr. 10,39
0 0 0 0 l 2

(54); 13,55 (58) and 4 Esr. 8,12; 9,32 (New Ed.), to avoid the disagreeable sound of "|h, Hi; also fhlfltl* ^ - 10 15 (20) ( ).
M 4 S R 3

manner eya with the Plural-forms might be thought derivable from an original i: but p as occupying the position of the Suffix i appears to be very old, as old forms like JJAA*i ( 167) prove; and even before other Suffixes the a of the accusative is thrust aside, in old MSS.

O
2

fllflfl ' fllfl.fl'}

or Sapiens Sapientium.
00

TR.]

( ) [The reference here is to SVAX'M F I * "your enemies (acc.)" which PLATT found in his MS. and considered a mistake, as he explains in a note. He restores the a in the Text and writes
3

*WJt\'f'Y\0 . Evidently

Om

DILLMANN

thought the e legitimate enough, though not quite common, TR.] ( ) LUDOLF also lays down the rule, that, when a Noun in the Acc. with a Suffix is farther weighted with another attached particle like the a of the Acc. passes into e, e. g.
!

&->

^ H h C "fUAh ' h*7lt> a*9(t\

These cases, however, are rather

dH'tlX P

s <

2 4

' ;

o t n e r

instances are Ps. 8 8 , 6 (contrasted with v. 2 ) ; 71,1;

87,12; 9 1 , 2 (contrasted with Ps. 70,20,21).

to be explained in accordance with 143, ad fin., the accusative construction being held in abeyance there, and the first form of the Noun appearing instead of the Acc. [From the numerous instances met with in the Kebra Nag. (v. 'Introd? p. X V I sq.) of this formation of the Acc. in e before Suffixes of 23*

356

154.

( p >
t h

when
1 1 V 0 W e

(/?) When the Noun stands in the Nominative, the binding^

e ma

k e s its appearance before the Suffixes of the First and Nominative. Second Person, taking the accent at the same time before f and V, thus: e-ya, e-na, e-kemmu, e-ken. But the Suffixes of the Third Person are not given as e-huC), e-lia, e-hdmu, e-hon, but as u, A, omu, on, the Aspirate being discarded and the binding-vowel suppressed. For the rest v. Table I X . Words, which end in 7, \ } , JR, are prevented by the binding-vowel from ever making these letters coalesce with those Suffixes w hich commence with the same letters or similar ones (cf. KONIG , p. 96), thus J U D ^ i (not ftfl)J) ; J i S P A h h , <5.2W Hen. 14,4; & f # h Gen. 4 8 , 5 ; (DCbto^ Gen. 43,12. Words which end in ^-containing Palatal-Gutturals, like " ^ A ^ , A G 7 \ attach in the Nom. and Acc. the Suffixes of the third Person, after the same manner as other nouns, observing however the principles noticed in 4 2 : AC ")* flffl, hffl ', tlC ")*}; but in order to preserve the peculiar pronunciation of their last radical they may also adopt the full form ehu, ehd, ehdmu, ehbn, e. g. rtCT-lf^ Numb. 31,49 (Acc.); A C T * ' / Deut. 17,3. So too words ending in ai may take |), '/, If<n-, if}, e. g. fthJE-lftf * Judges 20,34, 41 ( = MlP"< ")> but this seldom happens. To Kouns ( ) Nouns which end in % do not admit of any binding-vowel ending in i j Nominative, but annex the Suffixes directly, just like other Stems ending in a vowel, and retain the Aspirate in Suffixes of the third Person. But eyya or eya is occasionally read for iya, e. g. <w"V>P Ps. 18,16; 68,17 (from tn>&*i\); 90,2. Cf. also dft&nVPi M"AP (van: QpkS and M*A* ?Utf ) 1 Sam. 22,13; 0?i%V* Tob. 1,13 Francof. When such nouns stand in the Accusative, the Accusative-sign a may be suppressed between the termination % and the binding-vowel, at least pretty regularly before f, V, V, Va*, m , e. g. Ex. 1 5 , 1 ; Matt. 1,16; 3 f r y H e n . 6, 3 ( ) ; Fhys. 5,12; Hexaem. 33,6( ). But before Suffixes of the Second Person, the a of the Accusative
i n the "
T
1

00

,D

n e

the Second person, it would appear that this was the regular formation in Ge ez at an early stage* of its development.] (*) An anomalous form occurs in E x . 36,12, fl/3h*fc^"li". ( ) [FLEMMING reads here <./Jf. TR.] ( ) Farther Numb. 35,23; Deut. 4,42; 21,1; John 7,32; Hebr. 11,7; James 4,4, 11. *~
3 2

 154.

357

is mostly retained, e. g. R4A ,h Matt. 5,43; Ex. 2 3 , 2 2 ; Deut. 3 2 , 3 8 ; but v. flh Job 13,24; Vfl^h Sir. 4 , 4 var. I n Ex. 23,25, t/n &\\ is to be explained in accordance with 143 sub fin. (d) A few short and old words have a somewhat anomalous To certain method of attaching their Suffixes. The four nouns ftfl "father", oidwords ih9 "father-in-law", VY* "brother", "mouth" restore to view before Suffixes their original termination, namely in the Groundform, and dQ) in the Accusative; but for that very reason they reject other binding-vowels: they also adopt the Suffixes of the third Person in their complete form. Accordingly, from the Nominative-form proceed fcflp (Ps. 26,16), ftftV, ftftfl (John 8,19), lMU> tStt-Ylov, htt-m (Gen. 31,5), hfro-, hft-y, M'Wo*, Kfl-lfJ; in like manner ft^p Luke 6,42, MM Matt. 5,24, KrUh Gen. 38,29; r h ^ h . Gen. 38,13, 3'8,25; Jtf.p Ps. 16, 5, hfro* 9, 29, h^V^ 5,10, Rev. 10, 9. I n the Accusative these words ought properly to run ftflp, Kflh Eph. 6,2, Kfllh John 6,42, M\r0~ Mark 1,20; ftAho- and V)<Pfl<nGen. 4 2 , 2 0 (Note), fcWi/Vn* or h^.lf^ Ps. 37,21, M<Pth Matt. 5 , 2 2 ; Ps. 4 8 , 7 ; th^lh Ex. 18,26; h^hlh Matt. 5 , 2 ; but they readily give up the Accusative form, and stand in their first form for the Accusative also. Thus there appear as Accusatives hft'lb Chrest. p. 24, line 5,; fcQ'V Judges 1 8 , 1 9 ; ftfrlftn* Gen. 4 , 2 1 ; fcft-y Deut. 2 1 , 1 3 ; MM Deut. 25,3. I n particular ft<p employs its first or Nominative-form for the Accusative almost without exception: h-IJ* Ps. 6 8 , 1 9 ; Hen. 1 0 6 , 3 ; K^-V Gen. 4,11 (Note); Hen. 5 6 , 8 ; fcfp Judges 1 1 , 3 5 ; fth Judges 1 1 , 3 6 ; Kflftfi* Ps. 9 , 4 2 ; Hen. 17,8. The Noun "hand",although i t exhibits Oh in the Plural as its third radical, like the words just mentioned,does not form ft/J-P &c, but always takes the form before Suffixes, thereby indicating an original pronunciation of something like n v , but
1

O Which is taken in exchange for tt in the very same way as a is for e in the ordinary noun. For the rest, in the case at least of
a

second

Acc. occurs even without a Suffix, viz. J |f| in Matt. 19,29; cf. the Vocative 142."With reference to this peculiarity in the words mentioned, compare Arabic, Hebrew and Syriac; EWALD, 'Gr. Ar.' 411; Hebr. SprJ 256, a,
and HOFFMANN, 'Gr. NLDEKE, 'Syr. Gr.
1

Syr.' p. 2 7 3 sq.V.

also KNIG, p. 108.

[Cf. farther

(English Ed.) p. 9 1 . TE.1

358

making no distinction between Nominative and Accusative:

3. suffixes tacn^to

ft&f,

155. 3. Often however in Ethiopic the Suffixes are atInched to Singular Stems in the Plural fashion, and vice versa to singular plural Steins in the Singular fashion. the riurai (a) Singular-Stems,by reason of similarity of meaning (that fashion,and they convey the sense of a Collective noun) or still offener
g

" t o Plural
th

( a )

stems in similarity of form,at times take Suffixes which belong properly fashionl to the Plural forms ( ). Especially are Suffixes of the Plural adopted h th* ' ^ t P f t regularity by those Singular-Stems which conSing. Stems tain a long before the last radical or formative letter, both on are similar t f t d resemblance to the Plural type ftjP'AA and
ar 3
S t

a m i o s

e r

e c

a c c o u n

o u

w a r

in form or meaning to

because an e as a binding-vowel would be too weak, after the long d, to carry the tone. These stems almost invariably fasten the Suffixes to themselves, both in the Nominative and the Accusative, by means of v.4^Cfl3.U Gen. 4,4; 9M^i.' Gen. 1, 9; f"Hlh3K Gen. 3,16; Josh. 3,15; 4,18; Josh. 10,11; { W 7 3 r h Ps. 2,8: 9 P"P i,0' Ps. 42,4; 9^i\0' Hen. 72,2; "'fl/t.^, oo'^hj)Hen. 73, 3 ; A U ^ ^ y Luke 1, 36. Words also of the type p'CO't' from roots ultimae gutturalis have here and there the same forms, in accordance with 48: fl*flrh"fch Ps. 47,9; 72,28 (cf. 121, d); CP'h'tU' Gen. 21,2; but also JP1fK Ps. 61,11; JP^flfftfi- Ps. 27,5; ^ f l i : Ps. 29,4; 96,13 &c. In the very same way words of the Second simple formation, belonging to the type hfl% may, from their outward resemblance to the first Collective-form, attach their Suffixes by means of i: h f R h Ps. 121,7; TniUJ-Ps. 146,5; flftfl.l/- 2 Sam. 22,6 &c.; also Odjf * Judith 1,7. So is it, farther, with words of the type <w*7flC and <w '7flG'lh particularly when they are used collectively, e. g. l1i&6\FoV' Ps. 48,11 &c, and many other Singua a 00 , tn

But

ftj?.

is found in Tab. Tab. 5 3 , 1 ; 6 6 , 4 (Chrest. pp. 120, 123).

3

For farther explanation cf. PHILIPPI, ZDMG X X X I I , p. 74; BARTH, ibid. XLT, p. 637; KNIG, p. 107; et supra p. 286 and Note ( ). ( ) But when in Hen. 44 and Ex. 34,13 for
> n
2

the MSS have

{Pflklf

copyists mistaking the Oonceptional word ('image') for the Preposition ('with') ( 167). [In Hen. 44, FLEMMiNg reads 9flA,iFa*>: ( ) Cf. in Hebrew, EWALD, ebr. Spr.' 259, 6.
3 l

J^rt Al/ < *" "their images", that form has been reached simply through the 9tlli
TR.]

 156.

359

lar-forms besides, especially when used collectively, e. g. ^iwffl Ps. 89,10, too-turo** Ps. 77,37. (b) Plural-stems at times adopt suffixes properly belonging
(6) 2nd case,

to the Singular, inasmuch as any Plural may be conceived of as a notion suggesting unity: K "^f Ps. 31,14; 33,16; AMlV

pi* stems
m a y b e

conceived
S 8 g

Ps. 102,21; R A K * Ps. 6 7 , 1 ; ftAK#<" Ps. 105,11; RAiMhh f a u Ps. 20,8; hil?*ao~ Hen. 94,7; h^hf Matt. 3,11; ^ 1 ) - ^ f Gen. 40,5; J%7'flCf- Gen. 44,16; tf PAA"0 " Lev. 7,36; ftrh*? #ao* Matt. 7,29; fcAflflU. (Acc.) Kuth 3,3; fcft-fld-P? "their (/".) fingers" M . Berh. /*. 43 a; 0 7 f l ^ (Acc.) G. A d . 50,17; particularly those Plurals which give expression only to a simple Singular-conception, e. g. "God" ortfo^'flC'tfo-Gen. 47,30; " " / N I C * Gen. 23,6. 4. Suffixes are also applied to the Infinitive, just as to *
< D

S u f f l x e s

applied to
lB&niti

ordinary nouns. Infinitives which end in o take no suffixes, it IS the true, in that form ( 125), for they must revert, before the suffix, to their original form in bt (*); but suffixes are attached to both of the other possible Infinitive forms. The Gerund must always stand in the Accusative ( 123), and thus it attaches the Suffixes just like other Nouns in the Accusative which have a consonantal ending ( 154,6,a): a > t h f Ps. 67,24; Cfc f Ps. 72,3; - | f U h Ps. 49,21; Jftrtlh Luke 22, 32; +T*lh Matt. 2,14 &c. The Substantival Infinitives may be used both in the Nominative- and the Accusative-form, and they attach their Suffixes in these cases exactly like other nouns that end in consonants ( 154,6, a,(8), e. g. h^Ux* Yiao* Nomin., K t , ^ * f " h " Accus. On Suffixes in the case of Prepositions and other Particles v. infra, ( 167). 156. Lastly, as regards the signification of the Suffixes to use of the the Noun, they must in the first place be an expression of the i Genitive of the Pronoun (whether Subject-Genitive or Object- *" ' ^ " Genitive, 184), because they are related to the Noun as a sub- Apposition ordinate element to a Construct State (153). I n the large majority of cases this is the position which is actually met with. But just as ( 184) the Construct State serves at times to determine a word with greater exactness by means of the second element, and may therefore be KA employed even in those cases which other (*) Accordingly f 4*4 */^C ') Numb. 26, 63 is not in a good form, and
a j tfD
c e r t a n

Cod. C. gives a better one in ?iA't "44 / **^< ".

> ? ,D

360

157.

languages make use of the co-ordinate relation or Apposition (*), so too the Suffix to a Noun may annex a more exact determination to the Noun concerned. I n such a case it would he expressed in our languages as in apposition to the Noun, e. g. 6*ty\*, literally "a naked one of (or 'belonging to, or associated with a personality') I " , i. e. "naked I " or " I , naked". I n this way, just as the Accusative-, or Verbal-suffix, is also used with a Dative reference ( 151), a new signification of the Suff. Pron. has likewise branched off from the Genitive-, or Nominal-suffix. I n Ethiopic this practice of subordinating in form, as a Genitive-suffix, a Pronoun which is coordinate in meaning, predominates largely in one case: When a Personal noun, or an adjective expressing the condition of a Person, makes its appearance in free co-ordination, or as a predicate of a Personal Subject or Object in a sentence, it is not placed in the sentence in mere vacancy, but always in a form completed by the Suffix of the Person with which it is co-ordinated: 7"? bl& lit- "he fled a naked one, of a personality he", i. e. "he fled naked" Mark 1 4 , 5 1 ; ?OhK;<k% : 6~ty? "let them cast me down (as a) naked (one of a personality I)", i. e. "let them throw me down naked" Ps. 7 , 4 ; VtxffX. s ^ ^ J r l f " "they were naked" Gen. 2,25; 3, 7 (bd-ty, in fact, is used only in this way: v. also Gen. 1,2 Note; 3 , 1 0 ; Hen. 32, 6, et saepe); 't'lDAA'" dfll .4"he was born blind" John 9,1, 13; th : *HrHf* "he went away grieved" Mark 10, 2 2 ; Ps. 3 7 , 6 ; JrV *,flh : ^Hlfc flWllhx&fD^ : r h ^ h f l h ' WbOKm i . * # C h Matt. 18, 8, 9; h^HP *
0

hTbt i Josh. 8, 23; 7fl<5 s ofbti'fWu "remain a widow" Gen. 38,11 (where more exactly it should stand ^ r t f l U ) ; ^ft-H* Chrest. p. 42, line 20; : ^m-^fclftf*- G. Ad. 29,26; v. also in DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 1221. For other instances of this kind v. infra 163, 2; 172, 6; 189; and in the case of Numeral Adjectives 191.
l

I I . PRONOMINALS.

157. 1. We find in Ethiopic a few Compounds of Pronouns and Conceptional words, which take the place held by Pronominal words in other languages.
( ) Like K")B (Gen. 1 6 , 1 2 ) in Hebrew, or the Karma-dharaya Compounds in Sanskrit; [v. WILLIAMS' 'SanshrflTGr.' p. 281. T E . ]
1 l

157.

361

The conception "such" is expressed in Ethiopic, as in othern. pronomSemitic tongues, by means of the preposition \\ao ( 165)which expounds is itself of Pronominal origintogether with the Demonstrative and ConH or tn*P "this": Uaofl Hen. 25, 7; \\ao : n f - j : Gen. 41,38, Or ceptional with a Suffix Pron.: h 7f, h^lb &c. ( 167). I n both cases the ^ relative pron. may also be prefixed: Hh^Vlh literally who as he P
o f P r o n o u n 8 rd fa n g tne u
LACE H E L D

is" i . e. "such a"; Hh" H Matt. 17,21; A?tA h" *!! "for such" (Dat. pi.) Matt. 19,14.
D

by Pronominals
l n T o t h e r

--

'
1

Languages.

The idea "so great" is brought out by means of the Constr. St. (generally Accusative too) of tfOfn*} "measure", e. g. '/JR"? ?^* ftn^' ' V f l l i " ' AVC "faith ('of the size of) as great as a mustardseed" Matt. 17,20; /KAI* * (DC* HwmJ ft*C "a golden reed ('of the size of) as large as a rod" Rev. 11,1; similarly Luke 18,16; or with H or HI* appended, e. g. tfmVH "so great" Jas. 3,4; fl^flllH "for so much" Acts 5,8 ; or with the relative pron. prefixed also: HtffnVH "so great" (lit: 'which is according to the measure of this') Matt. 8,10; 15,33. I n like manner trofft, by leaving out the pron,, may also signify "how great", "how much" (in a relative sense or in a dependent question): " I will tell you * ' A*#AP (lit 'the measure of what') how much he has done for my soul" Ps. 65,15; Matt. 27,13; Ex. 19,4; in relative sense Gen. 34,12. I n order to convert it into an Interrogative, % "what?" or "how?" ( 63) is prefixed, which, at least in introducing a direct question, is indispensable: %Of (f\"j: *ihDft3i "how much will ye give me?" Matt. 26,15; "^tfUfli* " fHCO hldi fYl** * Matt. 16, 9; 15, 34; Gen. 30, 29; 47, 8; Ps. 118, 84; Hen. 89, 62.Notice also the peculiar word A*"J properly: "prominence", "size", which is used only as an Interrogative in the sense of "how much?" "how great?" Originally TtitlQTr*, from interrogative ft ( 63, b) and tl^t*, means properly, "what is the size of it?" i. e. "how much?" ( LUDOLF, 'Lex.' p. 188), "how often?" (G. Ad. 45,6); then, without an interrogative sign, A^V ("measure of", for A<P* s If) = "how often?" Matt. 18,21; and, finally, plain ACT "bow much or many?" in the Nom. ( LUDOLF, I. c). I n this case the interrogative force lies merely in the Tone.
a , 0

i-i

Conceptiona

2, So too there are several Conceptional words which are i words, only used when compounded with Suffix pronouns. These words Tomcontain in fact nothing but quite general conceptions of space, pounded measure or existence, and to that extent they stand always in need j , , .
o n g >

362

of a complement. This complement they should in strictness have subordinated to themselves by the Constr. State, just like many other conceptional words,blank in themslves,which ordinarily complete their meaning only by means of a second word ( 185) The words which are now to be described, however, have this peculiarity, that they are never completed by a conceptional word, but always by a Suffix Pronoun and by nothing else ( ). The following are of this class. The old Semitic word Vfv "entirety", "totality" still occurs occasionally in independent form, but only as an Adverb (frf*A# and \t*fi% "everywhere" and "in every direction", 160). I n other positions, however, it must always be completed by a Suffix, by means of which the completing notion is referred to, either beforehand or by way of addition. Then having been combined with its suffix into one word, it is always placed in free apposition beside the conceptional word to which it refers. As a rule, it is compounded with Suffixes of the third Person: Yf'A*?tf"A>VFA"" "? Ir^A"^; Accusative Vf*A" ( 154,b, a), Vf"A, YFA"" *, Vf'A"^- With the Singularsuffixes it signifies "all", "every", "the whole of"; with the Plural suffixes "all the". frf*A" may stand by itself, and then it means "everything", e. g. MH.fr If"A- "the Lord of all". However, it is generally connected with other nouns: Vf*A* *fl?iA. or OftA. Vf-A" "every man" or "all men"; Vf-A"" " 5'7/**)h "all kings", or
2 0 0 : ! 0 ! ,

"tf"";VM 9C or jP": "the whole earth";tfA"all living beings" &c. Properly the suffix should be regulated in gender and number by the conceptional word to which it refers. But often enough the Masc. form Yf"A* appears for the Fern. Yf*A, even when the reference is to conceptional words of the feminine 3 gender, as in yfA ao'}<*\p ^ Luke 11,17; and still more frequently the Singular Yf"A" appears in the expression of a Plural notion. Indeed any word may be continued in the Singular (and yet have a Plural force) alongside of Vf'A'jeven a word which in other positions never has a Collective meaning, just because tfA" itself expresses collectivity.Vf'Ar' flrhG "all seas" or "every sea". Even when the notion "all" (pi.) stands entirely alone, W*A* y
1 m a

( ) Such words occur in every Semitic language; cf. EWALD, Hebr. Spr. 209, c. f ) Like V^pl, m ^ > in Hebrew,

363

remain in the Singular: "all perished" tf'Ar f** or Yf"Atf*: f*. Many instances are also met with, in which Vf*A* is not adjusted to the Case of the word to which it belongs, but continues in its first form,particularly if it follows the word, inasmuch as the Case has been already indicated in that leading word and the whole relation between the two is only that of a loose co-ordination.Then too, this word may adopt all the other suffixes (with the exception of f), in the meaning "all of us" ("we all"), "all of you" &c; and it must assume these suffixes instead of those of the third Person, whenever the notion "all" (pi.) refers to the first or second Person: "we have all gone" Vf*AV faCh or thffli: Vf* A*#; so W-AVltf ' Matt. 23,8; Ps.2,10; tf-AVTJ; - W*M - ' From the Feminine formtf*A*lhsprung H'tYip* in the sense of "entirety", "totality", by the attachment of the Collective-forming a ( 140, I V ) and the insertion of 7 ( 58). This word in like manner appears only when completed by suffixes, and for the purpose of expressing the notion "whole", in the sense of "in the whole being": M'tit^'f " I wholly" ('my whole being'); tf-AlrHl "thou wholly" Luke 11,36; frtflptt* "the whole of him" Gen. 25,25; Hen. 72,40; tf*A1^lJ-s "the whole of thy body" Matt. 5,30; W*A^'/ "all of it (f.)" Gen. 13,15; : V f - A ^ l f ^ "in the direction of their entirety", i. e. "they in all directions", "they wholly" Rev. 4,8; W'A^^**/ AA.i* "the whole night" Ex. 14,20. The word fl/h-fcih "solitude" ( 120,) is always( ) combined with suffixes, to bring out the notion, "alone": fl/h't^P "my solitude" i. e. " I alone"; flA-fc^h "thee (acc.) alone" Ps. 50,5; fl/H -fc* "he alone" Josh. 22,20; \\?0* :flA-fc-fr> ^9M} Matt. 4,10; 10,42; 0/MrHfl<n- "you (two) alone" Matt. 18,15; afort$>aMatt. 17, 1; (Idi-fc^'} Gen. 21, 28. But still it keeps here and there its Substantive meaning: flflrh'fc'f'0 " "in their solitude", "when they were alone" Mark 4,10; [Kebra Nag. 97 a 11]. The word hT-^h, besides, (compare: gratis, Din "in vain") as Constr. St. h " ^ , "emptiness", "nothingness", has always the suffix of the third Person sing. masc. (like tfA*) ft}*, Acc. JfTJ^ to express "a thing of nought", "a vain thing" Ps. 38,8; 2,1. But it is chiefly employed as an adverb, either in the form or com0 A c c u s E x 1 6 3 & c > 2 0

( ) [FLEMMING'S reading here is Tff"As ( ) Cf. supra p. 360, 156

2

TR.]

b^ty.

364

158.

bined with fl as flh7l5 ( 163). On a few other words compounded with the suffixes of the third Person, which occur always as Adverbs, v. infra, 163; ibid, also on with suffixes.
III.
I I L

NUMERALS.

Numerals:1. Cardinal Numbers,

ye J

s a m e

158. The Numerals in Ethiopic are almost all of them the j the other Semitic languages. As regards therea s n

fore their Root-formation, and partly also their Stem-formation, enquirers may at this point be referred to the grammars of these other languages. 1. Cardinal Numbers (*). The Numeral for "one", according to its root and its stem, has the form t\d\^; and, just as in other languages, it is properly an Adjective. When therefore it is connected with a Feminine conception, it assumes the Feminine termination: hth't' (for K r h J t ' i h 54). I t no longer occurs, however, in these bare forms ( ), but, like the demonstrative pronouns, it becomes a Personal Numeral by the attachment of the termination u for the Masculine, and % for the Feminine, so that the actual Numeral for "one" has always the form ftrhJ?. (masc.) or hdi'ti (fern.). I t takes the Accusative, by changing, like the Pronouns, u or i into a: frffi&, ftrfW"- I t is quite as incapable of taking the form of a Construct State as the Pronouns( ) are; and accordingly "one of them", and the like, must be expressed as "one from them" hth%* * h9Urf &c. The Numeral for "two", employed by the rest of the Semitic languages, is indeed found in Ethiopic also, in a few scattered expressions like flV-Jfj "the second day" ('of the week or of the month') and fl^Th "the following day", but it has passed out of use as a Numeral proper. I n its stead a fresh Numeral, viz. ftATb meaning properly "a pair", and in form a Dual, 131,has been derived from the root ilAfr ("to separate", "to divide", "to hold back from anything", "to hinder"). This numeral has
2 3 m

( ) On the diptosis of the Cardinal Numbers from "one" to "ten" v. BARTH, Z D M G X L V I , p. 691 sq.For the accentuation v. TBTJMPP, p. 558. ( ) A Plural ttthH't "uniones" (i. e. Numbers from one to ten, 'units'), v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex:, is met with, Abush. (Abushakeri opus Chronographieum), 11.
2

( ) Cf., however, ftrf,>, varj^gh^

Mark 10, 37.

 points of connection with

365

I t occurs still,

and ^^.f,

now and then, quite independently, as Subject or Predicate, in the sense of "a pair" or "two", e. g. ffiAft* ,ft'/,AW. "two shall be" Matt. 24,40; s HftAh. s hfalh "a sword whose edge is two" (i. e. 'which has two edges' or "a two-edged sword") Ps. 149,6; or again it may, in the form of a Construct State, be completed by a Genitive, and then it generally takes suffixes, as in "flAJbV; jflA KYl****, * l A M l " > , h A ^ l f " 0 - , *flAfclT>, to express the notion "both of us", "both of you", "both of them". But it may also, and this is the usual case,be connected, by mere apposition, with the idea, of which the two-fold character has to be declared, just like the other Numerals (v. infra), e. g. jf]Afr> &*fe4 (Acc.) Gen. 48,1. Now as gender cannot be expressed with the form Jf|Ah> the Feminine termination * (*) was applied, following the analogy of the other Numerals, and to this modified form u for the Masc. and % for the Fern, were added, (exactly as in ftrhJ?)> whence we have masc. h A J b i v fcm. faAJb"fc "two", and an Acc. "flAhi" for both masc. and fern. When the gender has to be distinguished with precision, one of these two forms is made use of; but when the gender is either of no consequence, or is quite obvious from the context, then even "flA?t> may be employed. I n loose diction we often have faAJi*fc> as the readiest form, even with names of things and notions which by grammatical gender are feminine. The remaining Numerals from 3 to 10 are as follows:
C A R D I N A L NUMBERS.

3-10. Masc. 3. iWVft* a Fern. b /"Aft

4
5.

hcnd*
^9tl*

head
-Ttfft ftfr

6. tltl* 7. d-no*
8 AaV}*

ft-fld
t i n *tid

ft-ft

9. *tlO* or *tlO* 10. owe*

1 ,

*tlO* or*tlO*

C ) VlAJi")h "the being two",an abstract form.

.366

158.

A l l these Numerals are originally Substantives. True, in their earliest form and expression they had assuredly no Feminine ending; but at a pretty early stage Abstracts were formed out of them by means of the Feminine termination (in all the Semitic tongues), and this type became the usual one. I n still later times, when these words were no longer put in due connection, like Substantives by means of the Constr. St., but like Adjectives by way of apposition, the gender also began to be distinguished in them. The form which was most in use at that time, viz. that which had the Feminine ending, was retained for the first or Masculine gender, while the ancient form or a newly fashioned shorter form, without the Fern, ending, was employed for the Feminine gender. I n this general process of development Ethiopic agrees entirely with the other Semitic languages. But as regards individual forms, the form, contrived by means of -J*, seldom occurs now in this naked shape, as e. g. in A'flO*!" Josh. 6,13, although it could not be avoided in those cases at least in which the Numeral in the Constr. St. had to govern a Genitive, 191, or to attach Suffixes to itself, e. g. i ^AA'tW^ " literally "their 'three'" i. e. "the three of them"; A 'fl0 *fclF< "the (aforesaid) seven" Mark 12, 22; OwC'tV*** ' 4 Esr. 3,60. As a rule, these Numbers are no longer connected as Substantives in the Constr. St. with the numbered object, but as Adjectives and by means of apposition, 191. They are accordingly converted from Abstracts into Attributive words, by the attachment of the Pronominal ending %(*), exactly like JrjA/b'fc; and when they take the Accusative case, they change this u into a:IPAA*|2, i ^ A A i * &c. I n fashioning these forms, furnished with a feminine *\*, a long vowel occurring in the ground-form must be shortened ( 36): i *AA^ from l*AA> rt^'J'lh from A*"?*} or A ? ^ , and hence wAft't, A< *}'fc- And yet in Judges 3,8, 14 we meet also with A T } " h (Ace). The two forms A'fUH-" i'tlO'fc,
0 |,H 0 0 w>

O t ^ A A ^ is "the Three" (abstract Subst.), W'Aft'l- "three" (attributive word). I t is true, one is apt to conceive of u as an ordinary Suff. Pron. and to explain f^AA'f
2

according to 157 as "three of it".

But this is a

wrong conception; for in that case the Accusative would be bound to have the form V A A * ^ , which is not the case; and, besides, JflAJb"fc would be inexplicable. ^t'p Rather is the formation the same as when a Demonstr. Pron. *|3 "he" with" a Personal meaning is formed from the root f*. Cf. also frf| supra, p. 360, 157,1.

367

constructed in accordance with 127, a, frequently pass into A H d i v 't'fld'UC) in accordance with 47, sub fin. Then, in the numeral "nine" 'flW't is made use of quite as much as 'tilO't. For "eight" a form A ^ k l * is also met with, 1 Pet. 3,20 ; Gen. 46,22, preserving the I, from A ^ f c (nibtf) ( ). The form which is used as a Feminine, but which is Masculine in its type, is constructed from the foregoing form in by throwing off the *t and reducing the word to its original, radical constitution. Two varieties are possible: 1.Recourse may be had to the obsolete ground-form, for the purpose of re-introducing it into use, whence come I P A A , ( 18 sub fin.); hC(\d,
2

( ), Eton,

; ft-ft, JLu (cf. <j<>U); A*nfl 30 [Kebra Nag. ; *ti\b andA'tld,

p. X V I I ] ; fl"7Jr Josh. 21,39, Numb. 35,7, m b f ,

VWft;

OP'C (*) "I'^X?- 2. Or an entirely new form may be fashioned, after the manner of Nouns of the First simple formation, as has been noted in the above list, in the second column of Feminine forms. This form, however, is not in very great favour. One or two examples are met with, as in 1 Kings 7; Deut. 3,11; Ex. 37,1; Ruth 3,15 ; but it is chiefly used to form Numeral Adverbs ( 159). Of the Fern. Numbers of the First form, those which do not end with a vowel, or do not have a long vowel in the last syllable, usually take u, for the purpose of becoming Attributive words, exactly as the Masc. Numbers do. Thus we have ft A* (for ft*A) sessu, (VftfJ., 'tilth or ^ft0( ), OP ***; probably *TrJPft may also be formed; 0/**G also appears as a side-form to Of^*. For "three", "four", "five", "eight" the forms iMl'p, hCdd't, ^9 ft*fo tlfv'i'fc are more generally used in association even with Feminine words, unless when a preference is given to IPAA? hC OA, "iJP'ft, A " ? ^ . But while an Accusative may still be formed for Masc. Numbers ending in 'fc, the forms ftft, Afl0v 'tilth
5 3

(*) LUDOLF held these forms to be the original ones. ( ) [On the relation between Jlibt^, J ^ o l , ^U^?
2

A " ? ^ f- PHILIPPI,

'Beitr. z. Assyr.' I I , p 364, Note ***, and PRAETORIUS, ZDMG L V I , p. 695.] ( ) Occasionally written also
4

9tl ( 48). ( ) Occasionally written also 'i/^'Q ( 48).

3

( ) Josh. 21,16; 15,57.

368

158.

and as a rule also 0/^4 0)> have become indeclinable, and even in the Accusative and before Suffixes they retain their u (Numb. 8,2). But no doubt **fjPf| and the entire Second series of the Fern. Numbers may enter upon the Accusative by appending a. For the Tens, from 20 to 90, a Plural-form should have been expected, according to the analogy of the other Semitic tongues. I n fact they appear to have been formed at one time from the original ground-forms of the units by attaching the Masculine Plural-ending iw( ); but in later times, because they no longer distinguished Cases or Genders, they allowed the Nasal at the end to disappear ( 58)( ). Accordingly we have:Wf[fi 30, hC-Ht 40 (for hCXM, 45), -\rh 50, M 60 (for f)-fl), rtlJ 70, 80, i-tlt 90 (e. g. Luke 15,4, 7; Matt. 18,12, 13) or ^ftJ (e. g. Gen. 17,17). The form derived from 10, bP*&* (never Of**lr) serves, not for 100, but for 20,a special word being used for 100.
2 3

The Numeral 100 is fh*\ Constr. St. and Acc. 9hi*; Plur. hfh?t ( 136,2, c). The Semitic word for 1000 ftA^ has in Ethiopic rather the meaning 10,000; Constr. St. and Acc. h&&*\ Plur. hhW, Plur. of Plur. hhM-*- fh* and &A<h are both Substantives originally, but they are usually associated with the object numbered, by mere co-ordination, like all the other Numerals ( 191). ftCfl'fl and tSffl* "myriads" are obsolete forms, very seldom used ( 136,2, b; 134, c,/?). ftA? can be used in Ethiopic for the number 1000, only when the notion merely of a great number has to be signified, and exact enumeration is not required: thus e. g. in Deut. 33,17 both juvpidZsg and xiXiabeg are translated by hh^i^'too in Dan. 7,10:hh*i<L' hh*l 4** (D^h&d** ^ " K A ^ ^ yffoou xikiabs; ml juvpiai juvpiddsg; cf. Hen. 40,1 ( ) [and Kebra Nag. 141 b 18]. I n more exact numerical expression 1000 must be signified by OwQ*' Ifh't = 10 X100;
s o 4

DILLMAHK'S 'Lex.', col. 959. ( ) [The corresponding Assyrian forms, however, ending likewise in a, are not in favour of this theory.] ( ) Much as the Personal-ending u in the case of the verb came from an original un, urn.For the accentuation v. TRUMPP, p. 558.
2 3

C) V., however O/^Ci,

(*) [FLEMMING

reads here

hMA

hh*i<

(D th6ld*'fr

^hA

TO.] [For another word for '1000 ',^/h, v. Kebra Nag. p. X V I I . ]

369

thus 2000 is bFfr ' VhH*, 3000 w\t\: and so on. 100,000 is 0 I P C * and 1,000,000 rh* " ht\* When numbers have to be compounded by way of addition, the larger number generally comes first, and the smaller one is almost always joined on with <D. As regards the numbers 1119, it calls for special notice that like genders and forms are combined in all cases:0iPCfc * 0)hth^ 11, OwCt (B\\&h*'b 12, 0l* C * IDlPAft* 13 & c ; or 0 / " < . : (Dhdi-t, Of^ fDJFlAh. (Josh. 21,7, 38), on* i OWAA &c.; or A / ^ C (D/^Aft, A / ^ C * <DG"flA &c. When numbers are compounded by way of multiplication, the smaller precedes the larger, and of course withoutfl>: ft A M : 9hrlr 200, 0 i * C * tDhdif}* i J ^ h ^ HOO, or 0/**4-1 IDKrh-t HOO &c. 159. 2. Derived Numerals. (a) Numeral Adjectives or Ordinals are derived, in the form 2. Derived of an Act. Part. ( 109, a) which is no longer much used for any ^ordinal' other purpose, from the ground-form, just as in Arabic [and Assyrian], and in fact from the tri-radical root-form, without regard to any firmer vowels, or to any fourth letter attached to the commencement or the end of the root and established in the ground-form; thus "/Aft, &c. For "the first" an adjective is used which has been formed according to 117 from the V^^tro, namely for "the second" either the word l) A X "the other", confined indeed for the most part to cases in which only 'two' are spoken of (alter),or the word ftd'fl, already becoming obsolete, from the V ^dfl "to be double",or,and this is the word most
s N u m b e r s

used,

(&.ia 1,2 "to repeat", cf. i&L<>, ^ 3 I V , V I I I ) .

;

The Feminine of all these Participial forms is fashioned by appending H"- h A M " , S*7?lh "fAfl^ &c. But, following a formative tendency which is peculiarly active in the construction of Numerals, and perhaps also because the old Participial form had otherwise gone out of use in the tongue, these Adjectives have acquired new forms, brought about by attaching terminations. The Participial form, in fact, attaches to itself either the long ending dun, Fern, awit ( 119,6): "iM^, ^fAAU ^h shorter ending ai, to which a Fern, it or awit corresponds, in accordance with 129, b, : \ A A , "fAA.^ or " / A A ^ From J J W also both these forms are contrived, but not from IlAX- I n very rare
o r t n e

24

370

159.

instances we have the form J|dfl*g from Jifl'fl- Along with *S\"% we have from 4*19 the forms 4*i 7 E l4 * ^ * * 7 J S ? but in the Fern, only M'Ttf"- Thus:
a l a n (

O R D I N A L NUMBERS. 1-10.

Masc.
1. l. w x 2. 1.

Fern.
2.

2. ^79
3. fAft
4.

"/A4J& 4r4
4-rW
Ajr v<e
A W J R

W W f A M "

"/AA^*

5. 2 ?A 6. 4 A 7. 4-nd 8. A S ^
9. 10.

MM.*

4-nW

fhd
V C

Wilt

^A9

Wit*

The Cardinal Numbers usually appear for the Ordinals also, in the case of the Tens, just as in other Semitic languages ("the thirtieth year" = "the year thirty"): \\ao : wt\t\lh s Afl>Cl "on the thirtieth of the month",(lit. 'at the time of the thirty of the month') LUDOHF, Lex.' col. 333. But yet there occurs, besides, an Adjective-form in aim: 20, A / * % ^ g ; 30, i>444>; 40, hCHlHi;
l 1

50,

-\rti<Z,

60,

ftAe,

70,

rt-fl'J'e;

so,

A*W4!;

9 0

> - M M

On the other hand no Adjective-forms are derived from 9f\* or KA Number of (^) ^he Ethiopians have peculiar forms for the days of the the Day of week and of the month ( ). From a Pass. Part, of the type *7ft-C
1

the Week or Month,

a Substantive Noun is derived afresh by the interpolation of an a after the first radical (so that if *7ftG = then 1ft*C is == Jji*li)> with the force of a Substantive like Trsvrdg, s/3hojudg &c. (cf. 109,3, b){ ). Thus, A V " t h e second day (of the week or of the month)" ( ); IPAA "the third"; fl A "the fourth"; *lra*A
2

O ()
3
2

C / . EWALD, 'Or. Ar.', 364. Cf. EWALD, 'ITe&r. Spr.' 152, c.

( ) Hence too the Fern. A3t*K while A f c * (postera dies) conies from

371

"the fifth"; flAJ.fl "the sixth"; flftA "the seventh"; floo-^ "the eighth (day of the month)"; -fA-A "the ninth"; Oo*C "the tenth". The "first" (day) of the week is ftrh. (for hdt*f:, on account of the Aspirate fa.); the "first" of the month ('summit'); hence the "eleventh" of the month is 0 IPC (Dh^G Numb. 7,72; so Ou^Ci ffl/A'fi Acts 27,27; 0IACJ tD^a^tl Lev. 23,6. These forms make no distinction between genders (*), and may be used quite independently without the word "day" being placed beside them: fiOu+'C <DQrd "in 14 days" Hen. 78,6; or else they may, like other numerals, be connected with the object numbered, by way of co-ordination, They are nearly always used, in place of the other numerals, whenever days, months or hours are numbered, e. g. Vfl^ : Of s Afr-P i ao*Pd(i "he tarried there ('a two-days') two days" John 11,6; i*>A*A> AAi"* <Di*A*A* AA/f* "three days and three nights" (lit 'a third day and a third night') Matt. 12,40; 15,32; John 2,19; Luke 13,14; John 20,26; Gen. 7,4, 10; 8,10; 24,55; Ex. 7,25; 20,9; Lev. 15,13; even <ro<PAA s rjrmglD^ft-0 "364 days" Hen. 72,32. I n like manner they stand for Numeral Adjectives, when days are enumerated: XID : flm*"} AA*ih "on the eighth day" Luke 1, 59; 2,21; but a complementary Suffix of the 3 pers. sing. Masc. is usually attached in that case (as with tf-A- &c, 157): ban , 0 ^ 4 . (DdO-lh AA/)h Acts 27,27 (Old) (v. also 191). I n rare instances they are employed in enumerating other objects than divisions of Time, Hen. 77,8( ).
3 , s rd s 2

(c) To express Numerals in the sense of Manifoldness (Mid- Muitipiicatiplicatives), Passive Participles of the type *?ftG may be used. For since verbs even may be derived from the Numbers 110, according to 77, a Passive Participle may also be formed: /^A 'ft "threefold, triple", "triangular", "triune"; Cfl-A "fourfold", "quadrangular" &c. For "two" in this application \}0"(\ "double" is used.
t l v e s -

Farther, Substantives of the type ^-l-flCtf" ( H I ) and -^7 - f l ^ and still more commonly of the type j r ^ - f l C ^ and {P^Ml a-Th( ), are derived, to express "Multiplicity" and "the Manifold"
3

C ) And yet we read in Matt. 27,46: A W ' 'frh'O^ (i*A- M") "the ninth hour". ( ) [FLEMMING here reads A*fl0"7 the cardinal numeral, instead of DILLMANN'S ordinal AO*0 (ace), TR.] ( ) Being in fact, first of all, Passive Participles of the type OOHG^Q 24*
1 2 3

<

372

159.

Abstract Numerais.

n i t y

Numeral Adverbs.

(properly, "the product"). Hence: ih/^Afl* "threefold" and "Trinity"; ^C-fld* "fourfold" Luke 19,8; Ex. 21,37; ^HjPfl* "five-fold" Ex. 21,37; W/^C* "ten-fold"; *ftA<t* "ten-thousandfold" =10,000 (Hen. 21,6; 40,1; 71,8, 13 & c ) ; or {PY^Afl* "threefold"; i^lJPfl* "five-fold" Gen. 43,34; Th'dX* "sevenfold", 9hAi* "ten-thousand-fold" Ps. 67,18. I n the Accusative these Substantives are used adverbially ( 163): 9/"Aft* "threefold" Deut. 19,3; *Ofld* "fourfold"; n^tli* "five-fold"; fH^t "seven-fold" Ps. 11,7; 78,13; *d/"C* "ten-fold" Is. 6,13. Prom the number "two" is formed hflfl* "the double" ('doubling') and lid04* "twofold" (Adv.), and also from the same root JFy)dfl /lh "doubling" in the general sense of "multiplying", "multiplied". This last word may be combined with any number, to express "manifoldness": { P h i * ' J^Vldfl/f* "an hundredfold" Gen. 26,12; Matt. 19,29; Luke 8,8; l\d(\* s 9\l6l\Jlr "double" Rev. 18,6; -fllM : 9\l6i\* "manifold" Luke 18,30; % ^YldiX* Hen. 91,16; FlndlX* fcA<hi h9hM< Rev. 9,160even % 9\\bi\$")r ' *?UC* Hen. 93,10. Simpler expressions are met in flu*44 "thirtyfold", fl{J?i*Jh "an hundredfold" Mark 4,20. (d) Abstract Numeral Substantives are given in /^AA. "Tri . ^ ^ f l , "the Five"; ft-fll, "the Seven", "Week" ( 120,$), also in jJ-Vfft ( 111, j3). (e) To express Numeral Adverbs in the signification of 'so so-many-times', the Cardinal number of the second Fern, type ( 158) is put in the Accusative: /*"Aft "thrice" Matt. 26,34; Hen. 65,2; l ^ f t "five times" 2 Cor. 11,24; ftfl0 "seven times" Gen. 4,15: or,and this may be said to be still more frequent, that form is left entirely uninflected and is used in that guise as an adverb ( 163): ft-flfl "seven times" (of very frequent W l * 7 n C ^tf*7flC(H6,/S&),
a

( 116, y), or names of things, of the type increased next by the Fern, ending *

or it ( 120, a), before which cro is re-

duced to jT*. O [It is much more likely that j^jfldfl/f" occurs here in its particular meaning of "double", and not in its general sense of "so-many-fold", for it comes before, instead of after, the other numerals, and it purports to be a
translation of ovo /x.vpia%eg jj.vpiubv. ^ T R . ]

 159.

__

373

occurrence). For "once", 9d is employed ( ^ x i , S^o) Mark 14,41; 7,27; Titus 3,10; or (\9dC although the latter properly means

"all at once" Cant. 4,9; or hth't (SJ^Ij) Judges 6,39; 16,18. For "twice", hflfl Titus 3,10, or or Jffao. For higher as well as for lower numbers a periphrasis may also be employed by means ofT .lt ("time", "hour", "turn"): iPAft +s 7.H, "thrice"; hCQdi*' ^hi*' T.H. "four hundred times", or i*>AA4*-' XU.f't "thrice". 7.H, may also be left out, i f the meaning is clear from the context: fcffi " flfl A-flA "70X7 times" Matt. 18,22; A'flO'h "seven times" Josh. 6,16. Or 9\\0{{Jt is used (v. supra c). , I n answer to the question, 'For which time?'.the Ordinal is given, either in the neuter with the preposition fl, e. g. Aft "for the third time" Luke 23,22; M19 "for the second time" Matt. 18,1.6 (but also ftAfl Luke 23,20, or fflao), flA-flA Job 5,19; also in the Fern, and Ace, e. g. jSWlAi* "for the fourth time" Numb. 10,6;or as a Personal by way of Apposition to the Person to whom the action is ascribed as repeated for suchand-such a number of times, e. g. "thou strikest me VU* t A f t h HTft for now the third time" Numb. 22,28: v. infra 191. (f) The part of the whole (or Aliquot Fraction) is usually Fractional expressed by (T) "hand", more rarely by fr^T-A "division" Hen. 78,4, with the Ordinal number in Masc. or Fern, form: 4--flA^h * h&J ' A ? J t C "the fourth part of the earth"; A - f W * h Hen. 73,3; M M " 73,5; pA-f- h&tb (Acc.) Lev. 5,16; Gen. 47,24, 26; 'ifC't * h Lev. 6,13. But the Ordinal is often put in the Constr. State:fafib^r ' h "the fourth, as to the part" = "the fourth part", e. g. Rev. 6,8; v. also 191; thus V ^ - K ) h "a tenth part" Gen. 14,20; 28,22; Matt. 23, 23. "Two parts" are also given as jPhAfl /lh Deut. 21,17. Fractional Numbers are e. g. r 't'hVlVi* "three-fifths" Hen. 78,7; (HI %% "by sevenths" Hen. 74,3. [Cf. also Hen. 73,68]. (g) To express the idea "so many each" (Distributives) in DiaWbunumbers, Ethiopic has no special formation. Repetition of the numeral, first of all, does duty instead, at least in the case of uncompounded numerals: hthf^i hfh-H* txth't'- hth"& "singuli,
s s N u m b e r s 1

(') V . on this word supra, p. 259 Note^).

374

singulae" Hen. 72,1, 3; 7,1; 89,59; Gen. 40,5 0); JnAJi, "hAk Gen. 7,9; 15,2, 3; Afld* : Afld* (acc.) Gen. 7,2, 3 ( ). When this is not practicable, or is regarded as too prolix, the Prefix-Particles fl, AT H are employed in a double form, as flfl, AA> If If Of these forms HH may be used only when a Genitive relation, or a Relative clause is already present in the case, e. g. V/"h fl^hi* * -tihiu * hfol ' i HH * r h A * A c D * i wKahp&: Ah i HH * 0/"<- r h A * JtAflJ* "the man took ear-rings of gold, each an ounce in weight, and bracelets for her hands, each ten ounces in weight" Gen. 24,22; cf. also Gen, 34,25; 37,7; 43,21. So too, when the prepositions fl and A would have been used, even had there been no distributive meaning, the double form of these is obviously the proper form to express the distributive "each": flfl: A A A * "for a penny each a-day" Matt. 20,2; Hen. 34,2; AA 6 "to every one" Matt. 25,15; Hen, 7 , 1 ; Judges 11,40 ( ). But these last two prepositions, fl and A? may also be placed, in the double form, before any other word in the sentence, be it Subject or Object, or in any other reference,for the purpose of expressing dvd, Kara: IDV/^h* ' flfl ' *iSC "and they received dvd Zyvapiov or a penny each" Matt. 20,9, 10; (D(D Ufltf**-: Ol>~W * flfl V I A J H * "and he gave them each two vestments" (literally: "garments by the pair") Gen. 45,22; 'Yiftx' flfl OWQ* ' AOH : AA i { P f t * "we will take (by way of ten
2 s 3

( ) [That Y\fh%* Y\\f$* ( ) y ^o be employed in the sense of "some" or "a few" is shown by a passage in 'Le Livre des Mystres du Ciel et de la Terre (ed. PERRUCHON), p. 1 8 , 1 . 1 4 ; cf. PRAETORITJS, ZDMG L V I I I , p. 488.]
x m a a

( ) Other words too are repeated in like manner to express "singuli"

"fltA. 'flftA.
2

viri singuli", "every man" Judges 8 , 2 4 ; 1 7 , 6 ;

V*7|* : >*7l|
1

"every morning" Ex. 3 6 , 3 ; 2 Kings 1 3 , 4 ; Kings 3 , 1 ;

8,10.
3

**jfl " "fl

"more and more"

\\ao

\\ao

LUDOLF, 'Lex.' col. 397;

Yl9d

Ex.

( ) In older Manuscripts

A?tA is

s 0 m e

^ with, instead of

AA>

which

is to be judged of in accordance with 140 sub fin.; e. g. instead of A A ' A "to every man", we meet with AKA "twelve princes Gen. ' b, whereby / is raised to the Plural,
S

Gen. 42,25 Note, 47,12 Note, 49,28 Note. "We farther come upon the expression

AKA

(instead of

AA

fhHfl.lP*' " for their

*~

several tribes" XA

25,16, in which the Collective rhH" "their tribe" is raised by

to a new Plural with a distributive force.

375

men') ten men out of every hundred" Judges 2 0 , 1 0 ; flA> s flfl: g "they begin to say one by one" Matt. 2 6 , 2 2 ; HAA H.hO* * th*! cpao* ('whose maladies wereso to speak/car' /oYav') "each of whom had his own special disease" Matt. 4 , 2 4 &c. (h) To express the ideas Trprov, hsvrspov, rpfaov ("in the first, second or third place") we find hih, flAft;*", iAA^* Sir. 2 3 , 2 3 (the Subj. is Fem. gen.).

Expressions

i x o v

F O R M A T I O N O FW O R D S O F R E L A T I O N .
Under this title Adverbs, Prepositions and Conjunctions fall to be specially dealt with. I . ADVERBS.
1. A D V E R B S DERIVED FROM PRONOMINAL ROOTS.

160. 1. Adverbs of Demonstrative meaning. (a) The most general particle in this class had originally the Adverbs form of V ( 62) "there!" "see there!" as if pointing to an trative object. I t no longer, however, occurs in this short form, but only " ^ i c f e a as a Compound. 1. I t may be compounded w ith the a (hd) of of Demondirection ( 143), as *0 (Ps. 79, 3; Gen. 4,8 Note; Herrn. 82 a, 13); ** ? 0 4Esr. 3,26 (KNIG, p. 136); Mark 10,21 (Rom. ed.); or, usually, Y$ = "hither", "come", always employed by way of summons or incentive, corresponding to hsvpo or "epyov Matt. 19,21; 8,9; 9,18; 14, 28 and equivalent to "come now!" "up!" e. g. Rev. 6, l ( ) . As it is always used by way of command or summons, it is conjugated just like an Imperative ( ),in particular, taking the 2 pers. fern, sing., (Gen. 19, 32; John 4, 16), as well as the 2 pers. pi. masc, 1(h (Matt. 11,28; 21,38; Ps. 9 4 , 1 ; Judges 16,18), and fern. "}<J (and Y<J Matt. 28, 6). A verb usually appears along with it, e. g. Gen. 11,4; yet i*J even by itself yields complete sense: tf)'}0- s *Tffl,f "and hither to me!" (i. e. "come ye to me!") Gen. 45,18. 2. I t may also be compounded with Suffix Pronouns in the Acc.-subordination (i. e. as Verbal Suffixes).
8

nd

nd

( ) Cf. also TRUMPF, p. 559, and 'Sitzber. d. k. bayer. Ah. d. W: 1877, p. 119 sqq. ( ) Cf. in HebrewEWALD, 'Hebr. SprJ 101, c.
2

376
st

160.

With the suffix, however, of the 1 pers. sing, the form is not >fc but VP (doubtless to avoid in this case repetition of the n) = "there I am!" or "here I am!" i. e. "see! I am here!" Matt. 8,7; Acts 9,10; Hebr. 10,7; Ps. 39,10; or is even combined with a repetition of the pronoun M " I " , as in : Mrd Gen. 22,1, 11; 27,18. I t appears also with the suffix of the 3 pers. sing. masc. as VlM ) (having the a lengthened by the tone and the aspirate) "there he is!" or "there i t is!", and, generally, "behold!" e. g. Ps. 7,15; Gen. 19,8; Matt. 10,16; 15,22. The suffixes y, Iftfi*-, If"} it takes, in their truncated form, , m, n; but then, in accordance with 41, it lets a separating semivowel be heard between itself and them, thus "behold her!" John 19,27; Luke 19,20; Gen. 12,19, or }<p. Usually however V*P has a neuter sense and is thus equivalent to Vl> "behold!" John 19,5, 26; Luke 17,21, 23; Matt. 11,19; 24, 23,26; Ps. 51,6; farther >f<n- "behold them!" Mark 3,32,34; Acts 5,25; and }f'} "behold them (/".)!" Gen. 19,8. st nd I t is not in use with the suffixes of the 1 pers. Plur. or 2 pers. Flur. Another particle ( ), which is used like Y} in the sense "there!", is lt\*} Q n > Hin), from the same root as the foregoing, but with the pronunciation an ( 62) or en; whence hTrYl** ' "there! you!" = Xasrs Matt. 26,26, also by way of incentive or summons like There are, besides, several other short enclitic particles of indication, from the same stem. The particle V, which hitherto has only been met with as an affix to the preposition and conjunction Jifth "till", expresses direction, ht\Wl "as far as": hMfi OdAl "as far as the west" Ps. 49,2; 112,3; Malachi 1,11; h9(i 4lh ' hllto ' htM Ex. 13,2; htlM ^ f l OX<*> * ^tUtl Judges 15,14; htltfi ChJlP** * Hen. 89, 5, 8, 75. I t is perhaps merely a shortened form from the fuller fc, which still occurs with the Accusative of direction: O^M* : httrfrk "to one place", or (John 11,52) hth'l'i. alone, "in one", "into one place" (v. L U D O L F , Lex? col. 332) ( ). Corresponding in meaning to thisfc,but formed from another root ( 62), is % "there", "here", in use still as an
1 2 0 s 0 k 3

( ) Hence the Amhai-ic

2 3

"he is".
1

( ) On the other hand h*\fiahiKeEx. 4,19 is scarcely in this class. ( ) I n the view of PEAETOEIUS, 'Amh. Spr. p. 197 this \ or % is considered to have become the ordinary Accusative^sign in Amharic.

 160.

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affix to Vf"A "universality": tf"A# "everywhere", but Accusative Yf*A2 "in every direction"; Otf"A "everywhere" Ex. 40,32; ftjp W-A2 "from every quarter" Mark 1,45; ?i$Ptf-A#, with the same meaning, Hen. 28, 2. And just as the form V alternated with , so was it also at one time with the forms y and %, cf. 143 and 163. (b) Independent Adverls of Place and Time. To this Independclass belong, in the first place, UPC), "there", "thither", and "HP Adverbs of "here", "hither". These two particles in this form have probably come from % and ft, (cf. what is given under (a); cf. also infra H, in JE-XH.). E x a m p l e s : " h e r e " Matt. 14,17; 26,36; "hither" Matt. 8,29; 14,18; Of "there" Mark 11, 5; "thither" Rom. 15,24. Both of them are also compounded with prepositions:flUP Matt. 13,42; RHP Matt. 17,4; ftSPtfp "thence" Matt. 11,1, also of time Hen. 38,6; JiS^UP 5ftfttl UP &c. To point to what is more remote, the language has a derivative from h, formed with the / of direction, which is here hardened into rh ( 62), h*h and h*h "to yonder place" Matt. 26, 36; Numb. 17,2; or with prepositions: ^ f l s Ylth "to yonder place" Matt. 17,20; also flhrh "in yonder place" Heb. 7,8; h9*Ylth Josh. 8,22. Besides, from hih "to yonder place" a word for "in yonder place" or "there" may be formed by appending h a second time, \}thYl "there" Luke 17,21, 23; Matt. 24, 23; Gen. 19,9; whence IttlPfc 0)(\UthU'/. "here and there"; also in the sense of ultra, supra, v. D I L L M A N N ' S Lex.\ col. 823. XH is treated as an Adverb of Time, "just now", "now". I t is a compound of fjfi ( 65) and an adverb H ,f), which certainly at one time referred to Place, and was merely transferred to Time. I t is in very frequent use, compounded also with prepositions: X^JE-XH. "from this time forward"; fcfth . ftH. "till now". Meanwhile it is employed not merely for the Time which is present to the speaker, but for a present Time in the future or in the past, like the Hebrew e. g. Hen. 38,4; 50,5. Other A d verbs of Time must be expressed by periphrasis: "thereafter" hSPU, 7tx9Vl, h9%th (Hen. 83,10: 89,19), h9^6TH*
p l a c e a n d i

O [In older M S S . Jntrod., p. X V I . ]

2

; v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex: col. 13; cf. also Kebra Nag.

( ) Formed from the V*\[, like y, and fc. "With respect to the termination, all three may be compared with the Hebrew n*K, VK, 'JTDD.

378

161.

and the like; "at that time" hVi, h + - %\%, flfl-h* " AA. & C 161. 2. Interrogative Adverbs and Adverbs of Relative Meaning. (a) Interrogative Adverbs. 2. interEthiopic has no introductory particles ( ), such as other Adverbs Semitic tongues have, to mark a sentence generally as an interrogative one, and thus introduce a question in the absence of a Eeiative more definite interrogative Adverb.It has only a few short par^ 7 tides, in particular and which are appended to some word .rogative j in the Interrogative sentence, like, for instance, ne in Latin. On Adverbs. ^ degree of difference between these two, compare 198. They seem originally to mean "it", in the sense of "it (is the case)" ( ); and they have gained their interrogative force through their enclitic position conjoined with the tone: *i\9 Y V* Matt. 9, 28 "you believe;(is) that (the case)?" = "do ye believe?" M * V - H Kit Matt. 11,3 "thou art he that should come;(is) that (the case)?" or "(is it) so?" = "art thou he that should come?" (On the use of these Interrogative particles in certain Conditional Clauses, e. g. flfltf- : {Ab\ s A*? s Afc0AhV "if we had forgotten the name of our God" &c. Ps. 43,22, v. 205). The particle Y> is often attached also to fuller and more definite Interrogatives. like JP*'}'h, JiJ&'fc, ItxGH &c. I f V- comes in contact with the vowelless 1 of a Verb, only one 1 is written:;l" 7ftY "wilt thou destroy?" Gen. 18,28; on the other hand, in the case of the Noun we have JJ'Ir'JV- "is he well?" Gen. 29, 6, because it has to be pronounced ddhn nu( ). Por the alternative interrogation, Ethiopic has lD 7t*w, literally "and what perhaps?" i. e. "or?", compounded of "% and tro ( 63). Por the dependent interrogation, hao is employed, properly "if", and then "whether". On this word cf. 198.
x a n d g : ( t e r e 2 0 M 0 0 a e 3 a

O Like n, X ( ) One is greatly tempted, of course, to put in the same class as T and ne and num. But as | > (from *[i 62) is manifestly formed in the very same way, and can mean nothing but "it" and, farther, as (1 "it is" is very often used to introduce a question ( 198), it is more advisable to explain */ in this way too; and all the more, that %, ^ ; ^, V; % correspond to one another throughout, in formation and in meaning. ( ) But v. TBUMPP, p. 559, aricf cf. KNIG, p. 96.
3 2

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Interrogative Adverbs of more definite force are: (1). KjrVfc "where?" and "whither?" (the latter sense occurring, for example, in Gen. 37, 30 and in Hen. 102,1), employed both in dependent and in independent interrogation, and formed from the Interrogative Y\$, which converts Demonstratives into Interrogatives, and fr "here'^ ); often combined farther with Kj2.*frlf" "where?" "whither?". Combined with prepositions:dh*'U "where?" (Matt. 2,4; Judges 20,3); also "in what way?" Matt. 9,15; 12,34; fcJPfcjrVfc "whence?" Matt. 21,25; Hen. 41,5; Gen. 29,4; -}ft s Y\$**\ "whither"; ft Ah : ftj&'fc "to what point?". Kj&'fc is also used indefinitely in Negative sentences, either with or without % or in the sense of "anywhere", 3 Kings 3, 36; 10,12; 4 Kings 5,25. (2) . Th\i "when?", formed from ftH,, KH, by means of ao ( 63), and often strengthened also by Y-;h^KU "how long since" ( a quo tempore?"), ftflft: "?Mf. "till when?" "howlong?" (Ps.12,13; Josh. 18,3; Matt. 17,17); A ^ K H . "for what time?" 1 Peter 1,11. (3) . h "how?" formed from h(h&), 63,& and "here", "thus", 64, b. I t may be strengthened by V, and may be compounded with fl, "in what way?" Mark 2,18, and it is very often used in dependent interrogation, as well as in the exclamation"What!" Hen. 21,8. Frequently it exhibits a conception somewhat more , w distinctly coloured, e. g. A.< "Ml * "how great must thy darkness be!" Matt. 6,23; 1 John 3,1; fcC : "how much more!" Matt. 6,30; 7,11; 10,25. Instead of plain ftC^JtCG ?i4u> "h<*. and "h^JttG are also met with, particularly in Cyrillus Alexandrinus; v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.', col. 807. (4). I n Ethiopic one uses for the interrogative "why?" j P " } ^ or 9'} t i~ "what?", e. g. Hen. 83,6; Gen. 40,7; or more frequently the same word in the Accusative 9^, 9Wp Gren. 26,27; Matt. 7, 3; or "wherefore?" Ps. 2, 1; or ftht't 9*1^ "for what reason?" Matt. 17,19; while fljP^^ means "in what way?" Ps. 118,9. Or "why?" may be indicated by means of turns like 9 t't * ht^thP "what has made her laugh?" i. e. "why does she laugh?" Gen. 18,13; 24, 31; Matt. 20, 6; Judges 18, 8.
1 u
0

: t

0) The original form for %, allied to H,, preserved in ^ 0 , 1^13.Notice ftj&'fc with ftjP following = ^ j j in sentences like ^JC \ JOS "what is this to that?" G. A. 7,5, 6 , 7, 8, 9, 14.
bis

,-Juc,


(&)Eeiative AdveAs.

380

162.

(6) Relative Adverbs. For the meaning "where" *1fl is usu^ employed, formed from * 1 f (hardened out of (J, 62,1, 6) and the Preposition fl, here set last C) 5 originally demonstrative " i n there", and the Compound is a Preposition in very frequent use in this sense ( 165); hut it has also become relative: "inwhere", "where',' and "where to", e. g. -1(1: |JAYl M OP A H * A K h i John 12,26; Matt. 8,19,20; 13,50; Ps. 83,3 &c. Farther, in the relative clause which it introduces, UP may be placed in addition to it, but yet separated from it by a word or two( ): "Ifl s UAm. OP "wherein they were" Hen. 17, 1( ); Gen. 13, 4; Josh. 22,19 &c. 1fl is also compounded with prepositions: fl*1fl "there, where" or simply "where" Matt. 13,57; Josh. 8,24; Hen. 12,1; 33,2; "wheresoever" Matt. 26,13; fyi* ' *1fl "wheresoever" Hen. 16,1; ft?*Vfl "whence" Hen. 41,3; Matt. 12,44 For "when" ft<w is used ( 64,3,6), e.g. John 4,21; Aftw " t i l l " Zeph. 3,8. Still, ft 7 is employed rather as a Conjunction or a Preposition (v. infra). Besides, the mere relative H, referring to a fore-mentioned word expressing time, is quite sufficient to express "when" (v. 202, 3). The conception "how", "as" or "like" is expressed by \\0, but it is always either Preposition or Conjunction. 162. 3. Negative, Affirmative, Exclamatory, and Restrictive Particles, and some Enclitics of the most general meaning. 3. Negative, The ordinary particle which serves to negative either a single ExamI-' d or an entire clause, is ft., 62, c. I t is always prefixed to tory and gome other word, and in fact to that word which has to be nega1 2 3 w o r

Kestrietive Particles, together with certain Enclitics,

. - i n

e x e r c

tived first or specially; and m such a combination it occasionally i influence upon an initial ft (8 48, 6)(*). Stronger and
s e s a n
r

\o

> /w

more independent negations are conveyed by ftfc ( 64, b) "in no wise", "not", and by ftAP,on which last compare 167 and 197,mostly corresponding in conception to the Hebrew ]">N and the Arabic JLfJ, seeing that it signifies first of all: "it is not", "there is not". I t is used also for "no" Matt. 5, 37; 13,29; Ex. 10, 25 &c. The word ft"HlP, a compound of M (=
( ) [V., however, PRAETORIUS, ZDMG L V I I , p. 272.]
1

( ) Dtirn^K.
2

()

[FLEMMING'S reading is

*\d : ftA OAfll. OP-

TR.]

(*) The accent of the word which is connected with ft., remains unaffected by it: TRTJMPP, p. 559. *~

381

62, c and *flf "with me" ( 167), literally "not with me (is i t ) " , signifies " I am not in the position", " I am not allowed", " I am not able". I t is with this w ord that one declines to accede to a request: Jas. 4,7; Matt. 21,29. There is an older form ltii% ( 167). Cf. also fcl-nh, htiXU and MiVn^ As an Affirmative we have JifllO "yes", "of course", "certainly" Matt. 5,37. With SIT "Oh! yes" consent is announced to a summons, so that it is the contrary expression to ft*}flp: Judges 6,13, 15, 22; Matt. 21, 29, 30; 27, 20; Rom. 3, 26; Jas. 3,3; 4, 7; 5,6. As to its origin, v. 62, &( ). To beseech any one, the particle ft "now!" " I pray" is made use of, attached as an enclitic to the Imperative: f<npf ft "turn, I pray thee" Ps. 79,15; fag; "save, I beseech thee"( ) Ps. 117, 24. I t comes from the demonstrative root ( 62,1, a); and, being no doubt originally a mere form of pointing out something "there!", it has thence been used to direct the attention of the person who is entreated, to some object or circumstance. The same meaning is given more emphatically by "O now!" ( 64, b)( ), of independent force it is true, but yet placed after the Imperative: Acts 22, 27; Gen. 24,23. Por "yes indeed!" "certainly!" "it is so!" ^ is also used: Isaiah 14,10; Phlx. 3( ). A n exclamation of joy or mockery is found in J/JStd "ha!" ( 63, c) Ps. 34,24; 39,21; 69,4; Job 39,25. Of restrictive force is \\ao ( 64, b), regularly put last, which means first "thus", then "like what" (n3 indef.), and thence 1. "nearly" Gen. 32, 32; Gen. 39,10 (where it is put first for a special reason); 2. "nothing other than", or "just", "merely": Ohtl't ' tlCf Y\a "merely into the belly" Mark 7,19; M l : (i^Hh* "not by bread alone" Matt. 4,4; 5,47; 21,21; Ps. 61,9. I t is therefore specially used with Pronouns, to express the notion of "just" (idem), 150, c.
r 2 3 4 6

( ) Probably abbreviated considerably from an older type. I refer it provisionally to jot, NTK. ( ) Yet it might also have sprung from u-hu, hu-hu, "that it is", "thus it is". ( ) Thus like and the Arabic Modus Energeticus. ( ) I do not think that this comes fromfyU(D= A l l f , as this word does not mean "to beg". ( ) [i. e. Philexius, Quaestio 3. TR.]
4 5 3 2


flA'Htf'
*

455

"it is lawful to do good on the Sabbathday" Matt. 12,12; 12,10; Deut. 22,19; KffiOWh : <OJP.fr "let it not seem hard to thee ( 178) to let him go free" Dent. 15,18; :ftJ&^HlUA' 1i*lA<J. " i f it is not possible that this pass away" Matt. 26, 42; JiJiV : WW : * 'V'flA'f- ' flW^ * (DOh *L(i AhAfllh "it is not proper to take the children's bread and to give it to the dogs" Matt. 15,26; f AA* AM* * ( 124, beginning) i<wA Ki-\r tlPW ' tn&Zh - ft?flAA fl*eK n1 If**'}' ft'^H.K'flrhiC "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of ! God" Matt 19,24 (cf. 9,5); \\hXia~ ' 0*ZW Alf>* * -f !C ('there has been for you enough of the compassing of this mountain') "you have compassed this mountain long enough" Deut. 2,3( ). Such unions are explained most readily by the consideration that in thought the impersonal turn of the Verb is replaced by a personal one (e. g. "it is lawful" is thought of as "we may" or "one may"). Meanwhile, this construction is not absolutely necessary: the complement may be applied to such verbs in the Subjector Nominative-case, and then they cease to be impersonal: /V /t" "WA3i aoff^ "it is better for me to die" 1 Cor. 9,15; ftft" : W"L M.A -(MA Hen. 37,3; fO^-fl i <DA." " i t becomes hard for her to bring to the birth" Hen. 62,4; hhtitl ' flA^A "it is sufficient for you,to eat" Hen. 102, 9 (cf. Hebr. 9,27; 10, 31). I n the case of Infinitives in 6 it is impossible to discern which of the two constructions they are following, e. g. in ftlfi : IP VJK. s hO'tiO. "then it is not good to marry" Matt. 19,10, inasmuch as Kfl^An y be Nominative as well as Accusative. On the Accusative with the Infinitive after Verbs of Saying and Perceiving, v. 190. (p) When this, the most obvious form of union, is not found practicable, a Conjunction like Xiao, fl, ?ftr/i> or other similar form, is employed, e. g. "he said, that & c " ; cf. 203. (I) I f the verb to be subordinated is related to the principal verb,rather as the intended result or the aim, it takes the following forms.
! 1 ! ! tnu m a

O An instance in which f/ft is first construed with the Subjunctive, and afterwards with the Accusative of the Infinitive, is met with in Sap. 16, 28 A.

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to discern in it a faded form of y " i t " or "thus", in the sense of

Tfll

tt

so"0.

2. A D V E R B S D E R I V E D F R O M C O N C E P T I O N A L W O R D S .

163. 1. The greater number of words which are used ad- 1. Adverb* verbially are originally nouns; and only a very few spring directly ^ ^ from the verb. Every noun, when subordinated in the Accusative (Acc. of to the verb of a clause, may limit and determine that verb after Kind*an! the fashion of an Adverb ( 174). Thus the Accusative is pre- ^ " cisely the proper Case, with which to form Adverbs. And in fact Adj.); and such formation has been brought about with the Adjective, as well f ^ ^ b y as with the Substantive; for, seeing that every Adiective may P
P a d n ( f
REFIXIA

'

'

Prepositions

easily be conceived of as Neuter,thereby coming to resemble a to SubstanSubstantive in meaning, it may, when put in the Accusative 2as*ctfree under such a conception, become an Adverb also. Besides, instead of
i , i -| . I T i taking A c c

several (Jonceptional words continue m use m the language, only in the form of this adverbial Accusative; and it is such words especially which fall to be described in this place. Qualifications of Place and Time, or Nouns which are used in the Accusative of Place and of Time, are, e. g., the following words, originally Substantives:A<, "side" (e. g. ft.A<k ' (Dh* A, "neither this way nor that way" Josh. 8,20; Ex. 2,12); aoA AA*f" "above" and "upward"; ^ A ^ A . ' f " "downward"; "?fthA "in the midst" (Mark 3,3); ao*^ "below"; h*PA "behind"; "around"; ^ A J H * "beyond"; J&0> "on the right hand"; &*qao "on the left hand"; fl-fl "northward"; "behind" and "afterward" (Matt. 25,11); "1<H "backward", "back"; <K0 "in front" (Numb. 1,53; 32,17; Deut. 20,4; Josh. 6,9; Ps. 45,5); U)-t\m "in", "within"; "IRao "awry", "across"; AA/f" "by night"; aooM "by day" and "to-day" (Gen. 43,16, 25); ACh "in the evening"; tyfrao "in front", "eastward" (Gen. 2,8), "first", "before" (Matt. 13,30; 17,10); - f o ^ "this year" (Luke 13,8); J*7U "early in the morning"; H A and (B^d "continually"; ItPOD "to-morrow"; and words originally Adjectives:AO-A
(*) [For another explanation of this ft v. BEZOLD, 'Zeitschr. f. AssyrS X V , p. 398.It also appears to have been employed merely to indicate that the thoughts of another person are being introduced by the speaker or writer; v. Kebra Nag., Introd., p. X X . ]

384

"high", "upward"; j f - A ^ f "under" (Josh. 16,3; 18,13, Note); or *<P^ "far", "far away" (Matt. 15,8; Mark 7,6); Crh-* "far distant"; Oh^t "entirely" (Heb. 9,4); TiA<{. "continually" (Ex. 21,6); tou*"t* (pavspug; T^J-J^f "a long time", "some time". The following are retained in use only in this adverbial Accusative:<\dA "above" (chiefly as a preposition, v. infra); ^fai* "below", "down" Matt. 4,6 (but chiefly as a preposition). Qualifications of Size or Measure comprehend the Numeral Adverbs ( 159, e): and JPhdfl/f- "repeatedly"; hfl-fl "doubly" ('the second time'); ti&d and Sfflao "again"; tfmi and ('the bigness of') "as large as"; %ao(n^ and %0 tI\'} "how greatly" (Job 35,5); .Jt:4*& "very", "exceedingly", "specially", "above all" (even as Predicate); ft^i "how often?"; v. supra 157,1. Qualifications of Kind and Manner are nearly always formed from Adjectives, e. g. ao&& "bitterly"; (as well as i*V) "finely", "well"; Mb? "badly", " i l l " , ft^O "strongly", "powerfully"; ft .0i> "perfectly", "entirely"; 0fl.f "highly"; Tf and T l * 4 "exactly"; "frequently; -MM "much", "often"; *1(NZ "all together", "together"; Jt4-*1 "at the same time"; ao* "jointly"; t* h*i "humbly", "modestly"; #4-0 "idly"; Gi?0 "rightly", and "directly opposite" (Hen. 72,8), "correctly" (Chrest. p. 76, line 14); *Wm "little"; < P m > "quickly", "suddenly"; Rt'bO flJ^flvi (jypiKT&g KOLI raxsccg Sap. 6,5; *iA Kparai&g Sap. 6,8; i\S{ao evfJLevag Sap. 6,16; "Jft-rh o<ppovug Sap. 9,11; |)A<D "in reality", and many others. C/. also ft*"* s Jffil K-fr ^|OD Tob. 5,15. But the following forms, derived from Substantives, are of very frequent occurrence, being mainly retained in use as Adverbs only: "by degrees", "a little"; ilth "unanimously"; flh "in vain" (fljfi "emptiness"); aofyfoa) "in succession", "forthwith"; Ifi-frf- "a little", "gradually"; C 7 "together", "at the same time"; '7'fl'h "suddenly"; K *^ ( J t ^ f ) "secretly"; and w ith especial frequency *p4 properly "exactly", then commonly "very", "even", farther "precisely", "certainly"; T4* * "not even" (ne quidem)^).
a D : % f 1 0 T

( ) A remarkable intensive-form is found in Ps. 44,2, viz. HI0/110

"most skilfully" ("dexterously"), from an intensive Adjective derived, in accordance with 112, b, from the

mOflVfl,

KfJlflfl

"to be wise".

 163.

385

But by means of the preposition fl ( 164) the language attains the same object as through the agency of the Accusative. By prefixing this preposition to a Substantive or Adjective, Adverbs of Kind and Manner may be formed: flJVOfh "in the morning"; flftJ3 "for nothing" (Matt. 10,8); ( l ^ K ^ "lastly", "at last"; f\KCh "in Greek" (Luke 23,38); (1*1611 "in Ethiopic"; flrhrt^ "falsely" (Matt. 5,33); (tf ^fl/lh "proudly"; O M / l h "in secret"; l U ^ J C "voluntarily" (with Suffix); flVf*CU "by constraint" (invito ammo" ): fliP^JE. "in a friendly way" (Gen. 26,29); fl/hi**-^ "miserably" (Matt. 21,41); m j U h "innocently" (Gen. 20,6); "in secret"; flJJ'Vfr "in safety" (Gen. 26, 31); fltf"/V &c. I n words which convey the notion of "gradually", fl is doubled (cf. 159, #): flfl "JA*fc*lh flnrh^*' Other Prepositions also are employed to express Adverbial notions, such as: A*JA0 "for ever"; *1fl s J|A ?i ('to another side') "elsewhere"; t\9*h* "once" and "long ago" ('from of old'). Thus }x9 is prefixed, over and above, to R'hC "afterward", making h9^ "after that" (Matt. 21,32). 2. A certain number of Adverbial qualifications also are ex- 2. other pressed by means of other forms. A Noun may be set in the sentence ^ adverbially, without inflection and otherwise lifeless, in the very being form in which it issues from the Stem-forming process; but, saveNounTwith for the Numeral Adverbs ( 159, e), this takes place only in a very "j^^* few words, which have become entirely or almost entirely obsolete in or with any other use: "to-day" ("day"); * \ \ * "once" ("antiquity") ion '* Eph. 5,8; K ^ ? "truly", "certainly'^ ); W\ "in the first place", "at first" (occurring often; but also the Acc. though rare1 r f d rb B 8 1

ly) ( ); cf. also ir hrir\

bbfr * hrbtft,

mchrunc

. A few others have a Suff. Pron. appended (like "Hi'lhP "iormerly"), or other terminations originally pronominal. The most common among them is the Neuter u (hu)( ) "of it", "thereof": 4^<n>- ("the first of it") "in the first place", "earlier", "once", "sooner" (very common); ^ " ^ U * and *S\ %S! 1 v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.', col. 463sq.\ AflA* ("height of it") "above", Josh. 16,5; flrh i; ("solitude of i t " 157,2) "only", "alone", "merely", Gen. 2,6
s a

(*) Still used as a Predicate, Hen. 82, 7. ( ) On the other handtyRy*in Matt. 2 0 , 8 ; 2 3 , 2 6 is Imperative.
2

( ) According to BARTH ZDMG X L V I , p. 691, this is to be regarded as the Nominative of an original Diptote declension.
25

-nr-

386

163.

(generally placed after the qualified word); and still oftener the shorter form fl/h-fr "only", "yet", "however", "but rather" (v. 168); pfcb "under"; /Jhn- ("the firmness of it", "the truth of i t " ; same root as in pt<>, j!t>, ^ 5 ) "much more", "however", e. g. Ps. 1,2,5; Mark 4,17; 5,36; Philipp. 2,12; h ? * ( 157,2) "in vain", "for nothing" (also fllffi: and h'J'fr) 5flrh*fe(properly 'according to the measure of i t ' ; fl is preposition here) "considerably", "greatly", Mark 7,3; Deut. 9,21; Josh. 8,4 & c ; ATfA-fand A U A ('for the duration of it') "for ever". I n other instances it is a on the contrary that makes its appearance, and not u; but this a is not to be regarded as the Suff. Pron. of the 3 pers. Sing, fern., but as the a, '/, which originally signifies "toward", and which next is made use of in the formation of the Accusative ( 143): h*hC) and h9h ('at the mouth') "outside", "without", "beyond", "outward" (and Suff. Prons. may here again be attached, as in h*hV* "outside of it", Matt. 23, 25 sq., or even Prepositions prefixed, e. g. (\h<h Gen. 9,22 ( )) and 7<n>-^ ('toward the complete', 'toward completion') "wholly", "ever", "altogether", "at all", omnino, nearly always in clauses of negative import, e. g. lo i- hsfrtjld ii'(\7\ "never has a man spoken" John 7,46; hjt9ihfc loV't* "ye shall not swear at all" Matt. 5,34: also ti }ov*' "for ever and ever". And in the same acceptation in which these words take an a, lnf*A. takes and Arh'f*? ( 160). Of more obscure origin is ' l * ? ^ ? ( ) "yesterday", "long ago" (^10Fi). Of quite peculiar character is "yet", "farther", in form manifestly an Adjective, fashioned afresh out of an original (TI5J)( ), and thus meaning properly "lasting", and then farther stiffened into an Adverb, just like But, from its original Adjective-signification, it has preserved the peculiarity of assuming personal Suffixes with great frequency, in the mode and the meaning which are explained in 156, making its appearance in this
rd 2 a 0m a 0 0 3 4

(*) This way of writing the word is still pretty constant in the older manuscripts. ( ) The a in Jl*PA and flfDA "behind" is probably to be explained differently, as the word in this form appears also as a Subst. ( ) On this word v. EWALD, 'Jlebr. Spr.' p. 9 1 ; [and JENSEN, Zeitschr. f. Assyr? X I , p. 352 sq.]. (*) [V-. also BARTH, 'Etymol. Studien', p. 60 & ' Wurzeluntersuchungen* (Leipzig 1902), p. 34, where ' J ^ is said to have sprung from 'ad + ye.J
2 3 l

163.

387

way in the sentence as an independent word in apposition to another: s thflD* : Ohh* "he is yet alive" Gen. 4 3 , 2 8 (but \\ao : fafah in Y. 27); 45, 3 (but otherwise in Y . 6); htm : J ^ ^ s : f - f l , ^ Gen. 45, 28; ft-JH I^Xfo^ s UAm. Judges 19,11; 6,24; farther Gen. 18,12; 44,14; Acts 9,1; Hen. 89,25. Lastly, "jf^O* ('it continuing') is once more used adverbially for "yet", "still" Matt. 16,9. 3. Many Adverbial notions may be expressed in Semitic, and 3. Adverbial accordingly in Ethiopic, by means of Yerbs,a subject which will ^pressed be dealt with in 180. Somewhat different is the case of a fully inflected Yerb being brought,parenthetically as i t were, into the current of the words which constitute the sentence, so that it presents the appearance of an additional qualification. Thus fthA P f t h A "it amounts to", "it suffices for" is very often interpolated in a sentence, sometimes impersonally, sometimes as a personal Yerb assuming the due changes of gender and number, for the purpose of expressing the idea of "nearly", "about": flVfl4- * OP P M l A OWC* J<" "h "and they remained there about ten years" Ruth 1,4: "there fell of Israel" pfthA* wj'flftA. "about thirty men" (Nominative) Judges 2 0 , 3 1 ; in the same way hdiH'ti " I imagine", for "probably", "likely" Gen. 37,10; Ps. 123,2, 3; and 'fl**-0\ ("oblige me", "do me the favour") for "pray!" in requests; also ^ J ^ A "let it alone!" or *Y,K*7rt "let (pi.) alone!" for "not to speak of", "without mentioning", e. g. 1 Cor. 6, 3. A Perfect, employed in an Optative clause, in the Arabic fashion (but v. 199) is met with in *JiA or more commonly ghiiC) "far be it", either set by itself Gen. 18,25, or followed by (i, e. g. dift ' A/f* "be it far from me!" Acts 1 0 , 1 4 ; Matt. 1 6 , 2 2 ; Josh. 2 2 , 2 9 . A very old word, which can only be explained now from the Hebrew, is found in hTr*W "perhaps* (followed by fth "whether") John 4 , 2 9 ; Acts 1 1 , 1 8 ; 2 3 , 9 ; 2 Cor. 1 1 , 3 ; Rom. 5 , 7 ; compounded of ft? = p# ( 62, c) and S\b, an old Infinitive from P *0 "to know", with the Suff. Pron. of the 1 pers. Sing.% which is obsolete in Ethiopic ( 149), and thus meaning literally "not my knowing", " I do not know". I n this sense it still occurs, 2 Cor. 1 2 , 2 , 3 (cf. Gal. 4,11). We can also understand from this
s b y Verbs o r < > ! 7 00 st

(*) (JiUL. EWALD, Gr.

Ar.

I , p. 369.

25*

388

164.
/ n

account of the word, why it should he so often followed by A h ' "whether". 4. Adverbial 4 . Finally, in Foreign words from the Greek, a termination o fthe *777 has been taken over, to form Adverbs,from Adjectives deriLanguage j f ^he names of Nations, which indicate the language, in
In d 0n

v e (

r o m

in which anything is "dritten

0 1

- ! - ) > (

which anything is spoken or written: f?"7J&ftfn "Roman i. e. "m Latin", d-fl^jK-Am "in Hebrew" &c. The later writers leave out the v. C 7 A T John 1 9 , 2 0 ( P L A T T ) ; A - f l ^ A T Acts 2 6 , 1 4 ; A C fl^ "in Syriac". These forms may also have the prefix fl: do *fl*5J&AT Luke 2 3 , 3 8 ; John 1 9 , 2 0 ; or they may be preceded by a Construct State: * d"fl^JEAfll "the Hebrew language". Acts 2 1 , 4 0 ; [Aft} i A4I4.J&AT 'ChresV, p. 1 7 , line 1 0 ] .

I I . PREPOSITIONS.
General preposi- tions.
f

a r e

164. Except the two or three Prepositions which have k e up for the Cases wanting in Nouns ( 142), and which accordingly in very frequent use and are greatly abbreviated in form, the greater number of Prepositions are derived from Nouns, and are kept true to their original form. A few are words originally Conjunctions, or at least Adverbs derived from Pronominal roots. The number of simple Prepositions in Ethiopic is very large, and the body of Prepositions becomes all the larger that a host of simple Prepositions may be farther combined with others, in order to reach the finer distinctions of relation. Every one of these Prepositions has the power of subordinating to itself a Noun, many even an entire sentence. The nature of the subordination is the same as with every other Noun,that is to say, it is effected by means of the Construct State relation ( 144). Every word which is employed as a Preposition stands, to the word dependent upon it, in the relation mentioned, and all of them therefore end in a (or a). A t the same time it will be shown farther on, that several of them once had a fuller ending, in e ( 167). Many of them, particularly those which originally indicate relations of Space and Time, must be conceived as simultaneously standing in the Accusative (of Place or Time). As the Preposition is in the Constr. St., it must naturally precede the Noun. Still, Ethiopic has the power of placing a few Prepositions after their regimen, at least
m a

 164.

389

when that is the Relative Pronoun ( 202) Besides, Prepositions may be combined together or be made dependent on one another in manifold ways: fl, A > hjP, ft*}"f* those which combine most frequently with other Prepositions. The majority of those words which are in use as Prepositions, are no longer preserved in the language in any other signification; it is only a minority that appear in still other uses. Along with these decided Prepositions, there are words too which are just at a transitional stage, on the way to become decided Prepositions. Several Nouns, which indicate a place or a time, a measure, or other relation, may, on taking the Accusative or the Construct State, supply the place of a Preposition. They are but rarely used, however, in this way, and it is matter of doubt whether they should altogether be counted among the Prepositions.
a r e

(a) The Prepositions most frequently employed, and most The subjected to abbreviation, and which at the same time are prefixed ^ ^ either invariably, or at least often, to the word depending on them, frequent are the following: 1. fl( ) (always attached to the following word) "in", but branching out from this original meaning into many other meanings. (a) I t expresses, first of all, rest and continuance at a place, or in a time or an object: flJPJ^C "in the land"; flfl-fc : AA/ih "in this night"; f\iP6$tf>ao~ "in their rising" ("while or when they rise"); ftAf ft^Alfl "in the name of God"; 'i Af-: d^CO* (Dd^yAx "they departed, (being) in fear and joy" Matt. 28,8. On rare occasions it is used with verbs of motion, in the sense of "toward", "to", though rather oftener in the hostile meaning of "against". More frequently it may express mere neighbourhood or contiguity to anything, e. g. *t*Oty& i Aft-fl? "to stumble against (or at) a stone" Matt. 4,6; 11,6; or passing through anything, e. g. frmh* db-^^* "he returns ('in the first') through the first door" Hen. 72, 25. Still more frequently it is associated with certain verbs, which may thus be regarded as representing a figurative entering into, or abiding in, the object concerned, such as W9 ' A
P r 0 t 2 1

n s

C ) Just as even -^fl, Afl, -?.fl have themselves originated from the appending of fl. ( ) No doubt connected with pa, flj&J;in use, besides, in all the Semitic languages [except Assyrian].
2

390

164.

"to take pleasure in"; ftjPJ : fl "to believe in"; ^"Wflfr :fl"to entrust one's self with", "to open one's heart to" &c. (b) Inasmuch as a single individual, proceeding in the society of others or with a crowd, is, so to speak, in the same or among the same, fl takes also the signification "with", e. g. Hen. 1,4, 9, or "among" (inter);and inasmuch as that which takes place through a certain means, or by the operation of a certain cause, is regarded as contained in the same, it may farther signify "with", "by means of", "by reason of", "from" or "out of", e. g. hh0 fl 1 John 3, 16 & c ; flfth&tl : Ylfrfy "cover me with ('by
1

means of) thy wings" Ps. 16,9; fl*7H<C'f"

Aft* "from hardness

of heart"; flW-ft-: H K f l A ^ "on account of every fault" Matt. 19,3Aft A "in or by the hand (of any one)", i. e. "by means of him"; flav(D: fl "to commit fornication with any one" (as the means) Matt. 5, 28; th&(D i fl "to live by something" Deut. 8,3; Gen. 27,40; Matt. 4,4; and accordingly it is used even of a personal agent (per, a) Matt. 18,7 , 14, 2 &c. I n like manner one says in Ethiopic that something happens "in" this or that way, e. g. flrhlM" "in falsehood", "falsely" (for other examples, v. 163,1), where it answers to our "after", "according to","ly", " i n " : fl/**? ^!! "in thy good pleasure" Ps. 50,19; i\hl\/.-n "in streams", "like a stream"; flft7<J - < f e $ i Vrhfl*"G "according to the foot of the children ('as the children are able to walk') we proceed" Gen. 33,14 &c; or ft'fcA*^ " number", "by number" Hen. 89, 60; and then too i t is used in reduplicated form with a distributive sense ( 159, # ) : flfl : Co* "according to their (several) countries" Gen. 10,5; flfltftfD PmOV* "after their several kinds" Gen. 7,14. Hence it is also found with words conveying comparison, "with", "to", "by", "after", e. g. 't*'t* %{li * flJC"7*7A "thou art to be compared to a virgin", and with words of naming "by" or "after" something, e. g. Hen. 72, 36; and particularly to indicate the price "at" or "for", in conceptions of buying, giving, taking, e. g. Gen. 30,16; Hen. 5, 6; or words of punishing "for", e. g. 'f"4*P< fl "to avenge one's self for (something)". But manifold as are the meanings of this Preposition, they are yet far from being all in frequent use. On the contrary, for the most of these derived meanings, the language possesses other words devoted exclusively thereto, which are much more frequently employed. The most usual significations offlare "in", "at", "with" or "by means of" (Instrument),
0 m a
yD

 164.

391

"on" or "after" (Kind and Manner); "at" or "for" (Worth or Value). 2. A O (always attached to a following word) expresses 2. A. direction toward something: "to", "toward", (a) I t may thus take an entirely Locative meaning: th s A "to go to" Hen. 56,2; 7 Hh - 0 r h * Afrflfh "the sun returns to the east" Hen. 72,13,15; hthq. : Ah A h - &K"C "one looks to the other" Hen. 41, 7; or in a Temporal sense: flftThih : A ^ ^ J f T "it has reached completion" Gen. 6,16; Aftfl*h ' ?irh" "toward the dawn of the first day (of the week)" Matt. 28,1; A'JAJP* "for ever"; ATlAf- "in perpetuum". I t farther introduces the object for which an action is set a-going, e. g. JE.R0h s AJWt'l "(and) thirst (3 pi.) after righteousness" Matt. 5,6; l\A\ * AW*V3l "he is liable to doom" Matt. 5, 21; or with verbs of becoming it introduces that which anything comes "to", e. g. fllVii s t\tn1&(i : fhg,ffl~t "and he became a living soul ('soul of life')" Gen. 2, 7. I t also points to the 'purpose', e. g. "the stars are (i'ti\9 C for signs" Gen. 1,14, 15;
1 1 rd 0

* A f l M "good to eat" Gen. 2,9; J&OC* * MtM* "they flash for a blessing" Hen. 59,1; Matt. 23,5; 26,12. Whence it is farther employed to specify "for whom","for whose advantage" anything happens (Dativus commodi): Affl^** "for you" i. e. "for your benefit" Hen. 5, 1; "give him this A/f* fl)Ah for me and thee" Matt. 17,27; fcAP * A "to pray for" any one; rhHV A "to mourn for" one; f'flftA ' A "to fight for" one; and, generally, it is the word to express the Dative, (b) But it also expresses quite commonly "with regard to", e. g. i^T-f" ' VJtl ' A*"fc fl^d* "what farther need have you of testimony with regard to him?" Matt. 26,65. I t may accordingly indicate any relation, and therefore the Genitive relation, e. g. ftAh : 'hftflU ' tl'fiCY'i ' *JKA "a second (ace.) ordinance (namely) of the smaller light" Hen. 73,1; ft7H.ft r Afl ^fllh "Lord of the Sabbath" Matt. 12,8, as well as the Accusative relation, especially with those verbs which in other tongues also may be easily connected with the Dative: A-flrh A; fl^hA; ftOHJ-'A &c. "to praise, bless, name (call for) any one"; 0&. : A "to speak evil against (any one)" Matt. 12, 31.Cf. also 'CkresV, p. 42, line 26; p. 44, line 1. Still, this employment of A? to indicate the Genitive and Accusative, has
1 :

( ) Connected with *7JS!, ,^1, as in the rest of the Semitic languages.

392

164.

continued to be of rather infrequent occurrence in Ethiopic; but so much the oftener does it come about that, when a person or an object has been signified by a Suff. Pron., and this person or object is subsequently and specially mentioned, A is prefixed to it, in order to establish the reference of the Suffix to the Noun, e. g. 9tOhp s AfhTMl "he called to it (referring to) the people" = "he called to the people". A is employed in this way in almost every sentence, seeing that, on special grounds (to be afterwards discussed), this' periphrasis of the direct Genitive-, Dative-, and Accusative-subordination, effected by means of a Suff. Pron. and A, has attained extraordinary predominance. As the most general Preposition A may take the place of other prepositions in the course of an extended series, e. g. ?AAV]< " fflAHCfth" *' "with you and with your seed" Gen. 9, 9. Comparatively seldom does it express "conformity" or "suitability", as for instance in A ^ ^ ^ A ' H.ftlJ" "according to Ms good pleasure", or A ^ ' J K ' f ' " ^ot (j)\rovov" Matt. 27,18. Like fl, A also may be reduplicated, with a distributive force ( 159, g), e. g. A.AJ& HAA * A A ^ "daily food" ('which is for every day') Matt. 6,11; AA fl^A "at every feast" Mark 15,6; also with an adverbial accusative:A A i*7(J * flJA C h Enc. Synax.
,D : 1 00 u !

3.

"h9\. 3. The third most important preposition is ftj^VC), or in its prefixed form, f\9, the former being the ground-form, which occurs more frequently than ftjf, particularly in the older manuscripts^), and which must always re-appear whenever Suffixes come to be attached. The latter is just an abbreviated form of the other,as ^f, coming after 9, readily disappeared. fty* is invariably attached as a prefix to the word which follows it, losing even the 9 in writing, if that word itself begins with m ( 55): emmetd, ftf/oJi'J emmak&n, ft'P'I emmOtu. ftJF*i or ftjF* signifies "from", "out of", and is most variously applied. First i t is used with reference to Place: ft^ft "h9OlC "away out of the city"; "they gather all the unbelievers ft<w '} 7/* 'f: out of his kingdom" Matt. 13,41; ftjPA'fl "out of the heart" Matt. 12,34; 18,34: and also with reference to Time, "since", "fromforward":
5 , < ,

i ) V. 34. I t is the Hebr. ), in the Constr. St. 9*/ and with ft prefixed; and in the last resort it is to be referred to a root HiD "to part".
Cf. KONIG, p. 144.

( ) [Cf. e. g. N . RODPP, 'Zeitscjkr. f. Assyr? X V I , p. 306 sq.~]

164.
o

393

lK9 0^1t\* M* "from that very hour" Matt. 9,22 (cf. V. 20); h9H ('from this time onward', 'henceforward') "thereafter"; ftjp d'f.O ' "as soon as he heard the word"; Tt\9*$;ao : ^A9 "from the beginning of the world onward" Matt. 24,21; Hen. 41,4. Deserving of notice are cases in which the preposition is associated with adverbial locutions, like ftjP J&ft"f" 6 Mr Dan. Ap. 1, 64 (in some manuscripts); h^piKi"- hM 1 Kings 16,13; 30,25. Farther, ftJPi is employed to introduce the person or thing, from whom or from which anything is sought, taken, or derived, e. g. hhf* [\ty*O h9 "to crave (a thing) from (any one)" Hen. 63,1; Aft A ' ItxT *! "to make enquiry of (any one)", "to ask of" & c ; also to point to the material, of which a thing is made or from which it has originated, Hen. 26,5; 28,2; and hence it is found with verbs of fulness such as tfAft> ftlfl and the like. I t is used especially to indicate the author, e. g. fl'JA'h ' Tti9^ "she conceived by (soand-so)", cf. Gen. 19,36,and the cause,ftJP <hCl/"fc"for fear of him" Matt. 28,4; [Kebra Nag. 39b 21]; ftJP^Afl/lh "from pride"; h9 f<h\)* "for joy thereat" Matt. 13,44; cf. Matt. 14,26; Ps. 37,8; ft^^^A ^ ' 'ATM* "(which) cannot be numbered for multitude" Gen. 32,13, cf. 48,10; whence ftjF""r has the meaning "by reason of" in Gen. 27,46. I t not unfrequently occurs with a Passive, just like the Latin preposition a, Matt. 8,24; 14,24 &c. I t is also used to indicate the grounds on which a recognition or judgment proceeds, e. g. }\9 Q&tf * ' ^h9C9 "by their fruits ye shall know them" Matt. 7,20; 12,33 (but yet (1 also appears in this sense, as in Gen. 15,8); ftf s ftJT "to see or understand from or by (me)" Judges 7,17; ftjF'^A'fch ^ f t J ^ "by thy words thou shalt be justified" Matt. 12,37. Its meaning has more of its original material reference, when a 'withdrawal from' something, a 'separation, parting or sundering' is given expression to, e.g. in Matt. 13,49; 21,43, or in fflCfl * 0thF> * h9fl lP> "the sun sets from out the heavens" Hen. 72,5; Gen. 8,2; hence it is used with verbs of 'withholding from' h Aft* J \95, or * Afl A J t h
B 1 0 0 , ot 4 a i 0 ! 9aOM
9

0I

ftiJ2lP "thou hast not kept back thine own son from me" Gen. 22,12; with verbs of fearing, or 'fleeing from anything', or 'guarding against' anything, or of 'concealing from' (Matt. 11,25; Gen. 18,17); and with verbs of defectiveness and of emptiness (like OC*)C)The
(*) I n the Arabic text of G. Ad. ^x. is often the corresponding Prep.

394

The other frequently used Prepositions (4-io).

m e a n m

meaning of 'choosing ont of is associated with that of 'separating from', and so "h9$ is also the word which indicates comparison between higher and lower, and which is nsed in the periphrasis for the Comparative and Superlative: (hClfl^ ' hTrfc t\9 MtvV "blessed art thou among women" Luke 1,28; OflJR. s J\9$ Ujblfov* "greater than theirs" Josh. 19, 9; "the serpent 'ThflVfMl* ft?W*A* hCS was more subtle than all the beasts" Gen. 3 , 1 ; ("the ark was lifted up ftjFJ: 9K:C above the earth" Gen. 7,17). So too it is invariably employed, wdien a part of the whole has to be expressed: hAJfal* ' h9ifaoT>* "two of you" Matt. 18, 19; twy- s h9Ylfrh,\rti~ "which of the two?" Matt. 21,31; fl)[l * h9 htthjth "and there was one of his disciples" Matt. 12,47; f l , : iih9(n(lA'i "dixit uni e sapientibus" Fal.( ), f. 60; and thus it often serves to supply the place of the missing conceptional expression for "a few", "one or two", "several": V/^ft h9$ h"JAA "he took one or two beasts" Gen. 8,20; 6,2, 19; 27,28; 45,23( ). Lastly, in Ethiopic one may say "on the side of" (flA/C^ fl1fl), or "from the side of" ft^AfC John 19, 18; Rev. 22, 2; and so 7tt9lt often stands as specifying the direction of anything in space: h9*l h*h "outside" Gen. 7,16;ftjPfl>AflM>-"inside" Ex. 25,11; h9g:^C "behind", "from behind" Ex. 14,27.On flftJP* and Aft9V tf- the 'Lexicon'. 165. (b) The other more frequently used Prepositions are: 4. "with" and "toward" ( ), compounded of "\ and fl, r f literally "inthere", and also in use relatively as "where"
5 5 l 2 3

( 161, b). I t is found both with verbs of 'rest' and of 'motion', and signifies "near to", "with" or "to": ' Vh(D i "1fl * Mllh'(\th,C "the Word was with God" John 1, 1, 2; tfl : <mAxH i "by a stream of water" Ps. 1,3; - } f l : ao*t~: 'nhOhQ "to whom shall we go?" John 6,68; h'i't * "Yfl>? "who (f.) is with me" Cant. 1,9, 15; 2, 2. I t is always employed with verbs of 'going', 'coming', 'sending for or to' any person or place, and
O [i. e. Mashafa Falasfa, 'Booh of the Philosophers', TR.] ( ) [Of. also Kebra Nag. 121b 16: fotfO; hJ^CnftO*' t\9M't ' ^OVftltx ' aotylP^H' ' A ^ T ^ "so that there may not befall them something of the punishment that overtakes sinners"; and ibid. p. 57 (Ethiop.
2

text), Ann. 16,

3

fc^A-flft]
and j J L e . [On its etymolo-

( ) It corresponds in meaning both to gy cf. also PRAETORIUS, ZDMG L V I I p p . 272.]

 165.

395

'delivering up to' any one, hlHh "Ml Matt. 20, 18. I t also expresses in a general way 'direction toward' anything, just like "toward": * *Vfl: A"7 "to look toward heaven" Matt. 14,19; and it is often used by way of an alternative for A, c. g. RG"1l :, ftAP s, AftA I* 7'V0V "lfl "to cry, pray, or address a request to" any one, "to trust in" any one; and h A "Iffl "to distribute to".It is frequently compounded with A, fl h9'-> A"Tlfl "away to" anything Hen. 56,5, and in a peculiar use in Ex. 4,16; fl^fl "with", "among" (inter), e. g. "ye shall be hated fl*^fl J W *A* ft flft among all men" Matt. 10, 22; ftft<w> 'fl"M "to seek instructions from or to be instructed by or of" Matt. 14,8; used particularly to express buying 'at' any one's ( = 'from' any one) Gen. 23,19; and, farther, having the meaning "with reference to", "in comparison with": fl*"ifl : oo'Pdtl ftfl*EP "in comparison with the days of my fathers" Gen. 47, 9. Lastlyft9*1ifl"from the side of any one", "from" (DJJft, fiNfc), is very common with verbs of 'borrowing', 'demanding', 'taking', 'learning by enquiry', and 'being given' John 6,65; Matt. 2,9,16; 5,42; 11,27; and of frequent occurrence with the Passive, to introduce the author or agent, e. g. Matt. 1,22; 2,15; 3,6; 4 , 1 ; 6,2, being more usually employed in this signification than ftJF* or fl.
r ff ! ! s

5. ftAh "till", "as far as", "up to", from T J ? and h, properly "till that" ( 64, 6), was originally a Conjunction, and then came into use in a more extended form as a Preposition, dislodging the old "itf;it is still occasionally lengthened by means of \ ( 160, a) C). I t is used for Space and Time, and is the only word to express this relation, as A rather means "toward": ftAh ' hR^d. 9&C "as far as the ends of the earth" Ps. 2, 8; ftAh ' ftH, "till now" Ps. 70,18; also ftAh (K*flrJh "for 30 mornings" Hen. 72,9; or ft At! VlAh,' ^ ' P A A "within two days" Matt. 26,2; Gen. 40,13; and h9i'(\6't: ftAh Mil* "men and women" Josh. 6,21; ftAh (D-TM? * hFtt Han. 12,1 (cf. supra]). 393,1. 5 sqq.). I t is often followed by additional Prepositions of Time and Direction: ftAh AT^'I" "until death"; ftAh *}fl * ft,* * HM "up to the house of Micah" Judges 18,13; ftAh * fyRa** "as far as in front of", ("up to the front of") Judges 19, 10; ftAh * A'JAJF* "to eternity" Hen. 72,1.Frequently it passes into the idea of "even", in which
! :

O [On the old form ftAh,, v. HACKSPILL, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr," X I , p.

1

128.]

396

case it is remarkable, that now and then the word which follows it stands in the Accusative, depending on a Verb: ftfth' fl*70 (Accusative) "up to the sheep" Josh. 6,21, as if it only meant "even". 6. \\ao "as", "like", is similarly a Conjunction of comparison originally ( 169, 3 and 64, &), but it is very frequently employed in the Construct St. as a Preposition. I t is the same with the compound Oh* ('in which manner, or sort') "as", "like"; when used with numerals it also means "nearly" or "about" Matt. 14, 21. 7. (D ti'* "in", "into" (sv and sig), is an Accusative, being at the same time in the Constr. St.,probably from <D*J|T "interior" ( 57) ( ). I t is a Preposition in very common use, and in meaning corresponds for the most part to the' Hebr. b# and Its meaning is "into", e. g. (DR4> t flWl-f* : *7fl "he falls into the ditch" Matt. 15, 14; flft : ahh* h< "enters into the mouth" Matt. 15,11; or "upon", "on the surface of (anything)"^ "on", "to" or "at", "with", with verbs of motion and of abiding, like Vfl ' (D'il't ' 0Tr(\C "to sit upon the chair" (properly: 'to seat one's self upon'); and it is of more common occurrence with verbs of motion than fl. "To ascend to" is OCl flWli* Mark 16, 19; Matt. 15,39; "to bring sacrifices 'to the altar'" 0W)-| : 9/"<Pd; "to wander 'on the earth'" Ohtl* : 9K?C; "to write 'in a book'" (D*tl* : f ^ f f r h ^ ; "dampness on the grass" 1f% : fl^-ft'^ ' ^idC Deut. 32,2; "to withdraw to" ^hiW : Ohh* Matt. 15,21; "to invite to (a feast)" Rffl'O s ahtli* Matt. 22, 9; "to cast into (anything)" a)&? : 0>ili* Matt. 13,47 &c. Specially to be noticed are the expressions: "to attach to (anything)" fflfth i (D'tl*', *ov s Ohtl* "to join to" Gen. 30, 40; and "to set one over (anything as overseer)" w$,ao : Ohtl* Matt. 25, 21; Gen. 41, 41 (A0A V. 43); also with verbs of making, ^ f l f s Q~ht\* "to make into (anything)" Ex. 32, 10; Deut. 9, 14. I t forms compounds with fl and ftJP; flfD-ft'J* is "within", "in", "with", "among" (inter): flO>* h* hVhC "in the cities" Matt. 11, 20; flfD-ft'h : T* "in death" Ps. 6,5; [\iO-t\Y : 9flAy* "at feasts" Matt. 23,6; flfl>J|'fc.tf>"among them" Matt. 23,34; the use is peculiar in Trti^d - flfl>*Jl"f* hfaf "we will learn it ('in') out of her mouth" Gen. 24,57;ftjP* Qhfl* is "out of anything" or "down from anything", always with the implied idea that previously the subject was in that thing or
70
M

(*) But cf. Assyrian iStu.

 165.

397

up in that position: )j.<Ddft "h90hll't "that which proceeds out of the mouth" Matt. 15,11, 19; < D f t ^ : ftiPflWl'h : iao/{ "she alighted from her camel" Gen. 24,64; or f^ao^i^ j ftfl : hVOhtl'l'' dOO* Matt. 21,8; ao^: ft^^A-fr-Hl" * "what man is there ('from the midst of) among you?" Matt. 12, 11. Notice also the Adverbial combination 0^"A*^ * ftrh'f'Jl ( s well as dhthi'i) Sx. Gerib. 18. 8. AdA "upon", "over", "above", Acc. and Constr. St. of AdA( ) "height", is equivalent generally to bv, and signifies first, "on" an object and "upon" an object, being often exchangeable in this meaning with Ohfi't, e.g. AdA * K'flC "on the mountain"; dtM ' Ad A "to spread upon or over anything" Matt. 21,7; ft*} fl * AAA "to place or lay upon anything" Matt. 12,18; 19,15; 'WAV * AAA "to ride upon" (also with fl and ^ f l ) : farther, HCft" AdA " "flftA*ih "to impregnate a woman" Hen. 15, 5; SP*ftft: AA 9\}a~ s AdA'/ "let your peace come upon it (i. e. 'upon the house', fern.)" Matt. 10,13. Next, it comes to mean "at", " i n " or "on", e. g. AAA fl/hC "by the sea" Josh. 16, 3; ftAfl ' t**C(D s AdA.1* "there is no root in him" Matt. 13,21; or "in addition to", "besides", ft s 'flftA.'f- ' AdAlfJ "thou shalt take no wife besides them" Gen. 31,50. More figuratively it is used to express 'the duty which is laid upon any one': *t^Jh^ s HAdAtl "P y what thou owest" ('that which is laid upon thee'); "TAdAV "what is that to us?" Matt. 27,4; [or 'duty toward any one': fl-fc AAA (D A * A"f)ftA/ih Hft*}flA H "what other duty has a woman toward a son but to?" Kebra Nag. 34 a 20 sq.] and "to rule over", e.g. Matt. 20,25. Then too it means "to set above any one", to the extent of meaning "to have superior force against him", or again "for him", and thus it occurs very often in the hostile sense "against" with verbs of mocking, fighting against, or doing harm to any one, e. g. *f*A A + : Ad A Matt. 2,16; 20,19; Yx^Wtm s Ad A Gen. 19, 7; ftflA AdA Matt. 18,21; Ps. 3,1; 12,3; Matt. 10,21; ftJPd * AdA "testimony against any one" Matt. 24,14; J&fl,: ^ A * AdA "(whosoever) speaketh a word against" Matt. 12,32; ft,h-7 AdAh Tf}*fc "this shall not be unto thee" Matt. 16,22; or in a friendly sense "for", "for the advantage of" fti*Jf : AdA "to do good to any
0 , a x a ! 1 1

( ) [But v., on the other hand, BARTH, in 'Orientalische Studien (1906), p. 790.]

398

one"; ft,A ' AflAtl "he will pray for thee" Gen. 20,7; "Hit A0A.P "do me this right" Gen. 2 0 , 1 3 ; dhl-t' &.& (f^*P IdMl " "by reason of my fear for you" G. A d . 109,23. AAA also forms compounds with fl and "j\9- flAflA is still more precise than AdA "upon", "over", e. g. Ps. 4,7; "judgment upon any one" flAAA Hen. 22,4; flAflA" "over i t " Hen. 28,2; "there was found no unrighteousness flA^A>f in me" Ps. 16,4; Gen. 44,17; and in particular it is employed for "through", when any one is represented as the instrument, passive or active, of the completion of a transaction: tf">A j & ^ ^ l C flAAAhtf" "the Spirit speaks through you" Matt. 10,20; JZ^fllAJ?.' OhfcRC) s flAdA.lT> "(that) children he begotten of them" Hen. 15,5; tI(lAdA>U- * O\0>P "through whom they get him" Matt. 2 6 , 2 4 ; AAA A 0*A "under Moses" ('under his rule') Josh. 20,2. ftjPA#A is "down from", "away from" (*7Jtt?) Hen. 2 8 , 2 ; Matt. 1 7 , 1 8 ; 1 8 , 9 ; or even much the same as ?ijP "1fl, g- t't'h ft^AAAjf "accept from me" Gen. 21, 30.
! 00 s , s

9. tfnAAA'fs the Accusative and Constr. St. of tfoAflA'h "height", is always found referring to Place"above", "over", "upon": <wAAA^' 9rC ('above') "upon the earth" Luke 6,49; Gen. 7, 24; <wAAA^ h(b "over his head" Matt. 27, 37; Hen. 32, 2; ^ A A A * ! " }4fi*J* "above the winds" Oadla Arag. (GUIDI, 1905), p. 5. And,just as in Hebrew,"over a thing" has also the meaning "before it", especially in the phrase $ao : <7DVAA *Uth< "he stood before him" Gen. 1 8 , 2 ; 2 2 , 9 ; 2 4 , 4 3 ; 4 1 , 1 . fl<w>A AAi* has the same meaning as ^ A d A i " 10. -^.fl "upon", "above", "over", to some extent synonymous with AflA> seems to be compounded of ^ ( 62, a) and fl( ), and thus would properly mean "atthe". First of all it is found with the same force as AdA; we say "to build upon a rock" ^ f l Matt. 7,25, 26; -S.fi "to ride upon"; flJ#4 -S .fl: fotfvh "it fell upon stony ground" Matt. 13,5; "to settle upon", "to set upon" Matt. 14,19; 2 3 , 2 ; "to lay upon" Matt. 2 3 , 4 ; "power over" Matt. 10,1; "to place (as lord) over" Hen. 24,6; ^-7: ^ 0 ' 1R. 0'}<L{t * rhJ&flJ^" "breathed upon him ('his face') the breath of life" Gen. 2, 7. Next, it is often used in a hostile sense, "against", "in opposition to" Hen. 10, 9; 56, 7; Matt. 24, 7; Acts 23, 5 ;
! 2

(*) [FLEMMING'S reading is flHA*A>

TR

-1

( ) Like'-Ml, Afl

399

0<J. ^ . f t "to blaspheme against" Mark 3, 29. Farther, it is employed to introduce the object of an action, particularly with verbs which mean "to rejoice (over)" f ' / r h s / ^ f l Hen. 97,2; "to weep (over)" Hen. 9 5 , 1 ; "to mourn over" Hen. 12,6; "to rely upon" Hen. 94, 8; and with verbs of 'adding to' "thereto", "in addition to" lunfih : -S.fi Hen. 82,11 ( ); Numb. 3 2 , 1 4 ; Jtfl: T/ "and besides". f\^Jd is interchangeable with tfjl and is almost as com,J
x

mon, e. g. Ps. 9 , 4 2 ; Gen. 6 , 1 2 ; 2 4 , 1 8 ; Job. 16,14; Hen. 20 ,5c ).

7x9*$$ is "down from" Matt. 14, 29. A peculiar use is met with in (Dtl\\ ' h9 ^.(i : * hth-i* ' h" ^ "to add to his stature one cubit" Matt. 6,27. 166. 11. ffotlh "towards", "to" (versus, juxta, ergo) ex- p opresses in the most forcible manner 'direction towards anything', and is chiefly used with reference to Space in the sense of- "away continued to", "opposite to", "along": tfD?lA s fcA*W "towards Spain", ' "to Spain" Pom. 1 5 , 2 4 ; iro 'ilA s f"?*} "to or on the right hand" Luke 1,11 ; <WJ|A * flrhC to the sea", and "by the sea" Matt. 4,13; 13,1 ; Mark 1,16, and thus always in notices of the direction of a place, and of the cardinal points &c. More rarely it stands, with verbs of 'inclination' and the like, for "towards", in the sense of the Latin erg a. The word itself is the Accusative and Constr. St.
t, 0
rep

( n _ 2 3 )

of tfD'JlA "the visible side of anything" ( / J ^ s O , cf. J L S O , ^ i ) ( ) . I t is also compounded with other prepositions, as in A'^'JlA "towards", in the sense of direction in space, Gen. 1 3 , 1 4 ; and in a metaphorical sense 'ergo* Hebr. 2,17: orft/w>*>?Aeither "in the direction of" (v. on t\9, 164,3) Gen. 13,11; or "on the side of", e. g. "she is my sister ftflWJlA ' Kft*? on my father's side" Gen. 2 0 , 1 2 ; fttfo'JlA s W J I A "considered from the side of the Gospel", "having regard to the Gospel" Eom. 11,28; or it is placed before other Prepositions of Place, as in aoTrlii : J t l ^ "to the rear (or back) of"; aofld S tyRao "to the front of" &c. Ttxl't* ootid is very common, v. infra No. 19.
2

12. {fAA "with" (cum), the Accusative and Constr. St. of j ^ A A "likeness", properly signifies "in the likeness of", i. e. "like",
( ) [In Hen. 82,11 PLEMMIKG reads 9fofoX?instead
x 2

of DILLMA^N'S

S^f\J'\ and in 20, 5 the former has ^ f l for the latter's fl^fl. T R . ] ( ) [V., however, PRAETORIUS, ZDMG L Y I I , p. 273, who compares the Southern Arabic Vpifi "way".]

400

166.

and is always used for "with", in order to express 'accompanying' and 'companionship'. I t is the ordinary word for this relation ('he [it] as he [it], or he like him' = 'he with him'), e. g. th :ftPAA: 9tltl hCXti+V* "Jesus went with his disciples". I t finds frequent employment with words which express reciprocal action: 'to he at peace with', 'to fight with', 'to confer with', e. g. 'fr tl s 9AA Matt. 17,3; next it expresses 'in relation one to another', e. g. hA&l' 9X\-fr ' 0AA WPI "he has not left off his mercy to the living" Euth 2,20; fliy^^^oo- : pfl^fl- & 9 AA "and they keep faith one with another" Hen. 41,5;
f

even with verbs of 'separation', 'i't'^th* 6 9ftA hAft "we are to be separate the one from the other" Gen. 31,49 (for which ftJPV (h9) appears in Gen. 32,17). I n conformity with its fundamental meaning it is specially in place with verbs of 'assimilating and equalising', e. g. "h^AATTt* s 9llh>h " I may be compared with thee"; aikft f AA AA/h "the day is the same as the night" Hen. 72,20; and farther with verbs which indicate 'being numbered among or regarded as', e. g. 'F'faA'fe ' 9tlti ' :VpVJ Is. 53,12 and Luke 22,37; cf. Ps. 87,4; as well as with verbs of 'joining', e. g. HJ&'h'fiAlfl ' 9 AAU " "who is joined to them" Hen. 82,20. On rare occasions the preposition is used to indicate that which one has upon him, or carries with him, e. g. "they came 9AA ' o Yiih\ ' (Dd0(D* with swords and staves" Matt. 26,47 (for which in Yerse 55 fl appears); or, again, in the sense of the Latin 'penes' Hen. 9, 5. 13. fyf;ao "before" (ante and coram "iS*?), the Acc. and Constr. St. of tyj9 "front", is used both of Space and Time: /fPv/n : 9/*<pA "before the altar" Matt. 5,24; fyfrao : p-jp "before the present time"; tygao 'coram' Matt. 25, 32; 27,11. ([fyRao "before", is very common in the sense of ante and coram, Matt. 10,32; 11,10, 26; Ps. 9,26, and "overagainst" Hen. 4 ( ) : also K9 4 ^"< O ^ B ) "from before", "before", e. g. h9fy< YxfA "before the flood" Matt. 24,38; h9 &&0 1Kb ' 0~h * *b*W3hP "from before thy face shall come forth my sentence" Ps. 16,3; and "by reason of" Hen. 9,10; as well as 'contra': Hft 9 ty Liroon i ^4>f| 'ventus contmrius' Matt, 14, 24.
s n >tfI> a 1 J TI > W> ni s
o o

fn

0) [Here the reading adopted by FLEMMING is

fl*"^ ^'/

or DILLMANN'S

IMNCW. TR]

166.

401

14. "after", "behind",the opposite of ^ao~, the Acc. and Constr. St. of "VC "rear", is also used both of Space and Time: J t ^ I f t f - "back" Ps. 6,10; : tfA- "last of all" Mark 12,6; 'fiitD : "to follow after" Matt. 10,38. Still more common is "h9^^/i i t h meanings, of Time and Space: d*d h9^&V ' "he came behind them"; JMPJM^H "after this"; h9^d hP*"! "after the flood" Gen. 9,20; h9 'h6 / K * Herrn, p. 80; Matt. 21, 32. Still, in these cases ftJP is pretty often to be understood in its fundamental meaning: th-C "h9X? "get from behind me" Matt. 16,23. We meet also with fl"*<: Hen. 65,4; Matt, 15,23. 15. "TfthA "in the midst of", "between", "among" (inter), the Acc. and Constr. St. of ^ K h A "the middle" (properly, 'that which is comprised in something else, or contained in it',from MlA, Causative of bis); e. g. "7MlAtf : flJ7?hA>h "between me and thee"; A^pa** s VfthA "Mrf"A*il* "he sent them among wolves" Matt. 10,16; "7fthA dthC "in the midst of the sea" Matt. 14,24. We have also fl"7fthA "in the midst of" Matt. 14,6; and V ? h h A , pap Gen. 48,12. 16. jJ-dif" "below", "under" (sub), the Acc. and Constr. St. of ^"/h-Th "the ground or bottom", e. g. jf'rhi* : hlth "under his feet" Ps. 8,7; Matt. 22,44; also found compounded with fl and ftjP . 17. Of the same meaning as the preposition last-mentioned appears ao^fa-j* "underneath", the Acc. and Constr. St. of ao-t fafy "the underside", Gen 1,9; 6,17; Ps. 17,40; Hen. 26,2. Also h^^Zi-t, nnrip Hen. 14,19 0 . 18. OfD-ft "about", "around" (circa), the Acc. and Constr. St. of QOhJ "circuit", is of common occurrence, e. g. Mark 3, 34; Ps. 30,16. 19. V W ) "wards", "in the direction of", or "to" &c, is manifestly taken from the Dem. Pron. Ki^ ( 146, fem. of U). I t is quite as manifold in its references as the Accusative is, and it is withal one of the most subtle prepositions in meaning, to be found in Ethiopic. I t often serves as a mere periphrasis for the
n D ttnh 0 ! 0 2

O [Given as "h9^*^l't
2

in FLEMMING'S 'Henoch', TE.]

( ) Corresponding in origin,not in meaning, to fiK and j J l . 26

402

166.
!

Accusative, particularly with verbs of motion: -"tAA hi* h*fc" "went past that way" Matt. 8,28; *"lh\W : h9 Of ' hi* * (\th** "he withdrew from that place into retirement" Matt. 14,13, 23; fflh* h i * JjAft ' "they returned by another way" Matt. 2,12; flft : hi* h1*K "he entered ('the door', i. e.) through or by the door" John 10,1, 2; fOOHJt : hi* ' flJ^flH "he wandereth through the waste" Matt. 12,43; thus always "TfA<{. hi* "to pass through" Judges 11,17 sqq.; Jifllft s hi* m>fiY\* "he looked out at the window" ('through the window') Gen. 26,8; [Kebra Nag. 54 b 3 sq.]; hi* : ^ * "through the gate" (interchangeable with fl) Hen. 72, 6 sqq.; hi* ' P T J f "at my right hand"; h i * ' (D*tl \ ' tDhl* h^M "inwardly and outwardly" Gen. 6,14; hi* ^IftC 'in the direction of that which one is looking at', i. e. "forward" Gen. 33,12; hi* *^fl "on what side" Judges 1,25. Being a preposition of such general meaning, it is often placed before other prepositions, to determine their signification more exactly by the subordinate idea 'in the direction o f : hi*' S.fl "on the water (motion)" Matt. 14,28; ft?f : <n?lA s 1^fl>0 "through the fields" Matt. 12,1 ; - l A ^ h - * hi* -S.fl ' fl/hC " I crossed over the sea" Hen. 32,2; VJ-f- s R'j&O"(came) behind him" Matt. 9,20; Cant. 2, 9; hi* *^ao Ex. 34, 6; Josh. 8,14 &c. 20. (\h1*i a compound of fl and hi* No. 19, is properly "in the direction of" or "in regard to". Accordingly it signifies very frequently: 1. "by reason of" (more vigorously and clearly than fl), and then, "in payment of" and "for", of price and wages, e. g. " I will serve thee seven years dhl* <J-fh.A for Rachel" Gen. 29,18; 30,15; and "for", e.g. "to beg for any one", "to intercede f o r " : 2 . "with regard to", "about", to introduce the subject spoken, thought, or written &c. 'about', e. g. "what are we to do with the rest {{hi* hltl* with regard to wives?" Judges 21, 7; J&fl.A"^' i (\h1* P-rh^A "he spake to them of John" Matt. 17,13; 11,7, 10; 13,10 &c,very often occurring in this sense; and thus it is the usual word to indicate the contents, in the headings of books and sections of books.On \\ao : fxl* cf. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.', col. 827. 21. V?1* "instead of", originally V*C),formed from
:
n

O V . DILLMANN'S 'Octat. Aethiop.', Comm. p. 5. The Nasal is interpolated in accordance with 58. "~

403

V? "there" ('in the place') and an ending 'Th, which supports the sign of the Constr. St.,is used in the case of 'barter' and 'substitution' (being interchangeable with A f t * } ^ in the former meaning): "theyrequitedmeevil U f " H " > VVJ&'I" for good" Ps. 37,21; Gen.44,4; "he dies Of>i* ' rhU-fl for the people" John 11,50; and in the case of succeeding to a kingdom 'in place o f Gen. 36, 33 sqq. 22. flfl*# and flAtf-V-h from fl*} (pa) "interval" ('separation') and fl. The Singular-form stands: 1. in a few instances, in the sense of "between" (inter), referring to space: ftA *]hA %P flfl^TT "which are joined together" Ex. 28, 7; 7*} s ' flfl*i"> "their faces must look to one another" Ex. 25, 20. 2. Inasmuch as that which is between two objects is withal the binding element between them, flfl^V signifies farther "occasioned by", "caused by"( ), "through the influence of", or "by reason of", and it is frequently used with this meaning: Judges 20,10; Mai. 1,2; flflJ*H "therefore" Ex. 20,11; or "with regard to" (like flft'J'h) Judges 21,16.The Plural-form, which is also written flfl/^ih appears only associated with Suffixes, and has always the meaning of "between", "among", with a spatial reference, e. g. Ex. 26,3. I t is greatly used in regard to anything which a number of persons do or cause "between or among themselves", and thus it is specially found with verbs of St. I l l , 3, e. g. Matt. 9,3; 16, 7, 8; 12, 26. We have even <n>'} 7/* ^h * h'i'fr * " H ' V ^ flflJZ-^-fcy "a kingdom which is divided against itself" Matt. 12, 25; and, with a reduplicated 0: (M : fl^T'fclftf * Gen. 42,21, 28. Along with flflV, appears (for ft?n> 57) ( ) frequently, in the sense of "for the sake of" and "about" (de): KM&l 7T}*fc "for this cause" Mark 1,38; ft*}flV : ao^i "flA "of whom he is speaking" John 13,22; (and with the meaning "on account of") Ex. 29, 36.But the use of flfl* and fc?fl} began generally to decline, and flft*}>f* came into more frequent use in their stead. 23. V J f l A , and still oftener H M O A "without", "except", is originally a Conjunction, and is still employed greatly as a Conx
< ,
0

( ) Cf. casion".
2

^JJU

intervallum and nexus;

" ^ ? n ^ "interval",
1

"cause", "oc-

( ) [According to JENSEN, 'Zeitschr. f. Assyr. X I , p. 352, ft*} here is = Assyrian in(a).] 26*

404
5 7

i s a

166.

words occurring as Prepositions,

junction. I t stands for h9(\(l ( ) (*)> and compound of ftJP "if" ( 64, 5) and ^ "not", answering to Hj a; Hh'XIA is literally "which-if-not", "if-it-not". I t means "without": V ) f l A > tf-frfc "without judgment" (L&); ftCfl*J ' VH1A * fcrfrfc -"forty, save one" 2 Cor. 11, 24; Judges 20,15, 17; HTrfflA 9AA. "without a parable" Matt. 13,34; H V } H A "without fruit" Matt. 13,22; 15,38; Hen. 89,44; "except" Matt. 11,27; 14,17, 21; 21,19. ( ) Words occurring as Prepositions, but less frequently, or those which are just beginning to be used as Prepositions.
c

24. aoty&OD "before", "in preference to Hen. 48,2, the frequently ' ^*^9 "that which is in front". (24-38). 25. ^bp.* "beyond", "along" (from "TA/Mh "a crossing", "a ford"( )): Hen. 18,10; Matt, 19,1; Gen. 41,3. 26. <pV "towards" (properly, "way", "direction"),used both of Time and Place, e. g. <PV * AClfl "towards evening" Gen. 3,8; 8,11; 19,1. 27. and 1^ "hard by", "close to" (properly, "exactness") Matt. 20,30; Ex. 24,4; 29,12; 15,27; Josh. 8,35; also, AT;** PS . 140, 7. 28. fl,R "beside" Gen. 30,40 (from fl.ft- "fellowship"). 29. j P ^ H "beside", "close to" (from VI&'XL "boundary"); also * 7 M H Numb. 34,3; Deut. 11,30; Josh. 12,9. 30. ahTh&. "along" (connected with T, Amhar. <D&) in the Book of Jubilees; and Hfl>*?i& Deut. 32,51. 31. 'MflA "in place of" ( + h A "place") Ex. 21,36; Hen. 89,39; 103,3. 32. *f*(D*AfIl "for", "in exchange for" ('f-CD-AT "exchange"), v. LUDOLF, 'Lex.\ 33. 0o1& and h7r% "over-against" (properly: "thatwhich one sees before him", "the quarter one is looking to") Josh. 8,14; Mark 12,41; 13,3; Gen. 12,8. 34. ftjJAA and hCh? "like", in poetic diction, (properly: "after the image of"). 35. aofliV, oftener "of the size of", "as large as" (v. 157,1).
A c c a n d C o n s t r S t o f

( ) [V. Note ( ) on preceding page.] ( ) [Also "the region beyond", regio opposita, ripa ulterior (v. 'Lex? & 'G'foss.'), which seems to come nearer~the meaning of the Prep, TE.]
2

 166.

405

36. hOJA and h<PA "behind", and h^h (h<h) "outside of". Finally, we have farther the following remarkable words: 37. ftd'Q&fy, only used with suffixes, "for the sake of" "because of"): f N H U M l . Gen. 12,13 0 . 38. \\ao, of Pronominal origin ( 64, &), and properly a Conjunction, and Relative Adverb of Time ( 161, b) "when", but also used as a Preposition "at the time of", e. g. Judges 14,15,17; Ps. 77,12; Matt. 11,22; 17,23; Hen. 22,4. I n old printed books and manuscripts it still occurs often in the form (cf. 167), which it must always take before Suffixes. I t is very frequently found with the Suffix of the 3 pers. Sing. Fern, y, thus WVi for "at that time" Matt. 2,17; 13,43; Luke 13,1 ( 160, b). Of quite similar origin and meaning is Afl ( 62,1, a), from A (16) "there" and fl "in". I t is regarded as a Relative at times,and in those cases it means "when",but also as a Demonstrative, and then it signifies "at that time". The latter is the fundamental meaning, of which the relative signification is only a development. In olden time it had the termination e( ),sometimes used absolutely, as in fjfci' : A(l "in that 'then'", i. e. "at that very time" Matt. 7, 23, sometimes governing a Genitive; but in later Ethiopic this form is retained only with the Suffix '/, Afly "at that time", "forthwith", "then", e. g. Matt. 12,13 &c. Both ft^fcy and flfl,y are farther compounded with other prepositions: AAfly " f the moment" Luke 8,13; ftJP'Afl.y "from that time forward", "forthwith" Hen. 85,4; 89,20; h9h %V "thereafter" Matt. 26,16. Probably is also of the same order with these,according to the conjecture which has been already ventured ( 64, b),being of like origin, although it has usually the meaning "point of time", "hour", "moment" (cf. j^'h't Afl>)- I t is used exactly likeft<w>= "in the time of", with Genitive following, and it may even subordinate an entire sentence in the Genitive relation: : d.^^Yl ' C^ time ofyou will') "whensoever you will" Mark 14, 7: and hence it is on the way to become a Conjunction, just as Art is nearly
; rd 2 r a ! 00 ne

As to the form

flA-fl^^h

**? <*ot,

Judges 11, 23, it is certainly fl^f. [FIELD'S L X X (Ox-

better to regard it as standing for ftfl<,*h from ford 1859) gives esr/ GOV here. T R . ] . ( ) [Cf.'Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X V I I . ]
2

( ) H. as in h H . , "?fcH,.

406

167.

always a Conjunction. But just as we say i Afl> we also say fl)-M* : ' 7.H. "at that time" Matt. 21,2 ; Ps. 18,14; or T.H.y, "forthwith", "at that time", just like YyVi, Afly Matt, 1 4 , 2 7 ; 2 1 , 3 &c. On fltH V7rsp, avTi, irspi, and <p/J pro, vri v. DILLMANN'S Lex.\ coll. 538, 1380. Attachment 167. Attachment of Suffixes to Prepositions. Almost all suffixes to the Prepositions may take the Personal Pronoun as a Suffix, just pas, with the Constr. St., they govern Nouns. But the manner of
l
P r e

sitiong.

attachment varies greatly, corresponding to the origin and use of the Preposition. 1. The two quite short and exceedingly common Prepositions, fl and A, follow a way of their own. (a) A attracts the Suffixes of the 2 Pers. m. and/"., and the Plural Suffixes of all the Persons, without any binding-vowel, but yet in such a manner that la with {faB* an<J IF1 is contracted into A"" * and A**"^ The suffix of the 1 Pers. Sing, was appended, in accordance with 149, in its oldest form i, to A? or rather to v, becoming A.- I the same way the Singular Suffixes of the 3 Pers. with A brought about the contracted forms A" and AC )- But these forms A,? A", A were erelong considered too short, and were therefore strengthened by a repetition of the attachment of Personal signs,in the 3 Person by j: and fc (as in (02i*fc> J&X*fc), and in the 1 by which in this case must be explained as standing for of ft* " I " ( ). We have therefore (TEUMPP, p. 560): ,
ND 0 ST n RD 1 RD a < ST 2

1. m. f.

2. m.
0

3. f.

S. AW"to me"; Ah, Ah "to thee"; A - * "to him", A*fc "to her"; PI. AV"to us"; Ah"*, hW "toyou"; A"" " "to them", A"? "to them". Instead of A"*}, met with e. g. in Matt. 2 4 , 1 9 ; Hen. 9, 8 ( ) , a form fr7r'P is found, having *f: appended (just as in "hfaTff:,
3

C) 7, "6, ftb. A*t s r . 6,62 (KNIG, p. 124) is manifestly an error of the Press. ( ) Just as the Personal-ending of the 1 pers. Perf. in Arabic and in the North-Semitic tongues is tu, ti; cf. EWALD, 'Hebr. Spr.' 105, e; 'Gr. Ar.' I , p. 285 sq.
,t 4 E 2 st

( ) [FLEMMING'S reading of this verse, besides exhibiting other differences, gives A"*J*fr instead of DILLMANN'S A**1T

R-1

407

MTfti) Ex. 2 6 , 4 , 3 7 ; Glen. 31,43, and another form for fa*7tWTt, having -*} appended (as in ah'h&t). Some rather peculiar Suffixes also are taken by A when it is compounded with fl) and ftft, ( 61, cf. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.'): besides fDJ&Zl^ "woe's me", one says farther <D,&Af (for ll)A; tf- *flf for flj; and so too ftAAf (for ftAAJ as well as fiAA/f" '> and in the 3 Person f: is sometimes dropped, as in ftft, ' A" Job 31,3; ftAvA * AOhhl: * -flftA. Matt. 18,7; fcA/KJ * Ah W ^S 'Pthfc^ Ps 30,21; Matt. 24,19. I t is otherwise in the case of (Dj&Atl, fl>Atl, hA Ahtf" &c. (&) Suffixes are attached to fl by a going back to e; only, in the 3 Person a blends with hit, ha &c. into b, a, omit, on, thus
0 ! rd

RD

(TRTTMPP, p.

560):

1. m.

2. f. m.

3. f.

S. 'flf"inme";*flh, -fill, "in thee"; fl "in him", fl "in her"; PL -ftV "in us"; 'flh<>-,*flh'}"inyou"; fl<n*"in them", fl*}"inthem". Yet fl|:, fl-fc also occur in place of fl, fl (like A*"frj A*fc)> and fl*}^ also, in place of fl*}, as in Josh. 2 4 , 3 1 ; Matt. 2 5 , 1 6 ; Numb. 1 3 , 2 8 ; 1 4 , 3 4 ; farther fl^*} just like as in Numb. 3 2 , 1 7 ; finally even fl.f instead of -fl? Sap. 2,13 ( A = Abb. 55). Another trace of an original fl^ "in me" has been preserved in ft*}fl. for the usual hlfd^, 162. Moreover fl when provided with Suffixes, although it has not yet given up its fundamental meaning, has usually assumed quite peculiar significations, and is with great frequency employed in these. 1. I n particular, inasmuch as ( 194) the Copula "is" is already involved in "flf &c., -flf, -flh &c. may signify: "it is with me^ ), i. e. " I have", "thou hast", "he has", e. g. | M h "that which thou hast". Therefore in many cases this form takes the place of our verb "to have", and is ( 176, h) almost always construed with the Accusative, e. g. hfl * -flV "a father have we" Matt. 3,9. 2. The 3 pers. Sing. Masc. fl or fl|s may also signify: "therein (is)", i. e. "there is present", "there is or there are", corresponding in meaning, completely, to the W of the Hebrews, e. g. fl : hti ' (IBM*, "there are those who came" "there came some". The word is always imper1 RD

(*) For this use of fl cf. passages like Hen. 37,5 to my share".

i *Qf "they fell

408

167.

sonal in that case, and its subject may be mentioned either in the Nominative or the Accusative, v. 192. To give the negative of 0 in these two significations, the negative JtA (^K), which is now preserved only in this compound, was prefixed to it even in the oldest times ( 62, c), whence (*):
1.

2. m. f.

sing.
Piur.
m.

fcA-ne fcA-nh ftA-ntu ftA-nv KA-flSfi^* fcA-nh?

3. f.

Piur. >,Aptf'

Sing. fcAO or KAO*

fcAfl
0

or fcAfl"fc
hMTr*

hfrO } or

2. Of the other Prepositions, some have continued to exhibit various peculiarities, just because they are of Pronominal origin. The Preposition ftfth "till", and ( 166, No. 19) do not take any Suffixes,the former, because it is properly a Conjunction and signifies "till that", "until",and Ittii; because the use of it with Suffixes is reserved to indicate the Possessive ( 150, b). On the other hand flh*}"|* "by reason of", "for the sake of" permits the approach of Suffixes, and indeed does so quite in accordance with 150, b{ ), thus: flfr'J-fcKe, Uhl'thO' &c. Finally Xiao "like", originally a Conjunction too, calls for the appearance always of a long a (from ao = rro) before the Suffixes (t03, IB?):
2

1.

2. m. f. m.

3. f.

Sing, h"?? piur. h<7i

h"?h h^tK Yioynov*

h^lb

h^y

h<w<"* h

w*.

Xl^llh farther stands in many cases for "such a one", and as a neuter ("like it") for "such a thing", and for "thus" ( 157,1). 3. The majority of the other Prepositions take the ending e before Suffixes instead of a. This can only be explained as a trace of the old ending of the Constr. St. in ia ( 144), which has clung more tenaciously to these forms, manifestly because they are
(*) Corresponding in use in manifold ways to j j l l l } and ^ N . ( ) [including the lengthening ofjhe j\ before the suffixes in old Mss.j
2

409

all in the Accusative as well, and the old ending of the Constr. St. ia has coalesced with the a of the Accusative into e( ). And this e is preserved in a remarkable way with many prepositions, even in cases when they have nothing but an ordinary noun following them (cf. DILLMANN'S Octateuch Apparat. Crit. p. 5) : ^ f l , Josh. 10,4, Note; aollh, Numb. 20,19, Note; ftJPfc Lev. 2 0 , 5 F ; hil\bC) Gen. 35,20 F ; Amos 6,15 (A); 8,12 (A); 90&,V 4 Kings 7,18; Hh "HIA. Matt. 15,38 (Rom.); ||f -fr Gen. 47,19 F ; UP'J'fc'H Gen. 4 4 , 3 3 F ; J^d Matt. 14,26,28 (Old); at>ml Sap. 12,20 (A); and frequently in the N . T. (Old Ed.) &c.; cf. supra 166, No. 38 Afl This form appears always before Suffixes, e. g. from 0 AA "with":
x t , }

1. m.

2. f. m.

3. f.

Sing. jrAA,f piur. 9tiM

9tld,b 9 ftA ,tu rtiMi** - 9hMn

0

9tl&th rhtora*

9t\M rtib>\n

I t is the same with h9i, -5.11, " M , &OB, Z^d, AAA, <wAdA+, a11h, "7MlA, ^ i - , oo^^, Mt-t, h'JflA. And yet suffixes are also met with, attached without an e, e g. ftjpniftfo- "of them" Ex. 1, 7,particularly to those prepositions which are still used on other occasions as substantives also: av^ih'b and aofyfa^ Josh. 7,21,22, Note; ODAflA-f-tf " Gen. 7,20; <w>AflA# Hen. 8 9 , 4 ; "hTPfoP G. A d . 4 9 , 9 ; " V M l A " ^ Ps. 5 4 , 1 7 ; Matt. 18,20; Numb. 1 7 , 2 ; Lev. 26,46. 4. The Preposition OhiX-f* "in" takes before Suffixes a new Abstract-form <D*A"fch "the interior", "inside", and appends the Suffixes to this, like flA*fl*h thus: O^A't'Thh, fl* A'fc'Hl< " fl^A'fc'fc,fl>"A'fc^ ,fl>"A'fc'f0 ; O^il't^'i ( ). To the preposition flflJ&V the Suffixes are applied as to an ordinary noun: Ex. 26,9;
1 ; , ,0 J m 3

( ) Thus we can neither compare the binding-vowel of the Plural , which is found with many prepositions before the Suffix in Hebrew, as PHILIPPI, 'Wesen und Urspr. des St. c.', p. 107, PRAETORIUM, Z D M G X X V I I , p. 644, and TRUMPP, p. 560, N. 1would have us do, nor even the of fttf, "7Mi., T.H. Cf. farther BARTH, Z D M G X L I I , p. 348 sqq.
2

[V. now

PRAETORIUM, Z D M G

L V I , p. 685 sqq.] ( ) [V. supra Note, 165, p. 395.] ( ) The form D-ft't'f in the Constr. St. is met with in R P P E L L ,
3

11,39, [and D . H . M L L E R , 'pigr. Denkm: p. 45].On

B A E T H , Z D M G X L I I , p. 348, N. 6.

<0"A'fc*|h v. now also

410

168.

36,11; and to its Plural-form flfl/iV^j just as to ordinary plurals, viz., with I: ( W ^ W " * &c. 5. 0(D~& "around", as if it were not yet a full preposition, assumes the Suffixes just like an ordinary noun in the Accusative HflJ-J^f Ps. 30,16; OOP* Mark 3,34; QOhfi Josh. 21,40; Oa*~F*7t Josh. 21,39; 24,33 & c ; and it is the same with "70-f, aotte &c, or h9tlh, hHd ( 153,1), T?, h^K h<P4 and others ( 154, 2, a).
1

General Account of ti^ns"

0

I I I . CONJUNCTIONS. -^8- Several of those Words of Relation which have been

adduced among the Prepositions, are also employed as Conjunctions, being either Prepositions originally, and Conjunctions only in a derived way, or vice versa. I n fact, when we consider that a Preposition is always in the Constr. St. relation, and farther that by means of this relation a word may govern an entire clause, whether it be introduced by a relative pronoun or not (e. g. "Vl ' Uft mClfi ' 0 JlA>U < * "in the measure [of this] that" i. e. so long as the bridegroom is with them" Mark 2,19), the possibility of a Preposition passing into a Conjunction becomes clear; and several Conjunctions have been produced in this way. By the side of these, there are others which are originally mere Adverbs, but which have acquired the power, by a slight alteration of the sense or even of the form, of connecting clauses together. The most numerous Conjunctions, however, and the most current, are of pronominal origin, and come usually from a relative pronoun or a demonstrative pronoun used relatively, inasmuch as the relative pronoun is precisely the one which serves to bring words and clauses into relation with one another. Again, among Conjunctionsthemselves, one very essential distinction consists in this, that some of them hold the clause, which they introduce, in stricter subordination, while others only loosely precede it. Necessarily the former must stand invariably at the head of the sentence, and are either combined with relative pronouns or appear in the Constr. St. The latter are nothing but adverbs, and, therefore, like other adverbial particles, they readily retire behind the first word or words of the sentence, or they may even be attached to one of these in the form of an enclitic. Conjunctions are arranged, in what follows, in accordance with their signification.
!
o , ,

411

1. C O P U L A T I V E , D I S J U N C T I V E , A D V E R S A T I V E , AND R E S T R I C T I V E CONJUNCTIONS.

1. The simplest Copula is fll "and" (1, always attached to i. copuiathe word which follows. I t connects both individual words and. . '
tive

Disjunctive,

clauses, and corresponds frequently to our stronger "also", and adversative not seldom to our "but", inasmuch as that which may be regarded Kestriftive in the one language as a simple continuation or ranking together, J Con un5

tions (19).

is expressed in the other rather as a contrast or opposition. I t may even answer to our "or", or "up to", e. g. "two and three" for "two or ('up to') three", Hen. 3. Still, there are special particles, in common use, for "also", "but" and "or". 2. ftflH "or" (jf, IN, o ^ ) ) is sometimes disjunctive, sometimes explanatory; but for "or" in the sense of "that is" there is also a periphrasis with *fl ^A ( 193), and in like manner there are still other expressions for "or" as 'sive' ( 170). 3. For the idea, "also", "even", the peculiar word % is made use of, always enclitic like rs and que, an adverb of the shortest formation from the root U{ ) ( 62), e. g. tr ^'(\'htD*jf'it "even the publicans" Matt. 5,46; h1**L "even (or'also') thou" Matt. 18,33; hAVLfl "even those, which he hath" Matt. 13,12. I t serves also to link words together, and then it is equivalent to "and", e. g. KAAPh ** ' A l L ^ h " * ^ " I will nourish you and your house" Gen. 50, 21. Most frequently it occurs in association with fll, fl> % "and also", "farther", "and": OftiiWL "and (also) the beasts" Gen. 1, 26; <DAft& ^ & A "and when ye pray" Matt. 6,5. I n all such cases it connects individual words as well as whole clauses. I t is often made use of to turn the interrogatives and 9'}* into indefinites ( 147, b) ( ), but only in clauses which have a negative meaning. 4. A somewhat stronger conjunction than % is found in formed from the root fr, just as % is from the root U ( ) . I t may indeed be translated frequently by "also", but more precisely i t
1

01

C ) Also = o
2 3

5f I G. Ad. p. 110, line 7 and Note 2.

( ) I f not rather a weakened form from an interrogative root kwi, M. ( ) Like and ^"5f. ( ) ni has also been found in Assyrian; v. HAUPT, 'Der keilinschr. SinlfluthberichV (Leipzig 1881), p. 29, [and DELITZSCH, 'Assyr. Gramm: 79,/?].
4

412

answers to "on his part", "on the other hand", for it is the proper particle to express the correspondence of two or more members, whether words or clauses, in cases where the relation of reciprocity occurs. I n Greek we should most readily express it by jusv or o~s: "whatsoever ye would that men should do to you *7fl4- tv** *: Ji'J^-tfo-Jr even so do ye to them on your part" Matt. 7,12; " i f ye forgive men their trespasses f : AYl" ^ hfHfl* * your Father will also forgive you", Matt. 6, 14, 15; flhtf : flrt"?^ : W(\9:C}i "as in heaven, so also upon earth" Matt. 6,10. Thus the combination flj is very often equivalent to os, when anything new is added: tDhV j't*%, "and the priests again" ('on their part') &c. Josh. 6,13, 14; 9,3; cf. especially the instructive passage Matt. 13,3739: "the sower is the Son of Man; (D1^V*X the field again is the world; (DiP^frX ' HCh ivhile the good seed are the children of the kingdom" &c. When two or more members of a sentence are strung together by \, (D5r, this arrangement answers to our "as w ellas", "bothand": (D(Dfyh* s h.or^Tfp^ s fl>V7/***< *'fc "and they went out, both themselves and their kings" Josh. 11, 4; or hrtf-Afcfc : P 0 C * 7'>tDh9Ml ' rtlA "as on all other sides, so on this side too . . . . . the dew arose" Hen. 28, 2; in the same way \ :fl),e. g. 0h'h'p% s fDftA : 0flAU "both he and they that were with him" Matt. 12, 3; or %, s fl)\ Gen. 42,35. \ is also appended to the interrogative, just like V and with the same object; but ao^ more readily takes tC), and
0 0 10 f r n t

ri*,

fc( )

5. The notion "but", if it has no special emphasis, is regularly expressed by fl, which likewise appears invariably as an enclitic. I t comes from the root fl ( ) ( 62,1, a), and means in the first place "there". "But" is by no means its fundamental meaning. I t is rather attached to a word for the purpose of bringing it emphatically into notice; and thereby peculiar delicacy and brevity are lent to Ethiopic diction. E. g.: "Take no thought for the morrow, hhao : tw9fi s "IhfhiA, ' ACfrA for the morrow will take thought for itself" Matt. 6,34; ft<w : CDA^A : Mi> : A V 7 H . i t
3

(*) Because <W*V*3^ would be uneuphonious. ( ) "When encounters the final ^ of a noun, there is usually no contraction ( 55, c), e. g. Lev. 25, 22; Deut. 2,23, 29 (cf. 161, a); v., however, Numb. 6,4. ( ) Quite similar are ^jra, cf, IL <~
2 3

 168.

413

-flrfbC " I f thou be (really) the Son of God" Matt. 4,3; Gen. 4,25; Matt. 3,15; 6,9; 21,13; Josh. 23,2; Hen. 15,7 0 ; 16,3 &c. Hence it answers to fiev, wherever this particle gives a degree of prominence: ofhi/^lx -Alf"* s <D7(K' W i t jusv d-spic; iroXvg, ol Oi ipydrai okiyoi Matt. 9, 37; JAA i J^A $b$*(i * Wh&Oh : If^Afl^ Gen. 27,22; and it stands both for /xiv and for Zi, e. g. in John 3, 29, 30. On the position of A in the'sentence, cf. (DftA h*flAA Tob. 12,10, where later manuscripts present (DftAA Ji'flA- I n order to produce a specially marked emphasis, i t may even be attached to more than one word in the sentence: ftjP f"9"A ' ft'JhA " PdA'tX "now from this day he will assuredly love me" Gen. 30, 20. When it actually expresses merely our "but" or the Greek particle of continuation or opposition, hi, it is then frequently joined with the additional particle fl), thus fl)A g<Dfcff>A "but if"( ). 6. Contrast or contrariety is expressed more strongly, and almost always after clauses of negative meaning, by ftA "but"
2

(sondern), "but rather", formed from A = 5l ( 62) and = ftjP "if" ( 170)( ). I t is used pretty often, and it always stands at the beginning of the clause, e. g. "man does not live by bread alone, ftA flW"A"' but by every word" Matt. 4,4. I t appears in the sense of " i f not", direst, p. 4, line 21; p. 92, line 13.
3 1

In translations from Arabic it also corresponds to

"except",

e. g. M h9 "excepting if" ('unless') G. Ad. 148,1. 7. VJflA and nhlftti ( 166, No. 23) are often used also
O [The appended A d adopts here, T R . ]
2 e s

not appear in the reading which FLEMMING

v

( ) On UAYh (Hf|frO - DILLMANN'S 'Lex.', col. PRAETORIUS, 'Beitr. z. Assyr: I , p. 26.

3

1056

sq., and cf.

( ) Formed thus like Sf|. NOI,DEKE is of a different opinion. I n a letter dated 4 Dec, 1882, he explains ft^ aWa, which according to him has pushed its way into Ethiopic, through the Coptic, where it is in full use (cf.
s
T N a s

STERN'S 'Gramm.').

Against any comparison with ^ft the same scholar lays

stress upon these facts,that Id is not otherwise attested in Ge'ez,that m and n are not progressively assimilated in Ge'ez,and that the Semitic particles for the idea "if" constantly contain i (A = ^ | | = DJl).

414

in a like meaning, after a negation: Matt. 9,12; 16,23; Mark 7,15; Ps. 43,5. 8. ([th* ( 163, 2), which properly signifies "only", is also frequently employed to express "yet", "but rather", "but". I t is, in that case, usually placed after another word, mostly the leading word upon which stress is laid:ft*7*flhs flih*' AMlt K"flrfi C "but rather render ye to God' Matt. 5, 33; : OZhi* V l C V ) ^ "rather let your speech be" Matt. 5, 37; 10, 6; ftA KM'h O A * "hfVl "but yet who are not of us" 1 John 2,19. When compounded with m as at(\fh*, it expresses "but" (sondern): fllfl Mi ' (h* "but take heed" Matt. 6,1; 8,4; (Dihlx-U ' 3WlAVl<' * "but I say unto you" Matt. 8,11; {DtlAi* * &CVP "but fear ye him (who)" &c. Matt, 10,28; and also, separated from fl), lOft'OAfa" *"' fl<h"fc "but I say unto you" Matt. 17,12; and thus frequently. Farther A y be added in the same clause: {DfttfoA
1 D 1 m a

& i h ' flrh-fc ZMl 'flftA.*^ "but if that woman be not willing" 00 Gen. 24, 8; (D(\itx* : AA.U-A " /wffVA ' K?'? * "but Jesus himself baptised not" John 4, 2. 9. On f$\a*~ "rather" (also in the combined form: Hft'HIA: 3\\OT>* "but rather" Mark 7,15), v. 163,2.

2. INFERENTIAL, CAUSAL, AND FINAL CONJUNCTIONS.

2 inferen

169.

1.

Jl

"now", "thus", denotes an inference.

I t is

tiai, cauaai always enclitic, and is probably an abbreviated form of )3, 64, b. and Final . . " ^ ! oonjunc- I t is very common, particularly m the IN. T., e. g.: (Dwft-Trlb t i o n s d - i o ) . , ^ ^ . ^ ^ . U a n d a l l t h e g e n e r a t i o n s therefore are" &c. Matt. 1,17;

ixiMb "now I indeed" Matt. 3,11. I t is also appended to J, to emphasise astonishment: ftVbtfnjPU^*} " 0 what teachers!" The k of \b &J be assimilated to the vowel-less *7 or * of a verb: ft*}
m

Gen. 33,15.

2. I n like manner ft*>h is at first inferential, meaning "thus", "now", but afterwards having also the meaning "now then", "forthwith". I t is always set after one of the first words in the clause, and is to be derived from ft*} and h ( 64, b). The word is of very common occurrence, e. g. tlP "}* ' ft*}tl 'Hh ^OU -fc "why then are ye angry with me?" John 7,23. I t is often found along with Jl, with a meaning equivalent to "now therefore", e. g. *7(Kfa, ' ft">h i*Vf? "now therefore produce good fruits" Matt. 3, 8; 5,13; 6,31; 10, 26; 22,9; oMt is strengthened by A; Oft ft*>
0 :

 169.

' h0't'?
m

415

llrt

"go therefore unto my maid" Gen. 16, 2; 29,19, 2 1 ; Hen. 16,4. I t may even, when strengthened by other enclitics, introduce the sentence: ft^hAVb Matt. 19, 6. When i t is used with the Perfect or Imperfect, in narrative diction, and i n combination with fl), i t indicates "and so'^ ): (Dh'hlfr hlrh "and so they began" Hen. 86,6; 93,3; (DWF-Ptfl* s V>h "and he w i l l ('now') forthwith urge them on" Hen. 62,10; E x . 5,7, 10; 6 , 7 ; 7,5; or i n certain connections i t answers to our "again", more": hth't V J h ('once again') "once more" Judges 16,28. O n JV,Wih "no longer", OVKSTI, JUTJKSTI V. the 'Lex.'
1 ! <( !

*^rt

3. A similar compound, but somewhat different i n meaning, is found i n ItyiP dpa, which is usually set back in its clause, but which now and then introduces i t . I t occurs nearly always in questions, deriving from admitted assumptions consequences which may with probability be inferred: "then indeed?" "surely then indeed?" &c.: OB\*: hTrP ?0ft+ "who then indeed is the greatest?" Matt. 1 8 , 1 ; MP : MtHpyh '> ft^')* ' Ghfc?~a> "are not then their children free?" Matt. 17,26; or without an interrogative : flip : flftvM* " HbM\a~ : <w>'J7/*'^ "then surely the kingdom has come unto you" Matt. 12,28.Y. also ao*ih * WiP Matt. 19,25; JP'J'f* : }flp Matt. 19, 27. A very good example occurs in oofy s ^iP : <0-K*fc s HTft? "what manner of man truly is this ?" (namely 'the man who can do the things which have been done by him',thus drawing an inference from his deeds) Matt. 8,27. The shade of meaning, differentiating the word from V>h, must lie in p.If ft*}h is equivalent to "(there) see, t h a t " and to "accordingly", "thus", then TtiiP must be "see, indeed!" or "see, what!". This explains such a use of the word as we have i n M a r k 1,37: KiP ' : " a l l men seek then for thee", where reference is made to a circumstance well-known which might have been taken into consideration even by the person addressed.
:

4. hll*"* (from

and no, 64, b)( ) is causal, or justificative,

(*) Corresponding to the ] and 1 consecutivum of the Hebrews.

( ) [PRAETORIUS compares ftjp ( ^ f ) ,
2

'Beitr. zur AssyrS

I , p. 378, and 'Zeitschr.

R . KRAETZSCHMAR, ibid., p. 442 Note* the Assyr. asSu(m).

JENSEN,

f. Assyr? X I , p. 352 (/. c. supra), *'en with the Assyrian in(a).]

explains ftfttfD from *en sema, comparing

416

"because", and "for'^ ),almost the only word for this idea, and so in very frequent use. Less frequently like on it is equivalent to "that" (conj.) ( 2 0 3 ) . 5 . The Relative Pronoun, conceived as neuter, H( ), also stands for the conjunction "that" ('so that') and "because" or "since". 6. The usual word for "that" is Xiao ( ) ('according to that which', 'like as'), which is also employed as a preposition 1 6 5 , 6 . I t signifies "that", "so that" as well as "in order that"; and in the latter case it must invariably be followed by the Subjunctive. Taken with h. it signifies "thatnot", "in order thatnot", "lest". 7 . The preposition A ( 1 6 4 , 2 ) , which expresses the aim or object, is, like J in Arabic, prefixed even to a whole clause, to express a Wish, a Command, or a Purpose. I t is employed in independent clauses, and in dependent final-clauses (cf. DILLMANN'S 'Lex: col. 2 4 and Hexaem. 1 5 , 3 ) , and must always be followed by the Subjunctive, which it immediately precedes. Manifestly the whole following clause is dependent upon this A hi the Constr. St. I t should properly be given as AH "for this, that"; but here, on account of the brevity of utterance in one who is giving a command or expressing a wish, H is never used.
2 3

8. TxliXi, properly " t i l l that" (also a preposition 1 6 5 , 5 ) , is farther "so that", e. g. Josh. 2 3 , 5 , 1 3 . As, however, the word is already in frequent use as a preposition, it is again compounded with AO, as fcAh ' Afl "until when", also "so that", ccors, Matt. 8 , 2 4 , 2 8 ; 1 3 , 2 , 5 4 ; 1 5 , 3 1 &c. I n the Hexaemeron it often corresponds (joined to an Indicative or Subjunctive) to ^Os*-, e< g- 5 , 1 5 ; 9 , 1 7 ; v. also Gr. Ad. 2 7 , 1 1 . 9 . V } f l A and lift'J HA ( 1 6 6 , 2 3 ) may also govern an entire clause, in the sense of "except that", "without", "so that not" (ita ut nori): Matt, 1 0 , 2 9 &c. (It should properly be given in fulness as fc-HlAH) 1 0 . Finally, the word which is so exceedingly obscure
( ) Just like \3, it combines the two. ( ) Like j , y^, quod.
2 x

( ) Like &g, 07riag, "SJ^TT, ut.According to NOLDEKE, GGA 1886,

No.

26,

p. 1013, \\ao

"that" is different from XlOO "as" or "like" which is =

LX

and is to be ranked with L*A$^as in Tigrma &e-= jf, 13, plays a great role.

417

in its origin, belongs to this class. I t corresponds often to our "perhaps", and expresses doubt, uncertainty, or bare probability: dh+Pif0!? M "peradventure it happened from oversight" Gen. 43,12; 20,11; Luke 11,20. I t is employed much more frequently, however, when the uncertainty farther awakens misgiving; and then it answers to the Greek JUT/TTOTS, the Hebrew |g and our "lest": s # X h ' n^Miidh " l t haply there come some one, who is more honoured than thou" Luke 14,8; p-T.: M ' l A ?flrty "that I perish not with i t " Hen. 65,3; 0>7tH4 * P"T ^AAA ' h&,lh "and now peradventure he will (i. e. 'it is to be feared that he will') stretch forth his hand" Gen. 3, 22; : "thou mightest possibly fall into sin" Deut. 4,19; Gen. 26,9; Deut. 8,12 14; Gen. 38,11. I t appears, accordingly, after verbs wiiich express fear or wariness: l\d.CV ' P " * Z h/tAfr am afraid you will not be willing" Hen. 6,3 ; 0-4 ' ?~% Rev. 22,9. Accordingly the word must mean, properly: " i t may be, that", or "it is to be feared, that"( ).
! ! D e s s a

3. CONJUNCTIONS E X P R E S S I N G C O N D I T I O N A L AND T E M P O R A L RELATIONS.

170. Ethiopic has to some extent the same words for both 3. Conjuncthese relations,'just like other languages. expressing 1. From the interrogative and relative 00 there have been conditional derived, by prefixing an Aspirate ( 64, b), the forms Y\ao and ftn>,
Temporal

the former a Temporal particle, the latter a Conditional particle, ^ a distinction which is of a purely phonetic nature, and one which assuredly has been impressed only in process of time ( ). y%.ero "when", "at the time that" is not very common, and its place is generally taken by Art- When it does appear, it still keeps the full meaning of "at the time when" (cf. also 161,6). I t takes also the compound forms tx9YvOo "since", e. g. Gen. 11,10 (et saepe), and ftfth : hao (v. infra). But in Hh0 "when" (e.g. superscription
( 1 1 2

E e 1

t 1

ns

(*) So that 1^ seems to be equivalent to 13 ( 64, b), but f to be a form mutilated beyond recognition from some longer word, perhaps from an Optative of PP/l, Hjn (?), as if it were 15 IJ-p. (?), or a weakened form of j j , so that f-T. would properly be "if that" (^T yl). Kebra Nag. 25 Ann. 26 are hardly correct.] ( ) Of. M ('i not', 'unless') "but".
2 f

[?*%,

?*%\h

27

418

170.

of Ps. 3 &c.) is a preposition placed after the relative ( 164), and thus means properly at "the time (of this) that". ft<n " i f ' ^ ) is the ordinary conditional particle, and is employed whenever anything is posited as a fact or a possibility. Along with A i t forms the compound Afr0 (Ut. 'towards when', i. e.) "in case that", equivalent to "if", e. g. Ps. 45,2; Gen. 15,5; 18,24; Matt. 11,23. I n a dependent interrogation both have the meaning, "if" or "whether". " I f not", "whethernot" are expressed by the addition of the negative particle:ft<ws K or titxP ' "If even" or "although" isfttfVL(Hh ^.) OiKf* /.. The repetition of \iao\ or tit/o^ signifies that two possibilities are set overagainst each other:sivesive", "it may be that, or", e.g.fttfofcsr h
1 0 00 o r 1

(D* * {Dhen>\ : H* 1 Cor. 3, 22; ht*>1 h(D : Wh^t ft AO

Matt. 5, 37. And in certain situations (DTtt ^ or Wlih y even by itself signify "or": Matt. 12, 25; Hen. 59,2( ). But if "or" is meant in the sense of exclusion, i. e. as a Disjunctive, then the negative word Ml "not" is combined with JyOD to formft<w>: ftfi or V ? J i t i ; and this combination signifies 1, "or" (aut), e. g. Luke 2,24, and when i t is repeated, like ttlMi 'tDh^hfr or hlKhA i W M i A , "eitheror" (v. 206); or 2, "whennot", i. e. "otherwise", "else" (sin minus)-. Mark 2,21; Matt. 6,1, 24 &c.
00
00

2. }i9 i form, shortened from fttfo, and generally to be found at the head of the apodosis of a Conditional clause which does not state actual fact( ). I t answers to the Greek av(*). As it has ceased to be a true conditional particle, and has only the function, in its place at the head of the apodosis, of indicating again that the whole sentence must be regarded as merely hypothetical, i t is always attached to the beginning of another word (as in h{PVA<rlv "they would have repented" Matt. 11,21), and i t is for this reason that the a offtw>has (generally) fallen away. Farther, fttfo is also used in Optative clauses, if the realisation of the wish has to be represented as doubtful or improbable: ao*/* a ft9h&Afc " 0 that one would give me!"
3

( ) [FLEMMING here reads {DfttfD instead of DILLMANN'S

3 t h e n

fl)A?i' -

7D

T R

( ) Yet see G. Ad. 54,25 fr A f l Hh9f " would we not have been", and cf. ibid. 55, 2. ( ) I t is related to f \ H O just asri> is to etkv (sl v).
4

 170.

419

3- An ( 62, 1 a; 166, No. 38),properly "in the 'there'", "there",is chiefly used relatively, like our "since", "as", "when", and is the ordinary Temporal particle. Now and then a farther form flfli ( 166, No. 38; 167,3) is met with in old manuscripts and printed matter, especially if enclitics are attached, e. g. AflA "when however"; Afhtf* "when indeed". I n conditional sentences not stating actual fact Afl is employed as the conditional particle "if" (*), with fx9 following in the apodosis. The transition to this meaning is represented by its use in Optative clauses, in which AQ was given for "would that sometime!" just as ao^. was for "would that some one!" ( 199). 4. ?'}flA and H&7HA (properly: " i f not", "unless", "except", 166, No. 23; and "without", 169,9) are also used as Temporal conjunctions: "when not yet", "before", and are then associated with the Subjunctive ( 90); so too, more in the sense of a condition, "unless when", "unless", "except", Matt. 19, 9, 11; ntii flA : t\tn> "excepting i f " , "except", Matt. 12,29. 5. hlfH "while", "whilst" has the same role in the department of "Conjunctions that hlffri ) ( 166, No. 19) has among Prepositions. The prefix "hi ("there!", "see!") puts the relative conjunction H "that" in the Accusative as it were,with the object of bringing the whole clause, which is thus introduced, into subordination to the verb of the principal clause, as an Accusative of limitation, or as a circumstantial clause: "seeing that", "in or by this (fact, manner, or circumstance) that". This V3-H is used very often indeed, to take the place of Participles which are wanting (exactly like the German indent), or even with the force of the Gerund ( 123), and frequently instead of it, when for special reasons it is inconvenient to form or employ the Gerund. I t corresponds often to our "although", particularly after negatives or in negative sentences, e. g. "he ate nothing costly ft3lf AAA * (D-h'P while yet he ('although he') was rich"; or Matt. 13,13. 6. htfil "until that", "until" (also ftAhV 160), is also used as a Conjunction of Time, but it appears more frequently in the form ftAh h0 "till when", "until" Matt. 2,13, 15; also "so long as" Cant. 3,5; or fcAh s flfl "till that", "until" Matt. 2,9; 5,18, 26.
2 3

( ) I t corresponds then to
3

jjj.

( ) Which itself in turn appears as a Conjunction, though seldom. 27*

420

00

171.

- h9hf, and more rarely tKhT^Xi and Aft0 hf, from ft<w> and h<w>, stand for "as soon as", Matt. 5, 23; 9, 21 &c.: v. DILLMANN'S Lex: col. 829, sq. 8. Original Prepositions, which are employed as Conjunctions without being followed by any Relative, are met with in h9 "after that" (occurring very frequently); and ft94' ' "before", "ere"; also tyRa**, the two last-mentioned being joined with the Subjunctive ( 90). Farther we meet with tffllV? h9 /IJV and nKjPl> "as long as", e. g. Mark 2, 19 ; Matt. 9 , 1 5 ;
l , w>

Gal. 4 , 1 ; Ps.

103, 34 (v. 166, 35; and

157,1).

9. Compounds of the Relative H are found inftjJH"from the time that", i. e. "after that", Hen. 6 , 1 ; Matt. 2 0 , 8 ; Gen. 24,22, and flH "while" (<=h1ll), "when", Gen. 2 4 , 3 6 ; 40,15. 10. Besides, various other Prepositions and Substantives may be employed as Conjunctions too, taking then the Constr. St. I n these cases H is sometimes added, sometimes omitted: T^H, "when", "whenever" (lit "the time of"), Mark 14,7; Ml* H "instead of" Josh. 2 4 , 2 0 ; or V?1* * J\0(D "for the reason that he had toiled"; *ahf[m fail?*?*Enc. Mag. 8 "as they had fed him"; flft 1* H "for the reason that", "because", Hen. 13,2; Gen. 6 , 6 ; Mark 1,44, "for this,that" (pro eo id) Gen. 29,27, and several others. Prevalence 171. A survey of the Adverbs, Prepositions and Conjuncof prefix*ti shows us that Ethiopic contains a large number of small and Affix- words, which have lost the power of standing alone, and are atEthiopic. tached to other and stronger words, either as Prefixes or Affixes. Attachment by way of Prefix is current in the other Semitic languages too. Here it affects *H and H among the Pronouns. ' Similarly,among the Particles,it affects the very short monosyllables (but those only), which are too feeble to stand alone or to sustain any accent of their own, namely the Prepositions fl, A> h9, the Conjunctions A, (D, H, h9> the Negative ft,; the Interrogative and the Interjection ft (*). This last particle, however, may sometimes be appended instead of being prefixed. These particles unite with the word which they begin, in taking one accent for the combination. I t is only when they have long vowels
ns

(*) And those particles also which now occur only in compounds:

hi,

fcA,

ft

&c.

171.

421

that a kind of independent accent is maintained. But yet, their connection with the word is not so close as to influence the phonetic conditions. The final and the initial letters in the particle and the word, which thus meet together, continue unchanged, except that in certain cases makes its influence more strongly felt upon the initial sound in the word which follows it ( 48,5). A l l such particles, however, are treated as prefixes in Ethiopic, only because by their very conception they are bound to stand either at the head of the clause or in front of the word which they introduce ( ). But when the case is otherwise, and a particle appears in its conception to be subordinate, and to be a mere addition to the leading idea, it is characteristic of Ethiopic to place such particle after the word which contains the leading idea, or to append it thereto as an Enclitic (or Affix). Nearly all the more subtle and ingenious particles,which express with ease and brevity the chief modes and proportions of thought, or merely impart certain shades of meaning to the more definite ideas,are, in accordance with their subordinate significance, placed last. They do not on that account disappear, or lose anything of the importance which belongs to them; but the current of discourse becomes more easy and accommodating, and the whole more lucid, by the finer or accessory ideas seeking to withdraw themselves, and appearing only as a lightly applied shading of the leading forms in the sentence. We see, it is true, from stray phenomena in the other Semitic languages, that they too possess the faculty of post-positing certain words; but no other Semitic tongue has made so extensive a use of such faculty as the Ethiopic. By applying that principle almost universally, it has made a decided and manifest advance; it has drawn nearer to the Indo-European tongues; and it has gained much for the ease and flexibility of its Syntax. h!rh, 7\7tP, Orhi* are nearly always made to follow; often also ^K<""; and \\ao and Kflfc always, jr, % fc, % %, y., ^, ao, fl, ft, fi, V are Enclitics only, and not unfrequently. But as in other languages, so also in Ethiopic, enclitics are only attached externally, and, as a rule, they cause no change in the phonetic conditions of the word to
x

(*) One or two prepositions, however, are found transgressing the law now stated, by here and there becoming suffixed, at least to Pronouns, just as in the Indo-European tongues.

 422

171.

which they are applied. Nor are the accentual conditions of the word altered by that application, cf. TEUMPP , p. 559; but v. 59. I t is only a few enclitics that introduce any alterations in the letters. I t has already been indicated ( 142) how the ft of the Vocative is applied. Before A, ftj ana " I " regularly foregoes its second a; and thus we have constantlyft*}A- I t very seldom happens, or never, that any other words, having similar phonetic conditions, give up their final a before A O ; for if in Deut. 11,27, 28 fl^hihA and (D0G19 ft stand dependent upon a verb (v. 26), this may be explained by 1430- Before ft, in the sense of ( 162), an original e occasionally re-appears instead of a final a ( 167,3): 0Tlb>l\ Numb. 20, 19 Note; -}fl,ft: Josh. 10, 4 Note; or a is lengthened into a: fo'i1 ih. Numb. 20,19 Note05 it is thrown off: ft^VftlnAft Numb. 20,18 Note; cf. 2 Kings, 2,5 ; 4 Kings, 5,26; 19,29. I n like manner an original final e, which had in later times become a, re-appears readily besides, before suffixes and affixed particles, as in Afl ( 170, 3), fttf, (fl'm'i &c. ( 167,3).
o f o r

These particles, attached to the beginning or the end of a word, may occur not only singly, but by two, three or more at a time, e. g. (DAh ^AVb "and if now"; OflHhiF'fhTMlfc "and again with him who (is) of the people"; ft*JAh> "now I " ; <Dlrf"ATSl " l even everywhere" &c.
a n (

O [Cf., however, ^ J ^ ^ J ^ A for : 4 . A Zebra Nag., Introd. p. X X X I V . ] ( ) And in this way we must also explain Col. 1,23 *f*I*f : OVR, (though PLATT gives [retained also in the Reprint]) fl)A?l|f)V^ ( f2 s c

Col. 1, 25: Eph. 3, 7). I n J&^^/^rhJr : A*flP Ps. 12, 6, \ is certainly to be regarded as a Suff. Pron. (contrary to LTJDOLF'S view). O Cf. a in Bilin, Quara, Saho, and 'Afar; REINISCH, 'Worterb. d. Bilimpr.' p. 1.
1

PART THIRD. SYNTAX.

172. Every Sentence, however simple, must necessarily subject include (1) a Person or Thing, called the Subject, about which ^ something is stated, and (2) that which is stated about it, or,as Periphrasis it is called,the Predicate. When both these parts are present, Article: we have a complete Sentence; when one or the other is wanting, d Pre c ate 1 M e t h o d s

of indicating

the Sentence is incomplete. But, starting with these two constitu- Definiteness ents, a Sentence may extend more and more widely, and to great *^ length, by accumulating other words either about the Subject or about the Predicate or about both,which words may in their turn surround themselves with still farther words, and so on. A l l such members of a Sentence, grouping themselves about the one or the other of the two fundamental constituents, must indicate in some way that they belong to the same; and Syntax, or the Description of the Sentence, is just an endeavour to point out in detail the modes in which, and the means by which, a fundamental member of a Sentence may become associated with other words and qualifications. Simple Sentences themselves fall, in their turn, into various classes, according to their special meaning. Finally, two Sentences, each complete in itself, may stand in a certain relation of reciprocity to one another, so that the thought which seeks expression can be fully exhibited only when the two are used together, and not by either of them without the other. Accordingly the Compound Sentence stands contrasted with the Simple Sentence, as a special class. Syntax then deals first of all with the extension of the chief members of the Sentence by means of complementary members, or with the chief Word-Groups of the Sentence.
0

424

172.

A. L E A D I N G W O R D - G R O U P S OP T H E

SENTENCE.

In all kinds of Word-Groups we have Nouns occurring; and as the structure of these groups at times assumes a different form, according as the Nouns which appear therein are determined or undetermined, we shall treat first of the methods by which this determination is effected. I . PERIPHRASIS OP T H E A R T I C L E . No special Article has been developed in Ethiopic, any more than in the other Abyssinian tongues( ) or in Assyrian; and in this way the language has kept to a more antique stage than the other Semitic tongues, with the exceptions noted( ). Various devices and methods have, naturally, presented themselves, to distinguish between the Noun determined or definite and the Noun in its indeterminate condition. All continues, however, still unsettled, as in the start of a process. None of the pathways pursued has led to the production of a fixed and recognised Article. 1. I n many cases there is no need of any addition, to show that a word is determined or definite, because the sense and connection make it obvious who or what is meant, and no doubt can arise. Any conception, or conceptional word, which stands as the sole representative of its class, must, from its very nature, be invariably a determined word, such as ft?AVl "God"; 0fh* "the Sun"; "Death"; /hfl>'> "Life"; j P / ^ 4 "the East". I t is, on the other hand, when these words have to be regarded as undetermined, and as representing one or other of their special classes, that some special appositional expression has to be employed, e. g. 1* s M i - "an evil death"; ft{PAh MlC "a strange god". I n the very same way, all Proper Names are by their nature determined. Again, in other languages the definite article is frequently employed to refer to something which has been already mentioned, e. g. "the man", namely, 'the man who has been spoken of before'. But it is generally quite clear from the current or
x 2 s

( ) With the exception of Saho. ( ) On the other hand D . H . MLLER, 'Epigr. Denkm,: p. 68 (cf. pp. 20, 72) would conclude, from the occurrence of the appended Sabaic Article n, that Ge ez at one time also possessed the Article, but has since given it up, a view in which we are unable to concur.
2

 172.

425

connection of the discourse, when the same Subject is meant which has been mentioned before; and accordingly the referring article may in that case be dispensed with; e. g. in Matt. 4,25 we have: "many people followed him" (hthH'il * 'flfr'^'J), immediately after which Chap. 5,1 proceeds with IDCftf"* hthHd "and when he saw the people",without any farther intimation that the word is determined, just because that determination is at once inferred. I n other cases, in which languages that possess the Article make use of it, i t is all the more superfluous when the complement, by means of which the word having the Article is really determined, stands close beside the word, e. g. in /hlfO * JiA/J-taA. "the people of Israel"; ao'il^'i' * lYlS^ "the kingdom of Heaven". (a) But should the sense and the connection be insufficient to prevent any misunderstanding, Ethiopic is able to come to the rescue in various ways. Eirst, by adding the referring Pronoun 0^*h*tC) EXa/&v amb rw \id-oav rov TOTTOV (D'lf^h. Tk9Q** hilt Hm -fti ' *nrfbC Gen. 28,11; KOLI tyudy 6 av&pmtog fD'l'AOA s O H f t i : : -ftfiA. - > I \ f- >>> 5 1 > 5 Chrest. p. 26, lines 8,11, 29, et saepe; or by Ufais when the preceding mention of the word lies somewhat farther back, e. g. Gen. 27,16; Numb. 20,8 (cf. with verse 9); Ruth 4 , 1 ; very frequently by means of Tifc, e. g. Tob. 6,4, 6, 13; 8,2, 3; 11,3, 5, 7; 12,1; also by means of H, Tob. 6,4; 11, 3; and by TfJ-fc Tob. 6,16; 12,2. The same purpose is often still better served by appending a Suffix Pron., e. g. /cat 7rpoG9j\&ov oi jua&yrai ("the disciples", i. e. 'Christ's disciples') 4Cft- h&tful> Matt. 18,1; hAJblf ft-Vfl>- "the two brethren" Matt. 20, 24 (while ftAM: * Ma* would be "two brethren", cf. Matt. 20,30); and even b rca iviavrc? ifcelvufl'JtfO'fclJ*"in the year thereof" Deut. 14,28; "ktl0 9\l* sffv'P&hJb<7re<7r\yjpa)VTai yap ai JjjULs'pai JULOV Gen. 29,21; h9 V s AAA hh94* ' ft?AA.tf and r9jg avKyjg fxadsrs r^v Trapa/SoXrjv Matt. 24, 32. And this reference by means of a Genitive Suffix is, in certain cases, so fixed and binding, that i t is not omitted even though a Demonstrative pron. should accompany the word, e. g. ttao*t*: : fW/\Yl(h :fl)<wffrhf-Tivog rj ei/cw aUrv) /cat rj iiriypoKJ)^; Matt. 22, 20.
: Kal J G e n 26 3 c a l s o T o D 6 2 3 i 3 2 5
!

(*) Just as happens so often in Sanskrit: in fact this is the origin of the Article in moat languages.

426

172.

(b) The use of the Suff. Pron. to compensate for the Article has spread from such cases, to cases in which a Genitive relation appears unthinkable to us. When a subject, to wit, is introduced into the discourse, and later on is mentioned again by the same name, it takes, in other languages, the Article upon its second appearance. I n Ethiopie, however, a Suffix of the third Person is very often attached to it, upon its second appearance, by way of reference to the name as first used, e. g. ghtl9Xl* i\.0 ' O h ovfl s /hA" *" " I dreamed a dream, and this is ('its dream') the dream" Gen. 37, 9 ; "they cast him into a pit (OH** ')fl)0H'3M rt (hf\tl "but the pit was new" Gen. 37,24; " I saw there a high throne (<w*Jfl^ :) <Dh<w'hrh'f" s tfD'XK- ' 0 f l and from under the great throne (proceeded) &c." Hen. 14,18, 19 ; "ye stood by the base of the mountain (^-flC ') fllj&JtJt &*fl4 while the mountain burned" Deut. 4,11; 9,15. Cf. also Tob. 6, 5, 12; 7, 9; Chrest. p. 31, line 2; and notice particularly }]Ah = dXko. Cases in which the definite Article is indicated in this remarkable way are by no means rare, cf. e. g. farther Deut. 13, 16; Ex. 3, 2; Judges 1, 8; 6, 20 17,2 ( M * ) ; 17,5(*flfcA,lh);19,16;Buth2,17 (fn<n>.)
s 1 m ;

Mark 2, 22 (<DY- and TJfe); Hen. 26,5 (fltf-A- : ^ A * C ) "and all the ( = those) valleys", referring back to vs. 24); [Kebra Nag. 97 a 18 (OA*); 97 b 10 (7 .H.U- s fl>0A# 0 >AfW] &c. I n all these cases the Suffix is to be explained in accordance with 156: &"fl4 relative to &*fl is "mountain, i t " i. e. "it, the mountain", thus = ahh* : -flC (c) A third method of replacing the Article, and in fact the most usual one, is the following: When there appears in the sentence a determined word, subordinated to a Verb or to a Noun in the Constr. St. (with which last, the Prepositions coincide), a Suffix relating to this word is appended to the governing Yerb or Noun, and the relation of this Suffix to the dependent word is indicated by prefixing A to the dependent word ( 164, No. 2) ; e. g. 0)A 0?* : h l\Lh'(lih,C A n C V ti* "and God called ('it', referring to 'light') the light, day" Gen. 1,5; t\folt-'- AfldA s fllh "against ('him',referring to 'master of the house') the master of the house" Matt. 20,11 ; (- : AAA * 1ft. ' A M ? "he breathed upon the face of Adam" Le Livre des Mystres 16,3) ; f / ^ ? : A T (l'A "the begin0

(*) [FLEMMING reads here *feA*lh'

TR

-] *~

 172.

427

ning of wisdom": but also (\*:fl"f*|C "with it, with the word" == "with the word" G. Ad. 6,17. Yet the same turn is occasionally found even with undetermined nouns, e. g. Ch? Aft*h*fc * he* * Chrest. p. 42, line 14; cf. also ibid. p. 40, lines 17,19, and G. A d . 146,10. This form of periphrasis for the definite Article is by far the most usual one; and although doubtless the anticipation of a determined Noun by means of a Suffix relating thereto was introduced merely for the purpose of signifying the definite and known character of the Noun( ), yet the idiom came into such favour and currency ( ) that it is employed even in cases where the definiteness of a noun is already sufficiently indicated by means of accompanying demonstratives, or attached suffixes, or in some other fashion. I n this respect the usage is exactly the same as in those languages which are in possession of an Article, for they employ it even in cases w here it is not absolutely necessary, as in 6 Traryjp /xov. Examples: : A * : A " A M l : fl,+ * \\Ch-t91 "write to
! 0 1 2 T

the leader ('angel') of the church" Rev. 2 , 1 ; ChSO* ' "we have seen our Lord" John 20,25; ath^H ^IHt* * Aj&ft't J*(l* "and thus shalt thou make that ark" Gen. 6,15; ft,*? ?^ s (DYiXfl-f* i AHVh RAft, "to pursue and capture that enemy" Annates Johannis I, (Gmni, 1903) 33,2; 9fad*!liMHjMlduC "the mercy of God"; J&ft, AA"'J V*!?* djuavpotrd KCtka Sap. 4,12; 0>r InCh i ao^ i hhaoC Sap. 9,17; A O * Uhlb*<L%&' Ph9CP Judith 8,14. I t is safe to say that this anticipation, by means of a relative Suffix, of a noun already determined by some other process, is more usually given than omitted. I n a few cases A which generally serves to indicate the reference is left out, when the construction is self-evident, e. g. when the noun is governed in the Accusative: u n j r : hlhh HhfL*? "give me now my wife" Gen. 29, 21; 9C ' *>^P f?0* : A M I . A G. A d . 89, 15; and in the Genitive connection: Chrest. p. 14, 11. 10,18; p. 18, 11. 7 & 15. I f more than one determined word be dependent on one Verb or Noun (or Preposition), the Suffix may then be made to correspond with the first of these alone, as in a>*tt\lG * h*7HK flrfbC : A T I : OlAtf-A- : Atf-fr ' V J A A &c Gen. 8,1;
1 s

(*) As appears from the fact that very rarely indeed are undetermined Nouns indicated in this way, that is, by means of an anticipatory suffix; cf. supra. ( ) Even more perhaps than in Aramaic.
2

428

9, 8; 12, 20; J&flCln * * flA^W> "he praises the chosen one and the chosen people" Hen. 40, 5; 0 / * % ^ : ft&tf- s AhH'll * fflARV^? flAW"A*s M ! ^ Luke 11,42; and thus regularly, when the first dependent word is the most important of the series; or the Suffix is made to correspond with the whole body of them, as in hf\oT>~ : iiti9PTr * a J A V J J t C P A "he found Simon and Andrew" Mark 1,16; Gen. 14, 2; or, finally, the Suffix is made to correspond simply with the nearest Genitive or Accusative; and the plain Genitive- or Accusative-subordination is continued with the others, e. g. (D^^h * AA<5- - O K A . * ' fl>AT'/ (OW-fr 1 * P
0

Gen. 12,5; 14,16; 32,8; A f h A C / " > a > H 0 n *

"the

i n

heart of Pharaoh and of his great ones" Ex. 14, 5. I t is, however, by no means necessary that a Suffix of this kind, referring to a determined Noun, named in the sentence, should invariably precede the noun, and the noun invariably come second. On the contrary, when it is demanded by the sense and structure of the sentence, an Accusative or Genitive of this kind may also be placed before the word on which it depends, e. g. fl)A 'flftA.'f'fc J&ftiA "and unto the woman in turn he said" Gen. 3,16 (v. infra 196). Even when the Accusative or Genitive is placed after the Suffix, it does not need to follow i t directly, but may be separated from it by several words. I t is evident that by means of this circumlocutory substitute for the definite Article with Nouns standing in any sort of subordination, it has been made possible to attain also a greater freedom in Word-arrangement; and this consideration has contributed to the great predominance of such a periphrasis in the language. 2. Methods 173. 2. As Ethiopic has thus means enough to signify ting in-" P i ^ y the determination of a Noun when required, there was aefiniteneas the less demand for a special indication of the undetermined Noun ' by means of the so-called Indefinite Article. The context, in fact, together with the absence of any note of determination, suffices to show that a word is undetermined: tfofth*: <wA*7A'J "there came Magi" Matt. 2,1; Hf^dth* * 'flhA.'f* "whosoever looketh on a woman" 5,28 &c. I f indefiniteness is not sufficiently shown thereby, it is generally a matter of indifference whether the word in question is regarded as determined or undetermined, as in Matt. 2,12 (Dhl Coo* S flrh"and he told them in a dream or in the dream"; and in 2,13 VO- * <w>Ahh V7tf.fc -flf|i.C K A + C K f - "behold,
:
d

e c

429

an angel or the angel of God appeared to him"; and in 19,21 A ? A tl/i "to the poor man or to a poor man". But in those cases in which the indefinite article of other tongues expresses the notion of "any one", and in the same way with the plural "any", "some", Ethiopic has, to he sure, a mode of its own of denoting this idea. "When a human being is meant, "any one" is *flftA or A*flft e. g. Matt. 22,16; [Kebra Nag. 141 a 19]; and fern. -flftA.^", e. g. flft h/t A ' f l ^ - ^ ^ "a Hebrew woman": and yet ftrh*}., ftrh"fc "one (m. & /".)" is also used for it, and in fact not only in cases where st'g stands even in the Greek original text, as in Matt. 8,19; Gen. 22,13, but also in other cases, e. g. Gen. 38,2 mod s7os xrvyarepa av&pvmov ILavtxvaiov iDCftf hth'fr <DA"f* * hth%.' -OftA. ' Chrest p. 24,11. 20, 21, 25; p. 25,1. 14; p. 31,1. 1 (ah"h*^ A*flhAJ &c. "One another" too is generally expressed by hthtf* and ftAft* with a preposition of some kind before the I}". With names of things an express indication of indeterminateness is still less necessary; but ftrh^ may also be used in the case of things, e. g. Josh. 24,32, or turns of speech like A*i * liftl "any thing as a debt" Deut. 24,10. I n plural-notions, the mere plural often serves to express "some" or an undefined "several", "many", as in "h^^^d < "PAA "some days or several days after" Judges 14,8; 15,1. Besides, Ethiopic possesses the following additional means, very frequently adopted, of expressing these notions: (a) the employment of the preposition ft0V, which denotes part of a whole (v. 164, No. 3), e. g. "h9&0 *(l "some difficulty" Matt. 19,23; ftft : ftjPO-A'f* : ftrM^ "certain scribes" 9,3; h A f t , * : hrhttKO"two of his disciples" 21,1; h9\ ' ^-flA. A h "some of thy pottage" Gen. 25, 30 (for other examples v. 164,3):(6) the periphrasis which consists of (!' "there is", or "there are" ( 167, 1,6) and the relative pronoun following, e. g. ft<nfl . H ^ l "whosoever putteth away" (lit "if there is who hath put away") Matt. 19,9; flhA fl#T*h- "some came" Gen. 14,3; flhA s VhOh * ft0ftA ' ,$ahtn>* s Up "there be some standing here" (lit. "there are who are of those who stand here") Matt. 16,28; hence flH:flH"flH (or flftA &c.) "some, others others" &c. Matt. 21,35; 22,5; 25,15:(c) the negative for "not any one" or "no one", "no man", "nothing",either ftAO "H "there is not one, who", or ft, with ao*^ following, or in the neuter FTrfy ( 147, 6):"nothing at all" or "no one at all" is
8 s ! n m

430

174.

also rendered by Vf*/V* with a negation.For any one who is spoken of indefinitely, but definitely thought of, his name being withheld, i n Greek 6 osiva, and in Hebrew ^"bs,Ethiopic has the expression ftlfl, Matt. 26,18, the formation and derivation of which are still quite obscure.

I I . GOVERNMENT OF T H E VERB.
1. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS IN SUBORDINATION TO THE VERB.
Accusative
of a

The Verb may govern Nouns in the Accusative, and . * , this form of subordination is the most direct and usual one. When

174.

associated Nomen mining the idea of the Verh. 1 Accusative mination" ft

com

f Hs short, recourse is had to prepositions to assist the Verb, There is no third mode by which a Verb can bring a Noun into b i n a t i o n with itself. Even the so-called Adverbs are almost
a

invariably dependent on the Verb as Accusatives or as prepositional forms; and even the comparatively small number of Adverbs which (being of pronominal or other origin) are not formed by means of the Accusative, or by prepositions ( 160163), must yet be thought of as subordinated to the Verb as quasi-Accusatives. (a) The Verbal Object expressed by the Accusative. The Accusative in Ethiopic has the most varied functions to fulfil, as has been already indicated ( 143). 1. I t serves to complete the idea of the Verb by means of some definite limitation. (a)Adverbial (a) A Noun (Nomen) of some sort, in the Accusative case, tfKind^nd y ^ y associated with the verb, to signify the kind Manner. d manner,as a general condition,of the action (Adverbial Accusative). Adjectives in the Accusative describe the kind and manner of the action, as i n : flh? * "he wept bitterly ('a bitter weeping )" Matt. 26, 75; HVJflA frCdi* i h9OlC: > * P * 1 ( "before they had withdrawn far from the city" Gen. 44,4; W*j? : ^Vflf hA$*$t\ "well hath Esaias prophesied" Matt. 15,7. And in this way Adjectives may form Adverbs, by taking the Accusative 163). I n those cases, however, in which such limiting expression applies to the Subject or Object rather than to the Verb, as, e. g.
m a m s w a an 1

 174.

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"he fled naked", or "he took him alive", it must be immediatelyreferred, in Ethiopic, to the Subject or Object, and placed in apposition to it (v. 189). And so too may the idea of the Verb be supplemented by Substantives in the Accusative to describe the kind and manner of the Action, by way of special circumstances, although in that case prepositions are employed oftener perhaps than the Accusative : "Ml* t } Pf < " "suddenly they shoot at them" Ps. 63,4 (v. also 163); Vfl^ 00>& "he sat ('judgment') on the judgment seat" Matt. 27,19; W1C Kao * O f t * ' 91<hi: XCth- * 4ft Judges 3,24; Jfrav* s ftf* "they stood (in) ambush" Judges 9,44; tho** * dJflr-f "he was sick of a fever" cf. Luke 4, 38; : u> VP s CF'h "he died in a good old age" Gen. 25,8; ChXlP Aft "M.h'flth.C s 1ft fllft"" I have seen God face to face" Gen. 32,31; Judges 6,22; fal: HP01U "by the law ('right') of the greater" Chrest. p. 97, 1. 21 sq.; cf. p. 96, 1. 16. I n the same way a Substantive-Infinitive may be subordinated to the verb to determine it more definitely: ftT^Pft .Pfll^ft" * "delendo delebit eos" Josh. 17,13; cf. 181. (b) Determinations of Place and Time are combined with the (&) Accusaverb in the same way (Accusative of Place and Time), and that ^n&nme* both in the case of Verbs of Motion and Verbs of Rest. This use of the Accusative is very common. Thus one says (Dftft * lS\oo "he went out to the field"; (Dftft s 0*flft "he went out to war" Judges 3,10; ft*fll. * *HfaC "they returned to their own land" Matt. 2,12; OCI'VId "be went up to the city" Matt. 21,18; ft* >0DV|0i>- S " I shall go before you into Galilee" Matt. 26,32; [flBVh : ft.P<-AA9 Revue semit. 1906, p. 277, 1. 21]; flW* hit* ft, "in thy father's house" Gen. 24,23; 0><D&? : *CftA.l>- "and he set (them) for his pillow Gen. 28,11; <\th* "MIK "they sold him into the land of Egypt" Gen. 37,36; Hen. 14,2; UAfl> * lf\ao "he was in the field" Gen. 4,8; Matt. 24,26; 9f 6*4 "eastward" (in answer to the question, 'where?') G. A . 30,23; 4>tn> s fff:d Pefiyjtcs htl yyjg Sap. 18,15 A ; cf. also >flrh.l fa? 91 Tab. Tab. 12,2 (Chrest. p. 110); s Cft* Tab. Tab. 18,1 (Chrest. p. 112). I n all these cases prepositions, like fl, *Vfl, 0>ft f" &c, might also "have been employed; and frequently both modes of connection are made use of, side by side, in the same sentence, if several indications of place are mentioned: f f t * s VIC (DID*
,| p D ! 1 s 0 tlOM 1


s e s

432

175.

(c) AoousaMellu^l

i n

2. ACCUSE purporfor Keference:

ul

AcTof

Derived Noun, or Noun of Meaning,

tl't' fl"fc "he g home to his own city and to his own house" Josh. 20,6; so too in Gen. 30,25 and 31,3; or Ji^OK * flWll" : h'ftp'tto ' (DOhti-tAflAhff " 'flrh .^O ' HO)(/flh<n> <n*A Josh. 22,4. Of Time: "7hhA : AA/lh "at midnight" Matt 25, 6; hthi"A W "for one hour" 26,40; ft,^ "to-night" Gen. 19,5; "at midday" 18,1; "in a year" 18,10; ftrlrf*0A1* "(on) one day" Chrest. p. 44, 1. 16; ftqfa: lA-fcl" "wait a little" Hen. 52,5; (Dthy>(D : ft/JjJ s (Dm tao^ Gen. 5, 3( ); and in Relative clauses: (lAA^* ft"}*!"* "hflA<J "on the day on which ye shall eat" Gen. 2,17. Prepositions may be used for this relation also, (c) I n like manner determinations of Measure are expressed Accusative: f*A0A O^'C'i' ' <D"l?A'f txOO'f "it rose fifteen cubits" Gen. 7, 20;fl>Kw' Ohfaj^' ft A h * V & P l s "and if those righteous men are five fewer" Gen. 18,28; f fa ft-ft-: 9 atxpfyA "he is too short ('too late') by fifty days" Hen. 74,14; Vl'PA'P tl9:C ' flUOf h ^ A "divide ye the land into seven parts" Josh. 18,6; Hen. 77,3; Gen. 32,8; Wftr ' JP^JP Ai* HftAVl'fc "his portion was five times as great as theirs" Gen. 43, 34; \\ao s : fttm-'Ji: s flU-*i<n>- "they were as the sand in their multitude" Judges 7,12; fttfD -l\Yia- s Vg, l ii' ' * 'VtflW* A V F " i f ye have faith as great as a grain of mustard seed" Matt. 17,20. fthA "it amounts to", in particular is always associated in this way with the Accusative of the measure: fhhA- s h A ai'lfiPAf''0ft1" "there were about 10,500" Judges 8,10; 9,49. 175. 2. A Verb may also be completed by means of an Accusative which gives its purport or its reference, in both of which cases the governed Noun is coupled still more closely with the verbal idea ( ). (a) Thus a Verb may govern a Substantive derived from
00 |> 0 2 ! t n e m 1 s s , in t
s

itself, in order to explain itself by itself, as in f-jF'AO * ffoO't "he was angry" (lit. "he was angry with anger") Judges 2,14; 9,30;
(*) Where, to be sure, the Accusative may also be explained by Attraction ( 201). ( ) [The Ethiopic, as usual, follows the Septuagint here, ha/coaia KOC) rpia/covTa eryj, instead of the Hebrew HitS* 1 * 1 ^ ) 2 * 1 TR.]
2

( ) Cases like
(v. DILLMANN'S 'Lex.\

J&Arh^ ftfrf "is weaker than it in malice" are rare

col. 30).

433

0ih<\' I9th$i "let us swear an oath" Hen. 6,4; rhA05r' th^ffo "we have dreamed a dream" Gen. 40, 8; or to give thereby a special emphasis to the idea which belongs to the Verb (a purpose which at other times is served by the Infinitive instead of by a noun, v. 1 8 1 , B ) : ft^VrfttfiUD-V "we are wearied out" Hen. 1 0 3 , 9 ; 'flflAVs'flO'A " have become rich" Hen. 9 7 , 8 ; Gen. 2,17; flV** flfcrt -HlKA * S^flA sftft^feA "did he fight at all with Israel?" (contrasted with keeping the peace) Judges 1 1 , 2 5 ; but chiefly to attach to the Accusative a farther determining factor, e. g. an Adjective, by which combination of Substantive and Adjective an Adverbial conception is indicated: 'f'JPAfl * tn>0* : 0ft,P "he was angered exceedingly" Gen. 3 9 , 1 9 ; *<(./Mi: <iV 'h * OftS "he rejoiced with great joy" Matt. 2 , 1 0 ; GU* * 0flP *hCli* "they feared exceedingly" Mark 4 , 4 1 ; (D^l*?*: OfiS Ml*? "and he plagued him with a great and evil plague" Gen. 1 2 , 1 7 ; Josh. 10,10, 2 0 ; Gen. 4 6 , 2 9 ; 2 7 , 3 3 ; Hen. 1 2 , 4 ; 65, 5; or * AChfth * t th99 H!t.hP "perform thou for thyself the kinsman's duty which belongs to me" Ruth 4,6. Thus too in Relative Clauses: ftM* * fl<Sh* * Hfl^t ' Kfl*tf "because of his blessing wherewith his father had blessed him" Gen. 27,41; flfrf*JJl s HhV TrYiav* "with the judgment with which ye judge" Matt. 7, 2. Occasionally also Nouns from other roots, but of kindred meaning, are subordinated in this way: AOrhVl* . . . A l AK*7HL . fflA-flrh* Hen. 39, 9; *A * fC^-tXF^ s A ft*^")h " 9&C Hen. 9, 2. I n such cases the preposition fl is frequently used instead of the Accusative: rh- (l f>'<h Hen. 2 5 , 6 ; O)O)fl>-0. : fl0(L * tf>OHJ s <Dftr}-0 Josh. 6, 20. (b) I n particular, verbs which express Fulness and Abun- &) ACC. of dance or their opposites attract in the Accusative the object with ^ ^ ^ which a person or thing is full or empty (although such object may verbs or also be introduced by in accordance with 164, No. 3): JR* &c. ooAh s Tflfl "they grew full of wisdom" Hen. 4 8 , 1 ; Ps. 64,14 (with \x<f\ Hen. 56, 4; Matt. 2 2 , 1 0 ) ; s ft7n* "they are full of new wine" Acts 2,13 (with ftjP Hen. 63,10); -VlKYh * 0 >A " I was in want of healing" Ps. 37, 7. Thus we say 9C * V H ^HH/hU s rfiAjl Waold "a land, which flows with milk and honey" Ex. 3 3 , 3 ; Josh. 5 , 6 ; tf-A7^y -fr-HlA ' AflflJ "it is all planted with trees" Hen. 10,18.
w e M ! r , lt: 1 s s t ( a N o h

434

So also, Verbs of Clothing oneself Of'A'flAj 'hOJV**. &c.) and of Overlaying or Covering, e. g. "Th^^A**' 0>C4* "thou shalt overlay it with gold" Ex. 25,11, 28; i h H l J i : T^A "thou shalt smear it with pitch" Gen. 6,14 &c. Cf. also WiA* thy * Tobit 11,10. (c) Accusa(c) The Accusative assigns to the Verb the relation which the Relation or V h t some object; or else it restricts to some limited part Limitation. f the object, the relation of the Verb which is already given in a general way in the Subject-Case or Object-Case. I n Passive and Semi-passive Verbs, the Subject which is referred to in the action, is given in the Subject-Case (or Nominative); but if,properly speaking,-it is not the whole Subject, but only a part of it, that is affected by such action, then this part is attached in the form of an explanatory Accusative: A , ? ' 't&'E * hd&'i'tzV "Leah was tender-eyed (lit.'suffered in her eyes')" Gen. 29,17; f'tf/S, /n- *\%av "they turned their faces" ('they turned about as to their faces') Judges 18,23; t " 7 A f l f t ' h 1 K 'she veiled her face' (lit. 'she veiled herself as to her face') Gen. 3 8 , 1 5 ; 2 4 , 6 5 ; ^ h f c ? * A C ^ * V h "(that) thou mayest cover thy nakedness" (lit. 'cover thyself as to thy nakedness') Rev. 3, 18; *f"Tf0-fl : "ffth "wash thy face" ('thyself as regards thy face') Matt, 6,17; 2 7 , 2 4 ; Mark 7 , 3 ; Gen. 43, 31; (D'\'[)(D-\\ : P'A .'h ft"7A*P-fctf"and Joseph was perturbed in his emotions ('bowels')" Gen. 4 3 , 3 0 ; v. also 4 Esr. 9,39 (Laur. 40). With Active Verbs, the subject to which the action of the verb relates is given in the Object-Case, but the reference may farther be restricted to a portion of the Subject, by means of a second Accusative, and thus be indicated more accurately. This combination is very common in Ethiopic, and contributes a peculiarly delicate turn to the language: f A A * "he touched her hand"; ' W%8 "he took her by the hand" Matt. 8,15; 9,29; 20,34 O; h G A ? : Chft "they smite him on the head" Matt. 27,30; ft^fDCf < * s hd$'}'k foT>* "they blinded their eyes" ('them in their eyes') Gen. 1 9 , 1 1 ; r h + C faA<^ "he took him round the neck" ('embraced him round his neck') Gen. 3 3 , 4 ; A\ty&& * VlA* Tobit 11,8; hK'iP** ' A O " " "he hardened their heart" ('them in their heart') Josh. 11,20; 4>^0*f %WHO ' G h A - "she shore off from him the seven locks of his head" ('shore him as to the seven &c.') Judges 16,19. And even where other languages in
0 er0 as 0
j !,

O [V., however, Chrest 26, 1. 9,-fl >MH *

fl?l,tf".]

176.

435

such positions have only one Object-case, as in yjiparo r9jg xsipdg avTyjg "he touched her hand", the Ethiopian invariably employs two Accusatives. 176. 3. Finally, the Accusative introduces the Person or 3. AccusaThing affected by the action, i. e. the material dealt with, or the JL
tiv of t h e
0 J

Object

Object. This is the ordinary use of the Accusative, such as is found Proper, with also in other languages. Not only may all transitive verbs assume various' such an Accusative, but also many which originally are semi-pas- **^ sive may do so, by their passing into transitives through a new turn of the conception; just as *M1< "to be active", for example, is quite usually employed for "to make", "to do", without on that account surrendering its intransitive form ( 76). I n particular, the following verbs take the Accusative, contrary, in some instances, to the usage in our languages. (a) Verbs of Saying, Speaking, Narrating, Calling, Commanding &c. Not only is that which one says rendered in the Accusative; but the person also to whom he speaks (whom he addresses) is introduced in the Accusative just as well as in the Dative (with A): flA- "he said to him"; fl,A-fc "they said to me"; and so with the verbs *Vl <i in Matt. 28,18; Mark 14,11, et saepe; jn (l in Matt. 25,36, 39; and ftflf "to refuse (something) to one", taking the Accusative of the Person, Matt. 18,30, &c. Particularly if the person is expressed merely by a pronoun (Suffix), this Accusative connection is made use of; otherwise A is more frequently employed. The verb aoghii with the Accusative may mean "to swear by (something)"'to invoke anything by way of oath', Matt. 5, 34, 35; 23,18, 22; but yet (1 may also be used in this case, Matt. 23,16, 18. (5) Verbs of Equality, Resemblance &c, e. g. tfA A 'fl?irt> Matt. 7,24; 13,24, 31; but yet such verbs also may be connected with SPAA, Xiao, n or A(c) For Verbs of Fulness and Want, v. supra. (d) Verbs of Ability and Weakness, and of Slightness, in so far as by a new turn of the idea they assume the sense of Overpowering and Surpassing, or the reverse. Thus hUA with the Accusative means "to be able for one", i. e. "to master him" Gen. 32, 26; ffiQ with the Accusative, "to be too strong for one", "to overcome him" Josh. 17,13; Mark 1, 7; -^f A "to be strong", with Acc. "to vanquish" Matt. 16,18; Luke 11,22; Ps. 17,20: in the same
m 8 :

436

176.

way 'HfltfA "to gain power over any one" Matt. 24,24; *f"^fA Ps. 37,12; Gen. 19,9. This union also is adopted the most readily, when the Accusative is a Personal Pronoun (Suffix). A peculiar delicacy and brevity in the Ethiopic speech, in stating comparisons, depends upon this Accusative-use, inasmuch as in every comparison, the person or thing, with which comparison is made, may when expressed by a Pronoun be attached, as an Accusative Suffix, to any Intransitive or Passive verb, although on the other hand ftj^V must be employed, when it is expressed by a Noun: ft*fl \ f 0*flf \ "the Eather is greater than I " ('surpasses me in greatness') John 14,28; fd^lf- Gen. 48,19; ftA * f M ) P "who are more wicked than he" Luke 11,26; tfAU*f'Vl< " "who is greater than you" Matt. 23,11; J&AftVhfl - "is impossible for you" Matt.17,20; Gen. 18,14; fci't * ^^i, }? "who is fairer than she", Judges 15, 2; J&SWlflh" ** "is too narrow for you" Josh. 17,15; HJ&'JftA "who is younger than he" Gen. 25,23; Judges 15,2; JlVAhV * T*!* "thou hast become much too powerful for us" Gen. 26,16; ft A O *flftA> HJK.fll'flflh "there is no man who is wiser than thou" Gen. 41,39; ftAO Hft<C& P&h "in nothing shall I be greater than thou" Gen. 41, 40; (Dg.'fcth-f- : A"* "and it is lower than the same" Hen. 26,4 (cf. infra, 187, 3). (e) Verbs of Coming, Going, Arriving at, are connected with an Accusative, not only in the sense given above, 174,1, b, but also with a true Object-Accusative: s 'PT -f' "he went his way" Gen. 19, 2; ft'iAAfl) with the Accusative of the land = "to go through i t " Judges 18, 9; /*& with Accusative "to pass through (aland)" Gen. 12,6; 0 < D : A 7 "to cross the river" Gen. 31,21; *VA<S. with Accusative "to step aside from anything" "to pass from" Hen. 41, 5; and thus too with Personal Objects, e. g. flRVh and wX"ft with Accusative "to surprise one", "to overtake him" Matt. 23,36; Gen. 14,15; 15,12; Judges 16,9; ,h with the Accusative of the female "to lie with", "to cover" Ex. 22,19; Mark 7,21; 'f*<"4lfll "to meet with any one" Matt. 28,9 &c. I n the same way, Verbs of Following, Pursuing, Getting before, e. g. |&<w> with Accusative "to get before any one" Matt. 21,31; Mark 6,45; Judges 7,24 (F). (/') The following Verbs also take an Accusative:Verbs of Recollecting and Keeping in mind, e. g, flll/l "to call any one to mind" Matt. 26,13; of Pleasing and Being agreeable to, inasmuch
,D 0 0 1 8 ! ! < >

 176.

437

as the idea of 'satisfying' is at the root of them, as h&ao (always with the Accusative); th(Dtt Matt. 21, 15; and of Delighting in (Choosing), like V>9C Mark 1,11. (g) A l l those Verbs, which may be referred to the idea of ''dealing with one", of '''doing something to one", may govern in the Accusative the object affected by them, e. g. Wth* with Accusative, "to laugh one to scorn" Mark 5,40; with Acc. "to be ashamed of one" Mark 8, 38 (or "to be bashful or timid in presence of one", 'to fear him' Matt. 21,37); frrhA with Accusative "to disown or deny any one"; Otlffl "to be offended at any one" Matt. 26,31, 33; A f with the Accusative of the person "to do anything to one", "to deal with him" Matt. 21,36; ftjPV "to believe or trust any one" Gen. 45,26: whence, in particular, many Verbs of Stems 1,3 and I I I , 3, e. g. Arh(D "to mourn for any one" Gen. 37,34; -fvl"f*A "to fight with one" Judges 1,5; -fV)A with the same meaning; f >(Dao and 'f**7/*'K "to rise against one" Ps. 147,6; *P4A "to dispute with one" Hen. 1,90; even
t

60 "to be angry with any one" Gen. 30,2; *ft 7V "to trust any one" Rom. 15,14 &c. (h) Finally there belong to this class the forms already mentioned ( 167,1, b), and still farther to be discussed in a subsequent section (v. 192,6), viz.: flf, -flh? H &c., by which the idea "to have" is indicated,together with their negatives JA flP &c. Whenever these words express the idea "to have", they are joined with the Accusative of the object (while, in the sense "there is" or "there exists", they are completed by a Nominative). The only explanation that can be given of the association of the Accusative with these forms also,is that the derived meaning gradually preponderated over the original one. Thus: ftA'flil h<PA "thou hast no part" Josh. 22,25; hft-'Wf- M l C y ^ V "we have Abraham for father" Matt. 3, 9; htlffo * A 'titir^i * "for he had great possessions" Matt. 19,22; fl-fc s 0-ft"f* * h4*V * fefrA "she had a leaf in her bill" Gen. 8,11; ?Vi s ftA-fl? " I have not a devil" John 8,49. This very favourite idiom may be employed even when the possessing Subject is nofeonly indicated by a substituted pronoun, but also by a Noun (Appellative or
s

(- ) [In this passage

FLEMMING

reads fDj&HA? instead of DILLMANN'S

0>*P4A.

TE

.]

438

177.

Proper):In the latter case fl receives the Suffix referring to the Noun, and the Noun itself is added, with A (as in 172, c): <Dfl"fc ' AC*fl^" * M(D "and she,Rebecca, had a brother" Gen. 24,29; or A may even be left out (as in 172, c):fflQo**' &fe4 ' CflA M A A *fltt"Tf "and the children of Reuben had many cattle" Numb. 32,1; ( D f l i : : Afl V)Ah * h*PA& "and Laban had two daughters" Gen. 29,16: or the Noun may stand as absoluter VorhaM (in accordance with 196):"flftA.' fl*fc h A h i * fl>"A*& "a (certain) man had two sons" Matt. 21,28; and this is specially in place, when the Noun is indefinite, as in the case given here. However it frequently happens that in those cases in which 0 and ft AO imply the notion of "having", the Manuscripts nevertheless give the Nominative instead of the more usual Accusative, as in *tyA hA*flf " I have no strength" ('strength is not in me') Ps. 68,2; ft<j: : fl" " "they have a mouth" Ps. 113, 13 sqq. (Note); Hflim- s Tfl *fl "who have wisdom" Hen. 5 , 8 0 ; ftAfl T * } ^ 0 *PdA* "his days have no beginning" Chrest. p. 92, line 22 (on the other hand in line 26 we have T ^ i " ) ; ftAP M l ' hCft-f A ibid. p. 93, line 2 &c. Such deviations may be explained by the supposition that (1 is used in this combination, rather in accordance with its original sense than with its derived signification. 4. Double 177. 4. I n the wide-spread use of the Accusative, explained (tl^> T r i X 1 ^ 1 7 6 we naturally find that many Verbs may be asAccusative, sociated with a double Accusative. A transitive Verb for instance may take, besides its nearest Object-Accusative according to 174 sqq., a farther Accusative, of an adverbial or locative nature, as is proved by the examples which are adduced in these sections. Such instances need not be farther discussed at this stage. But there are, besides, many Verbs which govern a double ObjectAccusative. Of this sort are (a) all Causatives of transitive Verbs, 77, 79 sqq.; (b) in accordance with 176 c, Verbs of Filling, Satisfying, Depriving; (c) following 175,6,Verbs of Clothing, Covering, Girding, Crowning, Surrounding, Overlaying, Removing, e. g. h }.Hen. 54,5; AAA Matt. 27,31; Gen. 37,23; (d) Verbs of Giving, Entrusting, Bestowing, Taking, Robbing, in so far as the ideas which they convey are of the same order with (6) and (c), e. g. I i n Matt. 20,8; 21,23; Gen. 30,18; fr<Df Gen. 39,4; fc
s : 1 0 ! m

(*) [FLEMMING reads here, however, f f l O , the Accusative, TR.]

 177.

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Luke 9, 39; 19,26; Gen. 14,16 (30,15); A*W Gen. 44,6; att\(D direst p. 96, line 11; (e) in accordance with 176,^, Yerbs of Hindering, Forbidding, Refusing, e. g. h A h Prov. 30,7; Kflf Gen. 24,41; and of Requiting, and Doing or Dealing with, e. g, f Ps. 7,4; *jAf Matt. 21,40; 27,22; ( / ) in accordance with 176, b, those of Comparing, and with 176, a, those of Naming^), Asking, Begging, Teaching, Relating, Addressing, e. g. *A?iA Matt. 21,24; Mark 4,10; A < w > p Gen. 1,5,8 and frequently, &c. (g) Lastly, many Yerbs, which express a Making or a Judging, may take, besides their nearest Object, another also as a Predicative-Accusative, that is,such an Accusative as would form the predicate to the nearest Object, if that Object were set in an independent sentence as Subject. For example, JtjPAA s H"7 "he considered her a whore", i. e. "he thought that she was a whore" Gen. 38, 15; tu?to<* ft A * H2tf(lA * thHTr : 7 ^ A P V l ^ "we shall make you free from concern" Matt. 28,14; Yil'G rhlffl * OS " I a l l make him a great nation" Gen. 17,20; h*l'C ' * ffD'flAO " I shall make them into a dish" Gen. 27,9; htlGPo * : hAAA* "bind ye them into sheaves" Matt. 13, 30; ">*?fl^s AH"fc* 9\}C' *7*fl< "we will put this plan into execution" Hen. 6,4; and thus frequently "Ml< with the Acc. of the material (v. DILLMAMN'S 'Lex: col. 1160); also ftfk : J t - P A ^ t l * i A> i Mtl? "we will take your daughters to us for wives" Gen. 34,16. Still, in the cases last-named, the second Object, which here gives rather the product or result, may also be introduced by A ( 179) ( ). And indeed with many of the verbs which have been mentioned, the association of a double Accusative is unnecessary, as one of the two Objects may be introduced also by a preposition (cf. infra). Farther, it may be observed, that when a verb takes two Objects, one of them is generally 'determined', and it is accordingly subordinated, by means of Suffixes and A ( 172, c), provided it is not a mere Pronoun.
m s s n ao 0 2

(*) Yet we find here and there, in a less careful style, in Verbs of Naming, expressions also like j \,fl>0$P : AV4-A ' W E ' fffl'h'E Hen. 7 7 , 1 ; Gen. 26, 21, where the Name remains as a Proper Noun in its first form. [In Hen. 7 7 , 1 , however, FLEMMING now reads AftTfl'^U' -1 ( ) Of a different description are cases like the following: ?0D(lhhh ' AftA?i*bh "he gives to thine enemies the victory over thee" Chrest. p. 44, line 1 ; ^A^fc Ahrh&y ' ih9H ibid. p. 42, line 15; cf. infra p. 445.
TR 2

440

177.

5. AccusaEeflexivo verbs, and passives of verbs govern two

A i

A Triple Accusative is also met with,that is to say, the Double-Accusative just described and an additional Accusative in the sense of a Dative,e. g. in HhCdthM *tf"A QT/L't H M H.hlb ' Qd* qui fecisti, ut singulae creaturae nobis fructus varios afferant I I Const. A p . 39. 5. That even Reflexive Verbs (St. I l l ) govern an Accusa^ ' ^as already been indicated by several examples in 80 ( ); and,inasmuch as it makes no difference in the subordination of an Object, whether a Verb is used semi-passively and reflexively aofifa d ^avfch "to be full" and
v e x
n g t j I j x o r i n g t n i ( l i k e

a n

ves?"

"to fill oneself", both being joined with an Accusative, or A*f]A and 'f'A'flA "to put on" and "to clothe oneself"),this case does not differ essentially from those which have been described in 175, 176. I n the very same way a verb, which takes again a simple meaning in the Reflexive Stem, in many cases no longer differs at all, as regards association with an Accusative, from a simple Transitive, as in the case of tfrtifD "to hand over", f-t/o fllfl) "to cause to be handed over to oneself", i. e. "to receive", "to take"; *f*A?ih "to let oneself be sent", i. e. "to serve", with the Accusative of the Person, Matt. 25, 44; 27, 55; -t*09& "to bind oneself to", i. e. "to be attached to", "to be a follower of", with an Accusative, Matt. 27,57; ^|flA "to go to meet" Gen. 14,17; 'than} "to confess" Mark 1, 5; -f-ffAi "to ride", with Accusative, Gen. 49,17. I n fact Reflexive Stems, which have again become Simple in their meaning, may take two Accusatives, e. g. f'AJiA (v. supra, under No. 4). I n like manner all Passives of Verbs which have two Accusatives in the Active, take the Accusative of one of the two Objects of the Active Stem, e. g. * 9 0 ^ "to be taught" ("to learn") with Accusative of the Object, Luke 1,4; "to receive something in compensation" with Accusative of the thing, Deut. 15,2, 3; Ps. 39,21; * d A f with Accusative "to be recompensed for something" Mark 10, 30; tf-A-' 'hflMJflfc "all things have been given to me" Matt. 11,27; f'h'PA with Ace, "to receive something allotted". For other examples v. Ex. 36,6; Deut. 11,11 [and COENILL, Weise
()
x

Cf. also, e. g. Judith 10, 3sq.:

f - ' i d f l ^ : f^?? s (VYJE- * fll+4

nft^ * A<P<H- * /"AC-f- s CM mi-W*^

rdCP * <D*f*

441

Philos.\ p. 51]. I t is especially binding, in the case of all verbs, which in the Active along with the nearest Object take a Predicate-, or Product-Accusative,that this Predicate or Product appear also with the Passive, as an Accusative^). Thus we have such an Accusative with all verbs which express the idea of "being called anything" or "found, thought, or declared to be anything", or of "being made, chosen, appointed, or designated anything", e. g. *HJ$P P : "he is called( ) the least" Matt. 5,19; 23,10; ' A fl) : lWY.fr fl "who was found worthy"; fsk^&fl s A f t " " (U^Mfltf " * flJtffl "your house is left unto you desolate" Matt. 23,38; *f"VAf * A * Kf* "it was reckoned to him for righteousness" Gen. 15,6; aof!? * V V : <i"f Cl "it is interpreted (as) Redeemer"; U*flf : "f-flJ-y fl* * A M l i . h ' f l r h . G "they are given to God ('as a') for a gift" Numb. 18, 6; '\?V*?f ft Afth " I was appointed a minister" Eph. 3,7. Only rarely is the Nominative employed in these cases, in place of the Predicate-Accusative, and then in such a way that the Predicate is associated with the Subject as an Apposition: *f*i*J&<w: ftA^flCs <DA#- hVt i Vf'i'blh "his son Eleazar was ordained (as) Priest in his stead" Deut. 10, 6. The employment of the Accusative with these Passives eXplains also the peculiarity, found both in Ethiopic and Arabic ( ), according to which the Verbs of 'Being, Becoming and Remaining'
a 2
0

otn>

01

Accusative
a o f 6

B n
e i

8 g j

Becoming
Ac.

take the Predicate in the Accusative, m respect that the idea of "having been made something" or "being made something" is always present in these verbs,for instance: M l O K J : Ifcth " I shall be pure" Ps. 17,26; H M : (D&i "that was made wine" John 2, 9; faV s W<, "he became an archer" Gen. 21, 20; HUAO) s J^AflJ "who is ready" 1 Peter 4,5; 9!* * M t a . ("what hast thou become ?") "what aileth thee ?" Gen. 21,17; fo-fc ' hMd. "become thousands" Gen. 24, 60; J&H1C hflfl* * flh "its circle remains empty" Hen. 78,14; *hflM J&V*Q4- "they sat assembled together" Hen. 13, 9; Yltro : jrV}fl4 : fl.WV : mlf^Mh "that they remain just and pure" Hen. 69,11; $,tyOhao* "they stand idle" Matt. 20, 3: I n the same way also, tDbh, e. g. frtDbh ' M b f anofiaivei a/cXr/po; Sir. 30,8. Connected with this
UA<D,
s

InV,

V f l (f0)

(- ) Just as in Arabic, EWALD, 'Qr. Ar. 546. ( ) I n verbs of "being called", proper names for the most part are not put in the Accusative, e. g. Gen. 1 7 , 5 ; 1 1 , 9 . ( ) EWALD, 'Qr. Ar.' 563 sqq.
2 3

442

178.

also is the use of faV with the Accusative, meaning "to serve as something", e. g. (D ttHD'Tr s -th9 "and it shall be for a token" Gen. 9,13; (DWOO* : *7*>4-/|-tf>- : MlV "and their bricks served as stone to them" Gen. 11, 3. This is the established rule which is followed in the case of ftV, UAflJ, i f l ; but in cases where the Predicate may also be regarded as an Apposition, owing to the verbal idea being less vacant than in h i or UlilD, (e. g. in "why stand ye idle?) another form of connection is also possible ( 189). I f indeed a Nominative is often found with fa J and VtitD ( ), when we might have looked rather for an Accusative according to what has been said, then the cause iseither a mere piece of carelessness on the part of a copyist, or a different conception of the sentence: e. g. "it was or there was light" may be expressed by "light arose", and then the Ethiopic would be h i s"flCVJ; or light may be regarded as a predicate to the impersonal form "it was or became", and the Ethiopic would then be JiJ * "flCW 5 hence variation in Manuscripts, Gen. 1, 3; Hen. 89,8. Thus we can say: ft.fl >: "it is not good" Matt. 15, 26, and ft.h> "it is not a good thing" Gen. 2,18; flljij . ' (P~M ftft<*ft>A"a custom arose in Israel" Judges 11, 39,where / h ? might quite as well have appeared, " i t became a custom"; VtlO) s Rfct (instead of Jt^-i) "it had been hidden in the ground" Josh. 7,21, 22; JJ'VJfr: U / H l Chrest. p. 29, line 13. e. suffix 178. 6. A distinction must be made between all the cases useTaTa which have been hitherto mentioned, and those in which a Suff. secondary p on. in Ethiopic is attached, in the sense of a Dative to Active, oraDative Intransitive, Reflexive, or Passive Verbs ( 151). Such an Accusaof special |.p t the nearest obiect, but the idea of "in relation
: x r ye e x x r e s s e g7 n o

Reference.

to", or "for", and thus indicates the same thing which otherwise is expressed by A- I t has most resemblance to the Accusative in the cases mentioned in 175, c, but it is again distinguished from these by the circumstance that it is only allowable for the Suffix Pronoun. Thus we say ftCilDi "open unto us" Matt. 25,11; D *BfthJ "and they shall add to him" Matt. 25,29; "remains for me" Matt. 19,20; H < ^ 0 h "what is right to thee" ("what is
p

( ) That the Predicate cannot stand in the Accusative, when it is introduced by the preposition 1\{W follows of course from 165, No. 6; e.g.

KfrXtb* * Xiao

i <WJ^A*P'> Matt. 6, 5.

 178.

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thine opinion") Matt. 22, 17; Jr>Y,Ah "it is better for thee" Matt. 5, 29, 30; A.-HlOH }ll0i>- * ft/[9 "peace shall not be unto you" Hen. 5,4: cf. also 0A<Dfc " i t impends over me" in the periphrasis for the Futurum instans ( 89), and 91*S\ ( 198). Now since this employment of the Suff. Pron. with a Dative sense is in general possible, the periphrasis for the definite Article by means of a Suffix appended to the Verb ( 172, c) may be extended to Nouns which stand in a Dative subordination to the Y e r b : f t f : A T I "there was to Noah" Gen. 7, 6; < D h O > } h : tf-flA0 A h * {DA ***** "and it shall be for food for thee and for them" Gen. 6,21 &c. This use of the suffix is most frequent with f i j , to express the notion of "being something to one", or "serving as something to one"^), and the Suffix is but seldom omitted in that case: "that she may become his wife" is always given in Ethiopic as "^h* ? : 1UA .1* or ^ f r ? : -ftitA-fr, not *\tf : H f c A . * ; so too j &h -^lf) 0* Afch "let him be your minister" Matt. 20, 26; hG hth J & h f l ^ f ' fl) A "how then can he be (at the same time) his son?" Matt. 22,45. I n virtue then of a peculiar subtlety in the Ethiopic language, every verb which has for Subject or Object some part of a living being (such as a member of the body, the soul, name, honour, qualities &c.) has a Suff. Pron. appended to it, referring to the Being itself and having a Dative or Accusative force,for the purpose of signifying that the action proceeds from, or passes over tonot merely the part in question but also the Being itself, - 9- f^^&oFrtxX ' A * f l f "my heart rejoices (in me)" Ps. 12, 6; Judges 19,6; *|-flJK : Art" "his mind came back (to him)" Mark 5,15; Luke 8,35; 7 7 ^ 0 " : A O " " "their heart was perturbed (within them)" Gen. 42,28; 45,26; ghpiP A f l ' "his spirit revived (within him)" Gen. 45, 27; 0D&*% * V ^ f t P "my soul is embittered (within me)" Ruth 1,13; - f l f t A , ^ hi* &9 ' >(D~it\H "a woman, who had an issue of blood" Matt. 9, 20 (for which the form of expression in other languages would be <7 : p,(D*thfl); A ? 0 f c ' "hear (me) my voice" Gen 27,43; fi9P : pQp "he hearkened to (him) his voice" Judges 13, 9; ao^C : ftTf, "he smote off his ear
0 4

( ) [DILLMANN seems to mean, both here and throughout this section, that the Dative use of the Verbal Suffix conveys an emphatic reference of the idea which is contained in the verb and its complement, to the personality indicated by the Suffix. TR.J

444

(from him)" Matt. 26, 51; (DCh? ' WtlP' " A-S.V "and he saw (her) the person of Dinah" G-en. 34, 3; athh^C" * h,?(i-tl * fthf"*"** "and Jesus recognised them in their wickedness" or "perceived their wickedness (in them)" Matt. 22,18; h f l C P ftl^O"they shall hind his feetf'O Matt. 22,13; cf. also A ?0V : >M Judith 8,17; hh<n>d\U ' A U - f l * T f l f l h . >29; / u < P ^ l r t l . * A 'QftU 10,16; in the very same way, for "he called his name so-andso" the expression issometimes, it is true, Atf"? AT* * hut with more elegance, ftaDf* : {\<p s fl,^ Gen. 4,25; 3,20, Note. The Cases mentioned in 175, c all resemble those which are enumerated here, except that in the former group the Person itself is always the proper Subject or Object, and the Part of it which is dealt with, is always in the Accusative of Reference, while, vice versa, in the group before us, it is the Part which is always the nearest Subject or Object, and the Person itself is mentioned by way of addition and put in the secondary Accusative. A n explanation has thus been given of the most important uses of the Ethiopic Accusative; but of course it is not a matter of necessity that every verb, which is capable of taking an Accusative, should do so always. Even Active verbs and Double Transitives may often stand in a sentence without any Object. This may happen because the Object, being understood from the connection, is suppressed and is not even represented by a Pronoun, e. g. Matt. 21,2 "there shall ye find a she-ass and an ass's colt, Q'tth* Q*h9Kh* s A*"f" loose (them) and bring (them) to me"; hjt'h OD'P "believe (it) not" Matt. 24,23; Mark 13,21; Gen. 9,2;or, of two Objects, at least one is omitted: "my house is a house of prayer (DM^ao-ft : ^<2,Afc : flfti s A ^ 4 ^ but ye make (it) a den of thieves" Matt. 21,13. The same thing may happen too, because these verbswhich in other languages are often better expressed intransitivelyyield, of and by themselves, a satisfactory meaning: HfftCV ' (D$ah% "which enlightens and warms" ('diffuses light and warmth') Hen. 72,4; hjDti&rfr ' A " * "she did not bear to him" ('she bare him no children') Gen. 16,1:( ); pfl\ 9^ "he baptised" (without mentioning any Object) Mark 1,4; ftft ao "to know" Matt. 27,65 ("to have knowledge about, or to
0 1 8 2

( ) Which may also be explained according to 175, c. ( ) [Cf. Kebra Nag., 'Introd.' p. X X . ]
2

445

have skill in"); hl^ao* : "see ye to i t " Matt. 27,24; d.'tat ('to wish', 'to desire') "to he willing" Matt. 26,41 &c. (b) Subordination of Nouns and Pronouns by means of Prepositions. 179. I f a Noun cannot be governed in the Accusative by a subordinaVerb, in one or other of the modes described in 174178, it must o ns and be subordinated to the Verb by the aid of a Preposition. The DieN U

P r o n o u n s

by means of

tionary will point out which Prepositions are possible and usual in Preposithe case of the several verbs. A good deal has been brought for' ward incidentally on this head (v. supra 164 sqq.) in treating of Prepositions; but the following observations still fall to be added here. 1. Instead of the more strict subordination in the Accusative, the looser form may appear, effected by A > the preposition of most general reference (*). But upon the whole this has been seldom resorted to, being confined to no more than a few cases. I n exemplification of this use of A as a mere substitute for the Accusative, we find in Gen. 17,12 (Dtith^'i s *hnK (where 3"I*lf C9* would have been a more accurate expression) "and the child ye shall circumcise"; farther ftA fOCO" Ahflfl 0 r h "who cause the orb of the sun to set" Hen. 18,4; h(l<f * fi th9C't ' fDiihH !! Y\Ch$% " f he showed me the signs and the times " Hen. 75,3; and ntufOhdh A X J t * * fDhC*lh ' 7\9%V' "who hath not withdrawn from him his righteousness and his truth", Gen. 24,27 ( ); and thus an Accusative-attachment, which has .been begun, may be continued in effect by A > as in Xiao s h/t^b^O^ ' (D^uAlfChf "that thou wilt injure neither ourselves nor my descendants" Gen. 21,23. The use of A in exchange for the Accusative is more common in the case of all those verbs which contain the idea of "addressing", inasmuch as the 'reference' in such verbs may be always held to bethe 'speaking to some one'. Thus not only may such words as "to say", "to relate", "to speak" have A associated with them, quite as readily as the Accusative ( 176, 3, a), but also, in particular, words involving such ideas as "to beg", "to ask", and farther "to praise"
tlon3 J 0 1 r , 2

( ) Analogous to the procedure in Aramaic. ( ) Cf. supra, p. 439, Note ( ).

2 2

446

179.

and "to extol" A'flrh &c), "to call", "to command", "to forbid", "to blame", (e. g. HA*J Hen. 13,10), "to reprimand", and so on. But especially does A come forward to introduce the aim and purpose, when a Noun in that signification is subordinated to a Verb. Thus Verbs of Giving govern the person, to whom a thing is given, as much by A as through the Accusative ( 177,4); and the Predicate-Accusative, in particular, ( 177,4 & 5) may be replaced by the connection through A, wherever the notion of a purpose is conceived: f t?(n* : A ^ ^ f l G "they bought
,0 8

a field as a burying-ground" Matt. 27,7; Gen. 49,30; h ^ / W " AwAA*fc : A<J^"J* "he divided them into three companies" Judges 7,16; f? : ft-J^ : h$9 A + h A HCh "establish the flesh of righteousness as a seed-bearing plant" Hen. 84, 6; ft"Ml*: Aft ^h ^"Iwillmakeit(/ .)ablessing"Hen.45,4,5( )[c/ .^e6mV^.5a22]; "]Mr^ : flftA. AdMfl A ft"V5l K * ^ ^ "there will be chosen a man to become a plant of the judgment of righteousness" Hen. 93,5. Thus toofaV"to serve for something" and "to become something" is associated with A as readily as with the Accusative ( 177,5): fDfaV: A ^ ' J A A /hlD*"|h "and he became a living soul" Gen. 2,7; 20,16; fllj&hfl*"^ Aft^h"3h I'QC "and the doing . . . shall serve as a blessing" Hen. 10,16; 52,4; haHHfi <n i AA$<5tf* "they shall become a stumbling-block to you" Judges 2,3. Now and again too, other prepositions of direction are employed instead: Vfl'J M * h <*>Ai" CKA IhHTr'F "the stone has become the head of the corner" Matt. 21,42; fth A W l * A .4 P*i(t\?'i "he will restore thee to the post of cupbearer" Gen. 40,13; or >f*a>Afll *Vft "to be changed into something (else)" [or with ft, Kebra Nag. 133 b 21]. As for the rest, the Dative of other languages is generally expressed by A2. Several Verbs, which may govern an Accusative, may also introduce their Object by means of Prepositions, but in that case they generally assume a somewhat different meaning; and the subordination of an Object to a Verb by means of a Preposition corresponds often in its effect to the Compound Verbs of the Indo-European languages: A?0 with Accusative means "to hear
8 8 , 1 , 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8t 8

in both verses; reads fthf* in V . .4, and Aft^tl*!" in V . 5, with an identical meaning, T R . ]
FLEMMING

(*)

[DILLMANN'S reading has the Aconstruction

 179.

447

any one", but with A > "to listen to" and "to obey"; Ch? with fl "to look at anything" Hen. 39,10; fJfhO with A "to call to any one" Gen. 21,17; <D<M Af)A "to spit upon one" Matt. 27,30; }R<1 (0*11* "to look towards" Gen. 15,5; A^P with Accusative "to drink anything", but with h9i "to drink of it" Gen. 9,21 [and with fl "to drink out of anything" Gen. 44,5; Kebra Nag. 97 b 1,3]; Mft "to hold", "to keep", but with fl "to take hold of" Gen. 19,16; Vb"^ "to breathe", but with ^ . f l "to breathe upon any one" and "to breathe into or inspire any one" Hen. 82,7 &c. Otherwise whenever a Verb attaches its object to itself by a Preposition, that preposition is chosen to suit the meaning of the Verb, e. g. Kflrt A "to sin against any one" Judges 10,10; rhHV A "to mourn for any one"; A 7 *A "to bow down to or before any one" Gen. 27,29; 42,6; 0 A h ' A> i*?** A "to be king over or of any one" Judges 9,8, 22 (and with Ad A Judges 9,9); Cd& h9^ <LCU * h9* "to tremble, to fear before", "to be afraid of" Gen. 9,2; 32,12; > f : ^04fl h9t "to flee from", "to beware of"; h&d<L -h9} "to rest from" Hen. 53,7; V8Vh 7x9 "to be pure from anything" Hen. 10,22; *(\*h : h9 "to take vengeance on" Judges 16,28; Hen. 54,6; RAP *1ffl "to pray to", Gen. 20,17, and similarly AM -Iffl Gen. 25, 21; h9i fl "to believe i n " ; i9 s fl, ^ (D i fl "to have a liking for,a desire for"; 4**Jft AdA "to be jealous or envious of" Gen. 26,14; 30,1 &c. A l l Verbs too which indicate properties may be compared with other conceptions by means of the comparative word 1x9^ and a few other Prepositions (v. infra 187).
8 8 8 8 1 8 8 m 8 8 8 8

Finally, an author may occasionally associate a Verb in quite a bold and peculiar fashion with a Preposition, which according to its usual sense does not properly belong to the Verb, as ftth/L with the Accusative of the thing and Ad A of the Person, "to record something on or regarding any one" (L e. "to set to his credit or his blame", "to impute") Hen. 10,8; < T H H with } 9 i "to console one from a thing", i. e. "to comfort one about a thing" Gen. 5,29; <n>Ah " 7 fl^Al" a\0C "the water filled into the ship", i. e. "the ship became full of water" Mark 4,37; cf. Ex. 28,3; 14>T$(fi h9 a\^1 Jer. 11,19; [cf. also Kebra Nag. 'Glossary', sub 'tf^M, 4ftfl, (D&h, dJl<D &c.]. But yet these bolder associations are rare, at least in ordinary Ethiopic speech. Generally speaking, Prepositions are very frequently made
0, x 8 8 8 8 8

448

use of in Ethiopic. I t is true that the employment of the Accusative in its more ancient significations is still in full activity, and is just as current as in any of the oldest Semitic languages; hut side by side with that use, a connection of the words hy means of Prepositions is often available; and a certain striving after freedom and variety in word-association is unmistakeably proclaimed even in this department.
2. V E R B I N S U B O R D I N A T I O N T O T H E V E R B . 1. second 180. Just e t e r "erb ddete verb - ^ m g to it a Noun mining (o)Kindand a n o t h e r Verb. I n Manner, circumai v e r D u s u

as the Verb may be supplemented by subordinaor Pronoun, so also may it be supplemented by this case, should the supplementary Verb merely
0

appear as a Substantive-Infinitive, and be governed by the princiP i * ^e y *her noun, special discussion of such an inaction of the stance would be superfluous here. But in point of fact there are several other methods of subordinating one Verb to another, and these must now be explained. The sense in which one verb governs another is varied in character. 1. The second verb may define the hind and manner of the principal verb, the more detailed circumstances of the action, and its time. (a) When an adverbial determination of Circumstance has to be joined to the principal Verb (or to the Predicate of the sentence), this is often expressed in Ethiopic by a Verb,partly because adverbial expressions of this character in a fully formed condition are comparatively few, and partly because such determination of circumstance may have to be more strongly emphasised than is possible with an adverbial expression. I n such a case the two verbs may be united together, mainly in the following two ways: a) By the (a) The pair of verbs are set side by side, in the same tense, blingTet > number and person, not connected however by the usual (D, side by side but remaining unconnected; and by that arrangement, since there without ID . j Copula coming between them, they are the more closely linked together. I n this way are attached, in particular, certain adverbial conceptions of Time and Place, of the most general sense, which precede the principal verb, while completing the idea conveyed in it. Thus, although the sentence "and she bare again"
Timeofitne
a n
8

m o o a ,

 180.

449

may be expressed with the help of an adverb in Ethiopic also; (DtDti e- 9- G^m 29, 34, yet, if this "again" has to be emphasised, it is expressed by &*f*7D "to repeat": l O f t l ^ n ^ I D A A ^ "and again she bare" Gen. 4,2; 29,33; &7<w : <Offl> "again he sent", although G}Pf*\ao : may also occur, Luke 20,11; so too in Judges 20, 22; Gen. 25,1. I n the same way fflRh "he has finished" serves to indicate the idea of "already" (v. 88): \\h*' m . ^ J t ^ V A ^ "the fire is already kindled" Luke 12,49; (DJfoV : Ihlft "we have already reprehended" Rom. 3,9; Numb. 17,11, 12; 22,29, 33; Matt. 5,28; 11,21; 17,12; and this word may even be placed after the principal verb:flKWApVL' (Dflv flO* "and the evening hour has already come" Mark 6, 351 ).Cf. farther (Bfyh* f"|flA$ * "they went out against them" Judges 1,10;
s m 8 8 1 8 p<,,>

i*4flA$ 0 * "go ye out to meet them" Josk 9,9; h lih-C "arise! let us go" Gen. 33,12; 27,19; Josh. 7,13; 1ft C "HhJlfl.fi *fipao*"remain thou prophesying to them" Chrest. page 3, line 22 sq. &c. I n such unions, it is true, the two verbs frequently occur also, joined by means of fl); but the better manuscripts avoid this. (/3) Still more frequently the principal verb is subordinated By the in the Accusative of the Infinitive to those verbs which determine v^ipL Time or Circumstance; and every verb, whether Active or Passive,
8 8 A c t i o n

may be subordinated in this way, by taking the form of the Sub- ordinated in stantive-Infinitive. The governing Verb, which contains the ad- * j ^ ' verbial and auxiliary determination, is mostly transitive or causative, but it may also be reflexive-passive; and the Accusative of e or the Infinitive in the latter case is to be explained in accordance with 174. Thus: *19 ^ 0\(D "they had all crossed over" ('they had all been included in the crossing over') Josh. 4,8, 11; #?h tXC'tb*0' " I have told you before" Matt. 24, 25; 12,29; 17,11; K W h ^ ^ U 0 = $ m - * 0*lMflr) "je (/") are come soon" Ex. 2,18; Gen. 18,7; Josh. 4,10; - Y f l C h " - ^ Vi 9t\i\>S! "you have believed along with me" Eom. 1,12; h.F>
e e t the V e r b o f
8 t a n C

being sub-

Time

a/

(*) Precisely in the case of W^t% the tense as a rule agrees with that of the leading verb: both are in the Perfect. But yet, to express a Present, <D*ft is also joined to the Imperfect: <D"h 8 " T A R . flWli* T'TFR J&l'flC "already lies the axe beside the stem" Matt. 3,10. I t is unnecessary to assume an adverb fl)Jf*K here. 29
8 8


8 8 8 0 a0M

450
w

second pressing

&"19 Kill l / A f 9 t\tiM "I l continue to be with you no longer" Josh. 7,12; Gen. 8,12; 38, 26; M A * i*AAP- MlA "they had eaten up the corn" Gen. 43,2; Josh. 8,24; 10,20; ftiP if "he has done good" Judges 17,13; hty&ao^ t hh9C "she had informed herself before" Matt. 14,8; 17,25; hd.&%n s ftA.fc'fr "they hated him still more" Gen. 37,8; Matt. 27, 23; AA (n s ao*%*\* "he was already quite dead" John 19, 33;ft'fl'H'V^r ' MlJt "she brought most" Luke 21, 3; : ?Cthty <b<a "the water stood up afar" Josh. 3,16. A n Abstract also may occur instead of the Infinitive, e. g. HftHA^. 'tdlf^'fi "who is steadfastly patient" Matt. 24,13. 181. (6) I f a more exact determination of the Kind and
8 8 8 m 8 8

(6) more a n c exact Determination of of Time, . Circumg stance &c.:(a) By the

S m

Manner, of the Circumstances or of the Time is attached to a verb, [ if it is a determination which can only be expressed by means
_ , it^
L

a verbal form, then Ethiopic has various devices for expres( ) T h auxiliary qualification may be subordinated in the
a e

Gerund,

form of the Gerund ( 123). I n that case the Infinitive itself takes the Accusative, in accordance with 174 sq., but only in rare instances does it appear without a suffix, as in Yf"A" *JA &Jh 0 hlH.h'dth.C iQLtd ' "l'dC "God completed the whole world, carrying out his work" Gen. 2,2. Nearly always, in fact, the Subject which performs the subordinated action,whether it be at the same time the Subject of the leading proposition or its Object, is yet more specially expressed by a Suffix Pronoun appended to the Infinitive. Thus determinations of condition are expressed, as in 'hOT.vh ' h69hi. "hear me patiently" Acts 26, 3; (D(Dfrh s 'tOiy "and he went out, putting restraint on himself" Gen. 43,31; and even (JAflJ i'E'P "he was 'sleeping'", i. e. "he was just then asleep". Still more frequently are thus expressed determinations of Time (and even conditions bordering upon determinations of Time), which may be understood as referring to Past, Present or Future, according to the context, as the Infinitive has no distinction of tenses: <DA.A h9V? fr lO-Ai* 9 Vf -^'fl "and departing thence he betook himself to the Synagogue" Matt. 12,9; (DWdP* h9di0C *4flA Aft// -flftA, "and on his coming out of the ship there met him then a man" Mark 5, 2; 0Cfl 0(h > flJL^ * Iflft "the sun went down as they reached Gibeah" Judges 19,14; I f ^ f l ^ A flHCK- 1*tt<Zh "which sprouts by its
8 </D 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 tf 8 8 8

 181-

451

own seed, when it is sown" Gen. 1,29; wA^P : #CK*fl : &11Q "and when Herod heard, he was alarmed" Matt. 2 , 3 ; rhlj^lfltf *: *M\fc "going away, enquire ye" Matt. 2 , 8 ; <wX"K * w\$o~o* s (Dhtl't'fitxJP ' "they came, after they had collected provision for a journey and made their preparations" Josh. 9 , 2 ; hTf* ' 0 ii\h hdd'b "which, when it was full, they drew up" Matt. 13,48; 0lh * hVbf tlW #$0 ^ W l U - Job 9 , 4 ; and so almost on every page of a historical narrative. Even when the Circumstantial or Temporal clause has a Subject of its own, which is not mentioned in the Principal Clause either as Subject or as Object, the Gerund may appear. The Subject is then, after having been referred to by the Suffix of the Infinitive,adjoined independently to this Suffix, and in its primary form (not in the Accusative): tD(D%h ' (D'h* ' flh "and when he was gone out, his servants came" Judges 3, 24; (D^ti^G s ft-HO* i0o* s Hft\?'fl s fc*YH : p,9%h. A'flO'fc loo* s H ^2"fl "and when the seven years of plenty had passed away, the seven years of famine began to come" Gen. 4 1 , 5 3 ; P d A fllf"! Job 2 , 9 ; tD*(D
0 00
s

rDt

ti.?* ' ft,f/fVfl Vtf- 0ii1f{Tf fl#/h "and when Jesus was born, behold there came wise men" Matt. 2,1; or, with the Infinitive of Impersonal Verbs: (09^* ' h ^ T f\9f\h* "and when evening was come, they brought" Matt. 8 , 1 6 ; 2 6 , 2 0 ; tD0tl? ' 0KY\ " "flhlL "and when it was evening, there came a man" Matt. 27, 57. (j3) When the auxiliary qualification sets forth a condition (P) By the of the Acting Subject of the Principal Verb (a condition which is expressed in other languages by a Participle, co-ordinated with the Subject), it may be expressed by an Imperfect, ranked alongside of the Principal Verb, the Imperfect being the proper tense to describe a condition or circumstance ( 89). I n this case, however, as in similar cases ( 180, l,a, a), the copula (D must always be left out, in order that by such close connection the subordination of the accessory idea to the principal one may be signified. I t is unnecessary in such a case to have the two verbs placed immediately together; several words, according to circumstances, may intervene, e. g.\ } f l { . : P04'fl$ "they sat down, watching him" Matt. 27, 36; ^flyi-fl : *&jft "she is laid down sick of a fever" Matt. 8, 14; j&TJfc : : <plMl * K&fW* ' ' "those who possess wisdom will humble themselves, no more
n

J ^ U M D .

29*

452

19 8

181.

committing sin" Hen. 5 , 8 ; \av : ift*7j" $P ' ^lilh* flWlf" ' h A* h/hH "fl " i f ye forsake him, turning back to those nations" Josh. 2 3 , 1 2 ; a>Vi(S*F ' ftfckb * C O GL A d . 9 3 , 1 9 ; :. . . JE.#A* Kebra Nag. 114 b 20 sq.\ On this usage rests also the periphrasis of the Latin Imperfect through the employment of OhtD with the Imperfect ( 89), as in Off * 9tt\9ty "he baptised" ('was baptising'). Cf. also 189 sq. "When, on the other hand, the auxiliary qualification does not exactly express a condition of the Subject, but a continuation rather of the principal action, then it is put in the same Tense as the Principal verb, and is ranked beside it without farther connection: fDj/**fr : ft'PA-^.lf h. fl)*Afl" "and they took their daughters in marriage" (lit. 'and they took their daughters,they married') Judges 3, 6; <7X*ft : Itx^i H&mj&ft "TlA<C. "and there came a smoking furnace, passing by" &c. Gen. 15,17; {D&h't* s . . . " Y I P I P ^ "she went away, . . .
s s !

seeking" Hen. 8 5 , 6 (cf. 180,1, a, a).

(7) Quaiibeing introduced by Conjunction, such as

(y) Besides, for the cases mentioned, and for the attachment f every auxiliary qualification which has to be expressed by a y whether it be a qualification of Kind, Circumstance or
erDj

Time, Conjunctions are available ( 189), such as Jt^H "while, KiH &c. hen", Aft &c., and these are very frequently used for this purpose. (S) w h e n (B) A special Case occurs, w hen a Verb has its own Subfying^verb stantive-Infinitive in the Accusative associated with it by way of is repre- supplement (cf. 174), in which case the particular force of such the subst.- a mode of expression may differ in character. The repetition of iDf. Of principal Verb t either signify the repetition of the action itself, and verb, thus express the gradual, continuous or complete nature of that action: ID&j^AA ' *9(lfa9 **' "and destroying they destroyed them" (action gradually becoming complete) Judges 2 0 , 4 3 ; fr-fl *W'*t ftfl'H'V "multiplying I will multiply" ( ' I will make many and ever more') Gen. 3 , 1 6 ; 1 6 , 1 0 ; or else such repetition is meant to direct forcibly the attention of the hearer to the conception, and lend strong emphasis to the Verb. The latter use of the Infinitive is the more frequent of the two by far: ft%0 ' *Shfl9l>- 0>ft.*h AWlfl*. "you hear indeed, but you do not understand" Matt. 13,14; Mark 4 , 1 2 ; flCfr KUCllh "bless thee I will" Gen. 2 2 , 1 7 ; \%v V s ^ 7 / : 4dAV "shalt thou indeed reign over us?" Gen. 37,8; <D4*-fcAA A / J ^ A h "but kill thee we shall not" Judges 1 5 , 1 3 ; hh9G - hh9C "know thou assuredly" Gen. 15, 1 3 ; farther,
w T m u s >a s

453

Gen. 20, 18; 50, 16; Judges 8, 25; [hraxtf h9A\Ml Kebra Nag. 166b 13sq.], &c. The Infinitive stands at the beginning of such clauses, as these examples show, but it may also be put at the end, particularly when it indicates the continuance of the action: ht> i ^ A t o ? * h9fr\* : AK^IUKHrfbC "that they may ever continue to worship God" Josh. 22, 27; also HfoV * h*ET "whatever it may be" Ex. 22,8; Gal. 5,10; M\\^-M\\C "wonder ye greatly" Gadla Tared (ed. CONTI E O S S I N I , 1904) p. 5,1. 5. 182. 2. The Subordinate Verb may have the force of a 2. second Determination of the Contents of the leading Verb, or the force . *"'
Ve rb de
0 7

mining the

of an Object thereto, and then it is always to be thought of as in contents of the Objective Case. Leading (a) The most obvious mode of union in this case, is that bv 7
V e r b :
v

'

(a) In the

which (a) the Subordinate Verb takes the form of the Accusative form of the of the Substantive-Infinitive. This mode is allowable and very gubst.-ini? common, even when the Subordinate Verb has objects depending
o f

Subordinate

on it. The Infinitive in that case is either regarded more in the Verb.; or light of a Noun governing its Object by means of the Construct f ^ r T c f ^ State relation (v. p. 463) or more in the light of a Verb, although s^* there is no necessity that it should take the Gerund-form, governing troduced its Object in the Accusative or by means of Prepositions. First . ? "
6 b y a on i
J

junction.

of all, there are certain verbs which convey no sense by themselves, viz. Auxiliary Verbs, and particularly Verbs of Being able, or Being unable , but which connect themselves for the most part with such Infinitives: / i ^ f i h A ' ' hd'O' "he cannot leave his father" Gen. 44,22; WVi^a^Cl ' K&nfc 4-fcA "but are not able to kill your soul"; H V l A ' Wft (Df? s ^frd * ftrhT'A" "who is able to destroy soul and body together" Matt. 10,28; 9,15,28; 7,18; 5,14,36; 3,9; tlhlYl" * *1V "could ye not watch?" Matt. 26,40; AhV * txdt'&h-f' "could not we cast him out?" Matt. 17, 19; Josh. 17,12; and farther, other Verbs in which the idea leans to that of Being able, like "to know" ('how to do &c.'), "to love" ('to do &c.'), "to be accustomed" ('to do &c.'): ^ A f / J t * hih&P * hth& "he was accustomed to grant one person his life" Matt. 27,15; $*h94- WW * OH* flbVLfl "ye know how to give good gifts" Matt. 7,11; 16,3; 4<*n> s (DRAP* "they love to stand and to pray" Matt. 6,5; farther, Verbs of Hindering, Refusing, and Being unwilling(in contrast with which, Verbs of Willing, as expressing a purpose, have
0 !

454

m > o

182.

mostly a different manner of connection): 't h6ih9 0 ~ dl^h "ye hinder them from entering" Matt. 23,14 (cf. 176,3,a); Hen. 63,10; hj)r\\l\'i\9 0 ' ' wfrji : *Tifl,p "forbid them not to come unto me" Matt. 19,14; Judges 15,1; ^ . , h , A * 'thft* i*VTftf "Rachel refuses to be comforted" Matt. 2,18; hiW-h * 0>VLfl "they refuse to give thee" Glen. 24,41; 37,35; C f t f - f XlihH* ^siv ccpvowrai Sap. 17, 10 A . But several other Verbs also,which in some cases admit of other methods of union, may join to themselves the Accusative of the Infinitive: Vft. : flf?^f s Wfl : fti* H f t l W I "to sit on my right hand it is not I who grant" Matt. 20, 23; nvflO * i'tlhiir-f' "ventured (3 sing.) to ask him" Matt. 22,46; &t\(h 'V'flfl'f* ' "they had forgotten to take bread with them" Matt. 16, 5; ft-fcO) "he delayeth to come" Matt. 24,48; &XM ' th'Bd ' U P "he was afraid to go thither" Matt.2,22; 1,20; Gen. 19,30; ^ H " h : >f-(^9>*: Afc *7lUtalih ,C "(in that) ye cease to follow the Lord" Josh. 22,16, 18, 29; Gen. 11,6; cf. besides, 180,1, a, j3. I t may happen too that the governing Verb is supplemented beforehand by a Suffix referring to the Object of the subordinate Verb,a practice which again forms a delicate turn in the Ethiopic language, similar to that which is
> o

described in 178: ftft/t- :

: AfW" : M t t f W l r h - C " I

am able to destroy the house of God" Matt. 26, 61; ao*i*: h A * A'H'J'fc ' *lfl^ 4 Esr. 2, 6. Indeed the governing Verb may even attract completely to itself the Object of the dependent verb, i f that Object is merely a pronoun: tlfcifP dJD'fr "they could not heal him" Matt. 17,16 (for AKl* W) The subordinated Infinitive may pass into a finite Verb, as the sentence goes on, and vice versa, e. g.: -f-tfnftflKio- : A r h l J G * (Dt bh ' dSiQ^pav* "turning to go and pursue them more swiftly" Sap. 19,2; & A JPao- : J & ^ h A J t t f * - : 'QCV'i : (D-t-'Pfyth flWi: frA^lh "they deserve to be shut out from the light and to be cast into the chains of darkness" Sap. 18,4. In the same way also the SubjectInfinitive may be passed on, e. g. 4 Esr. 13, 20. Strangely enough even Impersonal Verbs ( 192) may be completed by an Infinitive in the Accusative, though other constructions may be employed. Thus in particularfaVis often joined to the Accusative of the Infinitive, when it has the meaning of ear/, 'sgsari, "it is possible" or "it is lawful or permitted": ha** } "which is not lawful to do" Matt. 12, 2; J&hflKJ s
1 ,t 0

455

( M l l t f - * 7fl. "it is lawful to do good on the Sabbathday" Matt. 12,12; 12,10; Deut. 22,19; A.j&^Ofrflh * <OJP.fr "let it not seem hard to thee ( 178) to let him go free" Deut. 15,18; tvOoAjB^hhlJA i 1i*^A " i f it is not possible that this pass away" Matt. 26, 42; WW : 'V'flA'f- - Cfrfc?; : (DOh *L(i AhAfllh "it is not proper to take the children's bread and to give it to the dogs" Matt. 15,26; f A A * A M * * ( 124, beginning) i<wA Ki* ti^C* ' tn&Zh - h9(\dfr fl^fc ' a1 If*** K ' ^ H . K ' f l r h i C "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God" Matt 19,24 (cf. 9,5); Vivien* : 0E*.# : A T f * * * -flC ('there has been for you enough of the compassing of this mountain') "you have compassed this mountain long enough" Deut. 2,3( ). Such unions are explained most readily by the consideration that in thought the impersonal turn of the Verb is replaced by a personal one (e. g. "it is lawful" is thought of as "we may" or "one may"). Meanwhile, this construction is not absolutely necessary: the complement may be applied to such verbs in the Subjector Nominative-case, and then they cease to be impersonal: A / t " "W 'rt3: 0*%* "it is better for me to die" 1 Cor. 9,15;ftA" -flVlA Hen. 37,3; fOfffl fl>A." " i t becomes hard for her to bring to the birth" Hen. 62,4; Ml A h " " ' flA^d "it is sufficient for you,to eat" Hen. 102, 9 (cf. Hebr. 9,27; 10, 31). I n the case of Infinitives in 6 it is impossible to discern which of the two constructions they are following, e. g. in ftlfi : IP VJK. s hO'tiil "then it is not good to marry" Matt. 19,10, inasmuch as K<7>An may be Nominative as well as Accusative. On the Accusative with the Infinitive after Verbs of Saying and Perceiving, v. 190. Q3) When this, the most obvious form of union, is not found practicable, a Conjunction like Xiao, fl, ?ftr/i> or other similar form, is employed, e. g. "he said, that & c " ; cf. 203. (b) I f the verb to be subordinated is related to the principal verb,rather as the intended result or the aim, it takes the following forms.
!

O An instance in which |/A* is first construed with the Subjunctive, and afterwards with the Accusative of the Infinitive, is met with in Sap. 16, 28 A.


(6) Forms

456

182.

(a) The connection may he effected,though this method is adopted upon the whole,by means of A followed by the to express Substantive-Infinitive, (v. also 183), e. g.: fih^ftflO**** s A A A . A Eesuit or "which was not lawful for him to eat" Matt. 12,4 (*). Prindpai ^ Most frequently the Subjunctive is employed, which is v e r b : - subordinated to the principal verb, just like an Accusative, directly, inf ^tth" that i without any Conjunction. I t occurs particularly after verbs A prefixed; f Willing Wishing, Begging, Commanding, Permitting, Promising tiye 'without and Beginning-. ftHH i pUfl- "he commanded (that) they should doT " S " - 19,7; 27,64; fl : ^ 0 4 l h "he said ('commanded that') they should beware" Matt. 16, 12; Hen. 69,14; ft<n> s ' *- "if thou wilt be perfect" Matt. 19, 21; 12,46 14, 5; Josh. 24,15; Hen. 39,8; ft<fl ^ J r ^ h : A f l &c. Chrest p. 42, line 6; ^.-f-IDL: C f t f t "they have desired to see" Matt. 13,17 p-Tf/^i**-: J & ^ V K - t l "they seek to speak with thee" Matt. 12,47 1 t * i "let them grow together" Matt. 13, 30 24,43; 27,49; Aft A ? ^ C f t P " 0 ' "they asked him that he should show them" Matt. 16, 1; ftfl,hfc K f - f M l "suffer me to speak" Gen. 18,32; 31,7; ftA-HlH>F JE/}A< "they besought him that he should depart" Matt. 8, 34; f U-flft? i ft'VH.h'flfh.G h f l dd^i* "the Lord grant (you) that you may find rest" Ruth 1,9; Mn i J i A ' f l h "he began to preach" Matt. 4, 17; ft^H s (for ft *1lH 0 JE-A-OA i < D * " A (DfrtirC ' A f t ^ l U W l r k C "he began to laud, bless and praise God" Cadla Tared, p. 6, 1. 24 sq., and very frequently. The same construction is found also with many other verbs of like signification, e. g.: aotfQfPao* : J&A ^fl" "teach them to observe" Matt. 28,20 (with the secondary idea of 'charging'); ftAftHh ' 't'OO''^ "she was at the point of death" ('was about to die') Mark 5, 23; 4-fl<PAill- h^VlC " I have taken upon me to speak" Gen. 18,31; also with JflUA, e. g. in Hen. 14, 21 ( ); Hexaem. 9,20; and with other words that suggest Ability, e. g. (D ftjn* s A-tfo. : hh9G ' Mh* 0K>bEb Hexaem. 9, 16 sq.\ and with Verbs of Hoping, e. g. 4'ft&.(D : ^ A C (var. ?OCQ)
secondverb
s e m o m
Sl

CO

i v e

M a t t

Jer. 35,14, even with its negation, is rendered in the Cod. Francof. by Aftjfrf ' (D^t( ) [This passage, Hen. 14,21, exhibits the peculiarity of presenting in the same verse and with the same meaning YtVti followed by an Inf. and }]UA followed by a Subjunctive, TR.]
2

 183.

457

Sir. 11,19. In the very same way too Impersonal Verbs are connected with the Subj. (v. supra, a): $*Yt*$;ao\\0O* s 'jfY.Afc " i t pleases you to do" Josh. 9, 23; hj**/ U 7 7 f l C A/h-fc* "it is not good that he should be alone" Gen. 2,18; iS,JE-hfl>"Vh " fl^AA "it is not permitted thee to take her to wife" Matt. 14,4; Deut. 22,29; ,Afl>3: ft 11 "it befits not me to stoop down" or " I am not worthy to stoop down" Mark 1,7; Matt. 3,11, 15;
L,< s ,

* ^Afc "it is better for thee to enter" Matt. 18,8, 9; hti : aoq^^gh t / h . . ("it is not necessary that they go away") "they need not depart" Matt. 14,16; 23,23; [Kebra Nag. 46 b 14]. To this class belongs also JAfP with the Subjunctive ( 89). (7) I n most of the instances, however, cited under (), the (7) subjuncSubjunctive may also be introduced by the conjunction Xiao: conjuncfxlX'V'^'^ Xiao CAhtf- "they besought him that' they might touch" Matt. 14, 36; h+frfSl? * Xiao : " I will not send
ti0D 0

again" Hen. 10,22; JE.fl.AV 1 Xiao s A/}-flAA " J ^ us ^ must not eat" Gen. 3,3; <n>rhA X\0 * PI/A "he promised with an oath to give her" Matt. 14,7; liPflfli* : Xiao :ftAO AHJ&TK" "he charged them to tell no man" Matt. 16, 20; v. also 203. Even after Impersonal Verbs Xiao with the Subjunctive may be employed: JE^JE-Ah tX\ao * -lhrh7"A "it is better for thee that (one member) perish" Matt. 5,29, 30; . / ^ A + J t s X\ao s p,*th fA "it is not desired that (one) should perish" Matt. 18,14; A j E ACDfc ' Xiao t : ^*fl?i "it is not befitting me (i. e. ' I am not worthy') that thou shouldest come" Matt. 8,8; flfll.'lf: A*"fc Xtf with the Subjunctive, "he has power t o " Mark 2, 10. I n the same way we have frj with Xiao and the Subjunctive, Deut. 24,4. Even hUA is connected thus, though very rarely: ao^n s H h A Xiao : fthtl.: thUSO* "Who is able to think his own thoughts?" Hen. 93,11. ) Verbs of Beginning and Ceasing, which in other langua- (8> usage ges are joined with a Participle, are very frequently connected in ^ . Ethiopic by MU, and usually with an Imperfect coming after i t :
t o l d t n a t w 8 s B e g nin a n d

Ceasing.

Mit Kill *

frfDlh : AhAft- "they began pushing one another" Hen. 87,1; 89,72. The same construction is found with fllfllV Hen. 89,15 &c. 183. 3. Finally, just as a Verb may have dependent upon it, besides its proximate Object, other Nouns with the force of a Dative or of other relations, so a verb may be approached by a


3. second

458

183.

^j^te
Object, specifying Direction,
PU

second verb, not as a proximate Object, but as a more remote Object, in order to specify the direction, the purpose or the consequence of the principal action. This is particularly the case with Verbs of
#

conse-

quence of Principal Action:6

Moving, Making, Giving, Constraining, and Occasioning. ( ) ^ Verb, which has to be subordinated, may in these circumstances stand in the Infinitive. The idea of Purpose is
a

n e

.
t h e

SU

thereupon given expression to, either by putting the Infinitive m inflnuite accusative of Direction ( 174): Hfi: h7\H'l . : AA "7d "who hath ears to hear, let him hear" Matt. 11,15; 13, 9, 43; C 0 fl.^ s hft*0* * fl'gft <w ^A1* "be was afraid of his father's household, so as not to come by day" (or "should he come by day") Judges 6,27; T u ^ U h P Ai^t ' ft^K "be not ye slothful to depart and to come" Judges 18,9; or again,which is more usual, by introducing the Infinitive through A: "they shall show signs AftA/h-fr s . . . A*V4-^*JVL so as to lead astray . . . the very elect" Matt, 24, 24; s AA*flGlf "let them serve to lighten" Gen. 1,15; flft/hV : A*V-?.C "we came to put up (for the night)" Gen 43, 21; hhCpo^ : hAAAi* * A M E W ' "bind them in sheaves, to burn them" Matt. 13,30; YxftlO* : Arh*EC "she insisted upon going" Ruth 1,18; Gen. 9,11; 18,2; 37,18: also Gen. 2, 9. (6) in the (b) But much more frequently still, the Verb which has to be wittout subordinated, is added immediately, in the Subjunctive: &,*i(D : conjuncft0>0 "he sent forth servants to call" Matt. 22, 3, 7;
0
Ve

tion.

Josh. 8,2; fl)AMl'/. : K}"lCh ' "and he commissioned me to tell this to thee" Gadla Fere-Mikd'el (ed. T U R A I E I T , 1905), p. 9, 1. 3; aofth i ZAP*? "he came to seek" Matt. 18,11; [H^A * ft/hP ?* "who was travelling about in search of ('to seek')" Chrest. p. 93, 1. 24]; frWh "let him not come down, to take" Matt. 24,17; OCb' &9>a*' "they went up to fight against them" Josh 22,12; [*'i/ }\ : frty^lrao* "he rose to kill them" Kebra Nag. 64 a 15]; OflT? * ft-C "they compelled him to carry" Matt. 27,32; (DlHW A 1 * "they gave him to drink" Matt. 27,34; Gen. 3,12; ^&!Jn9P ' A M l i J i ' X ^ A Y l P "ye have chosen the Lord, to serve him" Josh. 24,22; CoKao :faVtls iHHhAfc "and if thou must of necessity slay me" = ^Xi ^ x i viU Jo ^ ( j ^ j j ' ^ j G. Ad. 89, 3; <Z,AP" ' ffthAA "it (wine) makes it (the body) become bloated" Chrest. p. 41, line 13; A'Prh^ h&W " *VA h "iXOiHduC ' ^Ft* ' h9lth G. A d . 8,8sq.; specially too in
3 3 fJ 1 s 3

 184.

459

the case of verbs of Guarding against: 04J S h/fi/^h* "beware lest ye take" Josh. 6,18. (c) with the Subjunctive is also available, however, in ( < o in the this case, and it is occasionally made use of, although the method ^^
S u b j u n e

'

with

n .

0 0

of connection without, \\ao is more elegant, e. g.\ &Jt(D * Wl'fXQ i - htn* : ftffh* "he sent forth servants, to fetch" Matt. 21,34; Mflt?<n h"" >bCb "he obliged them to go up" Matt. 14,22. The difference between the constructions in (b) and (c) is shown in the following example: h9^h A / h M l A A <D\\ao S ^flCfa s J^AP "bring (it) me (1) to eat (2) that my soul may bless (thee)" Gen. 27, 4. And,speaking generally, the less an indication of purpose is involved in the fundamental idea of the Principal Verb, and the more loosely such purpose is added to it in conception, the more readily is choice made of the looser connection by means of \\ao. 4. Verbs, just like Nouns, are subordinated to Verbs with 4. second the help of Prepositions. The Verb to be subordinated must in J ^ ^ that case take the form of the Substantive-Infinitive, which is subst.-inf.,
: s s 5 !
B S N A T E G

-with the

governed by the Preposition, e. g. VA/3hVi" dh.'i't* * <(.rtlC?TP help of Pre\\J\F < n > - " I repent of my having created them" Gen. 6, 7; ft^ft P ' flAVufl^" (Df\ fr'}f* h& "he perceived not when she lay down nor when she arose" Gen. 19, 33; hhCth-f- fl}fl/fl tf*A* AA*f* "she wearied him with talking the whole night" Judges 16,16; 0*Mr <DAJt "in giving birth" Gen. 35,16; A ^ ^ ^ "to die" ('for dying') Gen. 47, 29 &c. Instead of such a construction, which is not farther distinguished from the subordination of any Noun to a Verb by means of a Preposition ( 179), the action to be subordinated may also be expressed by a finite tense introduced by the Conjunction which corresponds to the preposition concerned, as in VArh a flX*}^ : H*MH? : AA'flh "he repented that he had created man" Gen. 6, 6 (cf. infra 203).
s i t i o n s

I I I . C O M B I N A T I O N OF NOUNS W I T H ONE ANOTHER. 184. The only two possible ways of joining individual (<u The words together are, in general terms, by Co-ordination and Sub- e i t t i o n ! ordination. Even in the department of Verbs, Co-ordination may
B

T b e

Construct state.

take place, but its appearance there (v. the instances cited in 180,1, a, a and 181, ft) is far less common than in the depart-

460

ment of Nouns, in which both methods of Word-connection frequently occur.

1. S U B O R D I N A T I O N O F NOUNS.

The characteristic device for subordinating one Noun to another is,by 144, the Genitive Relation. When this does not suffice, the two Nouns may be referred to one another by the intervention of Prepositions; and with certain classes of Nouns which approximate the Verb, the subordination may be effected even by the Accusative. (a) The Genitive Relation. 1. The first device we meet with, for expressing the Genitive Relation, is the Status Constructus, the Construct State ( 144). A l l Nouns in Ethiopic (Substantives, Adjectives, Infinitives, Numerals) may take the Construct State, with the exception of Pronouns and Proper Names. Other languages may, at least in case of need, admit even of Proper Names in the Constr. State; but Ethiopic has the less need of this, as it possesses other current expedients for indicating the relation of the Genitive. I n like manner all kinds of Nouns are capable of becoming dependent upon a Constr. State, e. g. ^faaotm . fl)A.* "the pains of child-birth" Gen. 35,17; ovtydli (DfcF-^* "the days for her giving birth" Gen. 25, 24; M > A CfrMi -HdbC "the daughters of that land" Gen. 3 4 , 1 ; tf s H h * "the blood of that (man)" Gen. 9 , 6 ; fDA'f' a^h* * ft'J-fc "whose daughter art thou?" Gen. 2 4 , 2 3 ; K*7'flC'fcl> "his servants"; even ^"lI'A * 4*-'*/ * "the battle of the 'at-first'" i. e. "the earlier battle" Judges 20, 39; also Relatives: ft&: H / i ^ l A "the hand of him who oppresses". And the meaning which attaches to this relation is just as wide and manifold as the meaning found in the word-compounding process,in the case of Nouns, in Indo-European languages, (a) Belation (a) I t is most frequently employed to express the Genitive in Possesion, the narrower sense, or the relation of Possession, and Being-possessed, as in 'J'M** : jPJtC "the king of the land"; ftfl-l> "his father". I n such a case, if the word which stands in the Constr. State is the name of a Person or of an Object, the dependent word is always Genitivus subjectivus; but if the first word is an Abstract word, the dependent word may be either Genitivus sub,D

 184.

461

jectivus or objectivus: QCO'fr * "fl?iA meaus either "the fear of the man",i. e. 'the fear which the man experiences', or "the fear with respect to the man"i. e. 'the fear with which the man is regarded'; h^lCIO* "for fear of him" Matt. 14, 26; lb*^ "an offence unto me" Matt. 16,23; tf*V3l stf"A- "judgment on all" Hen. 22,8. Even Adjectives may take suchConstr. State, if they are understood rather in the sense of Substantives: s &CPTf "Pharaoh's men of power" Gen. 50,4; *%.foC) : AV7H.K "the Holy One of God" Mark 1, 24. Allied to the Possessive relation is the relation of the Part to the Whole, as in W jp*( ) : AA'flh "the best part ('the best') of men" Hen. 20,5; *f\% fl>A*P "the first of my children" Gen. 49, 3; and this relation then serves to express the Superlative ( 187). I n the same sense there may be subordinated to a Noun the same Noun in the Genitive, in order to raise the idea concerned to its very highest degree, or to exhibit it in its totality: A'JA*' ^1x9 "to eternity of eternity" (or 'to eternities of eternities', 'in secula seculorum!) i. e. "for all eternity" Hen. 10,12; so too ^(D-Aft : ^fl^Afr Hen. 10,14; \A* * M* "a sea of fire" ('an immense fire', literally 'a fire of fire') Hen. 14, 22 ( ); boo* i boo* ('depth of depth') fiadv pd&og Eccles. 7,24;
f 1 0 s 2

s 0 l store') Lev. 26,10 &c. (&) But farther a Noun Genitive in the Constr. State may in a different fashion be defined by a ^ second Noun: as when, for instance, the first Noun expresses the general notion and is limited by the second, which indicates the particular case: VlC AuP^ftA9 "the city of Jerusalem"; fl } A ' 4-Ah "the feast of Passover"; AA1* * flld* "the Sabbathday"; A0 i AAA "fig-tree"; rhA*6 tf A.rh "apretender of a Messias", "a false Christ" 1 John 2,18; ^Hh* th* "unleavened bread" Judges 6,20. Co-ordination, it is true, may also be made use of for words which stand in this relation to one another ( 189); but yet union by means of the Construct State is likewise of common occurrence. The latter method is even employed,although to be sure but rarely,to connect an Adjective with a Substantive. I n fact the Substantive, by subordinating an Adjective to itself through the assumption of the Construct State, limits its own
L i m i t i o n ! 1 ! p

o l (

( ) [Cf. supra 153 sqq. for DILLMANN'S view of the Constr. St. relation as illustrated in the attachment of Suff. Prons. to the Noun.TR.]
( ) [FLEMMINQ reads only
2

"fail*,

t ? i A * f " XA*t"

lU

^ ^ passage, T E . ]

462

184.

general notion by a particular determination of species. I n meaning, however, a Word-group which is connected in this way, differs from one which is connected by mere co-ordination,just as in German, Grossknig differs in meaning from grosser Knig. Thus we read: f^CO) ' fh4*9 ("sinew of the forbidden") "sinew forbidden" Gen. 32,26, 33; : T 0 - ? "fresh water" Lev. 1 4 , 5 0 52; Numb. 5,17; Deut. 8,15; Old >U.C "foreign city" Judges 19, 12; ft^Ah'h VlUC "strange gods" Gen. 3 5 , 2 ; Josh. 24,14, 23; *M1<: Ont-tR "Hebrew servant" Gen. 39,14 (F); ftfl s hd?< "old father" Gen. 44, 20 (FH); ft^AVl'I* 0A- "other gods", "secondary gods" Josh. 23,16 (as contrasted with Josh. 24,2, 16, 20, where we have QA * ft^Ah^); Lev. 13,37; j P - ^ : tf^C direst, p. 11, 1. 23 sq.; JA s tnOC\C ibid. p. 13, line 1 4 ( ) ; [for a number of other instances v. Kebra Nag., Introd.' p. X V I I I ] . The invariable mode of connecting the Possessives HftP &c. by means of the Construct State of the preceding word belongs properly (e) Genitive also to this section ( 150, b). (c) Again, the dependent word may MateriaTor denote the Material or Origin of the first Noun, or some property origin, attaching to it, and so this Genitive relation is especially employed to replace Descriptive words, i. e. Adjectives, Participles &c, which may be wanting: ;J*(H : bb "an ark of wood" ('wooden'); AjK<. s ?iA*t* "a fiery sword" Gen. 3,24; flftA, s rh4*A dv-frpcoTrog dypoiKog Gen. 16,12; feft"A : HJ&^ "olive-leaf" Gen. 8 , 1 1 ; }<A : Jhj&fD^ "a living soul" Gen. 9,12; A&fl) ' f|jP "men of renown" Gen. 6, 4; 4><|> *YA "vigorous young men" Judges 18, 2; b0(D : tf0H "odoriferous trees" Hen. 24,3; Wd . flh "an idle word" Hen. 49,4. And in particular, to indicate Adjectives, or other conceptional words that are wanting, the words flflA "lord, or master" and fl>A*( ) "son" are made use of,the former in certain combinations, such as flAA fv "generous" (lit. 'master of gifts'); flflA "BRthQ "skilled in writing"; flAA A*S "a creditor", and the latter as an expression for "old" in data of age, as tf)Afts?fl>T ia 't'
8 l i 1 2 ! ! fD

(*) BEZOLD, 'Zeitschr. f. Keilschriftf? I I , p. 316, thinks he has found something similar in Assyrian; [v. also FLEISCHER, 'Zeitschr. f. Ass.' I , p. 428 sq. DELITZSCH, 'Assyr. Gramm.', 122, 2 ] ; v. on the other hand LEHMANN, Zeitschr. f. Keilschriftf. I I , p. 437. ( ) Yet perhaps only in passages where the Ground-text in Hebr. and Greek has this form of expression [or where Q^A ^ a translation of the Arabic ,6 or ^ L ] 2 s

 184.

463

"110 years old" (lit. "son of 110 years') Judges 2,8. (d) Finally, w Geniti the Construct State expresses also many other conceivable deter- ^erDeter minations of condition, as in #0fl) ; aoftyb* "wood for t h e sacrifice" ("sacrificial wood") Gen. 22, 6; and particularly, when the Noun in the Constr. State is nearly related in force to the Verb. Of this class are Participles and Verbal Adjectives, which, on taking the Constr. St., may be more exactly specified in one fashion or other, by means of Nouns following, e. g.: 0fl*P s Of/i "of haughty countenance" (lit. 'arrogant of eye'); p'u^O : A "fl "of insatiable heart" Ps. 100, 7; C*0 ' VP* !*?* ('sound in the faith') 9fch f^P "full of grace"; Crh-4 aoQ* "far from anger" ('slow to anger') Hen. 40, 9; ]VVH "possessed of
0

minations o f

the devil" Mark 3,11; Cbtt 7fl "pierced in the side"; J&fl-AJ fiiH "hard-hearted"; i*VP 0 Hh "victorious", "triumphant"; 44.-ne "near me" Gen. 45,10; fapW ' rh<D t* ' HA'JA? "living an everlasting life" Hen. 15,6; IflC^V " rtA0 "peace-makers" Matt. 5, 9( ). To this class belong, farther, those Infinitives and conceptional words of an Infinitive character, which when in the Constr. St. may subordinate to themselves any Object that is governed in the Accusative by their respective verbs: ^ / j y : AVf" A- htlfr "requital for all the evil" Gen. 50,15; / " A " l * ' tf*A"dominion over all" Hen. 9,5; 4"fcA WPA "to take a life" (lit. 'to kill a soul') Matt. 19, 18; Ml 'flC ' Mi ' tDh9 "to honour father and rnother" Matt. 19,19; fl*gft WIG "to enter into the city" Mark 1,45; Q^di'-K^^^ "to arrive at Ephrath" Gen. 35, 16; Xi<f?i : 0W*C "the being first-born" Gen. 25,32sg.; fD<*& : 7 HK "to go down into Egypt" Gen. 46,3; ao\*' ' 9h\ fe Sir. 18,5. A n entire sentence may also supply the place of the dependent Noun. I n particular, words conveying Notions of Time are frequently connected, in the Constr. St., with an entire sentence, and constitute thus an analogue to those prepositions, which are also used as conjunctions (v. 170). For example: flA'f" flA0"on the second day(of the'they have eaten') after they had eaten" Josh. 5,12; T^H, s g,1(D*fh s ft*fl/h"about the time when the
: o( ; 0 2 8 : s

( ) The addition of a Suffix to the Noun determining the Constr. St. is worthy of notice: thus "fair of face" is not only rendered by but also by

ArhP ' 1f\i

Arh? '

- 9-

i n

Chrest. p. 38, line 2.

464

185.

Buies theule^f

the constr. w St. Relation.

day was dawning" ("at daybreak") Josh. 6,15; * f ODfl 0 *h "at the time when the sun was setting" Mark 1, 32; dtii* i'fl'A A i AG/"> "Pharaoh's birthday" Gen. 40, 20; flflA-f- * *pfl "on the day that they weaned him" Gen. 21,8. 185. Now when words are in this way bound in one group, y means of the Constr. St., it is obvious ( 144) that the dependent d must come immediately after the governing one, seeing that
o r

..

a portion ot the iorce ot the entire relation lies precisely m tne immediate connection of the two words. No other word then can be inserted between any two that stand in the Constr. St.-relation ( ^ Accordingly, if the governing word adopts an additional determination, e. g. an Adjective, this must come before or after the entire group: 0fU2. 0 f t * (D^l or 0 f t : (Df^i : 0OJK-, but not 0 f t : OfiS* (D&'i "a large vineyard"; or, if the governing word is associated with a Possessive which has to be expressed by a Suffix, the Suffix is not attached to the Construct State ( ), like "}<PPh : rh^A, but either it is put at the end of the whole group, as in 'J'Pf s rh^Atl "thy field-apparatus" ('weapons') Gen. 27,3; aop* <Pfl1 : m>JMJ^MH< - "your thank-offering" Josh. 22,27; fl,^ s ft(Wl "thy father's house" Gen. 12,1; QRtfl* : 1(10* "his ('bone of the side') rib" Gen. 2, 22; hAJblf 0- A . * ' Id'Pfctf* "his two chief eunuchs" Gen. 40,2, or the Constr. St.-Pelation is replaced by another mode of denoting the Genitive (v. infra, 186). Farther, it is unusual for one and the same Genitive to be dependent upon two words, in such manner that both should be set in the Constr. St., and the dependent word attached only to the latter of the two.
: 2 D

( ) [Short enclitic words, however, may sometimes be found between a Constr. St. and the word which it governs (v. PRAETORIUS, 'Aethiop. Gr.\ p. 115, where other exceptional appearances are also noticed). R. H. CHARLES, 'Book of Jubilees', 1895, Introd., finds fault with DILLMANN for omitting to note that demonstrative prons., the pronominal adj. Yf*A* d numerals, occasionally intervene between the Constr. St. and its dependent noun. But in some of these instances, if not in all, DILLMANN would probably have had c respect to the Substantive-genesis of Vf*A* & -i l have regarded these words in such circumstances as being themselves governed directly by the immediately preceding Constr. St. TR.]
a n a n <

( ) And yet we read in Numb. 18, 31: "Ml^hO**- ' frfM"^- * H ^ C

2

flbA "your reward for service in the tabernacle of testimony", for which other MSS. have ^-flClfl* - Mfc-fl-f-^ i HW>Cm-A
0

185.

465

"To a tribe and a family in Israel"is not usually rendered: Ml& ' Wthlid i hfl/'/i.A but the dependent word must either be put after each of the words in the Constr. St., like A hi A htl lr*h>&L (DA/hlM ' ftA^/bA; or, if this arrangement seem too prolix, the word must be represented after the second of the pair by a Pron. suff. [as it is in A r a b i c ] : A i ? A TtA^fcA * fl)A A U d * ; or, lastly, the first governing word must stand in the Absolute State: Ml :fflA/h'IfOi ftA^kA Judges 1 8 , 1 9 ; h9^ fid i "lM* * (0*^9,%* i G. Ad. 39, 23; fH:*l fl)^* /+ tith"!^* M. Berh. f. 9 b. Still, exceptions to this rule are met with: v. direst, p. X V [and BEZOLD, 'Zeitschr. f. Keilschriftf? I I , p. 355, N . l ] ( ) . Two Genitives, however, may be dependent on one and the same Constr. St., at least if they are both of the same class, and have the same relation to the governing word, e. g. ft*n IJfl-A-'J ' (D'iqip'ft,? "the mountains of Zebulon and Naphthali" Matt. 4,13; * * (D*lTC Gen. 14,11; ft?A h t A "7 * (D9:C Gen. 24, 7; ^ ^ A : >fflC^AHen. 10,16. In the very same way it is sufficient to set a Preposition once only, before a whole series of words joined together by "and", as e. g. in Gen. 13,14; but it may also be repeated every time, as in Gen. 1 2 , 1 ; 1 3 , 2 ; 27,16; 4 7 , 1 7 ; and the repetition is absolutely necessary, if the word in the Genitive just preceding has been expressed by means of a Suffix, e. g. Ah * (DAHGftil "to thee and to thy seed;" Gen. 24, 7 ( ). A word, dependent on a Constr. St., may itself again stand in the Constr. St., to govern another word, e. g. *f**flfl i\* * *f*tl "the pinnacle of the temple" (lit. 'of the house of the Sanctuary') Matt. 4,5; A ^ s hfHl "the name of thy father" (i. e., 'the name of the father of thee'); and thus, by farther extension, a longer concatenation of Nouns may be produced, bound together by the Constr. St.: tfoffrhc*.: %mi'' HCW* rt"7 Hen. 72,1;
1 s 3 x 8 0 2 s tm a

O Gf. also D. H . MLLER, ZDMG X X I X , p. 117 sqq. State in Minao-Sabaic.

2

on the Construct

( ) LUDOLF correctly asserts, that in Poetry the Constr. St. may even be put after the word dependent upon it: v.,besides ftJP'lDA'fr * flAV, which he adduces as an example,A'flrh'f" p. 36, line 9; p. XVI. 30

* ^AJlVl'b Arfl*P

Ghrest.

7Atl (0*4*4**
!

ibid, p. 147, Str. 3, 1. 3; and cf. ibid.

466

<">AMl*f" h-dfi- i M l W " AfhTMl Josh. 21,1; Aflf' h-lM i f K l r h * *A*fch Ps. 144,50. When a word-group,held together by the Constr. St., and answering to our Compounds in expressing only one single idea, has to enter upon the plural, sometimes the one component is put in the plural, sometimes the other, and sometimes hoth( ):t\C *B 9&G ('beast of the earth') "serpent", forms the plural fo^J. <g,j, . jpjtn; OKa - 10 "rib" ('bone of the side') either 0K" ' M<P^ (Org.) or foxr* " TO5 1W h C A * t n "Church", *W) \lCti-tn or n,i* i t i C A - i t f V * or Mtf+ : ViCA -fc^'Th M rtfr "abbot", M l i or Mlfl> : 9i.?">, rhAfl^F* tfA.rh "false Christs" Matt. 24,24; fatiahfi i Jfl.^-Th "false prophets" Matt. 24,11; 0>A"& ' H"7 "children of harlots" (i. e. of different H"?) Hen. 10,9 &c. I f the dependent word is to be thought of in our languages as furnished with the Definite Article, this determination may be expressed, in accordance with 172, c, by a Suffix attached in advance to the Constr. St. and followed by A, e. g. 9(i\d'P A V 7 H.ft'flrhiC "the mercy of God"; : A /ufA -A "the talk about Jesus" (acc.) Matt. 14,1; \[W$*: tu\\6..: A^O'l* "he removed the covering of the ark" Gen. 8,13. I n this case the dependent word which is introduced by A may even stand before the governing word, or be separated from it by several other words. And when several Genitives are strung together, the A may according to circumstances be repeated before every one, or on the other hand, when no misunderstanding can arise, it may be left out on the second occasion, as e. g. in Gen. 14,1. Now and then also, when the governing word assumes in addition a secondary determination, of an adjective form, Ethiopic goes so far in the freedom of its word-arrangement that the Suffix, referring to the Genitive, is appended to the Adjective instead of to the Substantive: Tf}*f: * AMftfi hSA-A ^hTt "hoc est alterum
2 1

domini Jesu, quod fecit miraculum" John 4,54. I n Ethiopic the Definite Article of other languages is frequently expressed (v. 172, a) by a Suff. Pron. appended to the
(- ) A remarkable arrangement is given in J*A
1 :

RA3W" ' 'tifafi*

(f

?h

n h f * XA?t-1h) Sap. 18,10 A.

()
2

Cf. HOFFMANN, 'Or.

Syr:

p. 254.

[Cf.

farther N O L D E K E , 'Syr.

Gr.'

(English Ed.), p. 85 sq. T R . ]

467

word which is to be determined, that is to say, by a Genitive relation. A l l Adjectives, in particular, when they are employed rather in the sense of Substantives, i. e. when they indicate a definite species of some general class of beings or objects which has been previously mentioned,must be supplemented by a Suffix referring to the Substantive already named; and the Suffix is to be understood here in a partitive sense, e. g.\ "the men of the city surrounded the house, both old and young" OdJ^ao*: (Dlh-fitfl** Gen. 19,4, 11; "and to the second (son) he said" lOAfr Afr*2' JM1> (i. e. "to the second of it", namely 'of the family or pair of sons') Matt. 21, 30(*); and the same usage prevails in the case of Numeral Adjectives ( 191). But in other cases also, whenever a Noun, standing in a partitive or possessive relation to another Noun previously mentioned,is newly introduced into the sentence, the accuracy and nicety of the language demand that this reference be indicated by a Suffix, e. g. "he fled on foot" 7P dh i i* ('with or on his feet') Judges 4,15. I n particular, certain conceptions, which are incomplete when they stand alone and which are dependent for their completion upon others, such as words specifying Place, Time, Measure, Number and Sort, must almost invariably be completed by another conception which they govern by means of the Construct St.; and when this latter conception is not directly combined with them, they assume a Suffix referring to it, e. g.\ 0*S\ : t\9(l fl>-fHh * \& * (DC/hO "walk through the land in the length of it and breadth of it" Gen. 13,17; "until it can no longer be numbered t%9h "fl'H'lF* for multitude" (lit 'for its multitude') Gen. 16,10; "a child, which she had born flC/** ft-fcy in her old age" Gen. 21, 7; v. also Gen. 37,3; " I am small in number" <vhJ?r*M * fl'J*A^f (HI- 'in my number') Gen. 34,30; "until the end" ftfth s *^9 %* Hen. 2,2( ); "such is not the lawful course" hjpfr' h^YD- ai'b Gen. 34, 7; "the place was called in ancient time,so-and-so" Hl"fctf ('in the old time of it') Gen. 28,19, (but also Judges 1,10,11); "on the second day" flA^;
a m s a 2 i

"(it is evening), and the time of it (i. e. for supper) has passed by"
C) Cf. DILLMAKN'S 'Lex:
2

col.

821.

( ) [It is noteworthy that this locution

ftAtl * 't'W^'fc

s e r v e s

t o

express our etc, corresponding to the Arabic S v ^ t ^ J l , e. g. Lit. (ed. BEZOLD in C . A. SWAINSON'S 'Greek Liturgies' ) p. 383, paen.] 30*
1

468

(DM*X * "^A Matt. 14,15 ; "the veil was rent in twain from the top to the bottom" ftJJAdA" KAh i ^th* (lit. 'from the top of it to the bottom of it') Matt. 2 7 , 5 1 ; cf. Gen. 35,8 &c. Accordingly certain words of this sort are constantly furnished with a suffix,
s

v. 1 5 7 , 2 ; 1 6 3 , 2 ; 191.
2. peri-

indicltion
o f t h e

186. 2. The Genitive relation, however, may also be expressed, in accordance with 145, b, as follows. (a) By means of H- M f , ftA- This external marking of

Genitive

the Genitive relation is nearly quite as extensive and manifold, H , in use and significance, as the subordination effected by the X"H*, Xrt.Constr. St.; but it is essentially distinguished from it, as regards the manner of its employment, by the circumstance that with it the words are not tied down to any fixed position. On the contrary the Genitive which is constituted by H answers completely to the Genitive case of other languages; and its position with respect to the word on which it depends is just as free as that of any Genitive in Indo-European tongues. I n fact the effort to attain freedom in the position of words and in the structure of the Sentence appears to be the real procuring cause of the development in Ethiopic of this peculiar denotation of the Genitive. I t is applied with especial frequency in the following cases. (a) When the governing word is a Proper name, which does not admit of a Constr. St., e. g. {%* s Arh>9 * HJ&ih^ "Bethlehem of Judah" Matt. 2 , 5 ; or when it cannot take any special form in the Constr. St., on account of its vowel-ending, e. g. jPAA9 * HhC W l&V* "the parable of the tares of the field" Matt. 1 3 , 3 6 ; or when it stands at the same time in the Accusative, and when accordingly the Construct State cannot be discriminated from the Absolute State, e. g. **ti *tf*A-' WW : Hfl+ * Arh .0 Matt. 2,16. (j8) To avoid too long a chain of Nouns linked together by the Constr. St., or when the governing word has other determinations associated Avith it, from which it must not be separated, e. g. *hHH * > If-flCWl* "the first ordinance of the lights" Hen. 72,2; fldA^ 0 f l Ki* * \f& "in the great day of judgment" Hen. 10,6 ; particularly when the governing word has already another Genitive depending upon i t : Hfl^ft'fc s ' Hdt 5.A ''fCO* "this is my blood of the New Testament" Matt. 2 6 , 2 8 ;
(a)By means
of

t<5Phli* -IK-C "my silver cup" Gen. 44,2; fA<PC i nhffh^A

 186.

469

"his monthly course" Hen. 74,1; hMftJ * H ^ f l A ^ "her widow'sgarments" (lit 'her garments of her widowhood') Gen. 38,14; tf"A i h-flCf ' H-ddhd "MR "all my glory in the land of Egypt" Gen. 45,13; 31, 7; 9f P? Ad *A ' HfcfHl "the altar of Baal belonging to thy father" Judges 6,25; 60 flA*> a Mi* a Afh "by the oak of lamentation" Gen. 35,8; foA rMfAHfl>AJth "thy son's mandrakes" Gen. 30,14. (y) Very frequently, also,to avoid the repetition of the governing word, which in the Construct State relation would be indispensable, or at least desirable. I f in fact several Genitives have to depend upon one and the same word, that word may no doubt be set down in the Constr. St. only once, and yet subordinate to itself more Genitives than one (v. 185); put it is more usual in such a case to prefix H to the second Genitive as well as to the third, and so on, the continuation of the Genitive relation being thereby denoted more clearly, e. g. tfDfll'fl'f* s 0 r h ' ffllf IDCV "the treasuries of the sun and (those) of the moon" Hen. 41,5; hdi\*ii*' (Df!* } i flHH*h "vineyards and oliveyards" Judges 15,5; or the Construct State relation may even be given up altogether, e. g. T A ^ ' H A T 'flJHK*fl<W>"the herdsmen of Lot and of Abram" Gen. 13,7; ft'fl'htf": UM^d : a>Hh"lA "rams and hegoats" (lit 'males of the sheep and of the goats') Gen. 31,10. The possibility of denoting the Genitive in this way is of special value in those cases in which the Genitive is separated, in any fashion, rather far from its governing Noun, e. g. V / ^ f t ' A*fc " WtC s HA-fl? i rh^A'TLA s wnhC.Ud s OtlS 'and he took to him a green rod of poplar and a great rod of the almond-tree" Gen. 30, 37; JPOCh HM.J&A : h9fl h'Wd "a spoil which is better than thy brethren's" Gen. 48, 22 ( in these two instances other tongues would have had to repeatfl*|h<Jand JPUGh); those cases in which the Genitive supplies the place of a Predicate :fl>J&l)tf)3r.i M*tFOT* : H K ? A h K<Xl %G0VT(Xl TrdvTsg TOU &eo0 Hen. 1,8; (D^M : tttro>(\$ (=h0 ^ K f aoUd^) "and his appearance was as that of a blaze of Hghtning" ("his countenance was like lightning", E. 7.) Matt. 28,3; M*** J HhCA-FA i (DlnCMhl > nM\lhl\tk,C "ye are Christ's, and Christ is God's" 1 Cor. 3,23. This H serves the purpose even of rendering the Greek TO when followed by a Genitive: i \\O0 i HflAA H*]hTfl4 "not merely would ye be able to accomplish
i 1
0

o r

470

186.

T7}s evicts" Matt. 21, 21; Ott l i W l'MP*t "render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's" Matt. 2 2 , 2 1 ; ft.^rh,A.: Hft*7H,ft 'flrh.tr J/ft'JflA ' If A'flK "thou considerest not the things that be of God, but those that be of men" Matt. 16.23. (b) As, according to this representation, H expresses also the idea of Hhe or those of"( ), it is very often used in phrases which stand for Descriptive Words that are wanting, or Relative Adjectives and Derivatives of a personal nature, e.g. "Raca! ('ragged one')" Matt. 5 , 2 2 ; Htf"}<CA "spiritual"; tiWC* "golden"; H"7ft h A "middle" (adj.) Judges 1 6 , 2 9 ; H(D'*G "dug or hewn out" Deut. 6,11; WpWi "possessed" or "a possessed person" Matt. 9,32; [cf. also VJi" fl*"flT 0$*Yl "our inner eye" Chrest. p. 49 ult]; ftA hPll* "those possessed with devils" Matt. 4,24; 8,16; HAl^A* "a leper" Matt. 8 , 2 ;ftA: i\9"R "lepers" Matt, 1 0 , 8 ; ftA Oo1 "unjust persons" Hen. 95,7 ( ); ft A * hCA-f A "Christ's people" Mark 9 , 4 1 ; H/MlC "speckled" Gen. 3 1 , 8 ; tifa>t\ A0*S "spotted with white" Gen. 30,40; niHd rh ^* "ash-coloured" Gen. 3 0 , 3 9 ; Hfc?^ : 7<w>A "of camel's hair" Mark 1,6; Hfl^" "of snow" Matt. 28,3 ( ). The Collectives < w > " J ^ A "soul", "spirit" and t**p "flesh", i f they are employed in the sense of "living beings" (^Si, nn) and "mortal beings" (1b>3), never become Personal words till H has been prefixed, e. g.: W * A * fl* 'i&h Gen. 7 , 2 2 ; tip ? Gen. 6 , 1 2 , 1 7 ; 7 , 2 1 ; Matt. 2 4 , 2 2 ; also n&9 John 1,13 &c. This particle H besides is used readily to bring Demonstrative, Interrogative and Relative Pronouns conveniently into the Genitive. On rare occasions it stands with words of separation in the sense of an Ablative, e. g. fD^.Aftttf- ' HH 1i,hU <* " "he will separate them from one another" Matt. 25,32 ( 159, g). (b) Much less frequently is the preposition A>which expresses reference in a general way , employed to denote the Genitive relation. I t is used for the most part, when the Genitive may
x ! ! 2 3 7D

( ) Like the Arabic ^3, followed by the Genitive, ( ) [For these two words FLEMMING'S reading substitutes
3 2

00^^.

TR.]

( ) Many Ethiopic Proper names are also formed in the same way:

H/**AA. H ^CS 9
5

&c. [Cf. NOLDEKE, 'Beitr. z. sem. Sprachw.', p. 104]. fl'^hft.A f

r

In the names of Feasts, however, this H is often left out:

IllfUlft.A

"

o n

Michael's (day)".

471

also be conceived of as a Dative, e. g. in \\oo s ^*YhV- * fl**A*ft s tihtirXl * "that ye may be children of your Father" Matt. 5,45; h < 0 ^ : hth& f^Cb^ ATA1J "they shall be one flock of one shepherd" John 10,16; hTrtytfl* : Ohh'l? ' A9*C "ye are the salt of the earth" Matt. 5,13; CDf-fc^A a A M l ' (D^M*' MM*,d Gen. 42,6; Mfllfc: AWA- "lord of all" Gen. 45,8; 3 9 , 1 ; 4 0 , 1 ; Sap. 14,1 A ; 1 4 , 1 5 ; o r when the Genitive expresses merely a reference to some thing or person: "ThhS^C*!* A^A Jfr'ft "the sign of Jacob" ('which points to him') Gen. 30,42; '7*^h'flfttn>-s &AC "no trace of them is found" Hen. 48, 9 (where A " * is chosen instead of YvdG ' order that ftAG might remain indefinite); Aftfl* ' Atf*V5l "the severity of the judgment" Hen. 68,2; or to indicate the originating cause: *TD0H : AAV hCtt, - 2 9 , 2 ( ) ; fl-f: : <*0H "the odour of i t " Hen. 25,6; or even to put in the Genitive a Pronoun, upon which the emphasis rests: JA'fcfc frhfl>"C "and even its water is flowing" Hen. 26, 3 ( ). A peculiar use occurs of A after ftA in the sense of "the (pi.) of" (v. supra a, o): fflhC%h** " AP-rh^A *fflXAVL l\6.dtlO>'? i "and the disciples of John and also those of the Pharisees" Mark 2,18. Similarly A is found besides in use to carry on the Genitive relation through farther members of a sentence, if the Genitive was expressed in the first member by means of a Suffix: AO fl)A0fli2VL "his heart and that of his great ones" Ex. 9,35; 10,1.
00 s 0 0 00 m : H e n J : 1 r :

(c) To express the Genitive relation in a Partitive sense, 7x9*! ( 164, No. 3) is also employed, or the Preposition,compounded with ftjF,"h9(D'tl't - Thus "one of them" is hiU*}. ' h9Mo^'\ "which of the two?" ao*p : ft^hAfclf 0'] "one of ns" hjP&V Gen. 3,22; Josh. 8,37; and so, particularly, in the case of numerical data, e. g. Matt. 25,2; 26,47; 22,28; fttf: fr}: %V(D'6 i0O'i' : ti9(h'(D'fc s AT /K "in the six hundred-and-first year of Noah's life" Gen. 8,13;also in combinations like ftA h ^ o ^ A f " : rh^*Th "certain of the scribes" ('some who were of the scribes') Matt. 9, 3; ft A- : flJ'^tf- .' : h<P*Ml'l' hA "these are (those of) the stars which" &c. Hen. 21,6.
m t s

B y

t 0

e x p r e s s

Genitive,

(*) [In Hen. 2 9 , 2 FLEMMING reads Hen.

2 6 , 3 , fl-fc instead of

A*VJ without the prep., and in

A"fcjr

TR.]

472

187.

(b) Subordination through the Accusative or through Prepositions. (ft) subthrough t L through Preps.-.and^ertaia Descriptive Words governing
0

187. These two kinds of Subordination are characteristic of the Verb, and they can properly occur in the department of -Nouns,
o n

l y when a Noun approximates the Verb in force and

meaning. 1* Infinitives may govern a Noun in the Accusative. First f f course, the Gerund may do so; for, having already a
0

aI

\.

Suffix bound up with it in the sense of Subject, it does not permit of being connected with its Obiect by means of the Constr. St.,
O J
, n

Accusative.

J
,

c g. "H^ififo* s rhtf^ ' <DftflU < * "leaving the ship and their father" ('when they left the ship &c.') Matt. 4 , 2 2 ; I D h ^ t f . : Ox?* "and seeing him" ('and when he had seen him') John 2 1 , 2 1 ; rt<*H s ftft.lh "stretching forth his hand" Matt. 8,3. SubstantiveInfinitives for the most part, it is true, take their Object to themselves after the manner of Nouns, i. e. by means of the Constr. St. relation, e. g. Matt. 2 2 , 2 9 ; 8 , 1 2 ; Mark 2, 7; 3 , 4 ; Gen. 8 , 2 1 ; 11,8 (v. supra 184); but they may take it also in the Accusative, e. g. Deut. 5 , 2 2 ; Matt. 10,28; 7 , 1 1 ; 2 7 , 1 5 ; *l^*h * (D9 AhS"h s W"A" Sap. 12,16 (old version); and now and then too an abstract word, of Infinitive form, follows their lead in this proceeding, e. g. in flfti: : iw'J*7/*f : fl"?^^ "his entering into the kingdom of heaven" Matt. 19,23. But Accusatives may be found in dependence on certain Adjectives even, and on Participial Descriptive-words, just as on a Verb, although upon the whole this is not of frequent occurrence. Active Participles, and words which signify the Agent, nearly always connect themselves with a Noun through the Constr. St. relation, e. g. 0&JD*(l i A (not 0&jBh{\ : W fl) "a physician of souls",and have thus already become complete Nouns ( ). On the other hand certain A d jectives, from Verbs which govern an Accusative, also take in their turn a Noun in the Accusative, particularly Adjectives of Fulness and Want: 9fcK} hdKf * " M l of bones" Matt. 2 3 , 2 7 ; J F ' A V r : n\9H "full of poison" Jas. 3 , 8 ; Gen. 14,10; j h&.'P'b "laden with spices" Gen. 37,25 ; even ft'VH hypixsvoq may be connected in this way: 'h'lhH'i Wild * "holding iron
, x 0
1

0) V. however Sir. 43,33:

ftftOD i tf-fto ,

KMjxHdbC

Mrf-

473

fetters" Hen. 5 6 1 ( ) . Farther, any attributive word may take to itself an Adverbial accusative ( 174): V^fA $hrk 1% "she is fair of face" Gen. 26,7; fR'Axl : fp[Ta*- "fat in their flesh" Gen. 4 1 , 2 ; and in the same way any Adverb (in the Accusative) may be attached to it, whether it precedes or follows: fldA ' "exceedingly rich" Gen. 1 3 , 2 ; hTh Crh-* a -flrhC * "from a very far country" Josh. 9, 7 &c. 2. Conceptional and Descriptive words, nearly allied to the 2. ConcepVerb, are more frequently supplemented or specifically determined Descriptive by a Noun governed by an intervening Preposition. Thus we say: > fl4A AMtf "revenge for their life" Hen. 2 2 , 1 1 ; t\96 *flrhT a T y * " H* "false witness" Matt. 15,19; Arh s ilhTr* h< "mourning * for his mother" Gen. 24,67; flM* ftH- A ^ ^ i * ^ C T h "the *y ^
;

Word8

aOM

go

veiling

going in through a needle's eye" Matt. 19,24; also O -A'ft: T'bVTr preposition. 7t0rt 'fl?i "the children of the watchmen among men" (inasmuch as D"A"" is originally a Passive Participle, 136, 1) Hen. 1 0 , 9 ; Vfl^fc s J fl^fl: J t * ^ "fie has thrown me down with fall upon fall" Job 16,14 &c. Of course these closer determinations are more usually annexed by means of the Relative pronoun. Besides, an Infinitive may at once take to itself any noun, with the help of the Preposition which its own verb governs; and it is even possible to have such combinations as (DHft'JflA -Mtf A h ^m -ii flA.d K?d*fr Art-nft "but to eat without having washed the hands defileth not a man" Matt. 15,20. Nouns may also be joined by means of Prepositions to Adjectives and Participle-like words, just as well as to any verb ( ); and they are often joined to Passive Participles by means of fl "with", as in I M F ' AAA* 1 M* "built with flames ('tongues') of fire" Hen. 14,15 ( ); RWi s fttf-fr : TlWl "filled (pi.) with all wisdom" Rom. 1 5 , 1 4 ; Afl'T flfflL'^ "overlaid with gold" Ex. 2 8 , 2 0 ; *}H"V 1 n &0 "sprinkled with blood" Rev. 1 9 , 1 3 ; to other Participles and Adjectives (with intransitive conceptions) in conformity with the verb in each case, as in s hl9h "clear of" Matt.
8 2 3

O
2

[FLEMMING

reads here: fJMW

' OotywQ*

(DWWd

'

( ) I n this case alternating partly with the connection which is described in 184, (d). ( ) [Cy. FLEMMING'S reading: XfcR 1 flAA? f* M*3

474

27,24; Gen. 24, 8; JPfrft s faPJ "full of" Dent. 6,11; s ft 9**1 "empty of"; flAA "rich in" Gen. 13,2; U&h ' VFh "different from" Hen. 40,2; flMft-A ' ft or AAA "relying upon"; A4- 9ht\ "equal to"; 4{,fl : A "near (one)" Gen. 14,13; or with *}ft 23,13; A f t . ^ with flJ-ftl' or A ^ ' J T A "bordering upon"; avPi\ AAA "steward of" Gen. 24,2. Adjectives also, and even Substantives, may be supplemented by A with the Infinitive, for the purpose of giving a special direction to a general idea: V**i$, AflAA ' <Di*7JR * tll'.h?- "good to eat and fair to look upon" Gen. 2,9; Hen. 24,5; R&ao^ : MfxC "a darkness to be beheld" Hen. 22,2; 21,8; 24,5. 3. Preposi3. I n particular, Prepositions are also employed in intensifypioyed'in d comparing Qualitative conceptions (v. 179, 2); and in intensifying this process Intransitive Verbs, which express qualities, are equi! , l m a n

and

valent to Descriptive Words, inasmuch as (v. 202) periphrases, ^on'ctp^ contrived by the Relative and a finite Verb, are, in the absence tions. of participles and adjectives, used as Adjectives; or the Verb even is itself frequently set down, when an Adjective might have been expected to stand as Predicate. To express the degrees of comparison, of other languages, a simple Adjective or Verb is often quite sufficient in Ethiopic, if it is placed in an emphatic position, or if the class of objects, among which some one is specially distinguished, is farther specially mentioned and introduced by ft, ftfl>*A1" &c, e. g.\ /]hft.ft 'F>(ltn>P>:fltfD'>'7/* -Th"he shall be called the least in the kingdom" Matt. 5,19; : -ThMlf POfl. fl *" ili* hd'fr "which commandment is great ('the greatest') in the law?" Matt. 22,36; ftl lh*h ' flfl.1" " ftfl'P " I am the least of my family" Judges 6,15; HfOfl. i "IhhHH'T" "the greater commandments" Matt. 23,23: : (Dje.'J "the better wine" John 2,10; Gen. 27,15; and indeed some conceptional words in themselves include the degree of comparison, like *^A "to be better"; aoWW ^ "the most" ('the largest portion') Ps. 77,35; aow'i^ "the best" ('the best part ) Numb. 31,26. When that, with which anything is compared, is expressly mentioned, it may be subordinated in the Accusative,in the case of certain Verbs,in accordance with 176, 3, d, and in the Genitive (Partitive Genitive, 184) with Adjectives, e.g.:Ofl.P"<n> "the great one of them", i. e. "their greatest one"; jKKrA'i" ' i ^ A " } "the Holy of Holies", i. e. "the most Holy (place)". More usually, however, the Preposition
comparing
6 , : : 0 1 7 8

475

ftjFVwhich indicates 'a part of a whole' and also 'preference' is associated with the Verbs and Adjectives concerned, e. g.: fllfl/fl : h9h "wiser than"; tf/JftA ' h9 "he is smaller than"; -Iff rt ' h9 "he is better than"; : ^ f t ^ C : h9i,f "Tamar is more righteous than I " Gen. 3 8 , 2 6 ; or fl-Chir" h9Mti* "more blessed than women", i. e. "the most blessed one of women" Luke 1,28. This phraseology for purposes of comparison may be used also with transitive Verbs, in which case ftJPJ means "more than": ^ d * ' f l ' U&C ttf*h& ' ft0"V 'tf*A<"-* fe* "Jacob loved Joseph ('in preference to') more than all his (other) sons" Gen. 37, 3. Even entire clauses may be compared with each other in this way (v. infra, 204). ftjP'J farther is frequently preceded by an intensive Adverb, such as *Ytf> "very"; " 4 & "exceedingly", "much more", e. g. : ' 4 - K9&kt OlC "it shall be much more tolerable for them (lit 'for it', i. e. 'the land &c.') than for that city" Matt. 10,15; Gen. 19, 9; 29, 30; Judges 2, 19; Matt. 1 8 , 1 3 ; 1 1 , 9 ; or,when the particular conception has to be presented in its greatest intensity,W"A" is added after ft 9h, e. g.: ^m-fl-fl : ftjf> : Vf*A- : ft^.*g^ "it is more subtle than all the other beasts" Gen. 3 , 1 ; Mark 4 , 3 1 ; Hen. 8,1; Gen. 34,19: but yet Vf*A* may be wanting, as in ^A't 'T" : ft0V : fth.'h "the least evil" Chrest p. 45, line 5. }\9h is itself a Preposition, meaning "before"; and,should it happen that a different Preposition is required to subordinate to the Verb the first member of the comparison, i. e. the word compared, this latter preposition is omitted after ftjFV and before the second member of the comparison, i. e. before the word with which the first is compared: as in *&J>lh\ i dKi-tM i <L4*& i khri'Wi (D+hO'U "he re joices over it more than over the ninety and nine" (lit. 'he rejoices over it exceedingly, before the ninety and nine') Matt. 1 8 , 1 3 ; cf. also ft<w ft.- : Kty\\a: ' "hTfiAx&V (where also ftjP'HXrh^^ might have appeared, in accordance with 186, a, y) "unless your righteousness is greater than that of the scribes" Matt. 5,20. Ethiopic, meanwhile, is so flexible that a Preposition of that nature may also appear after ft0fr, e. g. in *'%tl * A h ftlMl s ft9V: AftAft s -flftA. "it is better that I give (her) to thee than to another man" Gen. 29, 19, where two clauses are compared together, and where f%9i is a short expression for ftjP^V s

476

188.

2. CO-ORDINATION O F NOUNS,

188. I n Co-ordination (Apposition) three stages may be an dconcord distinguished, according to the degree of the closeness or looseness of substan- f ^ connection between the words.
r

i. Co-

n e

tives and

Adjectives, as a rule, are joined to the Noun by CoInd of sut- ordination. The same statement holds good for words resembling stantires Adjectives, viz. Demonstrative Pronouns and Numerals, the Adjectives. Relative Pronoun also associating itself in a certain sense with them. Numerals and the Relative will be specially dealt with farther on (v. 191 and 201 sq.). Demonstrative Pronouns are associated with the Noun exactly like Adjectives, except for the peculiarity, which they possess in contrast with the latter, of being usually placed before the Noun, as in >i"fc s miyip ^ Mark 3, 24; A t f > ' M : i fllC GUm. 1,8; OhM *\V0 18,8; cf. 50,11; J -flJiA. 2 4 , 6 5 ; t OhM- ' "the door of that house" Judges 19, 27; -flCyVUYl htflr "the light of that fire" Hen. 71, 2. When they are placed after the Noun, they are to be regarded rather as less closely co-ordinate, e. g.: dhtii*" Did h^jf([ d,f*'i H"t "into the city here of the Jebusites" Judges 19,11. Several words also which were originally Substantives (Conceptional or Personal words), being used however as Adjectives, are classed with the Adjectives, as in f[V9 WlUh "a fat ox" Judges 6,28; Aft" d /Hh ' fflH ? " a perverse and adulterous race" Matt. 16,4 (H"? is a noun, meaning "whore"); fih.'i'fr' th^V 9AK ' ih$*Tr Hl9 ^VSKSV hpa/cog Kpi&av Ezek. 1 3 , 1 9 ; other examples are found in Numb. 2 0 , 1 7 ; 2 1 , 2 2 ; Deut. 8 , 1 5 ; 9 , 1 ; farther, in particular,frf-A"all", "every"; *\S\T "a small quantity" and "few"; ttl-tH- "a small thing" and "little" Jas. 3 , 5 ; Gen. 1 9 , 2 0 ; Judges 4,19; Hen. 63, 6; faty "measure" and "moderate (in quantity)", e. g. A4 * 7P "a little water" Gen. 2 4 , 1 7 ; finally, even jP'J'JhVL, FttX "anything", and occasionally "what?" (v. 198). These words are set in apposition to the Noun; for the subordination of the Adjective to the Substantive, or of the Substantive to the Adjective, is upon the whole of rare occurrence, though it is certainly permissible, in accordance with 184. The union by co-ordination is the closest possible; and in it the Adjective, as being the adventitious and less essential conception, must be regulated by the Noun, and must take Gender, Number and Case from the Noun.
Demonstra-

1.

t10M

 188.

477

The Rule of Concord in Case is observed without exception. Only, when one Noun governs another by means of the Construct State, the Adjective does not conform to such Constr. St. of the governing Noun, but is added rather as a Descriptive Word in coordination with the entire Word-group which is fashioned by the Constr. St. (v. 185). If, however, the Noun stands in the Accusative, the Adjective must conform to it in that respect; and it is only in the case noted in 143, ad fin., that deviations are now and then met with, e. g.\ 7flC ^fl'T* * M* ' 66 * fflG'fld^ Gen. 6,14. On the other hand the remaining two Rules of Concord, which concern Gender and Number, although they hold good as general principles, suffer considerable limitation, to meet the peculiar fluctuations which are permitted in Ethiopic in the Gender and Number of Nouns. Since it is only actual Names of Persons that are invariably distinguished definitely as Masculine or Feminine ( 130), while almost all other words may be regarded indifferently as Masculine or as Feminine,the Adjective is of necessity Masculine only in the case of Names of Persons of the Masculine gender, and of necessity Feminine only in the case of like Names of Persons of the Feminine gender; while, in the case of all other Nouns, the Adjective is subject to the same fluctuations in gender that the usage of the language is exposed to as regards the gender of the Noun. Thus one says indeed jP^TC W^S^t Mark 4,8, but also J P J ^ C * l *"7; H-t s 9tlb> Mark 4,13; <D-&/f s Gen. 37, 2; * nt^tD-t : Oflf Judges 15,18; 0)t}6?;'/. : frfc s qft-W* Mark 4,19; (D'h* * t^tld.C* Mark 4,24; OlVt <PCOiMark 4,41; m-]:. 6%(\1'] T M * QCV* G. Ad. 38,15sg.; ^OL hi- i Oi\? Gen. 20,9; CtlO* Oi% Hen. 8, 2 (*); ^VC* ' th -5.fi Mark 1, 27; hP*h ' ft'fli Ofl.P and in the immediate context a>h<fl Josh. 24, 26; [0ai * -fK-U K. N. 25 b 6] &c.
1 !

Then, certainly, Personal Words in the Plural,and particularly those Plurals of theirs, which have been formed by outer terminations, are definitely either masculine or feminine; and, farther, official designations, which have been formed by means of at ( 133, a), are mostly regarded as being of the Masculine gender and in the Plural, and they are therefore generally associated with
( ) [FLBMMING
L

here adopts the variant

Gfl'J'J s 0flj&.

TE.]

478

188.

an Adjective in the Plural masculine, or feminine. But all other Plurals, particularly those of inner formation (Collective forms), may again be conceived of as compact collective notions, and therefore as Singulars, and either masculine or feminine, following in fact the same fluctuation which prevails in the Gender of the Singular. I n these cases a Plural may just as readily be associated with an Adjective in the Singular masculine or feminine, as with an Adjective in the Plural m. or f. (v. 135). We meet with fllf:*? : ;VpV> Mark 2, 15; hJMHl *i\Yk'} Mark 3,20; h(\C i (DhOhlC i Hen. 1,6; 0 f l j + s (D^h-t M-t Hen. 5,4; 00) : - n H ^ Hen. 32,3; h A M " : h(hlC Mark 4, 36;but also with -\*h9^'i ' 0\\?\ <Dfl(Nh> Hen. 36,4;fttfw-'j'f:: Hen. 67,13; KAflft l^jMh Gen. 24, 53; -flff-i : hxH-a Gen. 17,4; m - f t * : ?W Hen. 13,10; *t ' -ftA-je. Matt. 9,17; : -m<\ Ps. 92, 6; r i d ^ ' I t may be given as a general observation, that any Plural, whatever be its form, may be joined to an Adjective in the Plural in that gender which belongs to the word in the Singular,but also that any Plural, or even Plural of Plurals ( 141) may be conceived of too as a Singular,in which case it usually takes to itself the Adjective in the Singular and in the readiest gender, the Masculine, although it may also be in the Feminine. But, on the other hand, words which are Singular in form,if they are either essentially the expression of collective notions, or even have merely a collective meaning in the particular passages concerned, are joined to the Plural of the Adjective, and that too in the Gender which properly belongs to the individual components of the collective idea: -ftH-;V> : fl-flfc Mark 4 , 1 ; A l M l : ffW Gen. 14,5; Deut. 9,2; JHlrh'T* 0fU**ih "great splendours" ('great magnificence') Hen. 65, 12; AHJK.tf87i ' "Thfl^Afc" ' C'lb^'i "for distant future generations" Hen. 1, 2( ); and even 0(B f<f* : OflJK.'f* Hen. 85, 6 ; cf. also 0fl"Th : 11^9 with 0fl .f : Hao 1 Esr. 2, 49. An Adjective which admits of an inner plural form, generally assumes it when the Noun, with which it is co-ordinated, has also the Collective form: OWC^ ' 0fl "h Gen. 1,21; ^h9C Ofl > Josh. 24,17 ; ft^H-fl 0 f l ^ a>lMl Josh. 23,9; hftOf*
t 1 a m

(*) [Instead of the last two words here, FLEMMING reads Fern. Sing, and does not, like DILLMANN, repeat *]|"lO"AA
,

TR

C/h]Hf"> the -1

 188.
0

479

4'A9 'lh Josh. 24, 2; and sometimes even when this condition is not present, e. g. HCft'l' HflJR'> Gen. 1,16. tf*A" is somewhat peculiar in its mode of junction with Nouns; cf. supra 157, 2. I t may stand alone, without being joined to any other Noun, with the meaning "everyone", e. g. Hen. 7,1; or "everything", e.g. Hen. 1,7; or "all (pi)", e.g. Gen. 16,12; 45,1; Hen. 1,5. When it is associated with a Noun in the Fern. Sing., it should take the form tf*A, e. g. Vf*A * H* T&L Gen. 26,4; but, seeing that it is only loosely joined to the Noun, it often keeps its own readiest gender, even with a Feminine Noun, e. g. Yf*A* i Ki-t Josh. 21,43; Yf*A* i Wll' hi* O K * Gen. 46,27. With Nouns in the Plural, it may take the Plural form: Yf*A* " * K&h ' h U V ^ * Matt, 2,4; tf-A-tf"- ' r T h ^ ' T J Mark 3,10; V f A - ? ' M ^ A ^ Mark 4, 32; Vf-A"" *' * T A * > Gen. 29,3; but it may also remain in the Sing. Masc: tf*A* I ' W } Josh. 22,16; Vf*A- '
1 ,<n> 1 0

Josh. 22, 5; tfA- : fcA "all, who" Josh. 23,14; WA Matt, 2,16; tf*A : 60(D Gen. 2, 9; YfA hUCh* Mark 4,31: and, as by its very nature it indicates plurality, the Noun which is associated with it does not altogether need to take the plural, : but may sometimes be treated as a Collective: Vf*A Pti Itilttjh "all the words (Acc.) of the Lord" Ex. 4, 28; yf*A- * 0G Josh. 21, 42 &c. The position of the Adjective with reference to the principal Noun is perfectly free. I n this respect Ethiopic ranks with the most unrestrained of Indo-European languages. I t is observable, no doubt, that in uniform and level discourse the Adjective is oftener placed after the Substantive than before i t ^ ) . But whenever any special emphasis is laid upon the Adjective, or when the distribution of the other Word-groups, or the euphony of the whole sentence, renders it desirable, the Adjective'may equally well precede the Noun. With difficulty even does the Constr. St. relation introduce a restriction, to the extent of preventing an Adjective, which belongs to a Noun in the Constr. St., from intervening between the Constr. St. and the Genitive which depends upon i t , although an Adjective, belonging to the Genitive, usually falls back in such a case. On the other hand, after any Preposition' the
!

(*) Only, ftY< "exterior" is nearly always put first: v. Lex. , col. 1295.
1

DILLMANN'B

480

189.

Adjective may be put before the Substantive; and Demonstrative Pronouns, as well as if"A"? almost always precede their Substantive, even when it is dependent upon a Construct State. So too the Adjective may be separated from its Substantive by several other words, as by Relative clauses, or by intervening Adverbial or other auxiliary qualifications, e. g. OhM'' A h^h^TfU '7 'fl "into a pit of these" ('into one of these pits') Gen. 37,20,22; 26,1;
8

amhth-t i rhA .n i and Airt -nft is. 7 , 2 2 coia Vers.) or by Verbs &c, e. g. 164)1* A'flP PtKth- C(\u\\ agrum cordis mei mundent immundum" Encomia Synaxarii, Sen. 1 Enc. When more than one Adjective is connected with a Substantive, it is even more elegant and euphonious to separate them by the Substantive itself, or by other words, as infll-flftA.* f&ty fl*"?i * mKM* Gen. 6, 9; 0[\? /"J^P 0>M|-P Gen. 12,17; 749 frA'W'Th < D 0 f l . Gen. 15,12; Alffl Oftf : fMOhT, : h-il CVJP : Ofarf^l Gen. 18,18. 2. Substau 189. 2. A Substantive may also attract other Substantives, ^oTdinTtion" co-ordination, in order to attain thereby a more exact deterwith Sub- mination. No doubt, when two Substantives are related to one another as Genus and Species, the General and the Particular, recourse also may be had in many cases to the process of Subordination ( 184); thus, for instance, flflfr-ft'h s CiP*9 s 0 1 G (Gen. 18,26) might also run [\(D'h'V il)l* {iR9. But if the explanatory word is itself in turn determined by another,as in APA Mil fcJM* Matt. 21, 5; -flfcA.: fldA ' Matt. 21,33; flAJ* * fbi** fiP*9 Gen. 14, 2, then co-ordination is the only course possible. As regards the position of the words, either the General or the Particular may be put first, according as it is desired to emphasise the one or the other: 0D&hYi: H*TftA Hen. 32,2; ^ A h J l $%-h <-4-^A Hen. 32, 6; Ohfc& > 0<t "giant sons" Hen. 15,3; HfcA,* i C<& Gen. 25,21; d 4 " f t * : Cih."? Gen. 22, 24: or 0 A : -flCVI Hen. 72, 2; 1^9 : Matt. 18, 9; fvh
; u
m

* > A : tn><1>9& Matt. 14,2; 0 0 H A i Ol\> 14-A Mark 4,37; W \l "ftfiA. an\<h6\, frJt* Hen. 15,1. I n this co-ordinate relation a Concrete even may appear alongside of an Abstract, as "flftrt, W'Vih "a man, a strangeness", i. e. "a stranger" Judges 19,17( ). I f a Pronoun has to be interpreted in this way by
6

( ) Ex. 20,8 is also to be explained by this relation of Apposition:

189.

481

a Noun co-ordinated with it, the Pronoun stands first. Agreement in Case is called for also in the forms of co-ordination described here, as e. g. in *fl?t A s TrtW Matt. 18,23; but yet this relation is somewhat less binding here, than that which is described in 188; and a Noun in apposition with an Accusative may therefore (v. 143, ad fin.) remain without any mark of the Accusative, as in hQ't'G s hlW.h'UtluC h0A*lh Matt. 22,37 ( ). When such a Substantivegroup, formed by Apposition, is subordinated to a preposition, the preposition is not, as a rule, repeated before the word in apposition. When the group,in accordance with 172, c, is introduced by a Suffix relating to it which is followed by A? then the A is usually set down once only, provided that in the group the more specific and particular word comes first, as in (DliP* s AA,""J fltf"4- Gen. 10,15; fl ,A * AA<f-flfcA.* Gen. 12,11; but if the more general and less specific term precedes the other, A is often repeated before the word in apposition:AV7H?i? Ah'flCyj Gen. 24,27,36; the same thing occurs, i f Vf"A* comes last, in loose co-ordination: A K ^ ^ A . O - AW*A"<^ Gen. 24,20; Afrflft * TAHh AVf*A" " Gen. 43, 32. Finally, when a Substantive or an Adjective is placed in apposition to a Suffix Pronoun, it is introduced by A) e- g> A/l" AHJt4* "to me, the righteous one"; t\9h
l 8 : 10 ! tf : s

Afl/h'fc r P Judges 17,3; Ps. 50,5: but yet we have also <Dh.y> : fl/hl;* Matt. 4,10. 3. Both the Subject and the Object (nearer or more remote) of a 3. Apposisentence may have new determinations added thereto, in quite loose and t h e c T s e free co-ordination. These always admit of being resolved into full sen"
! ; ,
1 0 i n

of t h e S u b

> ject or the

fences, and properly are nothing but abbreviations of such sentences. (a) When a word, appearing in this more remote form of apposition, is a simple Substantive, it may be placed in any position of the sentence, in the same Case as the noun to which it r e f e r s : * ^ : ? C"l i M - M i l l W ? i < w A M l "who will go up for us as leader against the Canaanites?" Judges 1,1; f U'fl ' i%H ' HW^'i ("that) he might give his life a ransom for many" Matt. 20,28; &a\G0 + 0 * 1 - * (Ohlhi' "he created them, male and female" Gen. 5, 2; 23,16; 38,18. When the word
0 s m

Object of a ^when"
t h e W o r d

in Apposition is a
s

^ f

*MfhC* 6Mr ' AlfH* *hKg:$2* "remember the Sabbath-day, it holy", ftjf "4'Z^* being an amending Apposition to AA"f"x

to keep

( ) [if this is not an old form of the Acc.; cf. Kebra Nag. p. X V I %.]. 31

482

in apposition refers to the Subject, and admits of being amplified by such a form as "so that he (or it) may be this or that",then it may even take the Accusative, in accordance with 177,5: OG"l AV * 0tltt "who shall go up for us as leader?" Judges 20,18; |Cfl i\*P''t ^OUh-f-o * iXevaovrai
8 8 8 0 8

iv avXXoyia/x(a djuapr^judTdv atir&v faiXoi Sap. 4,20; [tDft ^H :

8

(i) when
in
A P

isan

Adjective,

"AC ^"flfHW" "and while she was living as a widow" Kebra Nag. p. 101, Note 11 (JP'dfl'fl'r* being a form not given in D.'s 'Lex?:cf. K. N, Introd. p. X X X I ) ] . Cf. also DILLMANN'S Lex.\ col. 652 sq. on word *}flGj and Chrest. p. X V I . (5) When the word in Apposition is an Adjective, it is usually supplemented,inasmuch as it occupies a comparatively indeP dent position in the sentence,by a Suff. Pron. referring to the Noun to which the Adjective is in apposition, and having the force noticed in 156. Thus we find: jP^-r* f\*too\\ao*: u p d4-*J3iVl " ('what makes you stand here, idling ones that you are?') "why stand ye here idle?" Matt. 20,6; MllP tvltP* fa$9* "they took the king alive" Josh. 8,23 ; fl^P : h9dJOh hfc "thou wouldest have sent me away empty" Gen. 31,42; and similarly in the case of Verbs of Perception (v. infra); or when the word in apposition belongs to the Subject: * ^ r t h "Hl ?i dit fifth " i t is better for thee to enter lame &c." Matt. 18,8; [ft*JH * Ufc*\t*'iah90 "while I was asleep" Kebra Nag. Q3SL 14 sq.]; (Bfh&t "^YHf* "and he went away grieved" Mark 10, 22( ); Hfl-A"^ hhShC) JMJCC Gen. 49,13; fcA ' * - ^ | f m- J&ftflK-: -}Pf: r h * A Judges 18,11; hTffl S ^ A ^ P frCfr 0>6^f hit! h\ M l U H M b G Buth 1,21; 3,17 {cf. 156). But yet the Suffix is now and then considered u n n e c e s s a r y : 9*ot!lt\. "HiVtX P*PU "thy king cometh to thee meek" Matt. 21,5; OtiOh* A-flK XlSM t^Tt Gen. 13, 7; Kw> : ftfl^f- s "when I shall drink it new" Matt. 26,29; h/*"lCh * i / "whatl en tf0 8 8 : 8 J 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 u

ever fish thou catchest first ('as the first')" Matt. 17,27; dJIP-f* hlltt. "to let him go free" Deut. 15,18. (c) But such an Apposition-form may be constituted even by
( ) V . analogous forms in Assyrian, HAUPT, 'Sum. Fam.-Ges.\
N. 2 ; [but on the other side, DELITZSCH, 'Assgr.
2 1 1

p. 3 6

Gramme

8 0 , 6 , a Note.]

( ) [Gf. LUDOLP'S 'Lex. in voce, col. 173, and note his exceedingly ingenious explanation of the appearance of the word in this particular passage, T E . ]

483

an entire clause, or at least by some verbal conception, which w When should properly be expressed as a Participle, but which is expressed ciaufe^in in another way, viz. by the finite Verb,seeing that Ethiopic is P P no longer capable of forming all the Participles. The Appositionform may, first, be attached as an abbreviated circumstantial clause, e. g. (Dtiifl 1ft"P ^(tii* tt.RC " I looked, with face downwardturned" Hen. 14,25; or,secondly, it may be co-ordinated as an Imperfect by most intimate union, in accordance with 181, b, 8: X-*i s : b"h9%h ?h9C "he has become as one of us, knowing" Gen. 3,22; " I will show thee all my visions . . . fl4 "fch Kl *7C relating (them) in thy presence" Hen. 83,1 ; "there were in that place about 3000 Philistines beholding him" JudA s l t i o n

ges 16,27; thirdly, the Apposition-form may be rendered by KiH "while" and the finite verb, instead of by the Participle: 4*Cflh *^flU* KiH ' ^%VC "they came to him while he was teaching" Matt. 2 1 , 2 3 ; flCrh- KiH f l / ^ i w "they wearied themselves searching for" Gen. 19,11; aoftfa KiH ' 9ltoC9* "they came tempting him" Matt. 16,1; f rhOK- s Kill >W^ "they go blowing (trumpets)" Josh. 6 , 9 ; &Jipa*~ KiH a\9&* OhKP "he sent them away while he yet lived" Gen. 25, 6; 46, 30; KiH FhrlT'h iao^ s A , f - : fc<DA* "shall I , being a hundred years old, beget (a child)?" Gen. 17,17. When the Predicate in the clause which has KiH is an Adjective, even Copula and Subject may then be wanting, the clause being more closely bound to the Noun of the Principal clause which i t has to qualify: HJ8.< 8 8 KiH KJt4* (D*%C "who, being righteous and good, dies" Hen. 8 1 , 4 ; and i f the noun which i t has to qualify stands in the Accusative, the Predicate of the KiH-clause may even be in the Accusative: ftw>: KlMfl*!" KiH ' 9(bt\. " i f she have a miscarriage with a child fully formed" Ex. 21,23. Fourthly, the Apposition may be brought out by the turn of expression described in 181, b, a.
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
yD

190. (d) Verbs of Perceiving, Declaring to be anything, (*> co-ordiand Turning into anything deserve also special attention here( ). p ^ c _ According to Ethiopic notions, that which anything is declared as ^ being, or is turned into, or is perceived as being, should properly, Object, after if it is to be expressed by a verb, be co-ordinated, in the form of ^*^l?ng,
1
a e

0bje

e d

_________ O Cf. also 203 with the whole of this Section.

Declaring Ac.

484

190.

a Participle, with the immediate Object. Since, however, such a participle cannot always be formed, other modes of expression are 1. As an available at need. 1. The Verbal conception, which has to indicate of the this Predicate-Object of the principal Verb, is co-ordinated,as participle. Accusative of the Participle, with the immediate Object of the Verb (v. 177,4, g, and on the Passive construction, 1 7 7 , 5 ) : __tl'flYl- K"l* " I have found thee righteous" Gen. 7 , 1 ; CUh *Tr*P*_f_ A "7 'h'fc'h'f" " I saw the gates of heaven open" Hen. 3 4 , 2 ; (DdlMlP ' A M H , ^ - i (D*&*p i OWtf9X?C 9(D t "and they found their lord fallen on the ground, dead" Judges 3, 25 ; Gen. 32,2. Such a Participle may at the same time take the Suffix, by 189, 3, b: <%H,: ChSk C*WHl0* K0O~Y\\\ "when saw we thee hungry,or thirsty?" &c. Matt. 25,37, 38,44; fl)C_tP" *Hl-Hh+ffall "and when Jesus saw him grieved" Luke 18,24: and in the Passive construction: 09 s 1$JP'i +_Ihfl*lh T A A ^ " "Gideon's fleece was found bedewed" (Org.
a n 8 8 8 8 8 mr l 8 8 8 8

2. As an Mar.). of thfToe- f
r m

mud, with or -without

2. The Verbal expression of the Apposition takes also the t h Gerund (Infinitive) in the Accusative, with Suffix (cf. g i 8 i ^ a)C): a^bll s GJuVh i 1 kthh "when saw we thee a
0 I > e 8 m t
?

prisoner?" Matt. 2 5 , 4 4 ; #1(1 : A ^ A t l h th^9* "he found his servant recovered" Matt. 8,13; and even without a Suffix: ao^s ^Nl/V-fc "whom say ye that I am?" Matt. 16,15; h9^ <*Ar& M l t f t ' f l r f i . C h_jV rhTMl &juo\6pjaav &eov vidv eivcxi Xaov Sap. 1 8 , 1 3 ; also 1 Kings 3 , 2 1 ; and continued by a finite verb, in:AX<w* Chjfl h A f l ' "Wl V 7 H > m^Amh 7 C fll_i'fl"}Chrest. p. 42, line 9 sq. These Accusatives with the I n finitive in the strict sense are to be found almost solely with Verbs 3. As a of Perceiving and Declaring. 3. Very often the Participle is ciTuTe pcriphrastically expressed b y - V I M with the finite Verb:- M introduced ft*}|f <f>a>.0D- "he saw others standing" Matt. 2 0 , 3 ; ^ Gen. 2 6 , 8 ; ^hfl" ** KiH ltZ^'0 ^ "he found them sleeping" and eqii- Matt. 2 6 , 4 0 ; fll^A hAft A ? ^ KM f l C j f ! "and another ton I heard praising" Hen. 40,5; or in Passive construction: participle. - | - ^ ^ } f | "|- ft-j|| Q . <D-ft'l- : T i 0 7 "she was found with child" Matt. 1,18. Even when Adjectives and participles are procurable we come upon this VJH-form of expression, as in CKP" 1}9 Kill A * S W s s tf>h* "Ham saw him naked" Gen. 9,22. The imsuffix,
8

v c n c e

(*) [ V . also PRAETORIUB' ' Aether amm. , 79. T E . ]

 190.

- -

485

mediate Object of the principal Verb is then frequently attracted, quite like a Subject, to the hlrU- clause, but still it is set before it in most cases, as in Chjf : ftAjrV}^? s flOP W*A " 2 TVl hliH JK-Aft-^ "my eyes saw there all sinners driven away" Hen. 41,2. 4. The Predicate-Object is sometimes expressed by 4. A S MI an independent clause, and this is directly subordinated, without dentcuuJe the aid of any conjunction, to the Verb of Perceiving. I n this Butordinacase the immediate Object may either stand in the Accusative, to the verb dependent on the principal Verb, or, on the other hand, it may f ^ * be attracted to the dependent clause as Subject; but yet, even in out any the latter case, it is usually left to occupy its position between the t i ^ Principal Verb and the one which is subordinated (Attraction). Thus we find:Chfc (txfi ?OG*l "they saw smoke ascending (lit. 'it was ascending')" Josh. 8,20; A 7dh? < s flA " I heard them say" Gen. 3 7 , 1 7 ; &fcJP : AO>AA Mb \\oofa$0h : 9>a1\W "they shall see the Son of Man coming" Matt. 24, 30; Hen. 32,3; Ch?* ' HHI'f "he saw them sad" ('he saw them, they were sad) Gen. 40, 6; ChSV A^ft-fc 9C i * * ? ^ fty "we saw that land to be very good" ('it is very good') Judges 1 8 , 9 ; ChMP AMltK'flrh.C W1C -5.0 tfO'MK- " I saw the Lord sitting upon his throne" Is. 6,1, as quoted in Gadla Ydred, 5,29 sq.;or with Attraction: Ch? *fl?irt ^*p(0*9 "he saw ('a man was standing') a man standing" Josh. 5,13; Ch+Xfr' A ^ J E . jMM 'lr " I saw . . . . the heavens destroyed" Hen. 83,3; Mark 1,10; also in the following position: (D?f> Iff-A**" " fti*** C M b "and lo, all of them I saw bound" Hen. 90,23. 5. Farther, the independent Subordinate clause may, after Verbs 5. A of Perceiving and Saying, be subordinated to the principal Verb by X\ao "that" or "as". Here also the immediate Object of the principal verb may be attracted to the dependent clause, but the delicacy of the language demands that in such a case there shall be attached to the principal verb a Suffix Pronoun referring to that Object: hhrtM X\ao : -<-1fl -AhA, M + O " I b u w (thee) that thou art an hard man" Matt. 25,24, 26; ftpbP OA" O^Ai" fl.^ "they heard (of him) that he was in the house" Mark 2 , 1 ; Hen. 6 5 , 1 ; 8 3 , 4 ; Gen. 6 , 2 , 1 2 ; fl>Afl GW?
8 otf0 8 8 8 P T g C< Mtraction 8 8 II , ,K 8 00 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 0 8 8 o r d i n a t e d 8 8 8

( ) One might also haye said, it is

true:tih9G

R'rYl

flJiA. Hi*,
8

hh9&h

is more elegant.

486

iPff,* t h*fc s btfc* "and when he saw that rest was good" Gen. 49,15. I f the Predicate in the subordinate clause is not a Verb, but an Adjective (or Substantive), and the immediate Object is not attracted to the Subordinate clause,the copula maybe left out in the latter: CKf* (MCYt X\ao "he saw e.predicate-the light ('that good') that it was good'^ ) Gen. 1,4, 8. 6. After expressed Verbs of Causing or Making, the Predicate-Object, when it has ve ^-^tl * ^ P ^ by a finite Verb, is put in the Subjunctive, in subjunc- accordance with 183, b, c, with or without Xiao: thus either ^wulout 'hke $,&,ti$ : -"hftfi*- noiet atrip maa^ai Matt. 5,32; fro* : h hao, " 7 i : aoi&h *. $3.rt jJ-tfofiA?* ' AwAh * PiY\ after verbs Chrest. p. 91, line 16; or like ft&Afll : Xiao s ftf/ft : ftjpfch s
1 e e x r e s s e

of Causing or Making

fc/hfl-fl Gen. 17, 6; ^hao-} : Xiao s ffcp : +7fl^ : t^htiCXl Job 39,12; Ps. 26,19; Rom. 15,14; Hebr. 6,9. I n a singular fashion this subordination by means of the Subjunctive is met with even after Verbs of Saying (which Mood serves in this case to express Possibility, like the Optative in other languages): ao\ s J&*flA?' ' >Xl'7r iiith "whom say the people of him, that he is?" Matt. 16,13. A D D E N D U M : U N I O N OP NUMERALS A N D NOUNS.

union of 191. For the sake of clearness the joining of Numerals Tnd to Nouns falls to be dealt with here, rather than in the foregoing
a 8
8

Nouns: ft 1 4 1. Cardinal Numbers.

& 1

8 8 >

1. The Cardinal Numbers, with the exception of h(h%., are originally abstract Substantives, and accordingly should take to themselves the numbered object in the Genitive. Those forms of the Numerals, in fact, which are not increased by the Pronominal Suffix ii, are capable of taking the Constr. State. We find *7JP tl-t d&Oh "five men" Gen. 47,2; f | + s JPft* : -flftfl. (Acc.) Judges 20, 39; i rh-t Hhfi. Judges 20,45; h A h , * : K G^ltSi Judges 11,37; but this mode of connection is very seldom adopted" ( ). Only, w hen the Object numbered is a Personal Pro2 T

( ) Instead of which we might have had

2

Ch* * flCVJ Xkf V*

:

( ) Of. farther, however, Numb. 35,14; 2 Peter 2, 5; [and v. Kebra Nag. Introd., p. X V I I I sq.].

487

noun, it is invariably attached as a Suffix to one or other of the Cardinal forms of the Numerals 310 mentioned above, and always by means of the Binding-vowel l in accordance with 155,3, a, as these numerals are Plural notions: iPAft"tlf< " "the three of them" and "the three"; fcGfld"fclf 0*, flflD^-fclf<n-&c.(*). But if a word has to be subordinated by way of a partitive Genitive, like "three of those", it is, in the case of all numerals without exception, attached by means of the preposition t\9% accordance with 186, c: Eh9Ov C'ti ' <&f\&Mfi "one of the Twelve" Matt. 26,47; ftA*fc: ft^Vlfc ' KA^foA "one of the tribes of Israel" Gen. 49,16 &c. The usual mode of connecting the numbered Object with the numeral is, for all numbers, that of co-ordination ( 188); and it has been already pointed out in 158, that for that very reason the pronominal u is commonly attached to the Numerals 110. They are connected with the Noun entirely like other Adjectives, or, to be more exact,like W"A* ( 188). When the Noun is in the Accusative, they likewise take the Accusative so far as they can form such a Case. ft Aft. s 9hi * Josh. 7,21; ftAA * HftA, Judges 1,4; 8,4; OwCir- (Dftao'i't * \ao^ 18 years" Josh. 24,33 ( L X X ) ; Judges 3,14; Luke 13,16; Matt. 18,28; ftC ddi's TM kao^ Gen. 15,13; OwCi' flMflAM* * tao^ Gen. 14,4. However, the Fern. Numeral in u, like Of* ^*, according to 158, no longer admits of an Accusative: we have therefore J|ft: -VPIlD Hen. 72,3; A 'fl0. -'l-flfl'I' Matt. 15,36; 0/**4-: V*7A Matt. 25,1; and occasionally the Masc.-forms, 0i*G*fc &c follow the same course. Even the plural forms of jPft"lh and ftA? may be connected with the Object numbered, just like Adjectives; for example, in the Nominative: ft ft AT- * A i ^ f t A ^ * Khhift ^AhVl^ Hen. 71,13 ( ). Since definite plurality is already expressed by the Numeral, the Object numbered is most frequently connected with it in the Singular, e. g. %f(D& i ^ao^ Gen. 8, 13; i*AA "AW (Acc.) Matt. 26, 15. Yet the Plural may also be used (just as with Yl>A 188): ^ A Gen. 18,24 sqq.\ OwO* fl^AA* hV
, m , m 1 3 2 s

( ) Cf. also ^9/iWao* 4 Kings 1,14. ( ) [Instead of this reading of DILLMANN'S, FLEMMING gives
x 2

ftftA^

'

flJ^ftA^

tfoAMl^-

TE

488

Josh. 21,4; 9K* hdld Matt. 18,12; Josh. 24,32; 0iP C* AJhAJb* ooWiHr Gen. 25,16, or hCHKO* (m the Gospels) ; ftA * <*h AP Matt. 18,24; A H O * M<*> Matt. 22,25. A Pronoun with a Numeral takes the plural, for the reason that, as a rule, it precedes it ( 188): hAVli^ * ^9h* Gen. 14,9; frfc s u>A A * Gen. 9,19; ftAVh 5 I f f Hen. 40,3; OKA'}* *1 A J b ^ K H U Matt. 22,40. Adjectives also regularly take the Plural, even when the Substantive remains Singular: (\-f\0* V *^* *(ttS'i (&& (I'&'i Gen. 41, 57; or A'flO'J- ftAM o^Vtl* Matt. 12,45. But we may also have h A h i * : ^ 9 A ^ V l A / h Matt. 25,16; l | A h* fiHO* J# i" Gen. 29,30,in both of which cases, besides, U&h* has to be closely drawn to the numeral: "another 'five' talents".
3 3 8 8
3 3

<

As regards the Gender of Numerals we have a recurrence of the fluctuations sketched in 188. We say, for instance, both Ot*r m i P A A * hWbC Josh. 21, 6, 33 or Oft( D f t A f c . YxO MI & C Josh. 21, 7, 18, 19, 22, 24, 26, 29, 32, 38, and 0>C* * (Dwtitl* hWbC Josh. 21,4 &c. The Numeral is regularly put before the Object numbered. I t is only on special grounds that it may come after it, e. g. Gen. 32, 15, 16; 49, 28; 1 Kings 25, 5. Every Number is farther capable of standing by itself in a sentence, without being joined to any numbered Object, e. g. OiPQ* 9h* "a thousand" (Ace.) Josh. 23,10. I f the object numbered is a Measure, Weight, or the like, it is for the most part connected with the Numeral by the preposition flC ), e. g. r ?nft <Hh s "its length (shall be) 300 cubits" {lit. 'in cubits') Gen. 6,15; Hen. 7,2; John 21,8; fljfr*: J^AflH* *
3 3
3

wc* Mhiv"' ntihfrii**-: owe* at^hoi- 9K* nrt *A

3 3 3 3

Judges 8,26. Thus also we find: dttljrj ti*l<*' &0 tld*G** A.<P "and the barley in it amounted to the measure of an ephah" Ruth 2,17. The Numeral-forms, described in 159, b, which are employed to enumerate Days and Months, may also indeed be connected, as Substantives, with the object numbered, by means of the Constr. St., as in Aft"0 6ti* Ex. 7, 25; but usually they take the numbered object in apposition to themselves, just like the
3 D 3

Cf. EWALD, 'ffebr. Spr.'

p. 689.

191.

489

other Numerals (v. Examples, 159, b). Where they stand independently for the "so-and-so (day)", they are generally supplemented by a Suffix referring to Day or Month, as in Gen. 8,14; Lev. 23,6; Numb. 29,12; Gen. 7,11; 8,4. 2. The Numeral Adjectives (Ordinals), must, like all other 2. Ordinal adjectives, take the Case (and Gender) of the Noun to which they are joined: f U W l d ^ 0 > A J t Gen. 15,16; f H A A f r * A A ^ Gen. 22,4. On some few occasions only the Numeral Adjective takes the Constr. St. and makes the Noun dependent upon i t : flA J^-f" s AA^h "on the following day" Josh. 10, 32: this occurs oftener in denoting Fractional numbers ( 159,/"). When the object enumerated is not expressly mentioned along with the Numeral Adjective, and when the latter has thus more of a Substantive character, like "the third", then it must, in accordance with 185, ad fin., be completed by a Suffix referring to the omitted Noun: (Dh^lb : 1 <D ?AfrVl *ftA h A-flO fclf tf- "likewise the second also and the third, unto the seventh ('the seven')" Matt. 22,26; fllhAft^VL "and the second (commandment)" Matt. 22, 39; Ruth 1, 4; Xiao t h A f t ^ " "like the other" Matt. 12,13; h d t f . ' fltflA* * ^1* Matt. 24,40 ; I M A A ^ "on the third (day)" Luke 2,46; f l A k ^ "on the following day" Matt. 27,62; so too, always: hih$. : 9tlA h A K - "with one another'^ ). Again, the Numeral Adjective sometimes attaches to itself a Suffix with a possessive force referring to the principal Noun in the sentence: "and she said to Ruth: h 'toH* * J l A h " H i . the other (lit. 'thine other') has gone home; (do thou also return)" Ruth 1,15; A * : Faitf * 1 Wl* "the last kindness is more excellent still than the first (lit. 'thy first')" Ruth 3,10; ? i > : " / A A * " ' ?*9* MH Wiih-X "behold, to-day is the third (lit. 'their third' i. e. 'day') that they have been attending upon me" Mark 8, 2; "because thou saidst, ' I hate her', (DU'dXlP A i l A h h I then gave (her) to another" (lit. 'thine other', i. e. 'another than thou') Judges 15,2; "the youngest is with his father 0 ) J ] A h A ' T M * but the other ('to him') is dead" Gen. 42,13;
th N u m b e r B !

(*) But yet "one another" is frequently expressed in Ethiopic, and in Semitic generally, by the repetition of the Noun itself, as in ftfl*} 1 ^ f l s ft-fTJ "one stone upon another" Matt. 24, 2; ao^fy^ : }\0O&.fy, Gen. 32, 17 &e.

490

32, 20; "the same beast flJPfoi*: OhM* is the eighth ('to them')" Eev. 17,11.Farther, when it is said of any one that he is doing something 'for the so-and-so time', this may be expressed by the Numeral Adjective, placed in apposition to the acting Subject, and supplemented by a Suffix referring to that Subject ( 189,3,6): "thou smitest me </U" **f A f t h HTfU now f the third time" Numb. 22,28; 24,10; "he has defrauded me (D^U* >|7<n* s p-JP even to-day for the second time" Gen. 27, 36. But yet we may also say, more simply: Oi^tb "JAft UTr* Mtt PMrA&i\ "and lo, thou art mocking me now for the third time" Judges 16, 15; Numb. 14,22; 22,32.
th 8 8 r 8 8 8 8 8

The Cardinal Number is often used for the Ordinal, or Numeral Adjective, not only in the case of the higher numbers, which have no Adjective forms,but also in the case of the lower ones, e.g. flfwfW: "M^* "in the first gate" Hen. 72,25; Wp^t
8

P"A, * ft^h* ' fflOV'C'U 'iff* * "and Joseph died in the hun1

dred-and-tenth year" Gen. 50,26; 16,16; 17,1,24. Particularly when hours (of the day) are numbered, the Ethiopians prefer to employ the cardinal forms: 1$, w'Aft rt'i'h "about the third hour" Matt. 20, 3, 5,6; 27,45 (yet v. fl+OTtf" M* Judges 7,19 [and cf. Test. Ad. (ed. BEZOLD, in 'Oriental. Studien , 1906,) p. 899sgg.]), just as one may also say fl'Jtfo^ s fc? "in the five hundredth year" Hen. 60,1.
8 8 8 1

B. STRUCTURE OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

192. Having shown how the chief members of the Sentence, viz., the Subject and the Predicate,may be extended into larger groups of words, we proceed to deal with these members themselves, and with the combining of them into a Sentence. 1. The Subject. Every Sentence, which is not imperfect, must contain a Subject, i. e. a theme (whether person, thing, idea, fact, or relation), of which something is predicated. Such Subject is usually a Substantive (it may also be an Infinitive, e. g. Matt. 15, 20; 17, 4; 1 Cor. 9,15), or a Pronoun representing a Substantive^); but it may also be an Adjective if it is invested
(*) This may even be wanting, and in that case it must be supplied from the sense,cf. e. g. Tobit 10,12;

hfyfl/, : ;f**h7h s htl0

h9

J&ftHtA I If 0*>rtl cc&roi vvv yoveig aov efoiv.

491

with the force of a Substantive, or even an Adverb, when through the stimulus of speech the Adverb is raised to the position of a Noun-Substantive, as, for instance, p*J in Mark 8, 2. A n entire sentence even may take the place of Subject, particularly a Relative or a Conditional Sentence, e. g. f MlA2l H^h'flVb I "?A "it is enough for me that I have found favour" Gen. 33,15; Si^f fhUVhV" tiili Trfodh't "does it give thee no concern that ('when') we are perishing?" Mark 4,38 , just as in other languages. As, according to 101, the finite Verb invariably contains the Person, enclosed along with the assertion, every Sentence which is expressed by means of a finite verb is properly furnished already with its Subject, even w hen the latter is not distinctly mentioned. And yet that designation of the Subject which is contained in the Verb is very defective, if the Verb is in the third person, because the pronoun contained in the Verb merely points to some Subject, either a person, a thing or an idea; and thus it is left undetermined what the Subject is which is indicated in this way. I n by far the greater number of sentences the Subject is therefore expressly introduced by name, or at least the context makes it clear, who or what is meant, in each particular case, by the Person which is inherent in the Verb. There are, however, sentences in which a verb in the third person stands quite by itself, neither having a Subject expressly mentioned, nor requiring a Subject to be supplied from the context. These cases fall now to be specially described.
8 8 0 8 8 T

(a) There is an indefinite mode of expression, in which the ( < o inspeaker does not distinctly mention the Subject of an action, e v e n though it is a living being,a person,because he either does p* " not know that being or does not desire to mention it, being more concerned with the Action (Assertion) than with the person acting. I n this case when the Ethiopians did not wish to put A'flft 'fl?iA "people" or "one" directly, for the undefined person, they employed mostly the third person Masc. PL: flft*A P AC -fl.^ "and they told Rebecca" Gen. 27,42; ft.^.+Jt^ (MA "they do not give first" Gen. 29,26; 31,26; Hen. 14,190; 22,3; 31,3;
e ion o r < 8 8

ModeofBs>

Q) [FLEMMING, however, reads here (DftJ&lflA ChX could. not look ('at it', i. e. 'at the fire')", as translating the Greek KCX.) OVK elvva&yiv 1 8 ihelv,instead of DILLMANN'S Otv^j&flfc CKP"*? " ^ people could not look at it", TR-1
a n

W a n d

492

() impor-

of EX pression

Judges 16,2 &c.; and at rare times the third person Masc. Sing., e. g. Xiao s j&ft/^Ch "that he (one) bind thee" Hen. 13,1. (ly Then there is an Impersonal mode of expression, which is made use of when the speaker is concerned merely with the p ai tion, and not with the person or thing of which he predicates,and therefore puts the predication in the third person Sing. Masc, without explaining whom or what he means by the pronoun which is inherent in the verb. We employ in our own tongue the impersonal " i t " in such cases. Many impersonal verbs of this kind occur in Ethiopic, and always in the third pers. Sing. Masculine (not Feminine): J&WJj "it will rain" Matt. 16,3; wftf "it is drawing towards evening" Matt. 16, 2; X*h r h ^ f "it has become evening-red" Matt. 16,2; M l A " i t amounts to"; X*} "it is permitted" and "it is sufficient'^ ) Deut. 3,26; JRRfl*fl "it is confining" &c. There are even impersonal clauses, in which no finite verb is contained at all, like W(i(i s Arh4?4&- "and when it was about the time of her setting out" Judges 1,14. When such impersonal clauses take the Infinitive form, they show the Suffix of the third person Sing. Masc. as Subject (v. 181, b, a, ad fin.), e. g. (Dao'} d,* ' h ^ T "and when it was midnight" Ruth 3,8. Finally, a feebly personal mode of expression is very frequently employed, in which a verb makes its appearance at first indeed in a form seemingly impersonal, but forthwith receives a certain substitute for the missing Subject, supplied in a clause of its own. Such a substitutionary clause would, in English or German, take the form of an Infinitive with "to", or be introduced by "that", "if" or some other Conjunction. I n particular we find employed in this way:foVand HOXih "it is permitted"; Jlfr "it is enough"; aoQ*(p* "it is necessary"; "it is suitable or becoming" (with Acc. 'for any one'); $>l/Vb "it is right"; 4* A A "it is easy"; >h>f "it pleases" Josh. 9,23; (1 <M "it is profitable"; fj\ ft i'it is better"; "&Jr or t*?JE, "it is good"; hXiti "it is enough"; rtVflO "it is customary" (G-. Ad.); ^^9 (with Acc.) "it falls first to" ('any one') Ruth 4,4; JfttfftA and ^fl^C/i. "it seems"; OAffl "it is about to happen" (with a Subjunctive following); and
re ca 10 s 1

( ) On the other hand the Ethiopians employ always with a personal reference, for our "it goes, or fares in such and such a way with me", e. g. TtlOO i XlODH s fiXltD-l "if it will fare so with me" Gen. 25,22.

493

others (*). I t has already been pointed out how such verbs take to themselves the clause representing the Subject, sometimes in the form of the Accusative of the Infinitive ( 182, a, a) or the Nominative of the Infinitive (ibid.), sometimes as a Subjunctive in immediate subordination ( 182, b, j3) or connected by means of Xiao ( 182, b, y). They may also introduce such representative of the Subject in some other fashion, as, for instance, in h *Xb'}ll s A& fl s dh.'i't ' tD'h'i' ' Wi "let it not seem grievous in thy sight because of the lad" Gen. 21, 12; or with "hiiao, e. g. Ah* * ' hil" "let it be enough for you, that" Numb. 1 6 , 3 ; or through H, e. g. A.fchAll> HWMlfc 9*? "is it not enough for thee that thou hast taken my husband from me?" Gen. 3 0 , 1 5 ; 3 3 , 1 5 . To such semi-personal sentences belongs also:fl)A07 lh iil ' A.i" hth' "and what then shall it avail me that I live?" Gen. 2 7 , 4 6 . But to this class of phrases belong quite specially the very frequently used words (1 "there is or are" and ftAP "there is or are not" (or fli: and ftAOi), 1 6 7 , 1 , 6 ; 1 7 6 , h. I n distinction from (1 "he has" ( 176,7^) the (I, which calls for description here, regularly takes to itself in the Nominative the word which in the sense of a Subject completes its meaning: I H W X U - ' h A f l ' T l A * ^ "before him there is no ceasing" ( ) Hen. 3 9 , 1 1 ; 4 9 , 2 ; 5 8 , 3 : this is always the case, when it is used directly for "there is", "there is not". When, on the other hand, (1 has rather the force of "one finds" or "one meets with", it may take its Subject also in the Accusative (cf. 1 7 6 , 7 ) : ( i s ihfy'P'i "there are eunuchs" Matt. 1 9 , 1 2 ;flf:: ^fl,i : *>\b <D?ihAfc "we have both straw and provender" Gen. 24, 2 5 ; 4 2 , 1 &c. This form, (1 or } i A 0 > has become so common that it is often used even to introduce a question, either alone, e. g. in Judges 4 , 2 0 , or along with an interrogative, e. g. in fl>- . Opftjb * M "am I his keeper?" Gen. 4 , 9 , where it is the prop of the interrogative (v. also 198): or it is employed with H or Xiao following, in the sense of"it is the case that. ." :
m 10 0 ; s 2

( ) To this class belong turns of expression like

11 1 2

Yip a\$?

"cur ridere earn fecit? ; cf. DILLMANN'S 'Lex. col. 188, and 4 Esr. 9,39 (Laur. 40). ( ) Here and there, a Personal Suffix in the sense of a Dative is met with, instead of the neutral 5 in Hen.
41,2. [IYEMMING

(1 and ft AO,
s

e. g. in h

a>*P^9 * ftAfl" "?

0

literally"and standing is not in them", i. e. "there is no standing for them" reads here ID+^JtfD

AO" *-

TE

494

A K ^ f l * Hfl>A"h "should it be the case that thou beget children" Gen. 4 8 , 6 ; "haofi : Xiao sftJ : J t l ^ " i f in later times it happen . ." Josh. 2 2 , 2 8 ; Gen. 42,38; or a periphrasis is constructed out of it and a relative following, to indicate the idea of "something", "some", "a few" ( 173): we even have fl s "sometimes"^) Matt. 1 7 , 1 5 ; and repeated = "rnodomodo". Lastly, fl)ftV is often used impersonally, like the Hebrew ^rp.l and ,Tni, with the force of "and it came to pass",to which introductory phrase it is better to attach what came to pass, without the <D than with i t : ffllnV : flft-fc s dh* flXMi. Gen. 2 6 , 3 2 ; 2 7 , 1 ; 4 1 , 1 ; Hen. 52, 7 (where the Indie. J&hflK? appears); d)ft} : flfl (DdK* s (Dao }^* i/Aoi : Ohli* XlCt Gren. 38,27; or even by Xiao and the Subjunctive: mX*h ' 1x9^^CM Xl0 ' ^ ^ h f l ^ <W >f)P Hen. 71,1. passive (c) When the Subject which performs the action is supprestion ~ ^ ? the Passive construction is frequently made use of instead of the Active, and then the Object of the action becomes the grammatical Subject. This Passive construction is pretty common in Ethiopic, e. g. ifl>AJ?-ti*"fc 9 "there were born to him
0
UC s e (

forty sons" Judges 12, 14; Kfr-fraO' : txfx&p } : f-fljP0 "the prayer of the righteous ones was heard" Hen. 47,4; Xiao : ^ftA s A ^ "that Leah is (was) hated" Gen. 29, 31; hF^U^ti hXl s Xioofl : I H " M M "in olden times it was not so done" Matt. 1 9 , 8 ; Hen. 4 8 , 2 ; 5 0 , 2 ; 57,2. And yet the Passive construction, found in other languages, is frequently replaced by the indefinite mode of expression in the Active (v. supra a): iDJ&fUAP' * Ah *fl^9 /ecu $pp&y TCQ "Appadju Gen. 1 5 , 1 3 ; J E ^ ^ A ? * diro-d-avircc Judges 6, 30 &c. A Passive verb may also be used in an impersonal or feebly personal way (v. supra &), e. g. \"ft\)h "it is said" Luke 4 , 1 2 ; J R l V . + J t "it is required"; JK.-'HlUA "it is possible"; 'ttCtxh "it is impossible". I n the case of such verbs the clause which has to serve as Subject, is annexed to them by the same turns of phrase as in the case of other feebly personal verbs, e. g. (Dft A O.HJ&^htfA J & M H h h9ttl "nothing can be concealed from thee" Hen. 9, 5. Now, seeing that a Passive Verb in the 3 pers. Sing. Masc, used in a feebly personal sense, expresses
r d

O [Py. similar phrases of Indefiniteness in Greek and Latin with hn(v) and est; e. g. tarn/ 5re, est ubi &c. T B . ]

193.

495

rd

exactly as much as an Active Verb in the 3 pers. PI. Masc, used indefinitely (e. g. M1UA and 'flA* "they say"), and farther, seeing that other feebly personal verbs may take to themselves a supplementary form in the Accusative, by way of Subject ( 182, a, a), it is not a matter of astonishment that in the Passive form of expression in Ethiopic the Object of an action,instead of being in the Nominative as grammatical Subject,may even be in the Accusative( ), 6- g. i ii9? s Afl * h.F*9 "there was called his name, (i. e. "they called his name") Edom" Gen. 2 5 , 3 0 ; Deut. 28,10; ihfl 4 A W"A "retribution will be exacted for every thing" Hen. 2 5 , 4 ; Sap. 11,4 (A); 14,7 (A); Deut. 28,10; 4 Esr. 2,22 var.; 4 Esr. 6,65 (Laur. 75); 4 Esr. 9,24 (Laur. 27); 4 Esr. 10,51 (Laur. 65); and even in the case of the Passive Participle: M/**jP* ' A i hUp-fr 4 Esr. 7,16 (Laur. 24). The Passive construction is not so often met with in Ethiopic, if the acting Subject is mentioned at the same time. I n that case the Subject must be introduced by a Preposition denoting a relation of causality; in comparatively rare instances, by ft, e. g. "Hi Oh } s 9mJi A - * Ckrest. p. 43, fine 22; fl) |-A.fltf>*: AA^A ft ibid. 45, 1. 24; oftener by fl, to express the instrumentality or any impersonal cause, but also said of Persons with the meaning "by" (Agency), e. g. H ^ l f l C flf A ^ "what is done by the shepherds" Hen. 8 9 , 6 2 ; Matt. 14,2 (cf. 2,17; 21,4); and by fcJP"} (and ftjp ) to express the doer, e. g. 'I 'flA0- ' h9Y frit*** '' h^ll'f*' 1H9 "they were devoured by all the beasts of the field" Hen. 8 9 , 5 7 (cf. 164, 3 ) ; h^MMl* flA"7^ * A * l i ( ) Wh9 hdahi arzc > *A .flrth a>hr*iw?* * ^ h n c * w h r ^ cs* * A M i * whrh-n?* t i c h - f c i r t - ftAti j&hH. M - * flJE> <D*)r*rt,flr3h Chrest p. 78, line 25 sqq.; here and there also by 0 Compounds of ftjP, e. g. hW^Ra in the case of -f-OHJA Hen. 37,4, or fclMfl. 193. 2. The Predicate of a Sentence is usually a Verb or an Adjective (or Participle). Certain Adjectives, when used as Predicates, are in all cases, or at least in certain cases, supplemented by a Suffix (v. 156; 191). Those Adjectives and Participles also, which are formed by periphrasis with the Relative Pron. ( 202), have as Prex m 0 ; ! 9 0
2

C) For the Hebrew, cf. EWALD 295, b.

( ) On the other hand, the construction in the Active

is Al& A1

496

g'193.

dicates the same construction as the ordinary Adjectives, e.g. (DjMl (0*lr s s Iff hW ' \\9 *3\ L* "and his latter condition is worse than his earlier one" Matt. 12,45; and those also which are formed by the Genitive sign H, e. g. fl)A*flfr' H 7 * 10A "and his raiment was of camel's hair" Mark 1,6 (of. 186, a, Z);ftfttf:ft**"*? + s H/*V "for they are mortal ('flesh')" Gen. 6, 3; and the Possessive Pronouns, described in 150, e. g. H j h i "the water is ours" Gen. 26,20; : A . b J ^ s M-khXfW "which is not theirs"
a at s 1

Gen. 15,13, even when they are still farther strengthened by the Relative Pronoun being prefixed to them, as in Yf*A* If'IVo * Q>M- "all that thou seest is mine" Gen. 31,43. The Predicate also may take the form of a repetition of the Yerb, as in flJfflfl. s <Df0(l s T4 Gren. 26,13. I n like manner the Genitives which are described in 186, a, y, when employed with the force of Adjectives, may take the position of the Predicate: f\} *ao* i HilCA-fi) "ye are Christ's" 1 Cor. 3,23. But in fact all the other classes of words may likewise take the place of Predicate, especially Nouns-Substantive (Infinitives) and Numerals, as inflJVfTV" VFft W\ti ' fflWtltl'P "all the souls were thirty and three" Gen. 46,15. Substantives often express the Predicate-idea more vigorously and comprehensively than an Adjective or Participle, e. g.ffdA'Th' Ghltx* ' AV "it is a disgrace to us" Gen. 34,14; tf*A* : 9 H\6*'fcV : A>'V "all her works are apostasy (i. e. 'nothing but apostasy')" Hen. 93,9. The Substantive is also used in default of an Adjective which would express exactly the same meaning, and where the Genitive of the Substantive might also in many instances be employed: W9^*a s fl^" "and its floor was crystal" (=Hfl ^r "crystalline", or "of crystal") Hen. 14,10; fljA 7P"tf " : ^JK. "and their heaven was water" Hen 14,11; (D^tb\ Till' T4 ACP *1K "its fruit is delightful to behold" (where an adverb even is connected with the Substantive which is used for an Adjective) Hen. 24,5; 88,1; 21,8( ); 22,2. Farther, Nouns with Prepositions also serve as Predicate, e.g. <I>ftis * *^fl,p "he is (devoted) to me" Gen. 29,34; t Of\9? * (Dh9i / * \ ? f ht* "of my bone and of my flesh art thou" Gen. 29,14; h90" A M * <wT7/*''l" : ft !?* "his entry
: : ! s oa tf 0 1 0

(*) [FLEMMING, however, reads here the Participle rhtf^JF , not like DJLANNfheSuhstajxtive Vh"?^. m-h

 194.

497

into the kingdom of heaven is a matter of difficulty" Matt. 1 9 , 2 3 (cf. 1 7 3 ) ; hfttfo s A ^ A 9 s W h ^ * "for his mercy (is) for ever" Ps. 1 3 5 , 1 , and of frequent occurrence; A< 9fc Y *fl>"A"t** i> "a drawn sword (was) in his hand" Josh. 5 , 1 3 ; Yf-A* s *7*fl4 ' 9tltl 4*J?-A7 "all his doings (were) with the holy ones" Hen. 1 2 , 2 . And in conformity therewith even true Adverbs may form the Predicate, so far as they also express the same qualifications of condition as a Noun with a Preposition, e. g. ftA* : A"Jft * ftm>*jjj jT*AAV "these men are at peace with us" Glen. 3 4 , 2 1 ; 4 2 , 1 9 ; ftj>i : ao&fr : ^ ^ h ^ : i*A4*tf- 7% evreXsaripa, ^ iXnig avrcv Sap. 1 5 , 1 0 . Lastly, even whole clauses serve as Predicate, particularly Relative Clauses, and abbreviated Relative Clauses, just as in other languages. Here we must notice the peculiar use of flVlA "to say", as the Predicate of a short clause: TfflJ-ftis : flVlV "that is to say" is the standing formula for "that is", "that means", e. g. in Matt. 2 7 , 4 7 ; also in Hft0ftft*P : "flVLA. "which is to say, 'of my father"', or "that is, of my father" Glen. 1 9 , 3 7 . I t is then generally shortened into flVlV, e. g. in J_AfrG ' 0A*fl * *flVLA "Issachar, ('hire', to say) that is,'hire'" Gen. 3 0 , 1 8 ; Mark 3 , 1 7 ; 5 , 4 1 ; and it is employed whenever foreign words are explained, e. g. in Ethiopic-Amharic lists of words [the so-called sawasew]. 194. 3 . Union of Subject and Predicate, , 3. Union of (a) When the Predicate is not a full Verb, but a Noun of predicle?some kind, we employ in our own (Western) languages the auxili- W conneotary verb "to be", to join Subject and Predicate together, or to in- when troduce the Predicate. But in Ethiopic, as in the other Semitic * ^
!

* *

kind.a

i s

PI oun

tongues, such a connecting-word is, in the first place, not absolute- f some ly necessary: Subject and Predicate may be directly placed side by side; and then the sense and context show of themselves what syntactical force is attributable to the two severally in this combination, e. g. X\ao i t fl&C flTH < " "as the sand of the sea (is) their multitude" Josh. 1 1 , 4 ; qLo^Avt s h9(D^Tf ftAjR *J"fci> "joyous with wine (are) his eyes" Gen. 4 9 , 1 2 . This juxtaposition of Subject and Predicate, without any connecting-word, is in most frequent use when the Subject is a Pronoun and comes second; for in that case misunderstanding is the less likely to prevail, as the Predicate would have had to be put after the Pronoun, f suGft predicate had been intended merely as a word in Apposi8 , 10

32

498

Personai as copula,

tion. Accordingly we say: ao&ft s ht'fr "dust thou (art)" Gen. 3,19; Hfl/VJ s M^oo* "blessed (are) ye" Matt. 5,11; -fitful : -}M "many (are) we" Mark 5,9; BMlLK-flrlbC M " I (am) of God" Gen. 50,19; -TfAA^h s *}r!fi* "strangers (are) we" Judg. 19,18; fc'fc s fcl-f- "where (art) thou?" Gen. 3,9; 9lfy s - f ^ f l C h " "what is your occupation?" Gen. 46,33. But in many other cases this sense of a union between the two might not be immediately and invariably obvious; and i t might then be possible to mistake the true relation of the two words for a relation of mere apposition. Accordingly in such cases Subject aud Predicate are at once separated and connected by the insertion or addition of a Personal Pronoun of the third person. This Pronoun,the Copula,has in fact to discharge the function of signifying that the Subjectword and Predicate-word, although not to be bound immediately together, yet stand in a most important personal or individual relation to one another, and that the Predicate-word is nothing other than the attribute asserted of the Subject-word as the person or thing referred to. I n other words, a personal Pronoun is assigned to the Predicate-word in order to turn it completely into a Predicate, precisely as the inflected Verb always encloses in its framework the Personal sign as the ligament between Subject and Predicate. Thus we say: ftftoo s *h*fl * fi> Vfc 0"G ^ J f f c l f "for the land is spacious before them" (while the sentence, without J&K"fc would mean: "for a spacious land is before them") Gen. 34,21. The employment of this connecting-word is also necessary, when for special reasons ( 196) the Subject comes first, e. g. in ft A* s ftcn'}*|:: fe4* JbA*"? "these are the children of Oholibamah" Gen. 36,14.But, starting from those cases in which the use of the Copula was essential to clearness of meaning, i t has spread to mdny cases in Ethiopic, in which i t might have been dispensed with.The Copula is then placed either before or after the Predicate, but preferably between Subject and Predicate: flHzV} s "hoT^Trp s ft'fll/i"} "many are called" Matt. 20,16; : Mn.h'dih.C i V f c * H-fc this is
0 ! s

the camp of God" Gen. 32,3; ao\. s (D'h'k * T H i * "who is this?" Matt. 21,10; fl-fc: ft-fc t fCO^f "this is my covenant" Gen. 17, 10; ftA- i*AA* s JiA*lA s i*AA * <*"PAA * ftTJ* "these three clusters of grapes are three days" Gen. 40,12. Farther the Copula is necessary, when the Subject is a Relative pronoun: H<D*fti:

499

ooir^yroo* "who is their leader" Hen. 72,1; ft*H s V f c J h,fl CTr "which is Hebron" Gen. 35, 37; Hfl)-?i^o : A,9 10^9 : (Dp"who are Shem, Ham and Japhet" Gen. 5, 32. The Gender and Number of the connecting pronoun, when Subject and Predicate do not agree in these points, may be regulated either by the Subject or the Predicate, but the latter method is the usual one* ): \\ao'\\ s Ohh.* : Kft"?'fclf0* "their names are these" Gen. 46, 8; 9^* * fl^h* Ttxfc h^'i* "what are these?" Hen. 52, 3; f^ : <n>":ftA* : o *IJV "who ('whose') are these four faces?" Hen. 40, 8. Of course the Copula may also stand when the Subject is a Pronoun of the first or second Person: t\i *ao*: (D-h-fr * 'tid'h ' A ^ A 9 "ye (it) are the light of the world" Matt. 5,14; M* * Ohh* ^ ( D * "thou art Esau" Gen. 27,21; M * ( I i t ) "it is I " Matt. 14,27; ft> : i D - f t * : h9*\U ' h 41079 " I am the God of Abraham" Gen. 26,24; 45,3; [Kebra Nag. 43 a5 sq.]\ ftV (D-h* * * A M l M 0>-ft* "7.hft,A G. A d . 138,26; [ M * ft-fc fc(Hl : fl>ft?h, Kebra Nag. 27 b 11]. But yet instead of the Copula, the Subject-Pronoun may be repeated after the Predicate, e. g.ftA** *sftV Jhi "because I am good" (lit. 'because I , i. e. as regards me, good I') Matt. 20,15, so that the first Yfi seems to be taken as a Nominative absolute; so too h^oo* : h+t\(\(D*?'} : hlr^O** Matt. 15,16; Judges 12, 5; WAV 6 -flftA. Gen. 42,11. On the other hand the two verbs Oti(D and Xfi have not yet use of come to be used so frequently as connecting-words between Subject and Predicate. fM<D has generally its full meaning, "to be connectingpresent", "to exist", "to be", e. g. ft^H * Kii* ^AU4 Qt\<D* "so long as an elder (sister) is there" Gen. 29,26; Mi*' VtiOt* (D'lli* ' h'thlf "which lies in the hill-country of Canaan" Gen. 33,18; Qfc> s D A * ' TIP "there is a lad here" John 6,9; UP UA"1fl s M "VfthA"" " "there am I (present) in the midst
1 1 s a n d words 1 ! 0

O [PEAETORIUS states the rules of Concord here more clearly. He says QAethiop. Gramm. p. 159 sq.): "When the Predicate contains a description or qualification of the Subject, the Pers. Pron. which serves as Copula is usually regulated in Person, Gender and Number by the Subject, and follows the Predicate; . . . but when the attachment of the Predicate seeks to show that two quite well-known things are equivalent to each other, the Pers. Pron. which serves as Copula is usually regulated by the Predicate, and precedes it". TR.] 32*
1

500

of them" Matt. 18,20. I n like manner fr5r has generally the full signification of "becoming", "originating", "happening", "being on the point of" (future), e. g. Ps. 37,15; Mark 5,14; Gen. 29,36. Farther foi standing by itself is equivalent to "it has happened", i. e. "it is past" Gen. 38,23. Both words, however, came to be used also as connecting-words between Subject and Predicate, either because the Predicate had at the same time to be represented as falling within the domain of the Past or Future,a condition which cannot be expressed distinctly enough by the pronominal connecting-word (*):. 0>UA MtijMMbC 9tlli ' P'A.'P "and God was with Joseph" Gen. 39,2;fl>J&VvV-1Yf'A' ' <D*A*& ' A*flh ' KJ^^V "and all the sons of men shall be (future) righteous" Hen. 10,21;or for the purpose of making the Predicate negative (as if that had always to be expressed by: 'one has not come ! to bethis or that'): ft^f s ft^C ' OhM* 0>Mft ' 7Pkd " y brother is hairy, while I am not hairy" Gen. 27,11, 21; 42,11, 31; Matt. 10,20; hj}fc> : a>A- * OWll* flH*^ "there was no lad (to be found) in the pit" Gen. 37, 30. I n all other cases in which the two verbs are employed as connecting-words, they have nearly always another significant, second meaning, e. g. HO AID J^Affl "who is ('stands') ready" 1 Pet. 4,5; ftA UtlOh * (0* A ^ *fl^h"who were ('present') in the house" Gen. 33,14; Lev. 10, 7; 21,12.
m

195. (b) If the Predicate is a full Verb or an Adjective, predicate ^ ^ 9 ^ the Subject in Gender and Number. A l l the with subject variations, however, in the treatment of gender and number, which (6) Agreem u s a r e e w

in Gender
a r t d

Jhen Predicate is a
fU

orIn

rb

Adjective.

m 0 U

have been described in 188, are also current here. Thus, Con^ * 8 ^ l number is most strictly observed, when the 10 Subject is a Personal Noun or Pronoun, e. g., d0^ t'i : h'i't'* * "blessed are ye"; A.Arh'P * . W 7 A . U " "their maidens did not m " Ps. 77, 69; ^ a o - f l t f ^ * MtftfO* Judges 8, 30; f (DM i fpao* s ftPAJt s W^f^ s a J A / h ^ Hen. 6,1. When the
c o r ( n en< er a n ( r a ,fl0
s

(*) Although, the pronominal Copula is found in use even in such a case:

bipopOsa,

TI

hrat ra ivvnvia avrov (DTfCltif* iFTf't*

(t\A

Gen. 37, 20; Judges 13,12. Even without any Copula, sentences are met with, which fall within the domain of the Past or the Future:ftm*1 0 h Ui* < M<h J ?7 i hll* "when thou wast among the cupbearers" Gen. 40,13; h&'k "7*i& Cffh*} "where then shall the abode of sinners be?" Hen. 38,2; Deut. 15,15.

501

Subject is a word denoting a thing or a conception, Concord prevails, it is true, in many instances, as in ,\tft> s HCW* "Let there be lights!" Gen. 1,14 (for HCYTf is generally masc); J&^h 'htt'h'bU'tn*' ii^^'i "the secrets of the just shall be revealed" Hen. 38,3; Chf * Kdj&'Hhf "mine eyes saw" Hen. 39,5; but often too, the Predicate to a Subject, Fern, sing., keeps its own readiest gender (masc): Oi\>hs Jt+i* 'O&S " d ^s fall was great" Matt. 7, 27; fltflj^ : M* * (Daft : hrttt ' dli* G. A d . 42,11; hil<*> a : ahlft A O ^ > l l . * fltf-A- ^ H .
a n

"for wickedness is lodged in their heart at all times" Gen. 8,21;

(DWi S WjrVJ -Ftf - s OftS s <p| Gen. 50, 9. Sometimes a Predi0

cate in the Plural masc is attached to a Subject in the Plural fern., as in Irfaf* s -?.flif <D"fe "visions fell upon .me" Hen. 13,8; or the plural of the Subject is conceived of as a feminine Noun of Unity, as in ^i^OhKAf ' * O'flP * "their sins are great" Gen. 18, 20; or,which is the most usual case,the Predicate to a Plural stands in the Singular Masc, and that with especial frequency if it comes first: ^ A <w*PAAU* Josh. 23,1, 2; Ps. 77,37 (in contrast with Ps. 89,9); (IHDfih * ft" -*** Matt. 4,24; 00fl> s Hd.6 Gen. 1,11; jMNWOA MCt* * KRPl Ps. 74,10 (although this may also be explained in accordance with 192, c); JE-Yl-'} * 'V'HD * r / i v V l ^ j a o . Luke 12,35; fifrlUfa *tf"A-i JwTMlfl 9J^C flft T"fcKh Gen. 12,3; [Kebra Nag. 4 a, 21 sqq.]. If, however, several other predicates follow a plural Subject, without the Subject being expressly repeated, the full concord in gender and number is frequently reverted to in their case, instead of the employment of the Sing. Masc. being continued.Notice thus cases like: A O ' * hm* * h f l * 7 d A W * $>\Tkh Gen. 30,38, followed by fl>Afl frJi i A ^ 0?A v. 39: or m-A*a**M- * r h ^ * fcflk* U * 01 ^(D dK^ (not 0)h(D*(ih i) KAlA Gen. 40,10; Ex. 16, 22. But, vice versa, collective-words in the Singular number are often associated with a Predicate in the plural (*): t%69fi* * /hTMlP "hear ye, my people" Ps. 77,1; fl,-f : ftA^h>A "f'fl'hA" Ps. 113, 17, 18; J S ^ l A - HCMl Gen. 22,17; fl)#h frA- M C O A ? Matt. 8, 34; Mark 1,33.
1 00 0 1

I f a sentence contains several Subjects connected by copula(*) An analogous form is furnished in the periphrasis for the Article n 172, c:

^flxh-f- * I A l l ? * * OlC
09

Gen. 19,15.

502

196.

tive particles, the Predicate, when it comes first, may agree either with the first Subject only, or with all of them combined together (as in 172, c); but, when it comes last, it usually takes the plural, although the singular is also met with in these circumstances: ffts ht't ID-flftA/Ml &c. Gen. 8,16; (DfDbh ? 1 OMlfcA.* &c. Gen. 8,18; 9,2; <D*/*% 1 ft,9 * mftjt Gen 9, 23; 0}/Jfc. : h 4l&.9 i <D7lnC I Mft-fc* A"" * Gen. 11,29; HftlflA * m C i 0 r h i m+hrC Hen. 48,3 ( ); AAJP i IDC^A i A * t o * *1 OH>. Hen. 11,2; GCO* i fl^l*' Hen. 13,3; A H ! i Wtti"l9 (D9Y1 t (DODtyiP^ : Aje-lAft" * Hen. 25,6 0). I n these cases much depends upon the sense: I f the first word is the principal Subject, those which follow being subordinate to it in importance, so that (D corresponds rather to our "accompanied by" or "along with",as in the cases cited above, Gen. 8,16, 18, or infllffiAP^h" &>fl^ a fllfl^4 Judges 5,1, then the Predicate usually conforms only to the first of the Subjects, even though all the Subject-Words should denote persons. Frequently also the Predicate is regulated not by the grammatical, but by the logical Subject of the sentence^), e. g. in 9"} 't'lh r3hH*i"J IfxXl " ' f*9 "why is your countenance sad (pi.) to-day" Gen. 40,7; ao^ s l\9h "what (lit 'who') is thy name?" Gen. 32,28 (v. 198); ftCMf "the souls (of men) cry out" Hen. 9,10. ( ) Arrange 196. (c) As regards the arrangement of the sentence, Ethio"sentence. pi exhibits greater freedom than any other Semitic language. I t is capable of expressing almost any Greek sentence, with a pretty exact preservation of its word-arrangement. The entire development of the speech, during a long formative period, aimed at reaching the utmost possible freedom in the structure of the Sentence, and the ability to furnish adequate expression for the manifold forms and shades of thought. For that reason precisely, Prepositions have been formed in rich abundance, and a highly diversified employment of Suffixes has been developed, together
1 l

<

00

( ) [In Hen. 4 8 , 3 PLEMMING adopts the variant

'Hh ^fllC instead of

TE.]
D ,

j & ^ f l l C Mid
2

i n

( ) So too in the periphrasis of the Article, 172, c: f*Hhf?< " A5f S A * I klUCth (Liturg.); ndPa* * Mid tf"A- fl-haHC^ Gen. 1 1 , 9 .
1

25, 6,

CD&AC instead of IDA ?,

0

503

with the various methods, already described, of expressing Case. Behind these forms and grammatical expedients, however, a certain intellectual and mental energy is found in full vigour, which is able to hold in its grasp extended and seemingly dislocated sentences, and to assign the just relation which members of the sentence hold to each other, though separate and far apart. What form may be given, in accordance therewith, to the arrangement of the words within the individual word-groups of the sentence has already been generally indicated. I n what follows we have only to discuss the arrangement of the leading members of the sentence. (a) I n ordinary, unimpassioned discourse, the Predicate () stands at the beginning of the sentence: the Subject follows, and then the Object, ffl^hfl : * Tltl ' fl*Jt<w * Mftf* Gen. 39,4. I f the Object is a Suff. Pron., it naturally precedes the Subject. When several objects appear, that which is first affected by the action comes before the others. If, however, the Object together with the verb forms only one idea, it is placed before the Subject: (DfD A l* ' tD A& * >lhrk UhlXA' Judges 13,24; flUDftf^ htel-W AdA fiV -ahiL* M l t f t - Gen. 39,7. I n like manner the Subject is generally put last, when farther qualifications are attached to it, as in ftg h P0'(ft' Q'tfllf *flCyS"^ Hfl^A-f* rt"?^ Hen. 2 , 1 ; or when i t has to serve at the same time as the Subject of a (following) relative clause: hC^a> aolfrp : A ^ O * hi* l - f t e Gen 8, 6. The Subject comes regularly before the Predicate, only when the latter is a Substantive (v. several examples in 193), as well as in secondary clauses, which add the detailed circumstances of the main action, or the condition of a person or thing concerned in that action during its continuance, whether these clauses are joined to the principal clause with<D or without i t (Circumstantial Clauses) (*). I n this case the person or thing, whose condition and circumstances have to be detailed, is always put at the head of the clause, and is often specially emphasised by an appended A, thereby arresting the undivided attention, and checking the onward flow of the narrative ; "he brought his present to Eglon, <Dfc,*7A0 rt ftH/F HhfL T4 now Eglon was a man of very refined man; 8
8

ners" Judges 3,17; Hen. 14,25; "he saw a man standing before
0) V . EWALD, 'Eebr. Spr* 806, bi'Gr. Art 670.

504

Purposes of Emphasis,

him, 0>A<i? s 9fc'h fl^fti"' and a drawn sword (was) in his hand" Josh. 5,13; Hen. 39,5; fa$Oh : p-fl/P : fl)A*tl <D0H ft* * A M l A-Tlrh,^ ^-flff Gen. 45, 26; Judges 3, 27; V / ^ h . A-<nn K^A-h ft"? AKrh-fc / ' C * . (DiYl i . . . &c. Ruth 1,4. Thus too the word }<p (or V l "lo!", when it has to point to a definite Subject, attracts this Subject to itself,its own place being at the head of the clause,and in this way causes it to precede the Predicate, e. g. in Gen. 33,1; 41,5; Judges 14,5, 8; while, if it points rather to the Action than to the Subject, it leaves the original order of the words unaltered, e. g. in Judges 20, 40; Hen. 85,3. (P) AlteraQg) The usual order of the sentence is broken in upon, whenusual ever any word in it, in conformity with the leaning of the thought, order, for to be brought into special prominence. The superior import8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 s

ance assigned to the word concerned is generally indicated by its position,by its being brought to the head of the clause. Thus any word in the clause may be emphasised by being put first. For instance, the emphasis is laid upon the Subject in:?i'7H.ft'fl<hG flJUflh" * HAA^ A'Jfl^" "God (himself) has given you this Sabbath-day" Ex. 16, 29; or"and it did not stink, fllA&V! h+ 1 " flAAA*U" nor was there any worm bred in it" Ex. 16,24: and upon the Object in:,^A MjMh "JAyd "his word will we obey" Josh. 24, 24; ^fli.M'f M t f l ^9 "my sin do I remember this day" Gen. 41, 9; wn^dJflC ' A/h ^"lfcVh "but one who can interpret to me I have not" Gen. 41,15; H"H7fl4 l)h(D\lo^ s 704- "that which you have to do, do" Ex. 16,23. Or. the emphasis rests upon some qualification or other, as in:f^*% Afc Ah hV-a h9Y AhAfc -ah(L "better is i t that I give (her) to thee than to another man" Gen. 29,19; A0AP Ybf <wC1?h "upon me be thy curse!" Gen. 27,13; h^tl h^Tf s UAflJfc MK> " i f it should be so with me" Gen. 25,22; ftJP^h ^*A hh h< "H H'tl'dd "in olden time it was not so done" Matt. 19,8; "they gathered every morning &c, iDflAA'f" 0C*fl Ai\?'flH fldfH* J'PG but on the Friday they gathered a double measure" Ex. 16,22; A-S-A AAtf" ^Af'P 'flfr* "for six days ye shall gather, (but) &c." Ex. 16,26. When a special group of words is employed to form the Subject commencing a sentence, it is generally expressed a secondtime in a short and emphatic form by means of a Pronoun set im8 0 : 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 w, 8 8 1 8 8 8 8

196.

505

mediately before the Predicate: flhftis iihfL HflA'AA>> : fr^P a>-i\* Ml IHd (Dhrtao-h (lit. "that man upon whom shall be found my cup, he shall be to me a servant, but as for you&c") Glen. 44,17; ^ J l k A IDI 'flCft.A ^fcA ' 0)4WbA 0>h<frtf>* j ffflbpao* Hen. 54, 6. A n Accusative, Dative or Genitive,put first by way of emphasis,of a word determined by the Article, may, in accordance with 172, c, be indicated periphrastically by A before the word and a Suff. Pron. after the verb or other word which governs i t : f D A H f a i ^ rt^Af "and him on the other hand they hanged" Gen. 41,13; M iihltLhnduC ^ A f l ^ F "out the Lord do ye follow!" Josh. 23,8;fl)A"fl2 iA*l*fc 0A "and to the woman in turn he said" Gen. 3, 16; iDft-ff&fi s w&Cthpff** i tittUpa** "but them indeed they extirpated, one and all" Josh. 11,14;ftfttfn: AV7H, h tf^WA^ ' -t*Ch$ HCTh "for of the Lord of Spirits the light appeared" Hen. 38, 4; hSi&Pltl flA^" "M1C * A-**" Hen. l ^ f ) . But in fact, any word, whatever be the rank it takes in the sentence, may be put by way of emphasis at the beginning of it, in the form of a Nominative Absolute ( ); and then it is enough to have a reference to it in that part of the sentence which it would have occupied, if it had been without emphasis: KfrV* W (to* A"? : oyCfV "is not his mother's name Mary?" Matt. 13,55; <D?d P'flA 0x0^9 ' InfoSc* "but Jacob's face was plain-looking" Gen. 25,27; (DflJC ^Vl^A ilflfl* V**K ThUM * "but as for your money, take ye the double of it with you" Gen. 43,12; ahh* P - A ' J A A-flfr HJ&A-nA * 1*A Matt. 3,4; K t*ao~(l t K A A Wf^^(B0o\\ao* "but as for you, there is no one that can resist you" Josh. 23,9; tf*A* bb H/i<5 <5 WW Matt. 7,19; A d H.Kl> *d&fr PhVCP Judith 8,14. Indeed the referring Suffix itself may in certain circumstances be wanting:fl)tf"A* HCft HJ&H^ft %JlVt 7 w h i : <" A<*.C^ ?i A Hen. 10,19 ( ).
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 1 8 8 8 8 0 2 8 0 s < 8 J 8 8 8 00 8 8 8 8 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 3

leaves out A**" *" here, T E . ] ( ) [A Noun, introduced in this way at the head of a Sentence, unconditioned and awaiting the determination of its Case and its character by certain governing and defining words which follow, is now described usually by the term absoluter Vorhalt or logischer Vorhalt.] ( ) Cf. also the example given supra, ( 150 ad fin.) of a tl^V placed first as an Absolute.
( ) [FLEMMING
2
1

506

Meanwhile Ethiopic is able to give special prominence to individual words, apart from position, by means of the appended particle A ( 168, 5), e. g. iro<Pdt\: AjRfll^f A Gen. 47,9; hhao : eolAtHD'f'iA Hen. 15, 7 ( ); as well as by % "even", Jr "again", and several other particles of that nature. I n order to give prominence to Nouns, the emphatic adjoining of the Pronoun of the third Person is also made use of, or very commonly the periphrasis by means of a Suffix and A A careful consideration of every possible case shows that this mode of expression (already described in 172, c) is frequently employed, not only to replace the missing Article, but also to strengthen the emphasis, e. g. in *fiA s froo* s Aft*7*flC"fch " f be it from them, thy servants (that they should do this thing)" Gen. 44, 7. To bring Verbs into bolder relief, the process (described in 181, b, B) of adding to their force by means of their own Infinitive is, in particular, turned to account. Now and then the place of the Infinitive is taken by other conceptional words, e. g. H*7 * \%Y W"A" f/lflCtU "people have told me all that thou hast done" Ruth 2,11; : *}<noHh "die we must" Judges 13,22; Hen. 98,15. How Personal and other Pronouns are emphasised in the Sentence, has already been pointed out in substance in 150 and 148, a. Generally speaking, the repetition of the Pronoun also serves to give it additional prominence. When a Suffix Pronoun is attached to a Noun or a Verb, then in order to lend emphasis to it, the corresponding separate Pronoun is generally added thereto, and for the most part also in the same Case which is assigned to the Suff. Pron. in the sentence: flGhJj, xX^^X "bless me, even me" Gen. 27, 34; V1\\$ : \x$H "her do thou give me" Gen. 29,18; ?ihp>(DJi\ "but thee they will save alive" Gen. 12,12; 1*fl?t5& A/hA " t o me has my money been returned" Gen. 42,28; t HH.M "our own bodies" Gen. 47,18; more , rarely in the Nominative, as in:p*$&0i>h ' f th9P ' Hl'fr "to thee the right of marriage as nearest kinsman first falls" 8 Ruth 4,4; hrhllYlC^h hi* Chrest. p. 42, line 8; -Of : M A fllMf " I have plenty" Gen. 33,9. I f the Personal Pronoun stands in the Nominative, AA.I> or some other proper form of this class
x a r 8 8 8 8 8 8

(*) [FLSMXIKO

omits the

A h -1

TR

196.

507

( 150) is usually put alongside of it: ffi s * dAZPl " I am Pharaoh" Gen. 41,44; (D^'U : fidjfr : fc/HHtl, "and he will command thee" Ruth 3,4. The form (D 'h'fcY. is always employed to express the idea "he too", e. g. fD7*fl<S * ID-ftisV. * 0*flA0 "and he too made ready a dish" Gen. 27, 31; and it is used even in the case of the first Person: t D - f t i ^ s hYL > / i ^ f 0jfl< * "neither do I tell you" Matt. 21, 27. (/) I n this way the emphatic prominence, which has to he (T) other given to one member of a sentence, generally furnishes the motive ^ g for exchanging the usual arrangement of the words for a different Motive*, one. But frequently the ranking of several sentences together, or their absorption into one another, also disturbs the regular order. Thus, in particular, any word, which is determined by an extended Relative Clause not admitting of insertion in the main Clause, is placed, whenever it is possible, immediately before this Relative Clause, and consequently at the end of its own proper Clause, independently even of the peculiar arrangements which result from Attraction ( 190 and 201). As an example, again, of the arrangement of words in Clauses which have a Verb subordinated in the Infinitive, the following passage from Ex. 16, 28 may serve: JiflTl s "VftH.s+K-fl^.-^KH'Hf ' A ^OKD /iV??, where ^XHUP depends proximately indeed upon fi%0, but mediately upon *f*fti!> and therefore is placed between the two. Finally, regard for the cadence and agreeable smoothness of the sentence has also a decisive influence, as, for instance, in a>V> 'flfld*fc*rt^2*J" OCT* * h9h hth%.' rC(D* > "tWi OHf^pTr Gen. 41,5,a subject which cannot be adequately examined in detail here, within the space at our disposal. A very favourite practice is to bring together two different Case-forms of one and the same word: bGKC hb(B.C * M\0 * 0>C* Matt. 15,14; fcG : f c A s A"T> : Afl ")? i ka>-d Mark. 3,23; : ao^*: J & m A" Hen. 43 ,20 \
9 , ,D m i s s

^ 7
A:

A ' V . ^ i H&(h
(!) [OD'tXti* in omitted by
T B
8

Hen. 81,7 or 81,8; 83,4;

2

h?^fl>AJt * *h,1\h Hen. 107,1 ( ).

FLEMMIKG

here, %(n^O
a

being made

the Subject of J&fl>AA" I ( ) [A good example of the influence of Verse on Word-arrangement is given in Chrest., p. 16, last five lines.]

508

0. SPECIAL KINDS OF SENTENCES.

1. N E G A T I V E , INTERROGATIVE A N D E X C L A M A T O R Y SENTENCES.
i. Negative
Sentenoea

197. 1. Negative Sentences. To express Negation, * Ethiopic ordinarily makes use of the three words ft^, ftll and JiAfl (a) with (a) Of these Negatives comes most readily to hand and is oftenest used. I t may turn an individual word into its contradictory, and then i t corresponds frequently to our prefix un or in, e. g. h't*Q> &\.R ' hjtil\'1r " 0 unbelieving generation!" Matt. 17, 17; Mv Vf^oo"their unbelief" Matt. 13, 58; fth.$'h9 (2 ^ftfh'P'lr* "by reason of not knowing the Scriptures" Matt. 22,29; fl/t^fr^C "in ignorance" Gen. 26, 10; hjl^ ?* "freedom from incontinence" ('chastity') 2 Peter 1, 6; fl^ 4*hn> "by non-cohabitation", i. e. "without cohabitation". I n such a case it forms a Compound with the Noun to which it is prefixed^). ft, is employed much oftener, however, to put an entire sentence in the Negative; and then it must invariably precede the Predicate, its proper position being that of a prefix to the Predicate itself: Ittfi * V > h A ttt^ti " g " Gen. 44, 26; <D<DV : fll "^fl KjRfti*J& "and of wine or mead he may not drink" Judges 13,14; hrK+WOHD s h9}xM n/*"Pd*V : (D^OXYi "he would not then have accepted from us our sacrifice and our gift" Judges 13,23 ( ); and so too, in expressing Infinitive clauses in the negative, Matt. 19,18. "When the sentence does not contain a full verb, ft, is usually placed at the head of the sentence, e. g.: {Dh+RTrO ' ft !?*' t\bb*ifr "and there was no firmament of heaven above i t " Hen. 18,12; but yet in this class of Negative Sentences, i n accordance with 194, the Auxiliary Verb fr> or VlifO is usually employed, and then is prefixed thereto,or the help of JiAfl is called^ in (v. infra). But if the clause contains some individual word, following the Predicate, which has to be denied with special emphasis, the negative is prefixed both to that word
M a 0 s 0 s w e c a n n o t s 2 0

(*) [Cf. similar Compounds with la in Assyrian: ina la-Umti "untimely"; La-Babil4 "Non-Babylonians" &c] 9 ( ) An exception is furnished in Sir. 30,19: hjtlP *!^ J &flAfM
2

197.

509

and to the Predicate, e. g. (OhA'Cd* (DhJt\A\%* "and there was not even one left" Judges 4,16; Hen. 84,3. I f again the individual word which is denied comes before the Predicate, even in this case the Negative is usually repeated: (DhJlthhO ' fl*7d ftfl4 dXb 7v9 K*V l%Xi "not even a young ram of thy flock have I eaten" Gen. 31,38; (DhAhth'll W Ktf J I / M I A Chrest. p. 76, line 1; * hM (not (I i) A " H O Xiao *7 Jlfl "and not a single mortal has power to touch i t " Hen. 25,4. The consequence is that in Ethiopic a double Negative is not equivalent to an affirmative. On the contrary it strengthens the negation. But is also used as a Prohibitive, by way of subjective negation ( = bit, firf), and then it is joined to the Subjunctive: h/t* "haVf "believe (it) not" Matt. 24,23; hjtttfc i-Mtf *"do not kill him" Gen. 37,21; and in extended sentences it is usually repeated before every fresh verb, e. g. Judges 13, 7 (v. also infra). I n like manner it stands in dependent, final Negative-Sentences, with or without Xiao. When Xiao cannot be dispensed with, then Xiao has the meaning "thatnot", "lest" (|&): \\ao s A J H l f f Matt. 26,41; Xiao : jfc^flA Gen. 14,23; 26,7, 29; Xiao : h A M l * " /iJ&Ol"A "that you may not both perish" Gen. 27,45; it may even be rendered sometimes by "there might otherwise", e. g. in Xiao i hjrChflX i hXlJt Gen. 19,19. (b) A stronger and at the same time more independent @) with Negative is supplied in Mi "(in) no wise", "not" ( 162), which often appears too in Interrogative clauses (M ^; MlU*)> and serves chiefly to deny individual members of a sentence, in which latter case ftA "but" generally stands overagainst it ("notbut " ) : Ml lYH ^ I D - A J t M "not for this generation, but &c." Hen. 1,2; "they will beget giants upon the earth, ftfl lAao'k&3\ M flf? not spiritual, but sensual" Hen. 106,17; M flfl h WhX* fl^/i^ll Josh. 24,12; 22,26,28; and so, almost always, in abridged or incomplete sentences: M l Cth* "but not far away" Hen. 30, 1; "you should petition for men, < D M I A
8 8 a t 8 ! 8 8 8 8 1 8 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

flK flVMrMl**" but not men for you" Hen. 15,2; M l :

8
8 8 1 8

hahtld "then i t is not good to marry" Matt. 19,10; flA* hX* Xh tld }A "not, however, on the feast-day" Matt. 26,5; fth f
( ) [FLBMMINO
X

has

/^A^lV'

TR.]

510

197.

qifyah "it is not necessary that they go away" Matt. 14,16 (hj^of^ffh would rather mean "unnecessary" (*)). Regularly therefore, we have G*7\av S M or (D}\ao : M*ft for "and if not" (e. g. Gen. 18,21), without any following verb. Farther, fttl is often employed, when, in a sentence otherwise complete, a single word, but not the whole sentence,has to be put in the Negative. Now in this case, if } \ \ \ were merely placed before the word concerned, while the rest of the sentence remained unaltered in its structure, the effect of the KY* would be extended over the whole sentence. To meet this difficulty, fth with the individual word concerned is put at the head of the sentence, and the rest of it is at once interrupted and continued with the help of a relative pronoun (just as in French), e. g. M*: Vf*A: Hjt19C "not every one comprehends" ('not every one is it who comprehends') Matt. 19,11. On the other hand M : V f " A * fHFC even if the expression were a possible one, would mean "not any one comprehends" or "no one comprehends"; s M* s "ithi : Hftft4 ^Cih "for we have not abhorred thee" ('for it is not we who have abhorred thee') Gen. 26, 29; h^^U^H * Ml * Hi'l'dd "in olden time it was not so done" Matt, 19,8; Ml i flfrK-^ HfcjPftMl "not in righteousness ('is it that thou hast brought') hast thou brought" Gen. 4, 7; hb : ( H ^ f t ^ * Yl<n> * Hf r h 'dhit "not by bread alone ('is it that man fives') does man live" Matt. 4,4 ; ftti s M^a** t IM.WD-fa *fc "it was not you that sent me" Gen. 45,8; so too Gen. 3,4; Josh. 22,24; Matt. 7, 21; 16,11. I n the same way even a Verb is put with emphasis in the negative: Ml s WP't't' "by no means ('is it the case that the child is dead') is the child dead" Matt. 9,24; flfl * h\\ > HflAotl nii* 00 " i f thou hast really not eaten of this tree" Gen. 3,11. And thus Mi may come to be placed even immediately before the Verb, particularly when the Verb may be regarded as standing in an abridged relative or dependent clause: M* 3"1""Vflh Vt\<D\l "not to hide are you obliged", (literally: 'not (that) you must conceal yourselves, is in store for you') Hen. 104,5. (c) with | (c) The Negative fcvO signifies properly "there is not", h&fl. "there does not exist" ( 167,1, b and 192, b), and can only be
1 1 l,,> 8 a M

(*) [That is to say, the form with Ml is not at all necessary", TB.]

gives a stronger negation = "it

511

-r

used when this turn of thought and expression is possible and thinkable. I t stands quite independently for "no",in opposition to fto) "yes", in the sense of "it is not the case", Matt. 5, 37; or in answer to a question, Matt. 13,29; John 1,21; or to decline or deprecate a proposal, Ex. 10,25; Ruth 1,13; [Kebra Nag. 105 a 20]. I n sentences, in which a finite verb is wanting, ftAO is used in the meaning "there does not exist": fllft/'TJZ. : ftAfl AflA>(J* "and there is no water above i t " Hen. 18, 12; (Dh+biifP ft AO / * * A T J h * " *?ftA "and there is no power in any mortal to touch i t " Hen. 2 5 , 4 0 ; ftAfl frfr* flWll* hiAfoo* "there is no righteousness in their mouth" Ps. 5,10 (Accusative in accordance with 192, b) &c. I n the same way (just like pK), when placed before a separate Noun, it serves to form Negative Adjectives, e. g. ftAfl /,*tlv(\ "not broad" ("narrow") Hen. 26,3, and in the Plural ftA07 faavfi Hen. 26,5 (lit. 'there is not in them any breadth'); ft A ft M r ('there is not in it height') "it is not high" Hen. 26,4( ). Then too, by means of ftAO and a following Relative Pronoun, a periphrasis is formed for "no one" and "nothing" (literally, "there is not who, or what"): ft AO 0**1*% "no one must hear" Josh. 6,10; ft AO tt't'Cd* "no one was left" Josh. 8,17; (DhAft hM A P "and he forbade any one to follow him" Mark 5, 37; ftAO ti'l'UlY^ "thou shalt not give me anything" Gen. 30, 31; m t i ) : \\ao s HftAO Hflft tD'tli' hCy< " "and it was as if nothing had entered their stomach" Gen. 41,21: and, similarly, ft AO ho means ('there is not, when') "never", e.g. Judges 19, 30. With a following H, ft A H serves to put entire sentences emphatically in the Negative: ftAO H ^ ^ f t H * fl<bf ^ "see that ye fall not out by the way" Gen. 45,24. On ftA*flf &c. " I have not" v. 176, h. I n both of its significations"there is not" and " I have not"this Negative has often to make up also for Negative Adjectives which are wanting: OlHHh s thHtl tDhMil "7P "a new and waterless pit" (liter8 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 2 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ID 8 8 8 8 8

( ) [In both passages FLEMMING. has the Accus.: "Vp in Hen. 18,12 and
x

/**A^li in 25,4. TR].

( ) [FLEMMING has the Acc. throughout in these three passages, Hen. i n 26,3,4,5., reading Grhfl d 5, and in 4; similarly he gives the Accus.reading instead of DILLMANN'S Nom. in the next two passages cited here from 'Henoch', viz 39,6 and 40,1. TR].
3 a n 2

512

197.
8

ally: 'and water it had not') G-en. 37, 24; ft;J*G * th&tl* ftt\ * KA-fl" " fl*Hl'i "new, undamaged cords (or 'tendons')" Judges 16,7; 'i'rpTr s " ^ A ^ hM * "innumerahle elect" ('number was not in them') Hen. 39,6; " I saw tens of thousands, ftAO*' *' ^ A ^ fhA 'fl an innumerable and incalculable multitude" ('and there was not in them number or reckoning') Hen. 40, 1; tDhOtV i &ao i t&Ai'i : n H - ^ : HftAfl I ^ A ^ "and he shed the blood of an infinite number of holy men" Chronique de Jean (ed. ZOTENBEEG), p. 70, 1. 4 sq. [Cf., farther, Hen. 103, 10, where ftAO is found followed by a pleonastic ft,: ftAO H ft.^h'flV "we have found nobody who . . . " ] . (a) various (d) The ideas "nothing" and "no one",may be expressed phrase also by tf*A accompanied with a Negative, or by ft. with a following (DhfitVL o (DKri^X ( 173), e. g. ft^-flA *. Yf-ft H CVhfl Judges 1 3 , 4 (cf. Hen. 9 3 , 1 4 i n a question having a negative force); ftAO HCftfc ft.tfW, Matt. 1 7 , 8 ; Josh. 8 , 1 7 ; Hen. 14, 21; h<n> s {Dh.V'i'fr M (D*tli* ft,l> "and it was as nothing in his hand" Judges 14,6; ft,il<n> s 9^* s "and ('not as anything') as nothing are they to me" Gen. 47,9; ft,h 0 9*1*% Sir. 17, 2 8 , ft,tl<n> : 9t* &g ovUv Sir. 4 0 , 6 , f t . (\^'l'' Amos 6 , 6 ; v. also 1 9 8 . The idea "at all" (omnino) in Negative sentences is specially expressed, farther, by **}a*>*fr ( 163,2), e. g. hAfrh iV* ' 10-^ "they left no flesh of them at all remaining" Hen. 90, 4; lao*^ : ft^llVflYltf^V* "have ye never read at all?" Mark 2,25. Not even (nequidem) is expressed by ft,p<| (inasmuch as f *, 163, 1, means properly"exactly", and then also"even", Gen. 4 4 , 8 ) , e. g. ft.V*Y thYl * ft9.K"1u "ye did not even repent afterwards" Matt. 21, 32. Cf. also (BhX ftJ&hA-O ovli ydp hvvarat Rom. 8, 7 (PLATT ). "Not only" is ftfa '-Jn", e. g. Matt. 4 , 4 ; [and also ft, or ftii : fl^i-fci:, DILLMANN'S 'Lex. col 497]. "No more", "no farther" may be expressed by ft,ft7h, e. g. fflh,& 10 Kih Judges 13,21 ; Hen. 92,5. On ft"Mlf " I cannot" v.
0 8 r u 8 09 1 8 8 8 8 r 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 f 8 0 8 8 k 00 8 8 8 8

162, and on Kifi\

" I know not", v. 163, 3.

For "neither nor" ft, ft, or ft, ft, (neque neque) is always used; and in such cases, when Nouns are contrasted with one another by means of "neithernor", the negation.
(*) [The second ft, is wanting in PKAETOBIUB' reprint of PLATT'S 'N. 2V]'

 198.

513

must be repeated with the Yerb (v. supra, a):Q)h fifalD*'} s ft* a** s IFthd^ s a)K,rtA0 "and they shall neither meet with grace nor peace" Hen. 12, 6; A . 0 A M l s fflAWtfiA. s Kffi^mOh "neither angel nor man receives (it)" Hen. 68,5; fl)A K? lT' <D A^oflP" AJflUAlh s >JtC "neither its extent nor its magnitude could I see" Hen. 21,7; Luke 9,3; ft,flM * - O f f r W h S W S l O A . j & f l ^ P Hen. 52,8; \\ao i J u A ^ A * 0jfc*;*} i ft P'hTr Gen. 14,23. fllft. occurs in this way thirteen times in succession in Judges 1,27. Cf. also 2 0 6 , 1 ( ) . 198. 2. Interrogative Sentences. I n Interrogation the idea, 2. interabout whose existence or non-existence the questioner desires in- sentence*: formation, is thrust forward to the head of the sentence; and by ~ "
fl
2

( a )I a

"

dependent

the peculiar arrangement of words which is thus effected, conjoined Interrogawith the character of the accentuation, the form of an interroga" tion may in this simple way be impressed upon the sentence. Such a simple type of interrogation, however, is of somewhat rare occurrence in Ethiopic, although illustrated in Gen. 26, 9 ; Matt. 12, 29 (in both passages, introduced by words which often appear in questions). I f the use of any interrogative word is avoided, the question is very often introduced by ( I : H "is it the case, that?" [est-ce que?], e. g., (is \Wt\(D s Hp s *flftA, "is any one here?" Judges 4, 20. But usually recourse is had to regular interrogatives. (a) The interrogative which is most in use is the enclitic V ( 161, a), through which, however, the interrogative clause receives no definite colouring, seeing that it may be followed equally by an affirmative and by a negative answer:Zi'YYfr sftfHfl<n*" f t l " hdPH ' <DflAF H'YTr "is your father, the old man, well? And they said, 'he is well'" Gen. 43, 27, 28; H " } ^ * iflCtl. "hast thou done this?" Gen. 3,13. I t need not be attached always to the first word: ftjP* : frflft : \\J\Yh " hOh * h9Y 0CY "dost thou belong to our people or to our enemies?" Josh. 5,13; and farther even at, and other conjunctions like*ftft' , may then stand at the head of the sentence:<DVlA-y' & 4 l * ' havfflt^ ftg<w> Mark 2 , 1 9 ; y. may be even repeated, if the sentence consists of several c l a u s e s : ^ ^ f t f " ^ ' (OK^thx^h Gren. 18,24.
tl0B : : ! D ! 0

(*) [FLEMMING reads (D^TtlYl- TR.]

( ) Hft*}flA

t o

" always continued by (Dft,.

33

514

198.

I f the force of the interrogation is meant to bear not upon a single word but upon the entire sentence, then fl, combined with or (IV-, ( = 'is i t the case?') frequently appears at the head of the sentence:flV"sft-ffts .0*0 "will he give him a stone?" Matt. 7,9; A** OPfllb M * Aft'Vf Gen. 4,9; Josh. 22,20; or, with still greater fulness, flV: H ('is it the case that ...?'), e. g.flV* MH fotfP-:W "have ye a brother?" Gen. 43,7; f l f r - IM1 "hast thou?" Gen. 19,12; ( i > iftAft J f ^ A C "must we look for another?" Matt. 11, 3 (where i)Aft is put before the verb, because it is specially affected by the question).
8 8
8

Negative questions, to which an affirmative answer is expected, may be expressed, it is true, by ft.If, e. g. ft,*}(l*flto 0o**t* "have ye not read?" Mark 2, 25; but yet, instead of that form, we have at command alsoftfaV?with or without a following H:hXfr flft">-h ^ r h , A 1"PWfr "have I not served for Rachel?" Gen. 29,25; Y\W M<th HWl-f Mh9 Gen. 37,13; andftfty*must be employed, when there is no verb in the sentence, or when the verb cannot begin the sentence on account of the emphasis falling upon another word. Even sentences like ftAO 'hk'i* "there is no woman" may be brought into the interrogative form by attaching to ftAO? or by placing (l^- before i t : 0V- ftAO nftiVf- Judges 14, 3. The particle tb ( 161, a) has pretty much the same force as and is often directly interchanged with it, but, as a rule, it seems to present farther a collateral suggestion of doubt or complete uncertainty or perplexity in the mind of the interrogator, or of tho person addressed: hflV}i> "is it lawful?" Matt. 19,3; ^ f t j Cl> "art thou aware?" Matt. 15,12; |v^<ni> ftj^ft/^h * ftftfrA "do men gather grapes of thorns?" Matt. 7,16; hti'* (another reading is Mi'Y' ') HJ&^lfft "art thou he that should come?" Matt. 11,3. I n Ps. 93,9 it appears in conjunction with !H"h4l> AftTfJ K.ii9d'h "he who planted the ear, shall he not hear?". Like V" it is also compounded with ftli and ft A 0 Ml> ^'fl'hfl^nVL h ^ l h g-HK- Matt. 5,46; ftVMM i-Od' ftinllVh Matt. 6, 25; fthl> :iP<Tf HCft H&Kh Matt. 13,27 (cf. ft*i^ Matt. 5,47; 6,26); ftAPl> h<" s fclfHl })0D ('is there not a time when ye have read?') "have ye never read?" Matt. 21,16. (b) The Interrogative for the Dependent Question is t%a*
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

 198.

515

"whether" or "if", orfthtn>(.170,1), here and there shortened (6) e n into ?tjr, e. g. Xiao s Ch> * h0 "H 'Thl ' h9Y'y - r
D e p

d e a t

I n t e r

'

* rogation.

-*fl : OhfcF*ao-Y- at^ao i

"to see if the water was abated from off the earth" Gen. 8 , 7 ; *J7 C\ : Khao s ( l * ^ f c ^ * 0.1- KlMl. A> "tell me whether there is a lodging for us in thy father's house" Gen. 2 4 , 2 3 ; ftfrQ ty'WP * iWao * g,jD~(i "they watched him whether he would heal him" Mark 3,2:also strengthened by ^ or fr:\\OOi ft*J i-lb i hCMh Matt. 26, 63; -}Chf>"haos 'kA,PA 27, 49; Aft"" ftfWVh * ft'i'gh "whether thy brethren are well" Gen. 37,14; OtAAA"* - a AAUJi ' t\t\0' %tl-fl Contendings of the Apostles (ed. WALLIS BUDGE, 1899), Ethiop. text, p. 399,1.11 sq.~] (c) I n Disjunctive Interrogation, ft<J> "or" ( 1 6 8 , 2 ) is<c) nisjuncpossible, it is true, as e. g. in Josh. 5 , 1 3 and Judges 2 0 , 2 8 ; but * ^ " a yet Gi %ao is usually employed instead of it, in independent clauses ( 161, a), e. g. (D^ao hSfaM " Jesus?" Matt. 2 7 , 1 7 ;
0 tl r g t o r

ft^fl

s VJ^C 17, 25. An additional

J- may also be appended to some later word in the disjunctive interrogation: ftjPA'TOr- <D<*t<n> : &9A-flMr- Matt. 2 1 , 2 5 ; M

i-ihh H&aoffa s at%ao : o>- h A K If} A G "art thou he that

should come, or is there another for whom we are to look?" Luke 7,19 ( in the corresponding passage in Matt. 11, 3, we have fllflV- s hAft)' I n Dependent Disjunctive Interrogation, (Dftcro or (Dht\OD is commonly used: ftChjK. * iXhao : dXiao s Rl^ao*: <Dh*D MiA ftfti^C Gen. 18, 21; Ah* : fri < 0 - h * * 1.A<0- * OJAK^w JwlfOh Gen. 27, 21; hw>: fcC * i ?i 7H,fc'fMi,C > (Dhh^ i hM Gen. 24, 21. The phrase "or not", coming after "whether . . .", in such dependent interrogations, is expressed by (Ohoo s ftAP, Judges 2,22; Hen. 89,63. [ A somewhat peculiar use of Whjh , to introduce an alternative suggestion, is met with in the p a s s a g e : * Afl* i\Tbt Wttd i H > h * ItffaTC i AA.i> Kfl" A M^T *fl>ftJ itf M*0* K ^ i " "the king's heart is filled with love for thee, that he may learn whether thou be (really) his son, or (perhaps) his brother" Kebra Nag. p. 30 & 21]. To this class of a k : sentences belongs also the passage f 'i*X * *IAA h9'iVti\ a>\\9 'f\ Li\ Matt. 9, 5; Mark 2, 9 (where h9 stands for ft<w, cf. 170,2, and the Acc. occurs in accordance with 182, a, a). (d) I n order to give an additional and special shade of meaning to an interrogation, use is made of other particles, such as ao
< 00 s 8 i D 1 ! a t f

33*

 (d) Strength- which

516

198.
o a

has been treated of already ( 162, ad fin.), or 4 ' PartLTeBin" " "really?" ( 169,3). also ( 169,10) may introduce interroga- questions denoting perplexity, which are the issue and expression pardoiefof of misgiving, e. g. p% s t l h i V H l : ft"fc "is she then thy wife?" Reply. Q. 9. The affix is also applied, hut merely to lend force and emphasis to the interrogation: ftriVfcfc \l0 AhA fl<l h"Hl ' ftfl "is there then only one blessing of thine, 0 father?"
i n d e e d ?

en>

Gen.

27,38.

Jifl} stands for "yea", "yes", as a reply in the affirmative, and ftAO for "nay", "no", as the negative reply, e. g. Judges 4,20. If, however, the question contains a request, Y%\f is employed to express consent, and Ji'J'flP to indicate refusal, or else the leading word in the interrogative sentence, to which has been assigned an emphatic position in the question,is repeated, e.g. Gen. 43,28; Judges 1 3 , 1 1 ; Matt. 16,13,14. Definite (e) Of the more definite Interrogative words, the first to be JveWordB:brought forward is the Pronoun which relates always to some o^i., person. No doubt we meet with the phrase oofr tl9Xl "what is y*H*andthy name?" Gen. 32,28; Mark 5 , 9 ; Judges 13,17 (like sptf >), others. ^ t ^ i p ] y because the meaning is: "who art thou by name ? ". has an Accusative form, but takes no Plural ( 147, b). I t may follow a Constr. St. as a Genitive: IDAi* * 0lh K"J"t "whose daughter art thou?" Gen. 24,23; Matt. 2 2 , 4 2 ; i\an(\fa>bi <ny "by whose authority?" Matt. 2 1 , 2 3 ; or the Genitive relation may be indicated by ttaofc as in Hen. 22,6, and in fit*: ao\. i : (DA* "whose damsel is this?" Ruth 2,5. So too the Dative relation may be signified by tif\ , g- Matt. 22,28. And with all the other prepositions also tro*/* y be combined: ?iJF**Vfls ao^ "from whom?" Matt. 17, 2 5 ; dhli* * a*** "for whose sake?" Hen. 21, 5 &c. Its usual position is at the head of the clause; but if the emphasis happen to fall upon another word in the clause, that word may precede i t : }\tt 'ii ' ' A^fr- ' ^A^^iA <1>-JP<JD "these instrumentsfor whom are they preparing them?" Hen. 53,4: Htf7<tA ' 110^ ' tV^h* "this spirit here to whom does it belong?" Hen. 22,6. The combination "whoever?" ("who at any place?", "who at any time?") may be expressed by the periphrasis '-who is he at all that?" &c, e. g. oofy s ahhi? ' Vf"A* fl*"A*A * tVflh * HJriA "what man soever would be able?" ('where is there at all a son of man who could . .?') Hen. 93,11.
(e)
s

m a

 198.

517

The corresponding Neuter Interrogative jP^-jh ( 147, b) is very often made use of, when the enquiry is about things. I t may take an Accusative form, combine with prepositions, and take the same positions in the sentence as ao\., e. g. HT/'p : 91*t' ' <D* Mi "what is this?" Hen. 23, 3. Notice the phrase 9 ^ : ('what hast thou (/".) come to?') "what is troubling thee?" Judges 1,14. Although at first employed merely as a Substantive, it may yet take to itself, in an appositional relation, Substantives as well as Adjectives:(Yhlfi* * 9'}'t' * "by reason of what vision?" Hen. 60,550 9t't' ' Oflfl s -flh" - "what reward have ye?" Matt. 5,46; JP*H : ftfcp "what evil?" Matt. 27,23. As 9 ^ virtually includes a predicate, it may, like Verbs of Being, assume a Suffix in the capacity of a Dative ( 178): JF '}*Hl : txti* "what are these to thee ? " ('for what to thee, these ?') Gen. 48,8; 9'ih*h : m-ft* s liTffc Vf*A* ('what is to thee &c ?') "what meanest thou by all this?" Gen. 33, 8. Besides, a Dative of this kind, formed by A may also be applied for the purpose of adding to the force of a statement: l\9'i't' Ah "IhAiftA "wherefore dost thou ask (for thee)?" Gen. 32,30; Numb. 14,41; [cf. also Kebra Nag. 107 b 14,16: 9l i \\ * ft"fc s H-t quae (tibi) haec est?, 9 1 l'\X : 0>? fsH QMis (tibi) hie est?]. 9Ti't often takes the interrogative affix y., e. g. 9 "i'i \ *%C "what is the good thing (&c.)?" Matt. 19,16. Farther, a Verb is often associated as predicate with oofa as well as with {P"}*jh, not directly, but by the intervention of the relative pronoun: 9Tf't' H't'C&.X ('what is there which is left for me?') "what remains for me?" Matt. 19,20; ao^ HJE-J^A? ('who is there that is worthy of it?') "who is worthy of it?" Matt. 10,11. Both interrogatives may stand equally in a direct and in an indirect interrogation, and may be rendered indefinite by affixing % or \ , or in Negative sentences by farther placing 0) A. before the interrogative ( 147,&; 197 &)\ and then h^l^X may be combined with appositional Substantives and Adjectives, just like the interrogative 9Tr l'> e. g. W M I K . s 91^X Om>*l Gen. 19,8; wKF^X ^A "not any word" Hen. 14, 7; ftAft ' 9 'i V\ "any other thing" Hen. 78,17.
0 , ! : w 0 : a u ht s 1 : a :

(*) [FLEMMINO'S

reading here is

j '}'i*

|0

', without the prepo-

sition. TE.j

518

199.

On v. 147, b, and on ft, 147, c. On ft-fc "where?", ftG "how?", "?ftH, "when?" and 0 ? ^ , 9'>'fr ASF"*^ "why?" c/". 161, a. ftC also stands frequently as a separate particle, in the same way as the other Interrogatives, and is followed by H or Xiao, e. g. ftC : Xiao : "Mist* *&S:^\ "how comes it that ye requite me with evil?" Gen. 44,4; ftg; H/i.^Aj'flfll- "how is it that ye do not understand?" Matt. 16,11. On %ao(i\Tf "how much?", "how many?", "how great?", and J|<pV and htl^t* "how much?", "how many?", "how often?" v. 1 5 7 , 1 . Two or more independent Interrogatives, of different signification, may be strung together, even without ID, e. g. ft : JP* Tfi* i ^ 7 7 4 - : Trccg TJ ri kakfjar^s Matt. 10,19. 3. Exciama 199. 3. Exclamatory Sentences, (a) I n the Exclamation tenoeg- single Noun may appear, detached and uninflected, e. g. ffhlr * (a \Tll "blameless! say ye" Matt. 23,18; "well!" Ruth 3,13; NoL! AA9 ft^' j "Hail! say I to Mary"; fa^a** d.CJPt "Life of Pharaoh!" i. e, "by the life of Pharaoh!" Gen. 42,15,16. I n fact the Vocative (142) is nothing other than a word uttered singly in this way as an exclamation. Such Vocative may also be preceded by the pronoun of the 2 Pers.:ft*}*lhs ft *Vf "thou! my brother!" and h^i* * ft*7lt,ftf "thou! my lord!" Gen. 33,9,14. On ftH "Father!" cf. supra 142. (6) with the (b) The Verb in an Exclamatory sentence, and in an affir^Afte^at i v e charge, appears in the Imperative; but with a negative i t takes the Subjunctive, e. g. *t9(b fl'ft.'hft'flA*"be ye angry, but
!
6

nd

m a

t i v e

Charges,

^ProM-

and the sin not" Ps. 4,5; Eph. 4, 26; hJt^axtiOh * A-fc Sir. 41,21. I f it himself or gives a command to another, then A makes bitione. its appearance, followed immediately by the Subjunctive: ftjF* ftltA Aft*"*^ ft'Jh "now would I willingly die!" Gen. 46,30; C7*0 ' AYl-"} * aoo^ao* "cursed be their anger!" Gen. 49,7; A^M i Gen. 1, 3; at-ft* : Aj&d4-fl * CftAtU Gen. 3,1.5; ti>&JK9 "let him do i t ! " Matt. 19,4 2; A^fc^AA Gen. 17,14; * AftYl-"} A0Ah Gen. 44,32. I f the sentence has two or more verbs in it, A either stands with the first alone, Gen. 9,27, or with more than one, Ruth 1,17. I n Negative clauses Aft. is not the form which is used, because A would be separated by ft. from the Verb, but on the contrary Xiao s ft,, Judges 21,1. Yet it is not absolutely necessary that this Subjunctive be introduced by
6

o n e

m c

e s

 199.

519

A or Xiao: e. g. we have ^fl >A 'fl Matt. 22,24; 4 ^ ? * Matt. 26,66; Gen. 9,26; Ruth 4,11; Ps. 102,1,2; MH.ft'Ofh.C * A + -flh i ft^tf-A- KYl-je. Ps. 120,7; and v. 5; j K - M * A* i TH* : ^ A . ' h U * flH't U9G "let us have a Christian emperor in this city!" Chronique de Jean, p. 183, 1. 19 sq. [ft^^Vfl* " I will go" Kebra Nag. 113 b 1 var.]. V*J is often employed as a hortatory particle, e. g. t(h ' T>-4> Gen. 11,4,7; n , * ' JdCA-fc^ A f t * ? -Itf'A ihWB <-Af * i flftA* ?0 C"ft* tf-Ah<">- lflCA*t^T' "the church of the apostolic Athanasius is in names! come and help us, all ye Christians!" Chronique de Jean, p. 116, 1. hsq.; and it may even appear independently: s HP ''come thou hither!" Ruth 2,14 (v. 160, a). I n the case of a strict and very emphatic command, to which no opposition is expected, the Imperfect appears, instead of the Imperative or the Subjunctive: it is, for instance, of very frequent occurrence in the ordinances of the Pentateuch. Infinitives are rarely met with in Exclamatory sentences:there is, to be sure, the saying of common life: HhV h ' E T "what has happened, its happening (be to it)!", that is " i t is a thing finished", fa^f too, 3 Kings 19,4 "enough!" ( ' I have had enough')is manifestly an old Infinitive form with a Suffix: "sufficiency for me!"; for h i sometimes signifies "it is enough" Deut. 2, 3; 3,26; Numb. 16, 3.
!

(c) Entire sentences even, unfurnished with a Yerb ( 193 sq.), ( < 0 Entire may form the Exclamation. I n these, as a rule, the predicate forming the omes first, and the copula,between subject and predicate,is -wantingC), e. g. A'flfh* * AV7li.h-fl<h.C "praise (be) to God!"; AA0 * Ah "peace (be) unto thee!" Judges 6,23; MfLhUdyC VtlMl**** "God (be) with you!" Ruth 2,4; f K - h : np>0Kh moo Kqnh-dihtC Matt. 21,9; 23,39; Hen 9,4; fc^A'*^ A i *3 -A ft*7H.h ^ V ^ A * "Holy, Holy, Holy Lord of Spirits!" Hen. 39,12; -Yfl * f^Xx 0*7flMl "for thy husband be thy desire!" (lit 'to thy husband be thy recurring!') Gen. 3,16. Hence the oath-formula: ft\$0h s ftV : <D/h^0> A0P Numb. 14,21,28 ( in the latter verse the last two words are omitted,
:

(*) I n Hen. 22,14 (D-fti: is the Subject. DILLMANN'S, this <D*ft*|3 is left out. TR.}

[Besides other slight dif-

ferences which FI/EMM TOG'S reading of this verse exhibits, as compared with

520

199.

but "hao s ftti are added); Deut. 32,40; fopOh : hh : W^'h t (read (DX10 ) aoyi/*? Judith 2,12; fa?ab : fc<7H.&-n,fi.C (followed by \\W) Judges 8,19; Ruth 3,13. id) special ($) Of special words in Exclamation we have fl#h "Hail!"^),
"Word s iii Exciamation

an Accusative, it would seem, 2 John, 10; flrfi s <fl "Hail! - Master!" Matt. 26,49; flrh : 'i'frw : ft^D-Jt "Hail! King of the Jews!" Matt. 27,29; and even with Suffixes: "Hail to you! (f. pi.)" %aipsTs, Matt. 28,9. The opposite expression is af or hft, "Woe!", varied by A A ( ) "Woe! Ah!" (61 and 167,1, a). The first two of these words are always followed by A, e. g. <DAtU or fcA, Ah. Matt. 11,21; fcA, Ah*"* Matt. 23,13 sqq.; [Kebra Nag. 67b 4sqq.]; but Aj&A invariably takes a Suffix, e. g. A>A? "Woe is me!" Ps. 119,5. To ward off anything, or protest against or deprecate anything, *hA (*hrt)r 163, 3, is made use of, either in an isolated position: ghfi * %1 XLh K/ThTflC ' WO*: hit Gen. 18,25, or more frequently, followed by a Dative: A\fi s A/I" TttlH^h "be it far from me, Lord!" Acts 10,14; . / i r t : All : V 7 H > Matt. 16, 22; thtl ' Hh Josh. 22,29; *hA A"* " Gen. 44, 7. If a Verb has to be attached thereto, it is subordinated either by means of the Subjunctive: Matt. 16,22; Judges 19,23; Gen. 18,25; or by means of JiAh and the Imperfect: fhA * tih hAh V"V"7 "be it far from us to forsake !" Josh 22, 29; 24,16; dxti A / h htlh * hl-dC A T T J * hIC Gen. 44,17. To strengthen the Imperative, A and ftAYh ( 162) are used; also, -fl^Ofc ( 163, 3), e. g. -fl^Ofc A.4 C. "I beseech thee, Master, look . .!" Luke 9, 38; 'fl^Ofc s hlfLh * JWlrhfc "O my lord, suffer me, I beseech thee, to . . .!" Gen. 44,18; and in the plural -fl^fl-Jr 2 Cor. 10,1; -fl^fj-jr s hPhtl*? "my lords, I pray you . .!" Gen. 19,18. An Interjection of joy as w ell as of derision is met with in }\}$ "bravo!", v. 162. ie) optative (e) The Verb may likewise be put in the Subjunctive to exstaruT* P 'Wish, but the Perfect also may be employed, just as in Conditional Clauses ( 205) which are allied to Optative ones: llMttl- KP : fl^-^Jl sUpoijui Gen. 34,11; Ruth 2,13; tf-/J Aflrhtl sft"1r<hahsaaiaav Gen. 49,8; Sir. 36,4; Tob. 11,16.
2 ! J 10 ! T
E

r e 8 s

(*) Corresponding to still obscure.

2

the Arabic

-^i,

and, as regards its origin,

( ) The ground-form seems to be AJR.

. 200.

521

Yxoo " i f ! " and ftjP ( 170) are words specially used to introduce Optative clauses, e. g. h9Y ih\l si sumpsisses = debebas sumere Matt. 25,27; [ H A * : h9*&9h l"th " i f thou only hadst taken" Kebra Nag. 66h 2; so also 0/h*fc in Annal. Joh. I . p. 3, 1. 10; p. 6, 1. 24 sg.], as well as the conjunction flfl "when", which is used, like for "would that!"; flfl : "would that we had died!" Ex. 16, 3; flfl : *fth : f D i f l t f "would that we had remained!" Josh. 7,7. Farther, a Wish may be introduced even by the interrogatives "who? what? when? where? how?": tn^ t ffltfflV ' d 't " 0 that one would give us rest!" Hen. 63,5; ao *h " $*lhf\\ " 0 that one would give me!" Hen. 95,1; also with 1%9 =*dv prefixed to the verb: </oy,: f\9Xl^t\X "0 that one would assign to me!"; (cf. 2 Kings 15,4); or withft<w>(v. supra): <w>V-: ho*o i h^i-flh tMb-p A l M l flWW: " 0 that one would give this people into my hand!" Judges 9,29; Numb. 11, 29. (f) For "how!" "how very!" occurring in Exclamatory ut- (f) Various terances, "% ( 147, b) is employed, e. g. " t . h ^ J "how charming!" * ^ " Cant. 4,10; and also ftC ( 161, a) and even Xiao, e. g. \\ao : w Particles. VJ^ {DQu**a\ ' CTti^'U "how fair and pleasing is its appearance!" Hen. 32,5. The expression of enhancement "how much more!" is rendered by ftc ^ - R ^ f t ( 161, a); for "how much less!" or Y\(Z\h "how then!" may also be used: "our money even we have brought back, (IfhWAh ' liiCfy Ji9fl,^*h (DC$ how much less would we steal money out of thy house!" Gen. 44,8.
a

( G T J T B I ) ,

10

na

2. CONNECTED SENTENCES.
(a) C O P U L A T I V E C L A U S E S .

200. 1. The conjunction <D or the enclitic % "also" ( 168,3) i. copuiaserves to join together words, or it may be clauses, into a series. ^ ^ ' The particular discourse may be continued, it is true, by merely ^ placing two or more of its members side by side as co-ordinates, some other and without the intervention, in their case, of connecting particles, e- g- A f l - A OflJE, flHNS-f) Hen. 10,1; 15,4; but this is an unusual proceeding; even in numerical statements the individual numbers are united by special particles. I f a word or a clause has not only to be connected with a preceding one, but to be em.phasised at the same time as fresh material, the arrangement
t l e d Partlcles 8 s

522

200.

W% or tD\ ( 168, 3,4) is made use of, and may often, in certain circumstances, be repeated.If an additional Noun bas to be connected with a Noun which has not been expressly mentioned, but has merely been indicated in the Verb or in aPron. Suff., the Noun which has been thus previously indicated is again brought under notice by means of a separate Personal Pronoun, placed directly before the new Noun, as in \\ao : JrVJflC * fi^hi* : flJ'flh A.* Ruth 1,1; Judges 19, 9; Matt. 25, 9. A Verb, A d jective or Pronoun which is referable to two or more Nouns connected by "and", and precedes the series, may either take the Gender and Number of the nearest and most important one merely, or of the whole series, the Masculine Gender being taken by preference when the members of the series are of more genders than one, e.g. whft'l}'*Who*' Judges 14,5; fBhlC^i tlhft'lb ' (Dtiha * Judges 14, 2 (v. also 172, c). When, however, the Verb, Adjective or Pronoun follows the series, it must, as a rule, take the Plural. On the other hand one and the same Noun may become the Object of two or more Verbs connected by fl). I n such a case, if the second Verb comes after the Object, it usually repeats and assumes it in the form of a Suff. Pron.;v., however, as an exception AjJ*JHr- "h&l * Hi0 ' COOvYVfV (not fl) aohTft ) Chrest. p. 45, line 21 sq. I n Ethiopic, the most general connecting particle,viz. 01, suffices to join clauses together, even in those cases in which other languages, more accurate in their expression of logical relations, make use of other uniting-words or particles. fl) is the usual equivalent in Ethiopic for the Greek particle of continuation Zi, and in many cases it serves to indicate even the adversative "but", e. g. Matt. 7,3; 16, 26; only, when some individual idea in the attached sentence has to be contrasted with an individual idea in the preceding one, the form A, or still more frequently fl)A ( 168, 5), is employed. A n Infinitive even may be continued by a finite Verb, as in :ft*7H,ft flJ'f'Afflh Chrest. p. 42, line 9 sq.; Eccl. 8,16; and, conversely, a finite Verb may be continued by an Infinitive, e. g. flV>-h : HA^&hfc : A . * * (D-frOZP^h * hhr*i
0 ; t 1 !

h h G. Ad. 57, 9; V>H : f-V/"/" : * * A * W9Xh>f> hr*i&

A ' IK VRC ibid- 78,24. Circumstantial Clauses C) also, which
l

0) V . on this subject EWALD, 'Gr. Ar: 670; Hebr. Spr.\ 306, c and 341.

 200.

523

are thrown in, as the discourse proceeds, for the purpose of describing more minutely some object, circumstance or situation previously mentioned',are in like manner attached to the principal clauses by <D, e. g. (ift : = A,f-fimA * IDA,* * *l * 9\f yfkxrsv eig OIK/CCU ' lovarov, ov ij QIKIOC r/v avvoptopovaa rfj cvvayayfj Acts 18, 7. I n these Descriptive Clauses, however,as has already been pointed out in 196, c, a, the Subject must, as a rule, come first, and usually i t has additional prominence given it by the attachment of the affix fl, e. g. "the angels came to Sodom in the evening, <DA"pA MA" W l C ' fl^A'f* ' MQK as Lot was sitting within the gate" Gen. 19,1; 20,4; 21,5; 24,62; Numb. 22,22; Judges 13,2. Still, Descriptive Clauses of this kind, introduced by fl), are not nearly so common in Ethiopic as in Arabic. Much more frequently Ethiopic makes use of the conjunction Txttt ( 170, 5) to introduce Clauses of Circumstance, e. g. Gen. 18, 1; Judges 8,11; Ex. 12,11; Hen. 32,3. But even without Kifl or fl), and merely in asyndetic apposition, a circumstantial clause may be added to the principal clause: cf. 189,3, c, and cases like mKY' UAoMn-: fcAfl 3.(1 "Ifff ' *7Am Hen. 14,24;
8 8

<>ncv owii* iH9 - WF-ttf m/i^Auflfr > A Pfu, Chrest. p. 31, line 17 sq.Finally, at is largely employed in Ethiopic to connect together clauses which stand related to one another in Temporal or Logical Sequence. No special Waw consecutivum is known in Ethiopic, such as we have in Hebrew, nor even a o as distinguished from ^, such as occurs in Arabic. Both in narrative diction and in the prophetic style, the individual propositions must always be strung together by the same connecting particle fl); and if the succession in time or thought has to be indicated with greater exactness, this must be effected by the addition of special particles like a>h9H "and then" Judges 16,25; 19,8; or fl)( 169,2). And yet there can be no doubt that this fl), although it is undistinguishable, in pronunciation or form, from the common connecting particle 09, carries with it very often a more forcible signification than the latter. Coming after temporal or conditional clauses,the apodosis of which is usually annexed to the protasis without the interposition of any Conjunction,this fl) may with special effect take its place at the head of the apodosis, e. g. |Afl &%KC G*>&K* "and when he looks,
8

524

then he sees" Gen. 29,2; "if he brings me back again . . . safe and sound, IDjE-hfl**^ h j P ' A t l . P then shall he be to me my God" Gen. 28,20 O ; and similarly after a question: %aof^i*\b ft"fc fl>M Ml * ftl'flh "how much will ye give me? so shall I deliver him up to you" Matt. 26,15. When, farther, subsidiary qualifications precede the principal clause, (D is often used to introduce effectively the principal clause itself, e. g.ftft^ flflA 0 P6&. (Dh*' K'h "for there are yet seven days, and then will I bring" Gen. 7,4( ). Lastly, two actions, of which the first is the condition and premise of the second, may be connected by this more significant fl), e. g.\"I have heard say of thee \ \ 0 O : A^Vflh rhA.tf <D<S.tlGft that thou requirest merely to hear a dream, in order to interpret it at once" (lit. 'that thou hearest a dream and dost interpret' aKovaavra as ivwrvicc cvyKpTvcci aura) Gen. 41,15. <D is very often employed with a following Subjunctive, to supply the result contemplated in a foregoing action, especially after a summons: f*,3*flfr (DJifi'&dY), * "gather yourselves together, that I may tell you, or then will I tell you" Gen. 49,1; Deut. 32,1; Judges 14,13; Ps. 49,8; 80,8; or after requests, e. g. Matt. 26,53. I n the same way a Wish or Command,which is derived, like a consequence, from a foregoing transaction,is associated with the foregoing clause by fl) followed by an Imperative or Subjunctive, e. g. "this time too hast thou told me lies, (DhP'&OX now tell me truly" (avayyeikov fxoi) Judges 16,13; "Who has given you permission to practise hatred? fl)j&Ch'flh ti^Th } Yf*5ffc May doom therefore light upon you sinning ones!" Hen. 95, 2( ).
8 8 8

00

00

But while Ethiopie may in this way employ the particle (D, invested with a special significance, to indicate various relations, it has at command in most cases farther particles and Conjunctions, which express these relations still more definitely. Accordingly

(*) [V. also, infra, p. 544, Note ( ); and cf Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X I X . ] ( ) I n other cases the same end is attained by asyndetic apposition:
2

AVhfl

Wfr

' (Id*

A & A :

ftPMbJD-f

Chfr

fl^?>

" I was sleeping in the house of my grandfather Malale'el (and then) I saw in a vision . .." Hen. 83, 3. ( ) [FLEMMING reads the Indie, here, OjE.^hfltotf '" ^ Subj. TR.]
3 1 a n n o t

 200.

525

the use of this more forcible at is not so common as in some other languages. Thus,to adduce only one instance, the Hebrew idiom 5 \T1 is rendered in Ethiopic much oftener by mini s ho "and i t happened that", than by at\\'i s CO. The counterpart of the stronger connecting word "also" is furnished by % ( 168, 3) and by still more emphatic in the sense of "alsofor his part". Even in Negative Sentences the same connecting particles are i n use, thus: (Dh,, IDK.%, (DK.\, H. & c , "and not", "nor", "nor even". To' express a statement i n better terms and to place one thing beside another as being equally possible, use is commonly made of ftlD* "or", on D rare occasions of at "and" ( 1 6 8 , 1 ) , oftener of Oi'h *t. ((D'h0 %) 'sive", "or even", and of mfihoo, mho* ( 1 7 0 , 1 ) 0 . (Dh^M* serves for the disjunctive " o r " ( 170, 1). On the repetition of these particles, to express "eitheror", "whetheror", v. 206. On " o r " i n disjunctive interrogation v. 198, c. 2. Adversative Clauses are indicated byfl>(v. supra, No. I ) , - A d v * tvnd more emphatically by the enclitic l\ or by 03fl, ef. 1 6 8 , 5 . R e s t r i c t i v e To introduce an opposite statement after a negation and assert aD 2 a n d Inte

,.

"tying ( 168,6)

the affirmative, }\/[ " b u t "

is used, as well as Ji'JflA d

ai

Additions

HiVJflA ( 1 6 8 , 7 ) ; but yet the last two particles, in conformity with sentence, their fundamental meaning, have almost always the force rather of "but only , e . g. CM4- KC-Ktl-*' HiVJflA ' his form ye saw not, but only (heard) his voice" Deut. 4, 1 2 ; or: "the sound in health do not need the physician, HK'JflA i*iA'Prh""* but only they that are sick" Matt. 9 , 1 2 ; John 6 , 3 8 ; 9 , 3 1 ; Ps. 117. 17; 130,3. I n many passages this form answers directly to our "except" ( 5 / fj.i(), e.g. Matt. 5 , 1 3 ; dial. 1 , 1 9 ; Hen. 6 9 , 1 1 . As a correcting and affirming particle, S\t\0' "but rather", "on the
s

(*) These forms, <DXi7l>y., which has begun, e. g. E x . 21,87;

tOh\\ %
ao

at-fihao
n

Sic.

may, like

ftflK

be inserted in the sentence, without in the least disturbing the construction

[fflAil

AiHflfl > Hrti+ = AU fOW^H. ' (110 frl'dlll A-tth lltf-?* mh^-V. fH'fl'Th
AVALLIS BCDGE, 1900),

Miracles of the Virgin Mary (ed.

Ethiopic text,

p. 2 7 b 16 sq.]; but such a form may also, acting as a conditional particle, combine with the word which it attaches to what precedes, to form an independent clause, e.g. 29;
22,6.

(D ++A ' flhA, s tl)A*i<"Y.

,

flftiW" E x

2 1

>

526

200.

contrary" (168, 9), is also often met with, e. g. Judges 15, 13; Gen. 35,10. The restrictive word 0/h'l- "only" ( 168,8) is very frequently used in the sense of "still", "however", aXkd, juaXkov, not merely in the middle of the clause, as in 1 John 2,19, hut even connecting clauses together; and in this latter case we have mostly the compound form ff3(\th* or (Dfl/Sh't, e. g. " I might do thee hurt, OJfl/h* J ftj^Ah * JMLAfc but God said to me" Gen. 31,29; flJft'flAVl^ * flAi* "but I say unto you" Matt. 17,11. "Nevertheless", "notwithstanding" may be expressed by (DA? c. gPs. 49,17, 18; or by JPAATJ "even with that", "in spite of that", e. g. 1 Cor. 14,21; Hen. 90,11; or by fltf"A-Tf "after all", e.g. Hen. 89,46. I n Negative sentences the same idea is also expressed by *p4* ("even" 163,1) along with ft., e.g. "although I was continually with you, ft,Yltf*>* : f* : ft.A^fhfa" " yet you did not stretch forth your hands" Luke 22,53; Matt. 21,32. However, in the apodosis of conditional sentences which are introduced by "even if", " i f only", "although", the idea"yet" is usually left unexpressed; v., for instance, Matt. 26, 35.
0

Intensification is expressed by the Adverbs T4* "even", "in-deed" ( 163,1) and <R*4-& "exceedingly", "still more", particularly in Negative Clauses, in which ft.p| or f t . answers to nequidem, e. g. in Ex. 11,7, as well as in Interrogative and' Exclamatory sentences. I n these last the phrase ft( sft*}h*<UCV means "how much more then?" when it comes after a positive sentence, and "how much less?" when it comes after one that is negative, e. g. Matt. 6,30; Heb. 12,25. The expression ^ J ^ A ? which has been explained above ( 163, 3), is also employed in this* connection. The purely restrictive "only" may certainly be expressed by fl/h*fc ( 163,2), as e. g. in Gen. 34,15; but, seeing that this form of the word is often used in the sense of "still", "however", fl#i -fc-J: ( 163, 2) has become the usual expression for "only". Besides, even \\ao is available to indicate that idea, cf. 162, and after Negative sentences ft'JflA and Hft'JflA "except" ( 168,7 and 170,4). However, just as,in the Classical languages,limitation is expressed not only by Adverbs, but also by inflected Ad-, jectives (juovog, solus), so Ethiopie in many cases prefers this morepersonal form of expression to the Adverbial one, and employs?

527

for this purpose the word fl/h't^h? already described in 157, with Suffix pronouns attached, e.g. \\?Ut flrh*fc# "him only" Matt. 4,10. 3. Generally the Conjunction ftfttfP ( 169,4) serves to intro- 3. causal duce a "cause" or "reason". I t is used with extraordinary fre- eMttiai quency, corresponding first of all to our "since", "seeing that", P e s Inf
Ex r

siona,

"because", and then farther to our "for", for which in fact Ethiopic has no other word. As it has a relative force, it may, together with the clause which it introduces, be even put before the clause containing the statement which has to be explained, e. g. (Dtitiao : ft AO * f^CO* P'flrt "and because it had no root, it withered away" Matt. 1 3 , 6 ; 2 2 , 2 5 ; Judges 15,2. I n the same way the Conjunction of comparison flh<7D or YlX\ao "as" is often used also in the sense of "inasmuch as" and "as long as", e. g. Hen. 8 1 , 3 ; Gen. 34, 7. A stronger form is found in flft"j*f : H "for this reason, that", "on the ground, that" ( 170,10). To indicate inferences or conclusions, Ethiopic has first of all the enclitic ft "thus", and ft"}h "then", "therefore", which nearly always has a place assigned to it after the inferred idea. Kip "then indeed" is rather a particle of interrogation and doubt, v. supra, 1 6 9 , 1 3 . A stronger form meets us in flft'J'f- : *H * 3 " f s or flft"} fH "for this cause", "therefore", e. g. Judges 15,19. I n the Bible the form flJj&ftti^ "and now", corresponding to nWM, is also of pretty frequent occurrence, e.g. Gen. 3 1 , 2 9 ; Judges 1 3 , 7 ; 1 4 , 2 ; 2 0 , 9 ; cf. also Hen. 9 4 , 1 , 3 .
! m r

(b) A T T R I B U T I V E R E L A T I V E C L A U S E S .

A Relative Clause in the narrower sense is usually i . Presence introduced by the Relative pronoun, which has been described in */^_ 147, a. Ethiopic has no other personal Relative, but it has cer- ductory tainly a special Relative Adverb of Place Vfl. ( 161, b) "where", n "in which" O , "whither", "to which", as well as ftfl> "when" or "while" ( 161, b), which often at least takes the place of a Relative Adverb of Time. Relative Clauses which, without the intervention of a Relative Pronoun, add a subsidiary qualification to some word in the Principal Clause, are doubtless possible in Ethiopic, but they do not occur so often as in other Semitic tongues, and they seem to be no more than the relics of forms which belonged to a more antique stage of the language. I n their case, it is all the
201.
ce
P r 0 0

0) [and sometimes even in the sense of "while", v. Kebra Nag. 102 b 20.]

528

201.

same whether the word, which is to be farther explained, is definite or not: ftT'Pft ' h960i'h "destroy the flesh, (which) has made thee angry" Hen. 84, 6( ); (\hCh? hCh Yhtl "according to the similitude (which) I showed thee" Ex. 26,30; 36,5; flAA^ ft.-fvhHfl "on a day, (on which) he looked not for (him)" Matt. 24, 50; ft.f } s (varr. KM * Vr") *1lA<{. 1 Esr. 2,48. Even in the later speech, a Eelative Pronoun may be dispensed with, and that most readily when an entire clause is dependent on a Noun standing in the Constr. St., e. g. in fltfD'PdA' fty*1'p * avtlQl* "in the days (when) the judges ruled" Ruth 1,1; Gen. 24,11; Lev.7,15,38; 13,14; 14,2; Numb.6,13; h<w>i KfrCir * dA+ i-mA h (var.: If+0>A"h) Sir. 23,14; aUth.^ f-laWHft- (var.: (\-(\A\.C s If-MOKD-th) Tob. 3,15 &c.; also in Aft l*V * 1 H * P'^C'd 0*H "when the time came, (that) the sun had to go down" Gen. 15,17. And it has already been observed ( 168) that not a few words, almost devoid of signification, which subordinate entire Clauses in this way, have been turned into Conjunctions, () when 1. (a) When, however, the Relative Pronoun is employed, it ^present, does not absolutely require to be supported by a Noun expressly supporting- mentioned. I t may assume a more independent or substantive
1 s : s

Noun is

sometimeB position, and become also correlative, i. e. to use our way of understood speaking, it may include its own Demonstrative, e. g. ]\Y\f 't s . " 1 7 "who (i. e. 'he who') believeth . . . . shall be saved" Mark 16,16; ^ A O " * : IIJMlAO- "they had not (anything) which they could eat" Mark 8,1. Accordingly H may signify "who", "what", "one who", "something which", "he who", "that which". Hence this simple Relative Pronoun is wont to suffice for the idea of "whoever", "whatever"; and only when it must take at the same time a distributive sense is it commonly doubled (cf. 159, #), as, for instance, in tf-A " * * HHrfAP ' " Afl* " $9Kh* "they are all to bring whatever their heart thinks right" Ex. 35,5. What is said here of H holds good also of *^fl and ftw (v. infra). No doubt, for the sake of clearness, and particularly when H has to refer to a somewdiat distant Noun, the Demonstrative may farther be expressly set down before the Relative Pronoun, as in flHft^J * HVftVh "(for) him who has been subjected to cleansing" Lev. 14,19; Gen. 15,17; ftA- ftA "those, who" Judges 6,10; HYlis Uh9
a 1 0 0 m D 10 !

( ) [FLEMMING, however, reads Jj'J'f- between

and the Verb, TE.]

 201.

529

Lev. 1,4; this however is by no means necessary. I f on the other hand the Relative Clause comes first, especially if it is not quite short, the reference to it is frequently indicated by a demonstrative pronoun, placed at the head of the principal clause, e. g. hti'-to* Kn,Ah fc<n>?* * fh-< Judges 7,4; Matt. 24,13. I n the case of a Relative Pronoun, such as has been described above, which stands alone, and includes within it its own Demonstrative, the distinctions of Gender and Number are carefully attended to; and the Case-relations, which such a Relative Clause assumes within the Principal Clause, as representing a Noun Substantive, are denoted, precisely as with any Noun, e. g. Hftj^V J&ft"1i'J Mark 16, 16; AJi ?h <n* s M^* * ftA ' ^ ^ ^ 7 4 "ye are not those who speak" ('it is not ye that speak') Matt. 10, 20; GJulb * HA"*! Chfl 0 Pd& " I saw one who had a hoary head (lit 'a head of days')" Hen. 46,1 ; Numb. 23,8; Judges 17,6; ^ A P * ^ * AftA ()&%* Ruth 2,3; Luke 9,11 (in accordance with 172, c); &ao s H4i"A "the blood of that wdiich he has slain" Numb. 23,24; Hen. 49, 3 0 ; jFAA ftA * T i s "with those who are dead" Ruth 1,8 &c. I t is worthy of remark that a Relative pronoun of the 3 Pers. may refer even to a l Pers., e. g. flJfthflKJ : HJ2.&A* (= JtAfl)) Sap. 9,12.
10 5 ! s t rd B t

Even to a separate pronoun which is virtually in the Genitive, the Relative may be referred by means of A, e. g- Ascensio Isaiae 7,20, and in the same way to a Dative (like Afl.K\^ "} ATiA), e. g. Asc. Is. 8,26; 9,21; 7,21; 10,16; 11,16( ). (&) On the other hand when the Relative pronoun refers to g a Noun expressly mentioned in the principal clause, which it Pqualifies like an attributive Adjective, while this noun at the same Noun is time precedes the relative clause, then it is not indispensably ^ d o n e d necessary that the relative pronoun [should agree with the Noun in Gender and Number: frequently the Relative H continues to keep its readiest form, as a general Relative sign ( 147, a) even when it refers to feminine and plural Nouns, e. g. aoiflniD* s C*i ^ s nh9lV"} "open windows, out of which" Hen. 72,7; M A
> : 2
( 6 )
w h U B a e 8 e n S u

(*) FLEMMING reads here (D0 '}&t*l fl<W*'j<{.A

2 ! e

lf^Afl* instead of DILLMANH'S

li", * - "the Spirit which bestows understanding" instead of

"the Spirit of Him who bestows understanding", TR.] ( ) Cf. TRUMPP, GGA 1877, p. IbUsqq.ad loca. 34

530

201.

*$ "wives, whom they might choose" Gen. 6,2. I f the Noun, with which the Relative is associated, is a Suff. pron., the reference is contrived by prefixing A to the Relative: JP*AAV A ?iA * C> "with us, who have borne" Matt. 20,12. I t is not, however, absolutely necessary that the Noun, to which the Relative refers, should come before the latter: on the contrary, i t may follow the Relative just like the Adjective (according to 188), e. g. hJt'tiC^ If<DJt4' M l A "gather not up the corn which has fallen aside" Lev. 19,9; Deut. 33,11. I f again the Noun has the adjunct Yf"A"> i t is very common for the Relative Clause to be inserted betweentf-A-and the Noun, e. g. WA* HJE^lflC s RM* s t<P& Numb. 31, 23 ; tf-A : H ^ I - f K - ' ^ A Deut. 1,18. Then too, the Attraction Attraction of the Noun to which the Relative refers, from the of Noun. p j j p j i i t o the relative clause, is a favourite turn in Ethiopic, just as i t is in the classical languages (*), e. g. Ohtli* ' \ Tfir A M l * * * OIC "into whatsoever city ye enter" Matt, 10,11; fDhM * U f Hje-A-t * "7? Ex. 17,1; fc^h-Mi- H<w>miH * V oytfi* " I have not found so great faith" Matt. 8,10. Or at least an adjective belonging to the leading Noun is drawn into the Relative Clause, as i n *fc'OC' XiChXi "this high
8 s r n c a c a u s e n ! 0 5

mountain, which thou hast seen" Hen. 25, 3. To this class belong also cases like a>3*4A K^lfUS ' KCKfr s 36,26;tf-A-* aofywtt* * nhfrh XVh O^h* - tit* 0Xrti&: thl' fao Xh h*?H.Ml#h,C * AdA.il Deut. 28, 61. Thus also we have h 0 flAi* "what day" ('the day on which') Gen. 3,5. I n particular, Yf"A"j when i t immediately precedes the H, is generally combined closely with the Relative, and is regulated then in its construction, not by the principal clause, but by the Relative clause, e. g. ^*7fl<- : Iff A* ' HftTh* ? "('and that') ye do everything which ( = whatever) is written" Josh. 23,6; Numb. 18,15; Deut. 6,1, 20; 11,3; 34,12, As regards specially the Adverb of Place *Yfl, i t may be employed, like U, correlatively, and may signify: "in the place where", "to the place where", "in the place whither", "to the place whither", e. g. fa ; -Jfl * C 0 Gen. 31,19; MHC "M ^h-ftth Judges 17,9; ^ A ^ ' f l f t ft?*Vfl * htfdOhh "gatherest (from) where thou hast not strawed" Matt. 25,24; tfi>AflA'l'"1fl s II A M1
p ! 1 1

O Of. EWALD 'Hfibr. Spr? 334, a.

531

"over where the young child was" Matt. 2 , 9 ; A . h A 3 " s -}fl : -fOCQ ' "hid* " found not (a place) where she could rest her foot" Gen. 8 , 9 ; rh4*A * &*Mi*W MAfl-V "it is a desert place, where we are" Luke 9 , 1 2 ; | Hfli: : TAI" * H% ' fl>^">4 -i s / ^ " V A T "who has treasures there where moth and worm do not destroy them" Chrest. p. 4 7 , 1. 9 ] . But *^fl may also he associated with some noun expressly mentioned before, in the first place, with nouns of place, as in *n>fif : -}fl : ftfn : "his place, where he sleeps" Ruth 3 , 4 ; Luke 1 0 , 5 ; as well as with names of things and names of persons; and in that case it fills the place of the Relative pronoun H, taking a corresponding preposition of place, e- ff- A ^ l A i " " fl"M f 0C*7 "the chariots (Acc.) into which he mounts" Hen. 7 2 , 5 ; 7 3 , 2 ; tfoAMH' OO^IP^ s fl-\fl : Ohm, s JP'P'PV "his avenging angels, to whom they had been given over" Hen. 6 3 , 1 , i n a way similar to that in which | j f may also be used in such cases, conjoined with a foregoing H, e. g. tithH'tt * "hti ' "ThfllW*?! Of "the nations to whom thou comest" Deut.
s n e s M !

12,29.

The Case-relations of the Relative Pronoun 2. Expreswithin the Relative Clause may be expressed in various ways. c^e-reil(a) The ordinary way of indicating these relations of Case is by treating the Relative Pron., though inflected according to within sell Gender and Number,merelv as a general mark of relation which, * 202. 2.
tlons o f C1 use

'

\,a) By aup-

needs to be supplemented by Personal Pronouns. To be sure, piementing when the Relative appears as the Subject of the Relative Clause, ' there is no necessity for its being supplemented by any Personal ^*' *" pronoun, because all needful supplementing is contained in the suff. to Verb itself, e. g. -flfcA. HPWiflJ-C "the man, who goes". I n like manner the supplementing process may be dispensed with, when the Relative has to take, as we would say, the Objective case or Accusative, because its Case-relation then is usually understood from the context, e. g. ^ J t C ' "hTrfr' mtffth "the land, which he has given thee". Still, even in this case, the supplementary Pronoun is just as often added as omitted, as in ftrhH'fl ttht'l? ao* s J- lhiD^A5 <* * "the nations whom ye shall (as heirs) succeed" Deut. 1 2 , 2 : and this is particularly necessary, when the Relative pron. refers to a Pronoun of the 1 or 2 Person. I f the Relative Pron. stands related as a Genitive to a Noun in the Relative Clause, this is indicated, not by the Relative but by a Suffix atb y a PerB a t d s ! ; ; p p s t n d

34*

532

202.

tached to the Noun: OIC s Ki* * A"? ' AJlC "a city, the name of which is Sychar" John 4 , 5 ; HAftr<h ' Chfo "the top of which will reach" Gen. 11,4; ftA ' h f t W " ' "whose hands are consecrated" Numb. 3,3. I n case the Genitive has to be expressed by a Preposition ( 186), the indication is given by attaching a Suffix to the Preposition; "the Church, ftii* A"fc " t * or by pre- ipf jPfa* s AMl as a servant of which I have been set" Col. netiary 1,25; "two servants, \lh H?,. :h9%\Fo^ one of whom".In prep, to ^he ay when the relation of the Relative pronoun in Suff. Pron. the Relative clause has to be assigned to that pronoun with the help of a Preposition, the usual practice is to place the Preposition, with a corresponding Suff. pron., after the Relative, and either immediately after it or separated from it by one or two words, e. g. VIC ' hJ* h9M "the city, from which" Josh. 20, 6; jPJ^C * hlrt* flfl^A*t^" "the land, in which he was born" Gen. 11, 28; fcd"7-* hli ' &*0+r " T T J * i fl,* "the pillars upon which this house standeth" Judges 16,26; ftuviW tU* "}flU- "to whom thou art come" Ruth 2,12; [0o|]7 * H*ih OhC ' *1lflU Contendings of the Apostles 1 5 5 , 8 ] ; -flJiA. : Hft.'fa A*fe - A"fc Mn.h'fldbC ' 'hfWM "the man to whom God imputeth not his sin" Ps. 3 1 , 2 . I t is but very rarely, in such a case, that the reference of the Relative Pron. to the Pron. Suff. which follows, is separately indicated by a A prefixed to the Relative, e. g. in AftA fl>"A't'f'< "'OA"h instead of a mere ftA Ex. 34,10. (5) By pre(b) But the Relative Pronoun may be treated also, in ^osttions" Ethiopic just as in the Indo-European languages,as an actual and signs Pronominal Adjective. On that view depends the second method the Rei. of assigning to the Relative its Case-relations within the Relative Pron. itself. Q That method consists in simply placing the signs of Case and the prepositions before the Relative, e. g. "money, flH s *V\ P T ' MlA with which we are to buy corn" Gen. 4 3 , 2 2 ; "he enquired about the time, flH : K A i ' C ^ P " " " WM1 at which the star had appeared to them" Matt. 2, 7; hldXl *flH* Ptlthi'h "he hath spoken to thee that wherewith he will lead thee astray" Deut. 13,6; Ex. 3 4 , 3 5 ; Gen. 31,32; Ex. 2 8 , 4 ; tf-A* * OhMr HflUt* fl*<p0D- "every (thing), upon which the dead body of (any of) them falleth" Lev. 11, 32, 35; ^ f l s HCftJl a>C" * al&Jh 4*J?A "upon whom thou seest the Holy Spirit descending" John 1,33; hh9C * AH^7-flC yvu&t rlvi notslg Sir. 12,1; ftAO AH
0 s s t s a m e W ! s 1 ,,> a u s e # 0 ! s

533

ftHH "he has commanded no one" Sir. 15, 20; tO\00 * "fill s flH'h [\ty>.p " i f thou hast anything, through which thou art profitable to him" Sir. 1 3 , 1 4 , (DUflov : Afl flH r h , A Kctpbitzv Tfbuxs liavosia&cci ccvra Sir. 17, 6; dd * flH - H f l C Sap. 14, 7; ft AC AH P*V$C? <iiAfl titi<LCir "he (God) shuns no one, and is afraid of no one" (while, without A, the meaning might be: "no one shuns him, or is afraid of him") Clem. 204, b. Occasionally the two forms of construction are so blended together, that the preposition is both placed before the Relative pronoun, and repeated after it with Suff. pron. in the Relative Clause itself, as in "blessed are they, A?iA * /urhAf) * A"" " Iff* A- : %??-OT>* Ps. 3 1 , 1 ; fl)P : MldWfl : ^ A l * ^ h A / f - Matt. 2 5 , 1 5 ; fl^h i m^-p : HftTh Ex. 1 7 , 5 ; 30,4, 36; 3 9 , 1 7 ; Lev. 1 1 , 3 4 &c. (c) Meanwhile, longer prepositions are not usually placed ( ) By before the Relative Pronoun; but Ethiopic has acquired the remark- l^otmana able faculty of placing them after it ft: 9f:C M't *Vfl ^ ^ j j " KJiV "the land, to which we have come" Gen. 4 7 , 4 ; "hftfr : H"1ffl "stones, in which" Lev. 1 4 , 4 0 ; : tift?"* s fl>dH- ^ < P l p " I counted the gates from which they came forth" Hen. 3 3 , 3 ; 'YP "ifD : KA - h^'YH &fD&'h ' 0th& "the gates (Acc.) from which the sun comes forth" Hen. 72,3; <flH-1 : ttK9'tK <h&. tffr"r R *fl?i AAA s ft*/* "more numerous than have been described (here) were the wars which the king had to conduct" (lit. 'more than what has been written of (here), (was) the warfare which was by the king') Histoire des guerres d' 'Amda Sybn (ed. PEEETJCHON, Paris 1890), p. 113, 1. 14 sq. But quite short, monosyllabic prepositions are never, as far as known, placed after the Relative Pron. in this way. The placing of the Preposition before the Relative, the relation of which within the Relative Clause is pointed out by the preposition, occasions no dubiety of any kind, when the Relative pron. refers to a Noun previously mentioned. But when the Relative is employed in a more correlative and substantive sense ( 201), as in the sentence. ^ f l i IICKM P><DCr * WTrtM 4J?-A "upon whom thou seest the Holy Spirit descending", this mode of expression is permissible only i f there is no possible doubt
1 0 ! c P r o n w h i c h t h e y g o v e r i u , 1 9

(*) Like quocum, or wherewith, whereupon &c.

534

202.

regarding the reference of the Relative pron. within the principal Clause. The Preposition occurs before the Relative with most frequency, when it depends both on the Verb of the principal clause and on that of the Relative Clause: ftft*5 ' M l A * "Vfl ' ftA ' hfl ft. s f l A " I will glean ears of corn with those with whom I find favour" Ruth 2, 2. By virtue of that freer use of the Accusative, which is described in 174 sq., the Relative pron. may, in several cases in which other languages have it preceded by a preposition, be simply subordinated in the Accusative; thus, in particular, when it is associated with an expression of time, as in flhAft'lh * 'iao* t HlDah* "in the second year after they had come out" Numb. 1 , 1 ; ftjF"}<7D-"|: ff-f^fffn "from the year, in which he bought him" Lev. 25, 50 ; Ps. 8 9 , 1 7 ; and in other cases also, such as 3Nlft * H ^h|"flH "the oil (Ace), with which they are anointed" Ex. 35,28; 38,25 (for which, in Ex. 40, 7, we have H P * = ^ 4 " f l h ) ; and still more freely in {P*"J*lh * TP?> Hftl*Jh5i "what is my guilt that (or 'on account of which') thbu dost pursue me?" Gen. 31,36
,

(but
3.

yet v. 2 0 3 , 1 , a). 3.
s

The Relative construction is a favourite one in Ethiopia, t i o n a ^ P e r i - ^ ^ ^ frequent use. Above all, Participles which may be phrastic wanting in the language, as well as Adjectives, are periphrasticfor ally indicated by Relative clauses, e. g. W&iRR "burning" Hen,
Relative
an

P a r

and

l e S

1 4

Adjectives,

5 ^K9hot "unwitting" Gen. 2 0 , 4 ; Htf8 "ft or HJE -hOH? "future"; HUA" "present" Rom. 8 , 3 8 ; HJ&^HlC "so-called" Hen, 17,4; HHGft "sower" Matt. 1 3 , 3 ; H A U $ "the elder"; H ? ftft "the younger" Gen. 19,31 sqq.\ HA^A9 "everlasting"; H4 ^<io "the earlier" Deut. 10,4. I n particular, those Adjectives, which express Capability or Incapability of any kind, are indicated in this circumlocutory fashion, such as H4 'lhA "deadly" Ps. 7, 14; WfiOOO** "mortal"; liKP' ^* "immortal"; H f t J & ^ ^ m l "immeasurable"; H f t J ^ ^ - A ^ "innumerable"; HKPtli'CK "invisible" &c. I n the same way the privative Adjectives of our tongues are expressed, and those which in our tongues are compounded of two or more words, e. g. 'h^P'i s (ftA 0 lt*6i& ftA |Kn>- "unnumbered elect" ( 201, init.); * <$ao*t "threes year-old" Gen. 1 5 , 9 ; HftAP "waterless" Ps. 1 0 6 , 4 ; Hx* * Ki* faAtai* htfttf "a two-edged sword" Judges 3, 16; HftAP s<*.<*A "incurable" Deut. 2 8 , 2 7 ; H f t A P : V P "innocent" '
1 2

00

m:

 202.

535

Ex. 23, 7. Even when a corresponding Adjective does exist in the language, the periphrastic rendering by means of a Relative clause is often preferred, as being more forcible or more elegant, as in Hf OA. -am * mtiWhtl * -am "the greater light and the lesser light" Gen. 1,16; ftA s i*C4* "the remaining" John 6, 12; Josh. 21,26; Hffttv, (for ftfc/Z.) Matt. 12,45. Farther, an A d jective is frequently connected with its Substantive by means of the Relative pronoun,-not only when it has an adverbial adjunct along with it, as in MhpOh: A'JAj" "the ever-living one" Hen. 5,1, but also when it must be emphatic: h9Y 'ft"}A A lT}ft./h "of clean beasts" (contrasted with the unclean) Gen. 7,2; fl)A,C" Hfl tfvf- "her firstborn son" Matt. 1, 25; Gen. 25,25; 27,19 (as against Gen. 38,6)(*). That the Possessive pronouns H^ftf &c. are often joined to their substantives by means of H (e. g. Gen. 37,7; 31, 18, 21), has been remarked already (v. supra, 150, b).
0 s

The Relative style is also employed in many instances to attach any kind of subsidiary qualification to a Noun, e. g. flipfe s 1rf"A ' UOhh't : A"?^ IHd " I observed all the works (done) in Heaven" Hen. 2 , 1 ; ft-flC ' Wh9 h'd'i * VlflhC "mountains (com* posed) of precious stones" Hen. 18, 6. And in almost every case our preposition "without",for which otherwise ft*}OA (p. 403 sq.) is alone available, is expressed by HftAP, e- g.ftO*7A* lift A 1 1 s ?A *fi "sheep without shepherds" Numb. 27,17. Finally, as has been pointed out already, (v. 197, c), either the impersonal and adverbial Relative H quod, or the personal Relative pron., is employed with special frequency after the negatives ft*i and ftAfl, e. g. ft*i s tf-A-: HJrVflAfc V?H.ft * ft?H.ft" lfflfl>*ft AWl^ 0 "} 7/ 'f" s A ? ^ ^ "not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter (lit. "is he who shall enter") into the kingdom of heaven" Matt. 7, 21. I n like manner examples will be found in 197, c, which show that in the circuitous rendering of "no man", "nothing" &c. by means of ftAA H > the verb may occur in any mood which the connection imposes upon it, and particularly in the Subjunctive: ft AO* HPUA - "there shall be no man . . ." Lev. 16,17; Josh. 6,10; Matt. 16, 20.
a ! D f M 0 8 s

( ) That fltf*C precisely is so often joined to its substantive by the Relative pron. may doubtless be explained, besides, by the fact that its proper meaning is "first birth" not "firstborn".

536

203.

4. Position 4. The position of the words in the Relative clause does not I BSST differ essentially from the arrangement in the ordinary sentence., clause. Only, if the Relative pron. is supplemented by a preposition which has a suff. pron. attached to it, this preposition very often comes, immediately after the Relative (v. examples given above). And just as in any sentence (v. 196) a word may acquire special emphasis from being placed at the head of the sentence, so in Relative sentences too the word or words which have to be emphasised precede the Relative pron., e. g. (Dh+PdM * b&Jt* f^hil' <DT *9 ' HAdAV "now Jericho was strictly closed, and had a (good), wall round i t " Josh. 6 , 1 ; aoXft : ftjF'H 11&1C9 "a place still more frightful than this" Hen. 21, 7(*); <D*Mt- i Mitt * *h9C "and who did all the wonders" Josh. 24, 17; fl}flj& * H-HIUA "that which was said by the prophet" Matt. 21,4; fl?iAs *1ffllrf* A- A-flh- (Dp*?*)* * HJ &hOH'J : h.frdh "a man shall not go in unto any of his own near kin or of his own flesh" Lev. 18,6. I n some instances a word would seem to be put first, not entirely for the sake of emphasis, but rather with the aim of giving a certain polish to the sentence: this, accordingly, is a question of greater or less refinement in style ( ).
0 s 2

(c) CONJUNCTIONAL R E L A T I V E i subject or Object expressed

e nt 1 ig e b e
53

CLAUSES.

c 203. 1. I f the Subiect or Obiect of a Sentence cannot be

' . .

expressed by a noun, but must be indicated periphrastically by an ^ ^ " entire Clause, the Clause, which in this way declares the Subject (a) Deciara-or Object, may be attached by Relative Conjunctions, which antive Clause introduced -i i

by H.

swer, generally, to our declarative conjunction "that . (a) When the Declarative Clause is pointed to even in the Principal Clause, by some demonstrative pron. or by the personal pron. inherent in the verb( ), the Relative pron. Jf,used in a ( ) [FLEMMING here adopts the variant ti>1C9' -1
3
X

TR

( ) [In the following passage an entire Relative Clause assumes in the sentence the position, and apparently the character, of an absoluter Vorhalt:

(DftAA -flA* " n ^ A - K ' A-fl / U A < D > * A M h U i ^ A0'(l ' "fllf ! j&fcfrG V7H.h'flrhC " d as for those who say in
a n

humility of heart'we are not worthy of being invested with the priesthood'' , to them God has regard" Le Livre des Mystres, p. 35, 1. 2 sq. T E . ] ( ) But such a reference to the declarative clause is usually met with, only when that clause represents the logical Subject of the Principal Clause.
3

 203.

537

neutral sense as we would say, for "that which", "the fact, that", " I mean, that"forms a sufficient introductory Particle for such declarative clause. Thus we have: 0'> fr> : Oh'Mfi : T f l i : J Hft< fll"}h "how is i t (lit. 'what or why is this') that thou hast found so quickly?" Gen. 27,20; li^J^ : U*}^ If A H ^ M l * ^ "wherefore is it that ye have brought us out?" Numb. 20,5; Judges 13,18; Mark 1,27; Gen. 12,18; JP'H- : IflCYl- : #9%$' : H^^'VTft^ "what have I done, that thou art secretly stealing away from me?" Gen. 31, 26 (on the position of f\9 %-f' v. infra). Farther, H is employed after semi-personal verbs ( 192, b), to attach to them some thought which is their logical subject, e. g. aofafatio*: H'f'rhfl^C "it seemed to them, that she was going . ." John 11, 31 ; Matt. 20,10; 26, 53 ; Gen. 31, 31. I t is also used frequently after (l> JiAfl and ftfa (v. 197; 198); but in the case of (14^*0 "it profits", the logical Subject of the verb may also be introduced to it by AfttfD, Matt. 16,26; Gen. 37,26 (just as in Greek). H with its clause may even be placed before the principal clause, in the meaning"as regards the circumstance, that " or "this (fact) that", e. g. <DHn> "and (as regards the fact) that he says" Heb. 12,27; 4 Esra 6, 51. (b) But if the Clause, which is introduced by "that", is meant not merely as an additional declaration or explanation of an idea, already hinted at in the principal clause, but rather as the attach; 0 oa

(&)Sup ieP

object^ clause introduced by

ment of a necessary completion of the sense of the verb m that ^ao clause,as, for instance, the Object of the Verb, after Verbs of 2tftcn> . Saying, Perceiving, Thinking, Commanding, Fearing, Beginning and so on,then other Conjunctions and expressions are employed, and mostly Xl0 and }itia*>. (a) After Verbs of Perceiving, Recognising, Thinking, Seem- O) After
&c

Vorbfl of

ing, Supposing, &c, \\ao ("how") "that" appears the most readily: Ch? * Xiao i flU"! "he saw that it abounded" Gen. 6,5; * ^ " Judges 16,27; <wAAfc X\o "it seems to me that . ." Hen. 106, 6; tthf'd ' X\<* ' f'Jr'M "he knew that the waters were abated" Gen. 8,11; Ps. 4,4; also 7flC A.1* +h9 " Xl<n> * h Tfi- s <D*Mi "show me a sign (by which I may know) that i t is thou" Judges 6,17. The place of h<w may, however, be taken by other Conjunctions having the meaning "how" (ag), such as Htl 0, flh<w, and that too not merely in cases in which the mode and manner of the transaction are of more interest than
P e r c e i v i n g > B c 0 8 n g !

538

203.

<p) After
"V"Grl)8 of

the fact of it, e. g. in Matt. 18,31; Ruth 3,16, but even in cases in which we are able to translate by "that", e. g. in Hen. 9, 6; Ps. 9 , 1 3 ; Hen, 5 , 1 . ftfttTD "because" is also used, though more rarely, for "that" (8n), e. g. phV'r * hll* Hen. 9 8 , 8 . I t has already been explained (v. 190), that after the Verbs named, the clause which serves as their Object may also be subordinated without the interposition of a Conjunction, as in Ch? * HhrtT^* A"? JR : GHD+ 07r&.tl flMJ-ft "he saw heaven rent open and the Holy Spirit descending" Mark 1,10; Hen. 83,3; or the ObjectClause may be put first: flJVU' tf*A<' " * Jitf^'i ' Chjft* "and lo, I saw all of them bound" Hen. 90, 23. Partner it has been pointed out that in such the Subject of the subordinate clause may also be specially brought into notice in the principal clause in the form of a Suff. Pron. attached to the verb in that clause, as in ^hfl ' 4*0*"? "he found him standing" Numb. 23,6; or even that the subordinate clause may be introduced by the particle liili which serves to indicate Participles by way of periphrasis, and to introduce Circumstantial clauses, e. g. Ch? h.6 "J^P * flOP * ftlpoT* : $<Vto Mli s "my eyes saw there all sinners driven away" Hen. 41,2, where VJ-H s rt&J$. answers to a Greek participle, and ft/po***: ;Vpft"}, which should be Object of Ch? and should stand in the Accusative, is drawn by Attraction into the secondary clause as Subject (v. infra); or the subordinate clause may be introduced even by flH, e. g. in fl H +IDfllh direst, p. 19, line 1. On the Acc. with the Infin. after such verbs, v. 190,2. (#) After Verbs of Saying, Declaring, and so on, the clause
0 : ! ! D 8

saying,
Declaring

which contains their Object is, as a rule, attached by \\ao ( 169,6), ^ ^ . ^OD s h*?h9C "he swore that he knew not" Matt. 26, 72; more rarely by ftfttfo, e. g. tf^rhAfc : . . . hilt*** " I swear . . . that" Hen. 98,6; jrVflA * htl" ' I f * * ' <DA# ' hOK t *PP ^4P Chrest. p. 37, line 26( ). I f the words spoken are quoted in oratio directa, they generally follow without being attached by a conjunction; but still, \\ao or "htl y be employed in Ethiopic, just like on in Greek, to introduce the oratio directa, e. g. Lev. 1 4 , 3 5 ; Josh. 5, 6; Matt. 2, 23; 2 1 , 1 6 ; Hen. 8 3 , 7 ; Chrest.
0 ! 1 00 m a

(*) Very rarely by the Accus. and the Infin. ( 190, 2), or even by the Accus. and a following Subjunctive ( 190, 6).

 203.

539

p. 29, line 27; Hexaem. p. 32, line 24; sometimes even ff is used, e. 9- lje.flA-' Hfth l&XXf a*-* A<fe# ftAUbA Judith 5,23. Occasionally the introductory JK.fi, "he said", or other like form, is placed merely at the end of the quotation, e. g. "htiao : ftfl : JE-lLAf "for 'he is out of his mind', they said of him" Mark 3,21; Gen. 3 9 , 1 7 ; Judges 2 1 , 5 ; Hen. 5 5 , 3 ; or else J&fi,, or the like form, even when it has been placed before the quotation, may be repeated at its close, e. g. Gen. 3, 3. (/) The Object-clause after Verbs of Fearing and Guarding (r) After against may, in accordance with 182, a, be subordinated in t h e ^ ^ a l i Infinitive, as in ft<w s ^ C D flrh'fc'Ml * D<5& " i f thou fearest * s
s
d

against.

to go down alone Judges 7, 10; or in the Infinitive with fi ( 183, a), e. g. W"A * J*A * AH1 * AlflC n&v pyjjw*faXd^rjiroisiv Deut. 13,1 ; or even by Xiao : ft^ with a following Subjunctive (inasmuch as one desires that the thing, which he fears, should not happen), e. g. ftCU h9ilb Xiao ' h*P>9%h " I am afraid of him, lest he should come" Gen. 32,12; 2 4 , 9 ; Hen. 106,6; f&KCtw i H A i AftA<P<P Xiao : AJft^-flAU- i HCft' AfflAfc ft *7HLft*fl*fi.C "he was ever on the watch against the birds, lest they should descend and devour the seed ('of') sown by the Son of God" Chronique de Galawdewos (ed. CONZELMAN, 1895),p. 62, 1. 1 sq.; [Chrest., p. 5 , 1 . 1 3 sq.]; or even by ft, alone, with a Subjunctive, e.g. O-tyiChMf' ft.^'flft Oen. 2 4 , 6 ; 3 1 , 2 9 ; or, finally, and indeed frequently, by f% ( 169,10) with a following Indicative (*), e. g. ft d*CV' ?**U'hJ\rdJ^fi' " I am afraid ye may not be willing" Hen. 6,3; Josh. 9,5. P"*^ is also used without being introduced by a verb, and it answers then to our "beware lest", e. g. Deut. 4 , 1 9 ; Lev. 1 0 , 1 9 ; Ex. 34,15. I f the idea of fearing, &c, is negatived, then we have invariably Xiao with the Subjunctive, e. g. ftvf'O*!* fl : \\ao s *hC "he took no heed to walk" 4 Kings 10, 31. (b) Verbs of Beginning and Leaving off may indeed take (8) After their Object-clause in the Infinitive, or even in the Subjunctive (without Xiao), e. g. Mark 1 , 4 5 ; but the more usual construction, ** especially after Verbs of Beginning, is the one with ft"JH and a following Imperfect (answering to the Participle in Greek):ft*TiH"*
s s a Leav

B e g i n n i n g

off

(*) The Indicative is explained by the fundamental meaning of P"*|, which is "perhaps": the clause which is introduced by it is thus to be regarded always as oratio directa.

540

203.

V>H <D*7ft 6AhAh "they began to push one another" Hen. 87,1 - 89,15,' 72. (s) After (s) On the various methods by which other Verbs,such as, ^bmtyf - 9- those of Ability, Understanding, Custom, Command, Prohiunder- Hfion, Permission, Willingness and Unwillingness, Requesting,
T e

standing &c.

2 Remote Design,
Con

"

Demanding, Reminding, as well as Semi-Personal Verbs,have their Object-, and Subject-clauses attached to them, v. supra, 181 sqq. 2. When the more remote Object of an action, or its Design, Consequence, Cause, and so on, has to be expressed by an entire clause, there is doubtless available for this purpose (8 183) the
. . .

sequence, cause Ac

construction with the Infinitive and prefixed Prepositions, and in byTn enfce certain cases Subordination by means of the Subjunctive; but along clause, wifti these constructions there occurs also that of connecting the clauses by Conjunctions; and in certain cases this last construction is the only permissible one. (a) Final (a) For Final Clauses,in so far as they are not subordinated by the Infinitive with A, or (a very common case) by the immediate and close association of the Subjunctive,Xiao with the Subjunctive is made use of (v. supra 183, c), e. g. Xiao : ftft 9C, var. of ilhh9 Sap. 7,17; or (like qui with the Subjunctive in Latin) the Relative Pron. H with a following Subjunctive, e. g. "they sought false witnesses, flH J&4**lhAJ that through them (or 'that thereby') they might bring about his death" Matt. 26,59; Gen. 46,5; Ruth 4,14. Even A is used as an equivalent for Xiao, e. g. in ftMlV tifWlP* Jer. 37,1 (Frcf.). Indeed in every dependent clause, which contains a purpose, a wish, an obligation or expression of will, there is such a necessity for the Subjunctive that, even after Verbs of Saying and Perceiving, it must be employed, e. g. & M i hhaoCh Xiao t "JA-flfH "now do we com* prehend that we have to praise him" Hen. 63,4; J&^*fl(/A A4*<9 tflr Xiao s ^ / ^ U L H "it will be told the saints that they must seek" Hen. 58,5; and thus always, when "say" is equivalent to "command" ( 182,b,/S),indeed even when "say" conveys merely the statement of an opinion, although not very often: *flA : flUh Afl>A& ft^A haofofOh "whom say the people, as to the Son of man, that he is?" (i. e. 'of whom do the people say, that he is the Son of man?') Matt. 16,13. Cf+ also
p 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

h.Vh9lh &9Kh> 9hH>xr(">- O. Ad. 62,8; WIG

WW?

203.

541

0. Ad. 6.18 (where the Xiao which is added by TEUMPP is not necessary) ; VhJitfi>VJfi0 s X\ao : ^hOttf- Rom. 15,14; Hebr. 6, 7; K-VVfoL : 7flC Ps. 108,14. (6) Consecutive Clauses are attached (a) by ftAtl ( 169,8) (&) conse"until that", i. e. "so that", (*) generally with an Indicative follow- cuulL. ing, e. g. "he answered nothing ftAh i fhXlG * ^ A M l insomuch that the governor marvelled" Matt. 27,14; Mark 1,15; seldom with the Subjunctive, e. g. Gen. 16,10 ( ): or still more frequently ftAh M, 169,8. On ftAh after WiA v. 199, d. (fi) Xl<*> too may introduce the Consequence; but even in this case it takes the Subjunctive, just as in Pinal conditions. Accordingly it is never used for "so that" unless the Consequence has to be set forth as being also designed or necessitated, e. g. "Abraham called the place so-and-so, Xl" ' J&flA" 9*9 so that' it is said to this day" Gen. 22,14 (where the Greek even has iva smccai); "is there no woman among thine own people, Xl& */h*G that thou shouldest be obliged to go?" Judges 14,3; 4 Esr. 1,28; 2, 6. Hence in particular after Verbs of Making, Effecting &c, the Subjunctive must always follow, with or without Xiao ( 196, 6). "So that . . not" may be expressed by the aforesaid Conjunctions with a following ft.; but when "so t h a t . . not" is much the same as "without that" or "except", the corresponding form in Ethiopic is ft*}flA or HftlAA with the Imperfect, e. g. "not a sparrow falls to the ground, Hft'HIA: ?h9(Z*fttHl** "without your Father knowing" ('without that your Father knows') Matt. 10, 29; also with the Subjunctive, e. g. "how earnest thou in hither, Hft7flA ' "ThAflA * A"flA ^ C ' J without (or before) having put on a wedding-garment?" Matt. 22,12; ftjiCDdft h9H-t > VIC ' ft?DA * hthCtl *
2 0 !

1V* ' mhH&Jt' MiA s fliHVMA * JwiAfl * <UAP h9a>-h

*p t ft}] A " I will not leave this province, without tilling the fields and sowing the grain and making my horse eat of that grain" Chronique de Ba'eda Mdrgam (ed. PEKKUCHON, 1893), p. 140, 1. 8 sqq. Or again, the circumstantial determination may be attached, just like other circumstantial clauses, by ft"}H ' h^, or by asyndetic apposition of the secondary clause by means of ft. (v.

0) Cf.
( ) And, besides, not in all the manuscripts.
2

542

204.
8

200), or even by fljft, and nothing more, as in: P U & s /^dC't <Dh,>tlth*fc "they hit a hair without missing" Judges 20,16. (c> causal ( ) Causal Clauses are attached by the Conjunction f\l\ao "because", v. supra 200. So too, after Verbs of Feeling, the ground and occasion of the emotion are usually introduced in Ethiopic by hltao, . g. ^Afgh htl^o i-flAfl- "he rejoiced that they were eaten" Hen. 89,58; hJt'ttifVh K A " "be not ye sad, because" Hen. 102,5; 89, 67 &c. flftf-f-i< H or flVJ^ with the Infinitive may also appear instead of }\tiao, v. e. g. Glen. 6,6, 7. I n the various clauses which are introduced by Relative conjunctions, and which have been described above, under Nos. 1 and 2, this or that word which requires to be emphasised may be placed before the introductory conjunction of the clause, (just as in the attributive ^Relative-clauses, 202,4), e. g. ChMP* faAfl * Xiao s tlth'P " I saw . . . that they were again going astray" Hen. 89,51; Gen. 47,19 &c. I n the same way when the clause which is introduced by the conjunction is part of a Relative clause, a portion of the words belonging to the former must precede the conjunction, e. g. 9C Ki't ' <wrhAlft- h<w: ftfMl 3f|n>- "the land, which I have sworn to give you" Judges 2, 1; ZhTMl fcA hfl. Xiao s hat'dho*. Judges 2, 3 &c. Farther, 190 should again be called to mind here: When, after Verbs which may govern a double Accusative, such as Verbs of Recognising, Declaring, Making &c.the second Object is expressed by a clause of its own with a Relative conjunction, it is then more elegant to put the first Object in the principal clause as the Object of that clause, instead of bringing it into the dependent clause as Subject of the same, e. g. ChR f ^ Xiao*. ftJtM'C )' "Noah saw that the earth was drawing to a close" Hen. 65,1; 83,4; or, i f that Object be indeed attracted into the dependent clause as its Subject, it must at least be placed before the conjunctions, as in Ch? : . . . . tf"A< $*?M A^. Hen. 41,2; 89,40; 95,1 &c. 3. compa 204. 3. Comparative Clauses. The Conjunctions Xiao, clauses. flh Hh^ are employed to introduce a Comparison, and also Xiao s before feminine Nouns, e. g. John 1,32; Ps. 143,14. The Clause of Comparison may be joined to another clause; and
c

109

IK

<w>

fal-i*

(*) [FLEMMING/ prefers the alternative form of the verb,ftJtVV^h- d

T E

543

in that case it is not essential that this latter clause should contain a reference, in the shape of a Demonstrative, to the Relative Conjunction, e. g. Mrt^hP tl0 ' A"fc i h A ' f l "he who drinketh, as a dog drinketh" Judges 7,5; 16,9; Gen. 6,22; Matt. 20,27 sq.; Hen. 27, 5. But if the Clause with the Relative Conjunction comes first, then a corresponding Demonstrative is generally placed at the head of the following clause, v. infra 206. Of course the Conjunction of Comparison may also come before other Conjunctions, e. g. Xiao : Afll "just as when" Judges 15,14. On the other hand our expression "as i f " or "just as i f " has often a personal turn given it in Ethiopic, viz. "as he who", e. g. (B*ib' i (Aft"JflA ) X\0 : HWV * T l / ^ f t * mA "and he rent it (the lion), as one who rendeth a kid" Judges 14,6; Gen. 41,21; 42, 30.
t ! s

For comparing Intensive Clauses the same particle ftyfr (or ftjf) usually suffices, which we have already become acquainted with as serving this purpose ( 187, 3). ftyi in fact is used, not only when the Verb of the clause compared may be expressed in the Infinitive, but also when it is put in a finite tense. As examples of the first case we have J&^jRft : *h9 T flft'VH.K'flrkC * h9i*h9 t flft^A huDrtxpat* "it is better to trust in God than to trust in man" Ps. 117,8, 9; Ruth 1,12. I n such a case i t is not even imperative that ftyj should stand immediately before the Infinitive, e. g. "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, h9(\6fr * d<Rh a o ^ ^ s ft7|tft-nA,C than for a rich man to enter into the kindom of God" Matt. 19,24. The Infinitive may even be left out altogether, e. g. *Y,JE.Afc Ah s AlMI * h9h A h A h "AftA. "it is better for me that I give (her) to thee than to another man" Gen. 29,19. I n the second case ft is to be regarded, in accordance with 168, as a Construct State, on which the entire following clause depends^), e. g. A/f* A -Y.Afc aoqfr< h9^*(\Um 1 9 H ? W 1 Cor. 9,15; s
ot ot !
!

- Y , A h i * M i hUV i AfrnftA. hrh

* *W

hU* A * W

Judges 18,19; John 11, 50; 12,43. Nor in this case is it essential that the Verb should immediately follow ftJPi. On the contrary individual words or even clauses may intervene: J&'U&Ah * Xlf * f c h > A . &kmKflAh ft^tf-A-1 fPXi fiAraKf. at-n
O h9W

Wh9i ( 202,2), which likewise occurs, although

not often, e. g. Gen. 4,13.

544

204

f* 1VY9 "it is better for thee that one of thy members should perish than (that) thy whole body should be cast into Gehenna" Matt. 5,29, 30; "it is better for thee that thou shouldest enter into life halt or maimed h^YtM "Ah VlAJi. ?i& : . . . . ^^(D &J& s Ohti-f* :ftA^r*than that, as one having two hands . . . thou shouldest be cast into the fire" Matt. 18, 8. 4.Temporal 4 . Temporal Clauses. Subsidiary actions, which accompany or precede the main action, may be expressed in Ethiopic by the Gerund, whether they have or have not the same Subject as the principal clause, and whether the temporal clause comes before or after the principal clause, as also whether the action is completed or not; v. 181. This construction, however, is not always convenient, least of all when the subsidiary action occupies a clause of considerable length. Ethiopic has accordingly developed additional relative Conjunctions to indicate the same Time-references which may be expressed by the Gerund, particularly the references "after", "when", "in the time that", "while". The other references, such as "still", "before", "since", "so long as" &c. can in any case be expressed only by Conjunctions. A l l the temporal clauses, introduced by such conjunctions, are to be viewed as clauses dependent upon, or supported by, the principal clause, although it is not absolutely necessary to place them after that clause: they may also be inserted within it, or even put before it. Several of them,especially those which are introduced by "when", "as soon as", "so long as", occasionally possess the force of a Conditional sentence (v. 205). Of the Temporal conjunctions which are enumerated in 170, h9^d, h9h0, h9tt, which answer in some degree to our "after" and "since", are, naturally, joined to the Perfect, e. g. Gen. 5,4 sqq.; Matt. 2,13; Gen. 11,10; 24,32; Ex. 19,1; 40,15; Deut. 2,16 &c. flflO and ftm, for "when" or "as", may take a verb either in the Perfect or the Imperfect, according to the context, e. g. Gen. 6,1; 39,15; Ps.2,5; Hen. 10,12; Gen. 11,10;
8 s 8

( ) I n the 'Synaxarion' the apodosis, after flfl is often introduced by (D; v. the examples given in Chrest, pp. 24, 26; [v. farther Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X I X ; Contendings of the Apostles 214, 13 sq.; 154, 27 sq.; v. also, as an instance of the sequence Tt\9S^*'ld ibid. 215,1 sq.; and of the sequence (I) . . . flj, /DCS?* tWPC? ?flJ&n,A<H>-ibid. 371,16sq.; cf. also 14,16.]
s 8

545

Hen. 25,4. I t is the same with h9h0 "as soon as" (also "when"): e. g. it is found with the Perfect in Gen. 3 0 , 4 2 ; Numb. 2 1 , 9 ; with a Perfect in a Future relation (Future Perfect) in Gen. 1 2 , 1 2 ; Lev. 14,34; Deut. 2 , 2 5 ; Matt. 9 , 2 1 ; 2 1 , 2 4 ; and with the Imperfect in Matt. 5,23. The very same constructions are also found with ftf| h ift<w>,tf^mV,Kj^^lV "as long as", e. g. Hen. 93, 3; Cant. 3, 5; Matt. 9,15 ; Lev. 13,46 ; Judges 18, 31 ; Mark 2,19; Gal. 4,1. On the other hand the Conjunction ft*JH (our "while" with regular tense, or "in" or "by" with the Participle), seeing that almost invariably it introduces a circumstance or situation, falling within the time of the main action,is chiefly construed with the Imperfect, in accordance with 89. I t occurs in this connection very frequently indeed,in fact, nearly as often as the Participle in Greek, or indem an&wahrend in German, e.g. Matt. 9 , 3 5 ; 13,13; 17, 3, 14; 18,1; Luke 9, 29, 56; 11, 27 ; Gen. 29, 9. The occurrence of a Perfect after ft'JH is confined almost entirely to those verbs which of themselves suggest a state, condition, or circumstance, like UAfl> itself for instance, as in Ps. 21,9. This V>H may often too be translated by "although", e.g. in Luke 22,53 ("although I was daily with you": E. V. "When I was &c"), particularly if it is preceded or followed by a Negative, when it may sometimes be rendered by "without", e. g. ovbsv bia(f>spsi bovXov, hill : hill, h (D~hi? ' AW"A* "even though he be lord of all" Gal. 4,1; 4 Esr. 8,67; VJH ' ft.<.4 "though he consent not" ('without his consent'). With a similar force to that of ft*}H, flU is also used, v. 170, 9; but yet the latter leans more to the meaning "even in the case that", i. e. "in spite of the fact or circumstance that", "notwithstanding that", "even although". I t would be well, besides, to compare with this section 200, according to which Circumstantial Clauses may even be expressed by asyndetic apposition or be introduced by fl).The Conjunctions K'JflA? H?i*JflA, 7x9$ "sooner than", "before", are joined to the Subjunctive, in accordance with 90, e. g. Gen. 11,4; 19,4; Judges 1 4 , 1 8 ; Gen. 2 4 , 1 5 ; Matt. 6,8; 2 6 , 3 4 ; Ps. 38,17; Hen. 9 , 1 1 ; 4 8 , 3 ; Gen. 2 , 5 ; Hen. 48,6(*); but yet the construction with the Infinitive is also possible, e. g. Matt. 15,20. Lastly, ftAh "until", may, according
s , ,

( ) FLEMMING

here adopts the reading

Hft'iflA, while

DILLMANN

has

TMFtyR -

00

TE

1
35

546

205.

to the particular connection, take the verb in the Perfect, as, for instance, in Matt. 12,22; Gen. 8,7; Hen. 13,7; or in the Imperfect, e. g. Matt. 5,18; 12,20; Hen. 10,12, 17; 19,1. I t is the same with hflh : f\ao or ftfth ' Afl "till the time that", "until", e. g. Matt. 2,9, 13; 16,28; Gen. 39,16; Judges 13,7; 18,30; Ps. 122,3. I t has been already remarked ( 203,2, b) that the signification of the three last-named Conjunctions often passes over into the meaning "so that".

3. RECIPROCAL SENTENCES A N D WORDS.

(a) C O N D I T I O N A L S E N T E N C E S . General 205. Conditional Sentences are by their very nature double p a S r sentences; and in them one constituent of the double sentence lays and Tenses d supposition, under which the assertion of the other is realio w n a

employedin Protasis and sable.

A p o d o 8 1 B :

No doubt there are conditional statements in which the ~ Condition is not expressly mentioned; but these are incomplete and abbreviated sentences, which can always be developed into full sentences of two members each: farther, they must contain some hint or other, that the assertion is only to be understood conditionally.In these double sentences the clause expressing the hypothesis usually precedes the clause containing the consequence or result; but yet inversion of that order may occur, if it is demanded by circumstances otherwise found in the context. I n that case the main assertion is put first; and afterwards, by the attachment of a Condition, it is made to depend upon something else. The conditional character of the assertion is denoted generally by special conditional-particles. A Conditional Sentence may of course be found without such express marking; but it is not a common occurrence in Ethiopic. The hypothesis may be laid down, and the consequence associated therewith, either by the 09 of sequence, or by asyndetic apposition. Examples of the first mode may be found in 200; and as examples of the second the 8 following may be taken: hjOtirX* d/^P tf/Hl- fl^l^A " i f I am not in the body, yet am I in the spirit" (Org.); frJ.A*?" " * "h9' i l flli*V "if I count them, they are more than the sand"
0
t l s

205.

547

Ps. 138,17 Ordinarily, however, conditional particles are made use of, and in fact fxtn> (Aft"") and AH for the Protasis, the former being employed to introduce those conditions in which some presupposition is simply advanced as such, without regard to its reality or its possibility, and the latter for those conditions in which the speaker makes a supposition which seems to him impossible or improbable. According as the hypothesis is introduced with the one or the other of these conditional particles, the Apodosis in turn is introduced in different ways. Hence, in farther dealing with the subject, we have to distinguish between two kinds of Conditional Sentences. Relative Clauses also approximate occasionally, in point of effect, to Conditional Clauses, e. g. Alflflrh Ifdflrtxf* Y\YL "whoever denies me (== 'if any one denies me'), him will I deny ( = 'then I will deny him')" Matt. 10,33. So also is it at times-with Temporal Clauses, e. g. <w>7<CA " fl7MlA" s *X}b s Afl CKfrP' A^4-f ' lUftf "their spirit will become strong within them, when they see my chosen one" Hen. 45,3 ( ); Gen. 3 8 , 9 ; for not only is Afl a temporal conjunction as well as a conditional particle, but even ft#w " i f " is connected with fttfi "when" ( 170, 1). Both in Sentences stipulating a realisable condition, and in those which merely approximate that description, the action given in the Protasis must in general be completed, or at least begun, if the consequence is to make its appearance. For that reason precisely, the tense which is commonly employed in the Protasis of a Conditional Sentence is the Perfect, inasmuch as it is made use of not only when the required condition actually falls within the Past, but even when it occurs in the Present, or belongs to the Future, in the guise of a Future Perfect. And yet we are not altogether restricted to the use of the Perfect in the Protasis, but in certain circumstances we may employ the Imperfect, or even have a Clause without any verb ( 194). Upon the whole, Ethiopic exhibits much closer agreement with Hebrew than with Arabic, in its mode of dealing with the tenses of such clauses. 1. I n Simple Conditional Sentences,i. e., Sentences, in
< n > s s 2 ! s

( ) [But these last two examples can hardly be called Conditional Sentences. They are rather Temporal Sentences, and belong much more properly to the preceding Section, 204, 4. T E . ] 0 ! ( ) [FLEMMiNg's reading here varies slightly:VP A" * dtl$9*
2

A-K-^i

H.hf. T E . ]
35*

548

205.

l in simple which a supposition is laid down without regard Conditional ence or its possibility, and a consequence is Sentences.
f n>

to its actual existmade to depend upon it,the Protasis is introduced byft<wor Aft" "if" ( 170,1), and, when negative, by ft<w (or A3 t< ) h. (or ftfr). The Apodosis may be denoted by the (D of Consequence (e. g. 1 Cor. 5 , 3 ; v. also 200), or by fl>ft'Jh "in that casethen" (e. g. Judges 16,7), or by ft*>h alone (e. g. Judges 16, 11). That is not absolutely necessary, however; and in by far the greater number of cases, it is introduced without any outward marking. For "even i f " or "although" ft<w y suffice; but the more accurate expression is ft ao\ or fttf^VU ), e. g. Ps. 2 2 , 4 ; Is. 4 9 , 1 5 ; Hen. 1 0 0 , 5 ; Matt. 26, 35, without any antithetical particle ("yet") being made use of in the Apodosis ( 200, 2) ( ). I f now the action or circumstance, which forms the Condition, lies in the circle of the Future,the usual case in these Simple Conditional Sentences, it generally stands in the Perfect (which here has the force of the Future-Perfect, 88). I n that case the action of the Apodosis likewise falls in the Future or at the utmost in the Present, and in either case it is expressed by means of the Imperfect, e. g. ft<7 i ^if^i : $00 Oh"t " i f he leaves him ('will leave him'), then he dies ('he will die')" Gen. 44, 22; 28, 20, 21; bri* i ft*" : ftA4h " ^f^l9 "wherewith thou shalt become weak, if they bind thee therewith" Judges 16, 6 ; Matt. 18, 3 ; 2 6 , 3 5 ; h"7l> : ftfl-f \ * ' h\\a-:
0 m a 1 2

ftm : ft/^*7<n : t\&,KY}0~ "so likewise shall my Father do unto you, if ye forgive not your neighbour" Matt. 18,34; ^Tft ' frUqr-P AA-flft Aft* Vf-A- iha * d-dth "what shall it profit a man, if he gain (will have gained) the whole world?" Matt. 16, 26; Gen. 38, 16 ( ). And yet, in this case also, an Imperfect
3

O On ft^H : ft, "although", v. 204, 4. ( ) [Of. fttfDfc : ^9O ft.f 0tMl 0ih?> n<H0* "even when ('though') he did become angry, the sun did not go down upon his wrath" Chronique de Galwdeioos p. 58, 1. 4: sq.; cf. also the following passage, giving ^ appended to the Subject of the Apodosis, and presenting farther a curious
2

involution:ftA<">: V<pAh^ : ft<fc : fp*t* s

p : ft^<WaHh

"for even though the body dies, thy soul dies not". Das thiopische Maccaberbuch ( J . HOROVITZ in 'Zeitschrift f. Assyr.\ 1906) p. 229, 1. 31. TR.] ( ) {Cf.
3

a>hm i hliXh'ddh.C

ft<wOC1-^A <D<Ph

* ht%9C hw i

"and truly if a force should come up and be victorj-

 205.

549

0 8 8 8

may occur in the Protasis, e. g. Aft" ' ftAh rt^VJ^ 't*HOli^ ftAh *lTl9 ^tDC^K Matt. 11, 23, where, evidently, the hyperbolical nature of the expression induced the translator to apply the tense, not of actual past occurrence, but of that which was possible only, or merely thought of (almost in the meaning:'although thou shouldest be exalted'): ft/JhA : Aft"" h*?** PHh* "we cannot, until (the shepherds) have come together" Gren. 2 9 , 8 (where tihoo s ft. is almost equivalent to Hft'JflA) O- But if the action which forms the condition falls in the Past, the Perfect alone is available, e. g. Aft*" i*h(D * A-fiP 'flftA.'l* "flftA. flJft<* <OrhhHP -flftA.*?X 8 -t-hZr AhAft -flftA. Job 3 1 , 9 : yet in such a case fttfoA; in the sense of "if really", is preferred to ft<w, e. g. fttfA : h ^ T f 7flCtl A.PflJ*^:*^ &Aft"lhP Ps. 7,3, 4. I f farther the action of the Apodosis also belongs to the past, it is likewise expressed by the Perfect, e. g. ft ooMh * 4 h ftflfr *^%i> o >*fl) flft 8 -\a\.to<** "if thy children have verily incurred guilt before him, he has delivered (them) over to the consequences of their transgressions" Job 8 , 4 ; and thus also John 1 8 , 2 3 ; Rom. 6 , 5 ; Col. 3 , 1 . Lastly, if the action of the Condition belongs to the Present, the Imperfect, or a circumstantial clause with the force of the Present, appears in the Protasis; and in this case too fttfoA is often found instead offt<w>,e. g. fttfofl : jEr^HllJA JMfA "if it is possible, let it pass by" Matt. 2 6 , 3 9 ; . p M T ft<w "let him save him, if he have pleasure in him" Matt. 27,43; ft0i>A 0>A& MUh-adyC 8 hti-8 d ft^A+Ah Matt. 27,40, 4 2 ; fl>ft<w> A lK.*h1 ft?ft7A^ A-flA0- 1 Sam. 21,4; although an Inchoative verb may also stand in the Perfect: ft<n: Ci'flVb
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
8 8

ous, know that it is the judgment of God" Homilia Jacobi (ed. F R . PEREIRA, in ' Oriental. Studien', 1906) p. 892, 1. 4 sq. T E . ]

O [<T. wAft"" : 7AftA ftAA<* . <Dftu- . h ^ T f *&JVth* flhW /J&< 7 Ff'0 * "and if we put the question to Moham8
8

medans or Jews, they too will give a like answer, in accordance with their faith" Hatat Zar'a Y'qb (ed. TURAIEFF, St. Petersburg, 1904) p. 9, 1. 12 sq. = Philosophi Abessini (ed. LITTMANN, Leipzig, 1904) p. 7, 1. 21 sq. (except that 8 LITTMANN reads ftAA9 ft^U-O; cf. also Aft*"
8

PO* : AftA- h&Oh : oop^f}

^f

: ^OhO? A U I C f o " - "if

you do not produce these men, the Maqbis, we will burn down your city" Das thiopische Maccaberbuch p. 199, 1. 11 sq. TK.]

550

Awi&flKAh " i f I be hungry ('have become hungry') I will not beg from thee" Ps. 49,13. Even if the action of the Protasis is one which is repeated several times, and such that ftno is equivalent to "as often as", the Perfect is still the better form, e. g. fttfo i CKM fl^'fe * ^dffl'K ' 9ht\>V' "when thou seest a thief, thou dost run with him" Ps. 49, 19; 45, 2. Sometimes also the interrogative particles i> and y. ( 161), adopted in the Protasis, serve a like purpose with the A which is here and there appended toft<w :for since the Condition is thus concomitantly put as a question, doubt must be aw akened regarding it, such as is expressed in our "if really", "if it be the fact that", as in:ft#w>A: hl-tlb V 7 H > : JkTfHfc K9Zh "Iftfl "Lord, if it be (indeed) thou, bid me come to thee" Matt. 14, 28; ft<n> : f t ahtfrhlh 0Kh* ' JiA* A'flft * -Pi fit "if these men have (actually) come to call thee, arise!" Numb. 22, 20; cf. also AX ^U* Acts 16,15. m On rare occasions ftw is abbreviated into fi9, e. g. 9'}'t i nh9iac\b (h&tD'fr i HA'JAr * AH ftfliCA "what is the good thing, the which if I do, I shall thereby gain eternal life?" Matt. 19,16. When two Conditional Sentences appear, the one after the other, and the second of them states negatively the presupposition, which is put affirmatively in the first, it is not obligatory to repeat the entire Protasis in the second. I t is then quite sufficient to say <D\ao: h\l ((DhWhb) or Wh^hM "and if not", "if otherwise", e.g. < D A f t < " > A i frUK- 9*!kiJr AAA I'fcllUkf * llty (Dh^h s ft'h7 *?'P "if ye now (indeed) will show kindness to my lord, tell me, but if not, then will I turn . ." Gen. 2 4 , 4 9 ; Ex. 32,32; Judges 9 , 1 6 2 0 . And this phraseology may be employed after any statement whatever, and not merely after conditional sentences,in order to add a representation of what will happen if the action which has just been mentioned is not realised, e. g. "take heed that ye do not your alms before men . . mft^ftViA OAfl ftA'Ah" * otherwise, ye have no reward" Matt. 6,1 ; Mark 2, 21 ; Luke 14,32 ; Josh. 22, 22. "Except" or "unless" is rendered by Hft'HIA ( 170,4), if no new verb follows, e. g. Matt. 19,9 ; but if it is followed by a new verb, it takes the form Hh7flA * "except (that), "unless (that)" e. g. Matt 12, 29 ; or HTrfflA with the Subjunctive, e. g. Matt. 5,32.
r s D : s 0

 205.

551

On "just as i f " , "just as when" v. 204, 3. "However much" is ft*w: "<w>mV, e. g. Eccles. 8,17. " I f only . . not", "provided that . . . not", as a particle of uncertainty and fear, is v. 203, 1, a, y.On (A )fttf 0 si quis with a following H or \\ao cf. D I L L MANN'S 'Lex.', col. 481. 2. I n Unreal Conditional Sentences^), the Protasis is always - 1unreal introduced by Afl? a particle which is often employed in Optative sentences. Clauses, "would that!" ( 199, e)( ). I t can only be in consequence of being so employed, that it has come to be adopted as a Conditional Particle in those Conditional Sentences which present the supposition, as it were, in an Optative form. Farther, the interrogative W or or the emphatic A may be brought into use after Afl> with the same force as after ft*n( )- As, however, AH is also a Temporal Conjunction (204,4), a Conditional Sentence cannot be distinguished from a Temporal one by Afl alone; and therefore the Apodosis must always be introduced by the particle ftJP (*) dv ( 170,2). This t\*f, the proper mark of hypothetical statement, regularly comes immediately in front of the verb of the Apodosis, and may be repeated, if the Apodosis has more than one verb. If, however, the conditioned clause comes before the conditioning one, the t\9 is that case sometimes omitted, e. g. *^fAl Afl
2 2 3 m 3 3

fa

a-ndi.d i-nx to*-*

n u t * " i t

(was)

would have been better for us if we ('died') had died in Egypt than that we should die in this wilderness" Numb. 14, 2; AftA/h fr AAA ffitlUlpoTf s ti'ht.pti "to seduce, if it were possible, even the elect" Matt. 24,24 (where ftJP is wanting, because it cannot stand between the Preposition and the Infinitive); cf. also G. A d . 48, 7; [Chrest, p. 86, 1. 13 sqq., and Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X X . For a remarkable use of ftjF* in an auxiliary clause attached to the Apodosis of such a sentence, v. Kebra Nag. 129 a 20 sqq.].
3 3

(*) [i. e. Sentences in which the Condition is obviously unrealisable.

TR.]
2

( ) Like 0 ( ) [Occasionally, however, Afl is also replaced by Aft" j - PRAETORIUS, 'Aethiop. Gramm\ p. 151, 1. 3 ; and by Afl "h0, tf> BEZOLD, Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X X ] . (*) Originally ftm>, which still appears now and then, e. g. 4 Esr. 3,54 (also v. 55 in one Manuscript); 7, 20 ; Tobit 10, 5 ; [Contendings of the Apostles 15,6; 151,25, Cf. also Kebra Nag., Introd. p. X X ] .
3 v 3

552

205.

With respect to the Tenses of Unreal Conditional Sentences it is to be observed that the Perfect prevails almost universally, both in the Protasis and the Apodosis. The Ethiopian says: "if thou didst this, then I did that"; and by the identity of Tense in the Protasis and Apodosis he at first gives expression to the circumstance merely that the two clauses exactly correspond to each other, and that the second indubitably results from the first. A conviction, however, is always found inseparably associated with this class of Conditional Sentences,that the instances which they describe have no reality in them. Farther, this conviction can only be thoroughly relied upon, we may say, in the case of things which belong to the Past or the completed Present. Accordingly it is easy to explain why the Perfect should be used in this case,a tense which is precisely in place, where the question turns upon occurrences which have passed away, or upon those which are completed, though not yet out of view ( 88). But it is only from the connection or context that we can determine whether such a Perfect in an Unreal Conditional Sentence belongs truly to the circle of the Past, the Present or the Future, and whether the Protasis is concerned with the same sphere of time as the Apodosis. The connection, however, is generally sufficient to enable us so to determine: only in rare cases may there be a lingering doubt whether the Optative of the Past or of the Present should be adopted in translation,in fact in those cases only, we may say, in which the clause concerned is just as true or as false, whether we refer it to the sphere of the Past or the Present. Accordingly we say in Ethiopic: Aft ^IGtlfc ft9iO tfMfhh "if thou hadst told me, I would have sent thee away" Gen. 31,27; Matt. 23,30; Gen. 31,42; Judges 14,18; Matt. 11,21; Numb. 22, 29, 33 ( ); but also: Aftl> i ^ U f l /h*7 H h A h r h P flfl>-Ki= rh*7 hSPfr* Xty " i f a law had really been given which could give life, righteousness would be by that law" Gal. 3,21; ft^faV A<5 Afc "he would forgive him" G. A d . 90, 18; Aft hMV-XtiPPoT* hFKWkMlo^ " i f ye had allowed them to live, I would not (now) put you to death" Judges 8,19; Matt. 26, 24; Ps. 50,17,all being cases, in which the presup8 8 x 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

(*) In the three last-quoted passagesfl),R"fois

employed to refer

the whole sentence to the past (after the manner of Jcs), but is merely a
translation of vrctkai, yjbvj, vCv.

553

position belongs to the past, but the consequence to the present; or Afl * frfy^M h9Ki'' mai "if he had desired to kill us (now, or at some future time), he would not have accepted" Judges 13,23, where the converse relation appears^); or, lastly:
rD

AA Mni> ' h^l-P a<Pb& ftAfl' M k ^ J M * * "if these (coming) days were not to be shortened, there should no man be saved" Matt. 24, 22, where the entire action, conditioning and conditioned, belongs to the future. On the other hand, in passages like Ps. 80,12 sq.; 43,22 sq.,where the Protasis belongs to the past, it is really a matter of doubt whether the Apodosis should be understood as being also of the past or as being of the present. Only on very rare occasions does an Imperfect appear in the Protasis, instead of a Perfect; and even then ft{F with the Perfect is found in the Apodosis, e. g. in a proposition stating some universal truth, valid for any time: Art $h9CV* AAA fl^h*
1

"if the master of the house had actually known at what time the thief would come, he w ould (assuredly) have watched, and not have suffered his house to be broken into" Matt. 24,43: cf. also Afl fhV ^ "if they did not know" G. Ad. 97,19. A Nominal Clause occurs as Protasis in Chrest. p. 6, line 13 sqq.: Afl hh' 'flftA. A^4* M* * h9&0Mt-h Afl M i i Hh<w>Tf i h9hd and in G. Ad. 97, 12 sq. mAfl - Mn * fl-me * hflC h9KW^ I n Unreal Conditional Sentences the Condition is frequently left unexpressed, as being a matter obvious from the connection; and the only announcement made is as to what must have happened if some (unexpressed) condition had been realised. I t is all the more necessary that a merely hypothetical announcement of this kind should be introduced by ftjJ , always a sure sign that the clause must be translated in our languages by the Optative or the Conjunctive, e. g. tD&hHX * h9YlVMfr * H i d ' ' AflA*l "and now I might be able to do thee harm" Gen. 31,29; OD*I* h9ttJ1P iKh'ttCVV "who would have said to Abraham?" Gen.
T ! 1 0 ! 1 : 10
!

( ) [that is to say, where the presupposition (according to DXLLMANN) belongs to the present or future, and the inferred fact or circumstance to the past. DILLM ANN seems to be wrong here: I t is not 'the killing' but 'the desiring to kill which forms the presupposition in this case; and this desirein its origin at leastbelongs to the past, and is thought of as preceding 'the accepting', TR.]
1

554

206.

21,7; [ f t C s s hV'l'dStthh "how much more wouldst thou rejoice!" Kebra Nag. 56 h 7]; tth9'i i>'>ai' fl'fllf"* "a thing which might have been sold for much" Matt. 2 6 , 9 ; 16,26; 25,27 &c; and even AH s Tt\9 hd&% "even i f he should rest" (which does not happen) Sir. 34,4.( ). Seeing that in this way ftj has the power of giving a hypothetical colouring to a sentence, it is often used also in Optative Sentences ( 199, e). ' I n a similar way i t stands constantly in the phrase Hh9 with the Perfect, hand multum abfuit quin, i. e. "had nearly" (with the past part, of accompanying verb) 8 a i or "came near" (with the pres. part.), e. g. tt\4* Yl IfftJ^rthfl "one had nearly lain" (or "came near lying") Gen. 2 6 , 1 0 ; Ps. 72,
M 0 t
1 1

2; 118,87. (b) C O R R E L A T E D C L A U S E S AND WORDS.

206. Single Words or groups of words, as well as single Clauses, may, by means of various formulae and turns of speech, be brought into such a correlated connection with one another, that each of them postulates the other, and of itself points to the other. Of these formulae the following are to be noted: 1. "Bothand", or, negatively, "neithernor". Such a formula is represented in a few instances by (D(D<D, e. g. 0 Gen. 33,1; but oftener by VL ID, e. g. h<* ''}'b1' (DYtfa i ft/hH fljfuw Josh. 1 0 , 5 ; or by i tD% e. g. M A Y , i WChVl Matt. 12,22; or by fc: flJ\ Josh. 1 1 , 4 ; Ps. 4 8 , 2 ; John 2 , 1 5 ; Hen. 2 8 , 2 ; Gen. 2 4 , 2 5 ; Mark 3,32, 35 (three times); Rom. 1,14 (four times); or by \ : fl), e. g. Matt. 12, 3 ; or by % ' (D\ Gen. 42, 35. A l l these combinations may also be used with negatives. Cf. supra, 197, ad fin. 2. Asso". I n Ethiopic fll)/7n. X\a, Hho, Yltm s hlrfr on the one part, and hlth or \\oo*\\ on the other, bring complete clauses,but, for the most part, only complete clauses,into this particular form of correlation to each other, e. g. Judges 1 5 , 1 1 ;
u

C ) [@f- cases in which the Protasis is given in a much abbreviated form,sometimes by one word, such as ?l*}flAH "without this", "but for

this", "if this had not been", e. g.: (DtiidliU * *T*M* * H'dh * h9fr V s 7 * 1 : fDh9Kdh(\ ' WA : H ^ A M T A " * "if it bad not been
for this (disposition), the nature of man would have been imperfect, and would have failed to obtain a supply of its various wants" Hatata Zar'a Ya'qob p. 19, 1. 20 sq. = Philosophi Abessini p. IB, 1. 18 sq. T E . ]

555

Numb. 5,4: Deut. 8,5; Matt. 12,40; 13,40; Hen. 98,4; Matt. 24, 17. I t is only in a few cases that single words or phrases are dealt with in this fashion, and in these cases the second member of the combination (h ?!!*) may even be left out, e. g. Yl" ' < T 7A t\f> ^ " J l A 0 < M 1 Hen. 28, 3. flh* * ( D \ also occurs, Matt. 6,10. The more,the more" or "so much the more" is expressed a by nh9 \'l (cf. 166, No. 35) with With following, e. g. flftjp a "IV sflflJE-h h 10' hH'th^ ' CftAh ('according to the measure of thy greatness, so do thou humble thyself) "the greater thou art, a be thou the more humble" Sir. 3,18; (\h9 Vl : f4$P<n>-: ft "lib' J&flff"^ "the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied" Ex. 1,12. Farther, \\ao with some word following, expressive of multitude, together with h7l) may represent this idea, as in \\tfl* : -fltt**^ flWJf /"PlTt*** * h ^ U ' fl" * ' 'f'flMT A^^^A "the more their body burns, the greater change passes over their spirit" Hen. 67,9 ( ).
0 n, r : D u 0 x

3. jusvbi, for which Ethiopic has no special form,is sometimes not translated at all, and is sometimes translated by Jr set in the second clause. The most adequate rendering, however, is given by ft in the first part and (D in the introduction of the second (v. 200, 2). 4. " Eitheror", in the sense of "sivesive", is given in Ethiopic by ft<fl>fc :(Dh^X, or \\O0% :a>fr<n>VL- Both of these forms are used, and frequently, not only to correlate individual words, e. g. h"\ th&ttiH* (D"hai>% : TH* 1 Cor. 3,22 (repeated as many as eight times), Lev. 3,1, Matt. 5, 37, but even to introduce two complete Conditional Sentences, which have to be confronted antithetically with one another, Luke 20, hsq.; Ps. 138, 7. I f on the other hand the two sentences have to be exclusive of one another ( autaut"), then recourse is had to W Kin or h"7fctA and (DWhtl or (D'hl'hM, e. g. Gen. 13,9; 24, 29; Lev. 1,14; Josh. 24,15; Matt. 6, 24; 12, 33. The Letter of Cyril to John may serve as an instance of specially involved Periods: cf. Chrest. p. 75, lines 27; 2125; p. 76, lines 1521.
u

(*) [FLEMMING'S reading here is i Ohfi(l\

M

S dWi&tl.

R.J

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

P . 1,1. 4. The date generally accepted now, for the conversion of Abyssinia to Christianity, may be given as the middle of the fourth century. P . 13, 1. 17 sqq. DILLMANN'S strictures on the neglect of Ethiopic, however much they may have been deserved when the 'Grammar' was first published, are happily without application to the present position of the study. P . 17, 1. 12. Taitshould be printed Tait , as the last letter of this alphabetical name is not emphatic. I n like manner, farther on i n this section, Haut should be Haut, and Pait should be Pait. P . 23, Note 0), 1. 3. Insert after the wordnowthe following:, at least in grammatical treatises on Ethiopic (v. PEAETOEICTS' Aethiop. Gramm.\ passim),. P. 25, Note C). A d d at the end of the Note, and within the brackets, the following:-At the same time, i t is true that Inscriptions do exist, which are only half-vocalised.. P. 27, 1. 3sg. Instead of along w i t h , r e a d i n comparison w i t h . P. 27, Note C). First word of line 2 should be printedas. P. 33, Note C), 1. 2; f o r J u l . , readTub.. P. 42, 1. 8; for^-sound, readj?-sound.
l

P. P. P. P.

43, Note O ult; forp. 578, readp. 518 sq.. 55, 1. 12; f o r H ^ T , r e a d 65, 1. 5; after 0 and ft,, i n s e r t I P and fl,. 101,1. 4 from foot; for the head-line1. C O N S O N A N T S . , read2. C O N S O N A N T S . . P. 119, 1. 2; forhow!, readhow?. P. 121, Note ( ), 1. 2; insert a comma (,) after y. P. 173, 1. 19;Ps. 120,4should bePs. 120,5 .
2

557

P. P. P. P. P.

207, 1. 4; fortase'lka, read taselka. 216, 1. 20; for(to), read(Va). 225, 1. 23;2should he printed(2). 295, 1. 6;p. 173should bep. 53,16 sq. . 317, Note Add at the end of the bracketed part of the Note, and within the brackets, the following:For a Plural-Plural-Pliwal form, v. ibid., p. X X I X b : Vf*

tltf-tlP^
x

P. 321, 1. 24; forJosh. 22,23 , readJosh. 22,13. P. 325, Note ( ) ult.\ for (through U) , read(through IT) P. 338. Restore the Marginal wordsThe Second Pers. Pron. , which have fallen out opposite line 6 sq. P. 346, 1. 15;ahashould be printed d-h. P. 347, Note ( ) ult.\ forS31, read631 . P. 353, Note ( ), 1. 3; for ihu , read ih. P. 361, 1. 5 from foot: Add at the end of the line the following:[For the combination KflYl* flhft^'i'fv v. Philos. Abess., p. 9, 1. 2].. P. 384, 1. 19; for "frequently, read"frequently" . P. 384, 1. 24;Kaishould beKOCI . P. 415, 1. 16; for ^Ofl. , read pflfl.. P. 431, 1. 28; for1906, read1905. P. 481; read last word of MarginalSubstantive. P. 482, Note C), 1. 2; for 80,&, a, read 80,b,a. P. 494, 1. 34; for"nothing, read"and nothing. P. 497, beginning of last line; forf, readif. P. 499, 1. 2; forGen. 35,37, readGen. 35,27. P. 500, 1. 22; forGen. 33,14, readGen. 39,14. P. 501, Note (*), beginning of last line; readin. P. 512, 1. 31; for Lex. , read Lex.\. P. 533, 1. 3; forSir. 13,14, readSir. 13,4. P. 540, L 3 from foot sq.; substitute for the words in parenthesis the following: i. e. 'whom say the people that the Son of Man is' or 'whom do the people take the Son of Man to be'.
2 3 l l

I N D E X OF PASSAGES.
( T H E R E F E R E N C E S A R E TO T H E P A G E S O F T H I S EDITION).

A. S C R I P T U R E .
(a) O L D T E S T A M E N T .

Genesis

(Octateuchus ! Genesis 348, 409 360 518 486 439 486 401 501 501 458 535 478 333 411 273 451 168 450 545 385 446 383 479 433 457 464 360 475 539 510 530 360 404 498 360 510 458 16 18 19 I 20 I 22 i 24 4, ' 2 4 7 8 9 11 13 ! 14 15 i 21 22 23 25 5, 2 3 4 29 ! 32 6, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 12 ! 14 15 I 16 513 518 . 358, 428, 452, 505, 519 345 498 . 444 . . 417, 471, 483 . . . . 144, 462 321 449 358 510 . . . . 375, 431 . . . . 493, 514 357 543 J69 372 357 172 319 . . . . 413, 444 481 . . . . 340, 432 sqq 544 447 499 544 . . 394, 485, 530 496 . . . . 314, 462 537 . . 420, 459, 542 . . 263, 459, 542 480 . . 399, 470, 485 . . 402, 434, 477 . . . . 427, 488 391

Aethiopicus, ed. D I L L - ; 3,13 MANN, 1853) 15

Comm., p. 5 235, 402, 1, 2 . . 3 . . 173, 442, 4 . . 5 . . 426, 8 . . 439, 476, 9 . . 358. 11 . . 14 . . 391, 15 . . 391, 16 . . 479, 21 . . 24 . . 26 . . 27 . . 29 . . 31 . . 2 . . 5 . . 174, 6 . . 172, 7 . 391, 398, 8 . . 9 .391, 458, 474, 17 . . 432, 18 . . 442, 22 . . 25 . . 172, 3, 1 . . 394, 3 . . 457, 4 . . 5 . 7 . . 172, 8 . . 9 . . 10 . . 11 . . 12 . .

\ Genesis ' 6,17 . . . . 401, 470 19 394 21 443 22 543 7, 1 484 2 . . . . 374, 535 3 374 4 . . . . 371, 524 ; 6 443 9 -374 ! 10 371 ; 11 489 I 14 . . . . . . 390 ! 16 394 17 . . . . 190, 394 20 . . . . 409, 432 21, 22 470 24 398 ! 8, 1 427 2 393 3 178 4 489 6 503 7 . . . . 515, 546 9 531 10 371 11 .404, 437, 462, 537 I 12 450 ! 13 . . 466, 471, 487 j 14 489 16 bis, 18 bis . . 502 j 19 316 i 20 394 I 21 . . . . 472, 501 9, 2 . . 444, 447, 502 6 . . . . 332, 460 8 428 9 392 11 458 I 12 462
1

560
Genesis 9,13 . 442 19 . 488 20 . 401 21 . 447 22 . 386, 484 23 . '. 147, 340, 502 26 . 519 27 . 518 390 10, 5 . 8 . 314 15 . 481 30 . 323 11, 3 . 442 4 . . 173, 375, 519, 532, 545 6 . 454 7 . 519 8 . 472 9 . . 279, 441, 502 10 . . . 417 , 544 bis 28 . 532 29 . 502 12, 1 . 464, 465 3 . 501 5 . 428 6 . 436 7 . 246 8 . 404 481 11 . 12 . 506, 545 13 . 255, 405 17 . 433, 480 18 . 537 19 . 376 20 . 428 13, 2 . . 465, 473, 474 4 . 380 7 . 469, 482 9 . 555 10 . 316 11 . 399 14 . 399, 465 15 . 363 17 . 467 14, 1 . 466 2 . 428, 480 3 . 429 4 . 487 5 . 314, 478
y . 4tOO

I N D E X OF P A S S A G E S . Genesis 9 , . 12 . . 13 . . 17 . . 393 534 436, 480 171, 452, 487, 494, 496 489 . 452, 528 bis 444 415 348 452, 467, 541 360, 462, 479 206 490 490 478 441 486 323 498 223, 445 518 302 368, 483 439 223 490 107, 432, 523 190, 398, 458 449 476 432 387 379 436 393 480 171 501 515 172 513 487 520 480 432 456 523 436 545 432 397 517 475 483 514 501 447 345 520 Genesis 19,19 20 30 31 sqq. 33 . . 36 . 37 20, 4 . . 6 7 9 11 13 . . 17 18 21, 2 7 . . 8 12 17 . . 18 . 20 22 23 28 30 22, 1 4 6 7 9 11 14 17 . . 24 9 . 11 13 . . 467, 441,

523,

10 . . 12 . . 13 16 17. 1 5 6 . 10 12 . . 16 17 . .

18, 1 . . 2 . . 8 10 . . 12

302,

10 13 15 16 17 20 23 24 15, 2 3 5 6

. 472 . 474 . 436 . 428,' 439 . 440 . 373 . . 303, 509, 513 . 107 . 235, 374 . 374 . 418, 447 . 441

14 . , 302, 17 18 19 20 , 21 . . 510, 22 24 . . 418, 24 sqq. 25 . . 387, 26 28 . . 378, 31, 32 19, 1 . . 172, 404, 2 4 . . 467, 8 . . .376 bis, 9 . . 377, 436, 11 . . 434, 467,

452, 343,

7 bis 8 . .

414,

17 . . 21 . . 22 . . 185, 23 . . 349, 460, 25 . .

349, 169, 374, 381, 515, 493,

17 Ms 18

509 476 454 534 375 459 393 497 534 385 398 477 417 399 398 446 447 453 358 523 553 464 493 447 348 441 353 445 363 398 376 489 463 320 398 376 393 429 541 501 480 359 351 168 474 481 395 474 539 465 474 539 528 545 476 399 481 515 420 431, 516 554

I N D E X OP P A S S A G E S . Genesis 24,27 . . 29 . . Genesis 27,21 . . 499, 500, 515 28 31 33 . . . . 36 38 . . . 40 41 . . . . . 349 394 507 382, 433 , 506 , 490 516 390 171, 433 491 443 393, 493 349, 350 . . 346 425, 431 69, 467 524, 548 , 373 524 , 479 Genesis

561
432 357 456, 469 470 351 469 1012 238 18 535 19 . . 530 21 . . 436, 535 26 . . 491, 537 27 . . 235, 552 29 . 526 , 527 539, 553 537 532 33, 34 168 35 . . 168, 258 534 38 . . 509 42 . . 482, 552 43 . . 407, 496 400 397 484 498 382 8 . . 428, 432 353 12 . . 447, 539 393 170 15, 16 488 17 . . 400, 489 20 490 354 26 . . 435, 462 28 . .. 502, 516 30 . . 517 431 381 408 33, 1 . . 504, 554 434 517 9 . . 343, 506, 518 12 . . 402, 449 14 . . 179, 390, 518 15 . . 414, 491, 518 499 460 444 7 . . 467, 527 520 361 496 526 439 475 21 . . 497, 498 272 353 374 36 5 7 . .

445, 481 322, 438 379 544 36 . . 420, 481 41 . . 439, 454 # 349, 398 43 . . 349 45, 47 550, 555 49 . . 478 371 396 441 523 397 434, 476 65 . . 473 449 483 431 374, 488 16 . . 21 . . 171, 447, 480 22 . . 492, 504 436 460 25 . . 363, 535 505 235 2934 429, 495 30 . . 463 480 479 7 . . 473, 509 8 . . 402, 484 9 . . 417, 513, 516 508, 554 10 . . 12 372 13 . . 425, 496 447 436 20 496 21 439 24 , 449 26 353 379 27 , , 29 . . 385, 509, 510 . . , , . . . . 494 494 464 459 349 439 349 500 504 474 465 331 376 535 537

46 . . . . 9 11 . . 19 20 sq. 22 29, 2 . . 3 . . . .
. .

. . . .

6 . . . . 9 16 17 18 19 21 25 26 27 30 34 30, 1 2 14 15

378 , , 549 . . . . 545 496 . . . . 438 . . . . 434 . . . . 402, 506 . 415, 475, 504,543 . 351, 415, 425.427 . . . . 196, 514 . . . . 491, 499 . . . . 420 . . . . 475, 488 494 449 . . . . 449, 496 . 500 . . . . 447 437 . . . . 349, 469 . 349 bis, 402, 439, 493 438, 497 413 432 170 , 361 382 , 511 238 . 227 , . 469 . . . 298, 501 . . . 470, 501 . 396, 404, 470 . . . 471, 545

32 27, 1 3 4 7 9 10 11

349, 181,

18 . . . . 20 25 . . . . 28 . . . .

15 16 . . 331, 425, 17 18 . . 320, 19 . . 449, 20

38 39 40 42

. . . .

562
Genesis 35, 2 . . . 4 . . . 8 . . . . 16 . . . . 17 . . . . 462 146 469 526 463 460 265 409 499 344 498 403 477 475 535 452 426 387 514 515 334 485 458 332 500 509 480 438 512 417 537 500 437 454 431 429

I N D E X OF P A S S A G E S . Genesis 359, 374 44, 8 . . . . 512, 521 485 14 387 7 . . 379, 502 16 , 359 433 17 . . 398, 505, 520 501 18 . . . . 350, 520 498 20 462 13 . . 395, 446, 500 22 . . . . 453, 548 14 169 26 508 420 32 518 464 409 41, 1 . . 398, 494 45, 1 , 479 2 473 3 . . . . 387, 499 404 6 387 238 . 8 . . . . 471, 510 5 . . 504, 507 911 382 57 488 10 , 463 9 504 12 bis 344 13 505 469 15 . . 504, 524 18 375 21 . . 511, 543 374 38 . . 361 23 . . 394 39, 40 436 511 41, 43 396 26 . . 437, 443, 504 507 27 443 451 28 387 493 46, 3 . 463 6 . . 447, 471 540 11 . . 499, 500 8 , . 499 489 15 496 15, 16 518 367 19 . . 181, 497 27 479 20 357 433 21 403 30 . . . . 483, 518 25 . . 305, 374 33 498 28 . 329 ,403, 443 506 47, 2 486 30 . 543 4 . . 533 31 500 8 361 35 . . 412, 554 9 . 353,395, 506 512 37 351 12 , 374 38 494 \7 465 43, 2 . . 267, 450 18 506 6 322 19 . . . . 409, 512 7 . . 322, 514 24, 26 373 12 . . 356, 417, 505 29 459 383 30 . . . . 353, 359 21 . . 374, 458 48, 1 365 22 . . 305, 532 3 353 25 383 356 27 . . 387, 513 494 28 . . 387, 513, 532 8 . . 517 29 329 10 . . . . 269, 393 30 434 401 31 . . 434, 450 436 32 481 350 33 , 258 469 34 . . 524 372, 432 44, 1 305 3 . . . . 273, 461 2 468 518 4 . 273, 403, 430, 518 520 5 447 12 497 6 . . 273, 439 482 7 506 15 . . . . 323, 486 Genesis 40, 5 . .

468, 459, 349,

37, 2 3 7 8

. . . .

. . . .

. . . . . . .

467, 374, 450,

~18... 20 . . . . 21 . . . 24 . . . . 26 . . . 30 . . . . 480,

426, 379,

38, 2 . . . 9 11 13 14 15 16 23 25 26 27 29 39, 1 2 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

14 . . . . 15 . . . 16 . . . 19 . . . 40, 1 . . .

547 360, 417 357 469 434, 439 349, 548 481 500 357, 382 450, 475 494 357 471 500 438, 503 503 173 381 462, 500 544 546 433 471 464

I N D E X OP PASSAGES. Genesis . . . . 440 . . . . 310 28 . . . . 374, 488 . . . . 446 50, 4 . . . . 382, 461 9 . . . . . . . 501 16 . . . . . . . 26 . . . . . . . Exodus (Octal 12 . . . . 22 . . . . . . . 18 . . . . 3, 2 , 453 490 17 . . 21, 6 . . 36 37 22, 6 8 . . . . 31 184 37, 1 88,13 483 25 26 . . . . . . . . . . Exodus Exodus 22 . . . 19, 1 . . 20, 1 . . 544 328 480

563

258, 323

. . . . . . . 96 . . . . . . 354

eth.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382, 555 181 269 348 383 449 426 259 395 376

. . . 372 Ms, 525 . 525 . . . 243, 453 535 357

. . . . 377 Leviticus (Octat. Aeth.) 1, 4 . . . . . . . 529 3, 1 . . . . . . . 555 4,12 . . . . . . . 244 5,16 . . . . . . . 373 7,15 . . . . 36 . . . . . 10, 7 . . . . 19 . . . 11, 7 . . . . . 36 . . . . 40 . . . . . . . 46 . . . . 14, 2, 19 . 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 359 528 500

23, 7 22, 25 25,11 20 28 26, 3 4 9 20

. . . . . . . . . . . . 19 . . . . 115,

5. . . . . 7, 10 . . . 6, 7 . . . . 7, 5 . . . . 25 . . . . . . 10, 1 . . . . . 24 25 11, 7 12,11 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . 257 . . .415 . . . 265 . . . 415 . . . 415 371, 488 . . . 374 . . . 471 . . . 471 . . . 273 . . . 380, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363, 501, 171, 354 511 526 523 251 196 376 278 428 363 394 356 258 404 521 504 504 507 504 533

. . . . 394, 434 . . . . . . 403 434 . . . . 200, 403 . . 407 409 . 528 254 407 96 277

. . .532 . . . 533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 308 528 199 462 545 528 545 538 533 462 371 312 535 257 536 530 409 96 250 489 200 180 412 355

27,20, 21 28, . .

404 208 30, 4 . . 296, 350, 533 69 533 323 183, 396 207 550

13, 2 . . . 13 . . < 20 27 15, 1 20 27 16, 3 22 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 . . . . 12 . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . 13 24 35 35, 5

28 . . . . . . . . . . . 29 . . . . .

181 181 331 402 532 . . . . 358 23, 6 . . . . 371, 539 . . . . 335 . . . . 532 25,22 . . . . . . . 528 . . . .

564
Leviticus

I N D E X OP P A S S A G E S .
Numbers Deuteronomy

534 22 , , 46 . , 312 409

Numbers (Octal Aeth.)

3, 3 . . 4, 9 . . 28, 29 5, 4 . . 6 18, 25 528 72 . . 8, 2 . . 8 371 368 323

22 28 29 32 33 267

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

373, 449,

8, 24 . . 23 . . . . 26,63 27,17 29,12 31,23 26 49 53 32, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271,

29 12,11 14, 2 ,

521 350

17 . 34, 3 . 35, 7 14 . 23 . 519 407 . 493, 519 194 377, 409

. . . . . . . . . .

383,

476 338 146 196 92 193 382 550 278 523 490 552 490 449 538 529 490 114 222 252 359 535 489 530 474 356 345 438 399 407 404 367 486 356

8, 3 . . . . 15 . . . .

390 555 417 462, 476 476 478 396 426 386 181 534 441 530 440 268 422 404 531 350 531 539 532 349 426 287 261 308 350 425 440 269 500 482 350 356 269 372 242 383 356 357 373 189 455 180 457 457 429 357 312 312 495 240 312 534 351 248 315 280 530 281

21 . . . . 10, 1 . . . .

26, 27, 28 . . . 30 . . . . . 12, 2 . . 232, 305, 13, 1 . . . .

14, 5 . . 237, 284, 21 . . . .

15 . . . . 18 . . . . . . . .

455,

28 34 16, 3 . .

Deuteronomy

21, 26 30 17, 2 . . . . 10 11, 12

18, 3 6 8 15 530 31 . , 19,10, 16 323 17 21 20, 5 8, 9 , 1420 382 17 18 19 . . . 409, 422 Ms 21, 9

(Octal 17, 3 Aeth.) 1,18 . . . . 530 2, 3 . . 269, 455, 519 92 16 . . . . 544 21, 1 92 23 . . . . 412 17 25 . . . . 545 92 29 . . . . 412 3, 5 . . . . 286 367 26 . . . . 492, 519 4, 9 . . . . 186 25, 3 426 11 . . . . 525 19 . . . . 417, 539 36 . . . . 186 42 . . . . 183, 356 5,22 . . . . 263, 472 6, 1 . . . . 186, 530 9 . . . . 286 11 . . . . 470, 474 530 7, 9 . . . . 243

. . . . . . . . . 81,

. . . .

I N D E X OF PASSAGES.
Deuteronomy Joshua Joshua

565
22, 23 344 24 510 25 437 26 509 27 . . . . 453, 464 28 . . . . 494, 509 29 . 387, 454, 520 bis 28, I 501 2 . . . 413, 501 3 344 5 416 6 530 8 505 9 . . . . 477, 505 10 488 11 . . . . . . . 345 12 452 13 416 14 . . 272, 287, 479 16 462 24, 2 . . . . 462, 479 4 321 12 509 14 "462 15 . . 334, 456, 555 16 . . . . 462, 520 17 . . . . 478, 536 19 312 20 . . . . 420, 462 22 . . 208, 345, 458 23 462 24 504 26 477 29 188 30 272 31 407 32 . . . . 429, 488 33 . . . . 410, 487 Judges (Octat. Aeth.) 1,1 481 4 . . . . . . . 487 5 437 8 426 10 . . . . 449, 467 11 467 14 . . . 492, 517 24 245 25 402 27 513 36 254 2, 1 542 13 382 3 . . . . 446, 542 8 463 14 432 19 475 22 515 3, 6 452 8 366 10 . 431 14 . . . . 366, 487

31,20 27 29 32, 1 2 15 28 38 40 51 33,11 17 34, 12

211 270 211 524 396 109 233 357 520 404 530 368 530

Joshua (Octat. Aeth.) 3, 5 260 15 358 16 450 4, 8, 10 449 11 . . . . 331, 449 18 359 5, 6 . . . . 433, 538 10 252 12 463 13 . 485,497,504.513, 515 6, 1 536 3 189 5 185 8 263 9 . . . . 383, 483 10 . . 173, 511, 535 13 . . . . 366, 412 14 412 15 464 16 373 18 459 20 433 21 . . . . 395. 396 24 .143 7, 7 521 12 450 13 449 21 . . 409, 442, 487 22 . . . . 409, 442 8, 2 458 4 386 14 . . . . 402, 404 17 . . . . 511, 512 18 190 20 . . . . 383, 485 22 377 23 . . . . 360, 482 24 . . . . 380, 450 25 143 33 243 35 404 37 471 9, 2 . . . . 268, 451 3 412 5 539 7 473

9, 9 22 23 10, 1 4 5 9 10 11 19 20 32 11, 2 4 8 14 15 16 20 12, 6 9 13, 5 15,57 16, 3 5 7 10 17,12 13 15 16 18 18, 3 6 13 19, 9 28 47 20, 2 6 21, 1 4 7 16 18, 26 29, 38 39 40 42 43 22, 2 4 5 12 13 16 18 19 20 22

449 351 . . . . 457, 492 344 . . 344, 409, 422 554 263 433 358 189 . . . . 433, 450 489 286 . . 412, 497, 554 286 . . . . 345, 497 272 254 434 342 404 . . . . 245, 265 367 . . 254, 384, 397 385 315 341 453 . . . . 431, 435 436 345 344 379 432 . . . . 254, 384 . . . . 343, 394 286 . . . . 188, 189 398 . . 169, 432, 532 466 bis, 6 . . . . 488 . . . . 369, 488 367 19, 22, 24 . . 488 . . . . 488, 535 32, 33 . . . 488 . . . . 369, 488 . . . . 367, 410 . . . . 331, 410 479 . . 273, 287, 479 344 432 479 458 . . . . . . . 321 . . 334, 454, 479 454 380 . . . . 363, 514 550

566 Judges 3,16 , 24 . . 25 4, 4 . . 15 .

t m

I N D E X OP P A S S A G E S . Judges 11,35, 36 . 37 39 40 12, 5 14 13, 2 4 7 . . 509, 527, 9 11 12 14 17 18 21 22 23 508, 24 14, 2 . . . 522, 3 514, 5 . . . . 504, 6 . . . 512, 8 * 429, 13 15, 18 * * 545, 15, 1 429, 2 . 436 Us, 489, 5 8 11 13 452, 14 . . . 376, 18 19 16, 2 3 6 7 * 512, 9 436, 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 373, 188, 25 26 27 * * 483, 28 > 415, 29 17, 2 3 5 6 374, 9 13 18, 2 Judges 357 486 442 374 499 494 523 512 546 443 516 500 508 516 512 506 553 503 527 541 522 543 504 524 405 552 454 527 469 301 554 526 543 477 527 492 152 548 548 543 196 548 524 188 490 459 208 375 434 523 532 537 447 470 426 481 426 529 530 450 462 379 9 . . 436, 458, 485 11 . 482 395 19 . . 357, 465, 543 23 . 434 546 31 . 545 172 5 . . . . 217, 275 443 523 522 395 11 . . . . 387, 476 462 450 426 17 . . 254, 288, 480 498 23 . 520 476 511 379 189 527 10 . . . . 375, 403 404 16 . 542 404 482 449 515 31 . 387 32 . 313 356 39 . . . . 460, 486 504 356 452 486 518 539 402 403 Ruth (Octal Aeth.) l, l . . . . 522, 528 4 . . 387, 489, 504 529 456 543 13 . . . . 443, 511 489 349 518 458 19 . 281 482 2, 2 . 534 529 4 . . . . 349, 519

536 503 431, 451 484 504 279 467

476 20 . . 493, 513, 516 5, 1 . . 502 313 12 198 28 , 195 6,10 , 528 13 , 381 14 168 15 . . 381, 474 17 . 537 20 . . 426, 461 22 381, 431 23 519 24 387 25 , 469 27 458 28 . . 243, 476 494 39 373 7, 4 . . 529 5 , 543 10 539 12 432 446 17 393 19 490 20 190 24 436 8, 4 . . 487 10 432 11 523 19 . . 353, 520, 552 24 374 25 453 26 . . 258, 304, 488 30 500 32 282 9, 720 382 8 447 9 . . 173, 447 1620 550 22 447 29 . . 521 30 432 44 , 431 48 , 382 49 . 432 10,10 447 14 208 382 402 405 433

I N D E X O F PASSAGES. Ruth 2, 5 8 10 11 12 13 14 17 20 3, 3 4 8 10 13 15 16 17 4, 1 4 6 11 14 4 Kings 10,31 13,17 19,29 2 Psalms 15, 6 . 16, 3 4 5 9 17,20 26 29 40 41 18,12 14 . 16 20, 8 . 21, 9 18 20 22, 4 24, 6 14 26, 7 16 19 27, 5 29, 4 30,16 . 21 31, 1 2 14 33,14 15 16 34, 9 24 36,26 . 28 . 37, 6 7 8 12 15 21 . 38, 7 8 17 39,10 17 21 . 41, 4 42, 3 4 43, 5 22 . 23 44, 2 18 45, 2 . 5 47, 9 . 48, 2 7

567
. . . . . . 180 400 398 357 390 435 441 185 401 90 268 406 356 359 545 267 269 548 355 272 287 357 486 358 358 410 407 533 532 359 272 194 359 180 381 530 194 360 433 393 436 500 403 335 363 545 376 306 440 272 181 358 414 553 273 384 353 550 383 358 554 357

. . .

426, 353, 507,

. . . . . . . .

. . 329, 518, . . . . 330, 492,

. . . .

516 348 284 506 532 520 519 488 400 359 531 492 489 520 367 538 482 425 506 433 519 540

539 235 422

Esrae ( = = Ezra and Nehemiah) 2,30 var 188 8,22 265 9,11 354

Esther 9,22

. . . . . .

100

Job
2, 9 451 5,19 373 6,17 266 8, 4 549 9, 4 451 13.24 357 16,14 . . . . 399, 473 31, 3 407 9 . 549 35, 2 268 5 384 39.25 . . . . . . . 381 12 486
Psalms (ed. LUDOLF)

1 Kings or 1 Samuel (Libri Begum ed. DlLLMANN, 1861) 3, 3 270 21 484 7,13 269 16,13 393 21, 4 549 22,13 356 25, 5 488 26, 7, 11 . . . . . . 234 25 180 30,25 393 2 Kings or 2 Samuel (Lib. Beg.) 2, 5 422 3, 1 374 13, 4 374 15, 4 521 22, 6 358 3 Kings or 1 Kings (Lib. Beg.) 1,14 355 3,36 379 7, 367 10,12 379 17,18 335 19, 4 519 4 Kings or 2 Kings {Lib. Beg.) 1,14 487 5,25 379 26 422 7,18 409

. . .

401,

1, 2 386 3 394 5 386 2, 1 . . . . 363, 379 5 544 8 . . . . 358, 395 10 363 3, Heading . . .418 1 . . . . 335, 397 4, 4 537 5 518 7 398 5,10 . . . . 357, 511 6, 5 396 10 401 7, 3 549 4 . . 360, 439, 549 14 534 15 376 8, 1 320 4 344 7 401 8 333 9,13 538 26 400 29 357 42 . . . . 357, 399 11, 7 372 12, 13 379 3 397 6 . . . . 422, 443

. . . . . .

. 323, 357,

. .

381,

. .

378,

. .

418,

. . . . . .

568
Psalms 48.11 13 49, 2 8 13 . . 17, 18 19 21 50, 4 5 . . 17 19 51, 6 52, 7 54.17 27 61, 9 11 . . 63. 4 64^11 14 65,15 67, 1 18 19 24 68, 2 17 18 19 69, 4 70.18 20, 21 71, 1 6 72, 2 3 5 28 74,10 77, 1 9 12 35 37 . . 69 78,13 79, 3 14 15 80, 8 12 sq 83, 1 3 4 87, 4 . . 12 16 88, 2, 6 89, 2 6 9 358 344 376 524 . . . . . 550 526 550 359 344 . . 363, 481 552 390 376 293 409 302 381 272, 344, 358 431 267 433 361 359 372 268 359 438 356 181 357 381 395 355 355 199 554 359 302 358 501 501 211 405 474 . . 359, 501 500 372 375 305 381 524 553 319 380 319 . . 103, 400 355 267 355 344 266 501

INDEX OF PASSAGES. Psalms 89,10 . . . . . . 11 17 90, 2 91, 2 92, 3 6 93, 9 94, 1 96,13 100, 7 102, 1,2 21 103,34 105.11 22 . . . 272, 106, 4 108,13 14 112, 3 113.13 sqq. . . . . 17, 18 117, 8, 9 17
19

24 118, 9 26 34 64 84 87 119, 5 120, 5 . . . 7 . . . 121, 7 122, 3 123, 2, 3 126, 3 130, 3 4 135, 1 138, 7 17
18 bis

140, 7 143.14 144, 5 146, 5 11 147, 6 149, 6 Proverbs 3, 3 8, 5 15,18 30, 7

Ecclesiastes 8,16 522 359 17 521 329 534 356 Canticles 355 1, 9, 15 394 344 2, 2 394 478 9 402 514 18 191 375 3, 5 . . . . 419, 545 358 8 229 463 4, 7 335 519 9 373 359 10 521 420 11 bis 353 359 5, 8 347 273 9 349 534 10 302 200 15 301 541 7. 2 296 376 3 218 438 9 90 501 8, 6 323 543 525 Isaiah 328 6, 1 (in Gad. Yared 381 5,29 sq.) 485 379 13 372 186 7,22 480 350 8, 1, 3 . . . . . . 198 186 14,10 381 320 18, 2 226 554 40, 2 182 520 49,15 548 173, 519 51,12 334 200, 519 53, 6 339 358 12 400 546 57.13 bis 147 387 58,11 281 269 525 183 Jeremiah 2,14 223 497 447 555 11,19 547 35.14 (Frcf.) . , . . 456 302 37, 1 {Frcf.) . . . . 540 404 542 Ezekiel 466 3, 2 351 358 13,19 476 301 437 Daniel 7,10 368 365 12, 1 395 349 270 331 439 Amos 6, 6 15 . . . 8, 6 9 10 12 9, 1 512 210, 409 235 247 350 409 208

Ecclesiastes 7,24 . . . . . .

461

I N D E X OP P A S S A G E S .
Amos i Zephaniah Zechariah

569

9, 7 14
Habakkuk

348 210 208

S, 8
Zechariah

. . . . 380

14,13
Malachi

147 403 376

1, 2 . . . . 321

3, 2, 7 . . .

3, 1

(b) Tobit Judith

APOCRYPHA. Liber Siracidae

1,13 356 3,15 528 5,15 345, 384 6, 2, 3, 4 bis 425 5 426 6 425 12 426 425 16 189, 425 7, 9 426 8, 2, 3 . . . 425 16 346 10, 5 551 12 168, 490 11, 3 bis, 5, 7 . . .425 434 8, 16 520 12, 1, 2, 5 . 425 8 269 10 413 13, 4 354
Judith

8,29 . . . . . . . 444 10, 3 sq. . . 16 . . . . . . . 444

Liber Sapientiae

3,18 4, 4 6,12 11,19 12, 1 13, 4 15,20 28 18, 5 21,21

2,13 4,12 20 5,11 6, 5, 7,17 8, 8 9,11 17 4 12,16 20 13,11 18

n,

. . . . . . . 407 . . . . . . . . . 482 . . . 8, 16 . . .384 . . . . . . 540 . . . . . . 269 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265, . . . . . .

555 357 350 457 532 349 533 533 533 512 463 276 279 528 375
40

427 27,20 495 3 0 , % 472 16 . . . 34, 218 36. 4

4

44V 266, 269 508

554

7 . . . 15 . . . 358 520 539 342 342 .427, 505 444 270 15,10 . . . 17,10 18, 4 10 13 . . . . . . . . . . . .

495, 533 38,21 40, 6 42, 6 . . . 454

Baruch

1. 7 2,12 4, 6 5,23 6,15 8, 1 14 17 26

224 520 247 323 355 512 518 269 472 275 269

19, 2 . . .

(c) N E W

TESTAMENT

(ed. PLATT, 1830; cf. Keprint of PLATT'S Edition by PRAETORIS, 1899).

Matthew Matthew Matthew

2, 3 . . . . 4 . . . . 16 , . 20 . . 25 . . 535 2, 1 . . 327, 428, 451 356 8 . . 9 . . 12 . . 13 . .

193, 451 379, 479 468 532 . . 321, 451 395, 419, 531 433 402, 428, 431 171, 419, 428, 544, 546

2,14 359 15 395, 419 16 . 395, 397 468 479 17 . . . 405, 495 18, 454 23 538 505 3, 4 6 395 8 414 9 . 322, 407 437, 453

570 Matthew 449 3,10 11 . . 359, 414, 457 414, 457 15 395 4, 1 413 3 4 . . 381, 390, 413, 510, 512 465 5 384, 389 6 10 . 341,363, 481 527 399, 465 13 17 472 22 23 172 24 . . 375, 470, 501 425 25 5, 1 425 357 2 391 6 463 9 498 11 13 . . 414, 471, 525 14 453, 499 18 419, 546 19 . . 329, 441, 474 475 20 21 391 22 357, 470 23 420, 545 24 357, 400 26 419 28 . . 390, 428, 449 29 . 328, 443,457 544 30 . 363, 443, 457 544 32 . . . . 486, 550 33 . . . . 385, 414 34 . . . . 386, 435 35 435 36 . . 282, 306, 453 37 . . 380, 381, 414, 418, 511, 555 42 395 43 357 45 471 46 . . 411, 514, 517 47 381, 514 48 341 6, 1 . . 414, 418, 550 2 . 293, 395 5 . . 411, 442, 453 8 545 9 413 10 412, 555 392 11 343 13 412 14, 434 17 23 379 24 . . . . 418, 555 25 170, 514 26 514 27 399

I N D E X OP P A S S A G E S . Matthew Matthew 30 . 260 , 341 379, 526 414 342 8 . . . . 385, 470 34 . . 345, 412 11 . 333,334, 517, 530 433 13 397 379, 522 14 333 3 . . 345 514 16 . . . . 376, 401 9 . . 11 . . 379, 453, 472 412 20 . . 398, 500, 529 280 397 514 22 , 395 453 505 393 28 . . 414, 453, 472 21 . . 320, 510, 535 29 . . . . 416, 541 405 435 547 25, 26 398 401 501 40 341 363 470 11, 1 . 472 3 . 378, 514 bis, 515 345, 414 4 . . . . 171, 298 4 . . 322, 326 389 5 . . 376 402 457 382 328, 375 9 . . , . 382, 475 9 . . 361, 530 10 . . . . 400, 402 10 . . 414 14 . 170 12 . . 169, 472 458 484 376 451 20 . . . . 182, 396 434 21 . 418, 449, 520, 522 16 . . 451, 470 405 23 . . 170, 418, 549 19 . . 350, 380, 429 380 25 . . . 320, 393 20 . . 24 . . 172, 393, 416 26 400 415 27 . . 395, 404, 440 375 28 . . 335, 402, 416 377 12, 1 , 402 247 454 34 . . 456, 501 3 . . . . 412, 554 . . . . . . 456 9, 3 . . 403, 429, 471 455, 515 391 5 . . 414, 525 450 12 . . 10 . 455 15 . 379 ,420 453, 545 478 397 375 . . . 455 18 13 . . 143, 405, 489 20 . . 393, 402, 443 18 397 420, 545 21 . . 393 20 . . . . 546 22 . . . . 546, 554 242 23 . . 25 . . . . 403, 418 510 378, 453 26 . . . . 403 28 . . 27 . . . 345 346, 434 29 . . 470 . . . 415 481 29 . . 269, 335, 419, 545 449, 513, 550 413 391 398 32 . 397 336 33 . . . . 393, 555

INDEX OF PASSAGES.
Matthew Matthew Matthew

571

13,34 . . . 379, 392 37 . . 393 40 . . . 371, 555 41 . . 329 43 . . 402 44 . . . 380 45 . 254 , 488, 496 535 46 . . 456 47 . . . 394, 456 48 . . 334 13, 1 . . 399 2 . . . . . . 416 3 . . . 534 5 . . . 398 6 . . 527 9 . . . . . . 458 10 . . . 402 12 . . . 411 13 . . . . 419, 545 14 . . . 452 17 . . . 456 21 . . . 397 22 . . . 404 24 . . . 435 25 . . . 237 27 . . . 514 29 . . . 380, 511 30 . 383 ,439,456, 458 31 . . . 435 34 . . . 404 36 . . . 468 3739 . 412 40 . . . 555 41 . . . 392 42 . . . 377 43 , . . . 405, 458 44 . . . . . . 393 47 . . . . . . . 396 48 . . . 451 49 . . . 393 50 . . . 380 53 . . . 330 54 . . . ! 328, 416 55 . . . 505 57 . . . 380 58 . . . . 269, 508 14, 1 . . . 466 2 . . 390, 480, 495 4 . . 457 5 . . 456 6 . . . 401 7 . . . 457 8 . . . . 395, 450 13 . . . 402 15 . . . . 345, 468 16 . . . . 457, 510 17 . . . . 377, 404 18 . . . . . . . 377 19 . . . . 395, 398 21 . . . . 396, 404 22 . . . . 174, 459 23 . . . 402

14,24 26 27 28 29 36 15, 4 7 8 11 12 14 16 18 20 21
22

. . . .

. 393, 400, . 393, 409, . . . 406, 375, 402, 409

401 461
499

17,20 36], 377, 432, 436 21

22

550 399 457 322

23 25 . . 450, 515, 516 26 27 . 191,249 391,482 18, 1 . . 415, 425, 545

23 24 26 28 31 32 33, 36 38 39 16, 1 2 3 4 5 7, 9 11 12 13 14 15 18 20 21 22 23 26 28 17, 1 3 4 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

328, 384 396, 397 7 390, 407 514 8 . 360,457 482, 544 . . 312, 396, 507 9 . 360,398 ,457, 480 499 11 173, 458 272 12 368, 488 473 13 . . 368 , 475 bis . 329, 473, 490, 545 14 457 396 15 363 376 16 373 401 19 394 328 20 409, 500 . . . . 442, 455 21 361, 397 320 22 . . 373 416 23 , . . . 329, 371 24 , 488 361 28 487 30 . 435 . . . . 404, 409 31 538 396 32 320 . . . . 456, 483 33 , 411 . . . 199, 492 Us 34 392, 548 . . 199, 453, 492 19, 1 . . 404 476 3 390, 514 454 6 8 403 7 173, 456 . . . . 361, 387 8 . . 494, 504. 510 9 . . . . 510, 518 . 419, 429^ 550 456 10 455, 509 . . 486, 516, 540 11 419! 510 . . . . . . 516 12 493, 518 484 14 361, 454 435 . . . . 457, 535 16 517, 550 . . . . 171, 295 17 272 . 387, 397, 520 bis 18 . . 336, 463, 508 . 401,414,461, 470 19 463 . 522, 537, 548, 554 442, 517 20 . . . . 429, 546 21 . . 375, 429, 456 22 363 . . . . 400, 545 23 . . 429, 472, 497 . . . . 377, 490 24 . 265,455 473,543 . . . . 335, 512 25 . . 415 328 26 , 328 . . . . 170, 383 27 , . 415 . . . . 449, 526 29 . . . . 357, 372 . . 171, 414, 449 SO, 2 . 374 402 3 . . 441, 484, 490 545 5 . . . 344, 490 494 6 . 379, 482, 490 454 8 . 385, 420, 438 . . . . 379, 508 9 374 398 10 374, 537 . . . . 379, 453 11

. . . . . . . .

572
Matthew

I N D E X O F PASSAGES.
Matthew Matthew

15 16 19 23 24 , 26 , 27 sq. 28 , 30 . . . . 404, 34 . 81, 1 , 2 . . 278, 406, 4 . . 329, 495, 5 . . . . 480, 7, 8 . 9 , 10 13 . . . . 413, 16 . . . . 18 . . 21 23 24 25 29 30 31 32. . . . . . . . . . . 438, 336, . . 514, 381, 483, 439, 379,

bis . . . . 381, . . . . 394, . 385,401,512

36, 37 38 . . 40 . .

22, 3 . . 9 . . . . 396,

24 . . . . 25 . . . . 28 . . . . 29 . . . .

173, 488, 471, 472,

530 499 498 395 397 454 425 397 443 543 481 425 434 429 444 406 536 482 397 519 498 444 437 538 431 404 470 516 545 515 507 438 381 467 436 526 480 459 429 437 375 439 385 446 393 458 429 458 414 433 541 444 429 443 444 425 470 519 527 489 516 508

22,36 . . . . 336, 474 37 481 24 . . 489 26 . . 39 488 27 . . 40 42 516 44 401 32 . . 443 36 45 454 37, 38 46 23, 2, 398 5 391 44 . . 6 . . . . 315, 396 8 363 10 441 11 436 12 169 13 . . 13 sqq 520 15 . , 14 454 16 . . 16 435 18 . . . 435 Us, 518 22 435 21 . 23 . . 373, 457, 474 25. iq 386 24 . . 26 385 27 472 28 , 30 552 34 396 36 436 32 , 38 441 33 , 39 519 34 . . 24, 2 489 35 . . 7 398 36 bis 11 466 13 . . . . 450, 529 40 . . 14 397 41 . . 17 . . . . 458, 555 42 . . 19 . . . . 406, 407 44 . 21 393 22 . . 143, 470, 553 47 . . 23 . 376, 377, 444, 509 24 . 436, 458, 466, 551 25 449 53 . . 26 . . . . 376, 431 55 . . 30 485 59 . . 32 61 . . 425 34 63 . . 329 38 . . . . 171, 400 40 . . . . 365, 489 42 336 43 . . . . 456, 553 45 243 27, 4 . . 48 454 7 . . 50 528 25, 1 487 2 471 4 354 268 15 . . 5 6 432 331 7, 9 522 11 . . 331, 383, 442 15 . . 374, 429, 533 16 . . . . 407, 488

. . . . . . . .

396 485, 530 320, 485 521, 554 400, 470 435

. 440, 484 bis 395

329, 380, 436 361, 487, 524 . . 171, 405 172 . . 398, 552 468 431 437 183, 372, 545 . 526, 548 bi$ 377 432, 453, 484 . . 445, 509 455 344 400, 471, 487 . . . . . . 524, 537 171, 400 174, 540 454 515 391 519 538 430 . . 335, 397 . . 268, 446 400 335 361 541 171, 453, 472 515 392 431 381 334

I N D E X O F PASSAGES.

573
Mark
404 304 444 14, 7 . . 405, 420 435 331 41 . . 373 360 392 21, 29 288 16,16 . . 169, 528, 529 396

Matthew
27,23 . . 450, 517 24 . . 434, 445, 474 27 . . 295 520 30 . . 434, 447 438 82, 34 458 451 398 40, 42, 43 549 45 . . 490 371 47 . . 328, 497 49 . . 173, 456, 515 468 52, 53 315 440 328 57 . . 440, 451 62 . . 489 456 444 28, 1 , 391 3 . . 469, 470 393 6 375 389 8 . ., 436, 520 9 . . 439 435 456

Mark
3, 4 . 10 472 479 463 497 478 507 476 399 554 410 554 478 477 439 452 477 386 477 372 477 479 479 478 480 491 477 450 516 500 443 456 191 386 511 497 449 436 434 384 414 381 436 373 528 491 437 470 345 273 375 482 440 364 298 377 331 401 366 404

23 29 32 . . 376, 34 . . 376, 401, 35 . . . . 10 .. .. 343, 363, 13 ,

Luke
1, 4 . . 11 28 . . 2, 4 . . 440 399 394, 475 358 371 339 371 418 489 494 431 191 343 357 398 515 372 405 443 191 513 529 531 545 520 268, 351, 439 319 545 265 167 362 417 435 436 545 363 428 319 501 268 449 405 383 371 487 417 343

31 . 32 . 36 37 . 41 . 5, 2 . 9 . 15 23 35 36 37 41 7, 3 . 6 15 bi

.475, 316,
447,

433,
498,

8, 8 . . 49 9, 3 11 12 . . . . . . . .

Mark
1, 4 . . 6 . 7 . 10 . 16 . 27 . 172, 444 440 470, 496 . . 435, 457 . 485, 538 437 541 191, 399, 428 357 461 . 477, 537 464 501 415 . 403 420 . 377, 463, 539 . 485 472 515 457 478 . 379, 471 410,420,513 545 . 418, 550 , 426 . 512, 514 . 513 383

386,

39 . .

35 11, 7 . .

38 . 45 . 2, 1 .

8, 1 2 . 38 45 21 22 . 37 11, 4 . 5 8 21 12, 6 22 41

489,

360, 290,

18 19 21 22 25 3, 2

. . . . . .

305

8 . .

574
Luke 14,32 15, 4, 7 8 18, 21 17,21, 23 . 18,16 24 30 19, 5 . 8 . . . 17 . . . 20 26 20, 5sq 11 21, 3 22,32 . . . 37 53 . . . 23,20, 22 . 38 . . . 24,32 John 1, 1, 11 13 19 21 22 32 33 2, 4 9 10 15 19 3,29, 4, 2 5 16 21 29 54 6, 9 12 17 38 42 65 68 7,23 30 32 45 46 8, 7 19 49 53 9, 1, 31 550 368 268 320 376, 377 361 484 372 163 . . .372 243, 319 376 439 555 449 450 267, 359 400 526, 545 . . . 373 385, 388 171

I N D E X OF P A S S A G E S . John 10, 1, 2 16 11, 6 19 31 . . 50 . . 52 12.26 43 13.22 36 14,28 16,14 17, 4 18.23 19, 5 18 20 bis 26 27 . . 31 33 20,13, 15 25 . . 26 21, 3 8 15, 16 21 . . 22 Romans 4, 5 345 5, 7 387 6, 5 549 8, 7 512 38 534 10,12 314 11,28 399 15,14 . 437,473,486,541 24 . . . . 377, 399 1 Corinthians 3.22 . . . . 23 . . . . 4, 3 5, 3 . . . . . 4 6, 3 7,35 . 9,14 . . . . 15 . . 455, 11, 5 28 31 18, 37
sqq.

. .

. .

. . . .

2 . . . . . .394 . 343 . . . . . . . 470 382 511 . . . . . . . 382 . . . . . . . . 542 . . . . . . . 532 . . . . . . . 320 441 . 474 554 371 30 413 414 532 375 . . . . 320, 380 387 466 499 535 167 525 357 395 . . . . . . . 394 . . . . 212, 414 180 356 382 ... 386 181 . . . . . . . . . 357 . 437 345 13 360 525

402 471 371 191 . 191, 537 . 403, 543 376 380 543 403 269 436 343 267 549 376 394 388 376 . 339, 376 301 450 320 . . . . 427 371 191 488 184 . . . . 472 335

418, 555 469, 496 344 . . 548 268 387 191 270, 285 490, 543 281 267 344 158
160

. . . . .

14,21 . . . . . .

.526

Acts of the 1,20 . . . 2,13 4, 3 5, 8 25 . . . 7,49 bis 9, 1 10 10,14 . . . 11,18 12,23 16,15 17,16 18, 7 . 19,33 21,40 . . . 22,19 27 23, 5 9 26, 3 14 27.27 bis

2 Corinthians 5, 3 . . 295 19 . . . . 267, 268 10, 1 . . . . . . . 520 Apostles 11, 3 387 . . . 339 24 . . . . 372, 404 433 28 . 272 244 361 12, 2, 3 . . . . . .387 . . . . 376 336 Galatians 1,19 525 387 3, 8, 18 270 376 21 . . . . . . . 552 . 387, 520 4, 1 . . . 420, 545 bis, 387 11 387 266 5,10 453 550 191 523 Ephesians 3, 7 . . . . 422, 441 180 4, 8 . . 268 . . . . 388 26 518 344 5, 8 385 .381 21 190 398 387 6, 2 . . . . . . . 357 45 15 . . . . . . . 267 388 371 Philippians 2,12 386 Colossians 1.23 . . . . . . .422 25 . . . . 422, 532 3, 1 549 11 254

Romans 1,12 449 14 554 3, 9 449 26 . . . . . . . 381 4, 3 -382

I N D E X O F PASSAGES. Titus Hebrews 17 . . . 4, 4 . . . 7 bis . 5, 6 . . . 1 Peter . . 455 10, 7 . . . . . . . 376 11, 1 . . . . 2 Peter 1, 21 6 . 12, 8 . . . . . . . . 526 2, 5 . 27 . . . . . . , 537 3,11 . James 1,14 . . . . . . . 267 . . . . . . . . 508 267 486 267 461 414, 526 379 James 381 361 476 199 472 200 356 381 356 381 . 336, 379 367 441, 500 i John 3,16 . . . . 4,18 . . . .

575

5,12 . . . . . , .181 6, 7 . . . . 7, 8 . . . . 9, 3 . . . , 377

Revelation 2, 1 . . . . 19 4, 8 5, 3 e, l 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 . 184 . 363

1,11 . . .

4, 5 . . . .

11, 1 . . . . 14, 2 . . . . 17,11 . . . . 14 . . . . 19,13 . . . . 22, 2 . . . .

. 361 ), 258 . 490 . 304 . 394

1 John 2,18 , . 19 . . . . 3, 1 . . .

B. ETHIOPIC COLLECTIONS A N D WORKS

APOCRYPHAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL, LEGENDAEY, HISTORICAL E T H I C A L - M O S T F R E Q U E N T L Y C I T E D I N T H E GRAMMAR. Chrest. 539 31, 1 . . . . 429 2 . . . . 426 523 465 37,26 . . . . 534 38, 2 . . . . 463 427 41,13 . . . . 458 42, 6 . . . . 456 8 . . . . 506 9sq. . . . 484, 522 427 439 360 26 . . . . 391 345 22 . . . . 495 44, 1 . . . . 391, 439 349 16 . . . . 432 24, 26, 28 bis . . 270 475 20 . . . . 270 522 Chrest. 495 271 531 470 323 267 268 348 75, 27, 2125 555 76, 1 . . . . 271, 509 384 1521 . . . . 555 495 551 486 413 438 438 439 431 334 431 206 334

Chrest. (== Chrestomathia

Aethiopica, ed. D I L L 51ANN, 1866)

Prt X V 465 X V I . . 465, 482 3,2283-. 449 413 .lSsg539 553 462 13,14 462 427 16, last 5 lines . . . 507 388 18, 7, 15 427 19, 1 538 24 and 26 544 24, 4 345 357 20, 21, 25 . . . 429 25,14 429 26, 8 9 434 425 29,13 442 25 342

97,11

576
Chrest. 105, 3, 5 334 110(12,2) 431 112(18, 1) 431 120 (53,1) 358 121(59) 305 122(60) 315 123 (66, 4) 358 126 (79) . . . . . . . 355 147, Str. 3, 1. 2 . . 2 1 0 Str. 3, 1. 3 . . 465 I Esr. ( = Esrae liber apoeryphus Graecus) 2,11 269 48 528 49 478 4 Ear. ( = E s r a e Apocalypsis, ed. L A U RENCE) Gen. Kef. . . . . 88 1,28 541 2, 6 . . . . 454, 541 22 var 495 3,26 375 54, 55 551 60 366 6,25 210 51 537 62 406 65 ( LAUE. 75) . . 495 7,16 (LATO. 24) . . 495 20 551 8,12 355 67 545 0, 24 (LAR. 27) . . 495 32 355 39 . . . . 434, 493 10,15 (20) 355 39 (54) 355 51 (65) 495 11,25 331 13,20 454 46 245 55 (58) 355

INDEX OF PASSAGES. G. Ad. 11,19 17, 8 . . . . 270, Hen. (==> Liber Henoch, ed. DILLMANN, 1851; 458 cf. Das Buch. Henoch, 354 ed. ELEMMING, 1902) 255 267 1, 2 . . . . 478, 509 208 479 269 478 270 206 270 8 . . . . 469, 505 9 . . . . 390, 437 206 416 , 1 . . . . 503, 535 350 360 3, . . . 269, 400 431 4, 477 5, 1 . . 391, 535, 538 4 . . 281, 443, 478 465 342 438, 452 8 . . . . 501 349 6, 1 . . . . 420, 500 361 3 . . 356, 417, 539 4 . . . . 433, 439 551 409 7, 1 . . . 374 bis, 479 488 359 271 8, 1 . . 296, 315, 475 263, 477 2 . . . . 418 252 418 351 9, 519 522 540 5 . . 400, 463, 494 538 522 6 . 108 8 . . . . 331, 406 458 10 . . . . 400, 502 545 427 521 168 10 552 2 . . . . 170, 345 292 172 468 452 447 172 553 9 . . 398, 466, 473 342 553 172 12 . . 461, 544, 546 . . . . 461 271 446, 465 351 16 . . . . . . .546 398 . . . . 433 411 505 270 271 296 22 . . . . 447, 457 270 502 228 H 271 12 1 . . . 334, 380 497 271 172 271 433 499 6 . . . . 399, 513 427 i 171 13 420 168 502 413 . . . . . 546 172 294 441 9 . 294 10 . . . . 446, 478

27,11

. .

43,24 45, 6

. . . .

58,16 54,25

. , . ,

62, 8

15 90,13 18 21 93,19 95,28

, . . . 168,

108,12 109,10 110, 7 116,11 123,12 124, 7 127,16 135,19 136,28 138,26 146, 10

. ,

G. Ad. ( = G a d l a Adam, ed. TRUMPP, 1880) General References . 50, 137, 150, 164, 229, 231, 235, 238, 247, 250, 253, 257, 259, 393, 492 4,12 297 5, 1 297 3 sq 345 6,17 427 18 541 7, 4 345 5,6&is, 7,8, 9,14 . 379

. . .

206

I N D E X OF PASSAGES. Hen. 14, 2 . . . 4 6 169, 226, 7 10, 11 i 12 * 15 # 18 # 19 401, 426,' 21 .456 eis, 22 24 25 483, 15, 1 2 3 336, 4 5 397, 6 7 413, 11 16, 1 3 4 17, 1 4 7 8 18, 4 6 10 12 508, 19, 1 267, 2 20, 5 273, 399, 6 7 21, 4 5 372, 6 7 513, 8 379, 474, 22, 1 2 474, 3 329, 4 398, 6 bis 8 11 14 23, 2 3 24, 3 5 ! 474 bis, 6 25, 3 4 . 495, 509 511 6 433, 471, 7 26, 2 , , 2-- 4 3 471,' Hen. 26, 4 , . . . 436, 511 5 . . 393, 426, 511 27, 5 28, 2 . 377, 393, 398 Us, 412, 554, 555 471 29, 2 509 30, 1 31, 3 32, 2 . . 398, 402, 480 3 . . 478, 485, 523 521 5 6 . . 295, 360, 480 33, 2 3 533 34, 2 . . . . 374, 484 36, 4 37, 3 , . . . 329, 455 4 407 5 500 38, 2 3 4 . . . . 377, 505 6 . . . . 343, 377 39, 5 . . . . 501, 504 6 . . . . 511, 512 8 433 9 447 10 11 493 519 12 40, 1 . 368, 372, 511, 512 2 474 488 3 5 . . . . 428, 484 8 . . . . 334, 499 463 9 41, 2 . 485,493,538, 542 Hen. 52, 2 3 . 4 5 7 8 53,

577

431 356 292 517 496 534 473 426 491 512 461 523 503 480 509 480 521 398 463 506 33 380 413 415 380 534 328 357 445 535 404 511 546 266 461 274 306

54, 55, 56,

170 334, 499 446 432 266, 494 513 170 3 . . . 315, 316 . 315, 316, 516 4 245 6 447 7 438 5 & . . . 447, 505 539 171 4 . 1 . . . . 229, 493 331 2 473 4 395 5 398 7

. . .

8 .
57, 2 58, 3 5 59, 1 2 60, 1 5 7, 61, 1 62, 4 10 15 63, 1 3 4 5 6 10 65, 1 2 3 4 5 6 12

. . .
8 . . .

299,

. . .
.

393, 173,

, . . . .

336
516 471 536 496 323 496 491 405 516 461 473 519 382 517 462 496 398 530 545 502 361 401 426 511

3
4 5 . . 342, 379, 400, 436, 469 391 7 342 8 507 43, 2 358 44, 45, 3 4, 529 46, 1 245 8 47, 3 4 433 48, 1 2 , . . . 404, 494 502, 545 3 . . . . 6 8 471 9 49, 2 529 3 462 4 50, 2 5

. . . .

269, 433, 485,

67, 9
13 . 68, 2 5 69, 1

11 . . . 441, 14 315, 316 70, 3 . . . . 494 71, 1 476 2 . 372 8 12 . *296, 329 13 . . . 372, 487 72, 1 374,395 ,465 ,499 37

494 493 540 391 418 490 517 285 316 455 415 169 531 342 540 521 476 454 542 372 417 401 433 298 478 555 342 478 471 513 212 296 525 456

357

578
Hen. 72, 2 . . 358, 468 480 3 . 332, 374, 487.533 4 363, 444 5 . . 332, 393, 531 6 sqq. . . 402 7 529 8 384 395 9 13, 391 400 20 25 . . . . 389, 490 371 32 36 390 391 73, 1 2 . . 244, 358, 373 5 373 6-- 8 . . 373 469 74, 1 3 373 432 14 445 75, 3 76, 6 283 439 77, 1 432 3 371 8 78, 4 371 6 373 7 441 14 254 15 517 17 527 81, 3 483 4 507 7, 330 82, 1 385, 447 7 11 400 20 483 83, 1 3 . . 485, 524, 538 4 . . 485, 507, 542 379 6 170, 538 7 377 10 509 84, 3 446, 528 6 . . . . 85, 3 . . . . 285, 504 4 405 5 330 6 . . . 452, 478 313 86, 2 4 297 6 415 457, 540 87, 1 4 . . . . 315, 316 496 88, 1 316 89, 3 4 409 5 328, 376 6 131 8 . . . . 376, 442 9 336

INDEX OF PASSAGES. Hen. 89,10 15 19 20 25 29 Hen. . . , . 237, 306 188, 457, 540 377 405 387 331 404 542 181, 252 331, 404 526 261 331, 542 495 193, 542 374 331, 390 361, 495 515 542 342 457, 540 376 342 306 512 526 485, 538 372 512 330 415, 545 446 184 496 372 457, 516 512 527 359 399 399, 521, 542 524 470 306 399 171 433 555 538 170 538 171 506 261 170 548 171 335 379 542 455

11 104, 5

. . . 206, 207 . . 171 Us, 510

43 44

. .

6 13 16

. . . . . .

537, 539 167, 273 336

51 57 58 60 62 63

. . . . . .

107, 1 108,13, 14

507 132

72 75

23 91,16 92, 5 3

. .

10 11

. .

94, 1, 3

95,

1 2

. .

Kebra Nag. ( = Eebra Nagast, ed. BEZOLD, 1905) Introd. XIV 47, 246 XV 31 XVI . . 9 9 , 210, 266, 293, 342, 353, 355, 377, 481 X V I I . 91, 96, 97, 104, 182, 184, 267, 367, 368, 405 X V I I I . . 317, 347, 348, 349, 462, 486 XIX . . . . 524, 544 X X . 168,383,444,55Her XXV 258 XX VIII a 100 XXIXb 317 XXXa . . . 233, 248 XXXI . . . 178, 482 XXXII a 298 XXXIV 422 (Glossary) . . . 83, 447 Gen.References . 52, 53, 275

97,

2 8 4 6 8 , .

98,

12bll

227

99, 1

169,

2 7 b 11

499

101, 102,

2 1 5

171,

I N D E X O F PASSAGES. Kebra Nag.

50 a 1 52b 3 54al8 bSsq. . . . . . 55b 14 b23 56b7 57, Note 16 . . . 63al4sg 64al5 65b3 66b2 . . . . . . . 67 b 4 sqq b23 74b23S 84b7 bl8 90b8 271 338 133 . 402 350 271 554 . 394 482 458 346 521 520 133 304 95 335 206

579
Kebra Nag.
. . . 267 394 220 551 133 446 .267 281 266 33 429 368 188 . 34 . 34 . 453 .382

Kebra Nag.
93bl7 96 a3 07all al8 blO . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

101, Note 11 102b20 . . . 105 a 20 . . . 106 a 10 . . . 1 0 7 b l 4 , 16 . I l l b 20 . . . 112 a21 . . . Note 14 . 114b20s-?. . .

. . . 305 120b22 . . . . . . 268 121b 16 . . . 363 122b 17 var . 127b 15 var. 129 a 20 sqq . 131 &16sq 133b21 . . . 482 135 a24 . . . 527 1 3 8 a l 6 . b2 . 266 141 a 18 . . . . 517 al9 . . . 285 bl8 . 145al7 159, Note 18 . . . 34 164, Note 26 . . . 452 1 6 6 b l 3 sq. . . 169a4sg\ . .

. . . . 309

. . . .

. . . .

C. OTHER WORKS A N D DOCUMENTS OCCASIONALLY REFERRED TO.

Abushakeri OpusChronographicum
11 364

Chronique de Jean de Nikiou 70, 4 sq 512

116, 5sq 183,19 82 519
5 1 9

Cod.

Francof.

(Josippon) . . . . . 3 4 7 Cod. Francof. (Tabiba Tabibn) . . 355 M. M. (Mashafa Mesr)

Annales loh. I (ed. GDIDI, 1903) 3,10 521 6,24sg 521 33, 2 427

Clem. (== dementis Libri)

204 b 533 . 354 Codices, specially refer- f. 192 . . . . . . red to for their contents, mere orthographic references being Cod. Mon. Aeth. II 305 omitted: Ms. Berol. f. 4 8 v f. 4 9 v 355 M. Berh. 355 f. 9 b 465 f. 57 v f. 12 b 295 f.43a 359

Ascensio Isaiae (ed.Dn.LMANN, 1877) 7,20, 21 8,26 9,21 10,16 11,16 529 529 529 529 529

140,8 sqq

Chronique de Ba'eda Mrym (ed. P E R - Const. Ap. (Constitutions RCHON, 1893) of the Apostles)
541 II, 39 440

Contendfngs

of

the

Chronique

de

Galw-

dwos (ed. CONZELMAN, 1895) 58,4 sq 548 62,1 sq 539

Cyr. (== Cyrilli Alexandrini Scripta) a Beg. in Tub. Ms.

f.25b 347

Apostles (ed. BUDGE), Eth. 14,16 15, 6 151,25 154,27^. . . . 155, 8 214,13sg 215, 1 sq. . . . 371', 16 sq

WALLIS Text 544 551 551 . .544 .532 544 . . 544 544

Chronique de Jean de Fal. ( = Maskafa FaNikiou = Joh. Malasfa Tabbn)

dabbar (ed. ZOTENBERG, 1883) 5B,\6sq 295 f. 51 . . . " f. 6 0 211 394

899,11 sq

515

Daniel (Apocr.)
1,64 393

37*

580 Didascalia (' The Ethiopie Diascalid or ' Constitutions of the

Apostles', ed. PLATT, 1834) 5,10 355 17, 3 Note . . . . 91 43, 9 323

I N D E X OF PASSAGES. Herm. ( = Hermae Pastor,

ed. D'ABBADIE, I860) 22b 19 348 80 401 81b7 184 82al3 375

Le Livre des Mystres du Ciel et de la Terre (= Mashafa Mestr,

ed. PERRUCHON, 1903) 9, 1 320 16, 3 . 426 18,14 . . . . . .374 35, 2sq 536 LUDOLF'S ' G r . ' . . . 322

85a3

197

Epigraphische Denkmler aus Abessinien

( D . H . M L L E R , 1894),

besides Orthographie references SO 45 67 sq

424 409 382 68 (Eth. Bilinguis 1.3) 286 68 and 72 424

Hexameron (ed. TRUMPP, 1882) 5,15 416 9,16sg-. 456 17 416 20 456 15, 3 416 27, 1 sqq 312 32,24 539 33, 6 356 36,20 sq 168

Maccaberbuch, Das Aethiopische (ed. j .

HOROVITZ, 199,11 sq 229,31 i n 'Zeit549 548

schr. f. Assyr.', 1906)

Miracles of the Virgin

Mary (ed. W A I X I S BCDGE, 1900), Ethiop. Text 27bl6s5' 525

Epist. Zar'a Jacob, in

LUDOLF's 'Cowm.' 322

Histoire des Guerres d' 'Amda Syon (ed.

PEKBAJCHOK, 1890)

113,14 sq

533

Org. ( = Or g anon Maria)

Gen. rf. . 193, 199, 269, 285, 320, 334 bis, 382, 466, 484, 546

Esther (Apocr.)
3,14 267

Horn. ( = Chrysostomi Homiliae) Horn. 30 273 Homilia Jacobi (ed. P E -

Phlx. ( = Philexius) Quaestio 3 . . . . 381

164 . . . 339

F. N. ( = Fetha Nagast,
ed. GUIDI) 265

REIRA 892,4 sq.

in ' Oriental.

Studieri, 1906)
. . . 548 sq.

Philosophi Abes8ini (ed.

LITTMANN, 1904; cf.

Hatat Zar'a Y'qb Hymnologies

Gadla'AragwF(ed. GUIDI, 1895) 5 398 6al 273 . . 110, 260, 267 ed. T C R A I E F F , 1904)

7,21 sq.(h.) = 9,2 sq.

(T.) 549 9, 2(L ) = 1 1 , 4 ( T . ) . 361 15,18sq.(h.)=19,20sq. (T.) 554 2 0 , 2 3 ( L . ) = 2 6 , 2 3 ( T . ) 172

Kuf. ( = Kufl or Book

of Jubilees, ed. D I L L MANN, 1859; cf. 'The

Gadla Fere-Mik'el (ed. TRAIEFF, 1905)

Book of Jubilees , ed.

R. H . CHARLES, 1895) Phys. ( = Physiologua, Gen.Ref. 239,246,256,404 9,3 458 ed. HOMMEL, 1877) 54 and 59 . . . . 223 5,12 356 122, N . 4 198 143,3 72 Gadla Llibal (ed. P E R - 160, N. 11 . . . . . 198 Revue Smitique, i905

RUCHON, 1892)

(Mashafa Dorho, ed.

Gen. Ref.

39,12
19 55,20

56,4, 1 9
59,23

299 268 268 329 329 329

M . Chaiue) Lit. ( Liturgies in Rom. 277,21 431 N . T.) Gen.Ref. . 184, 189, 345, RPPEL'S Axumite I n scriptions ('Reise in 404, 502

Abessinien\ Liturgy of the Coptic (and Ethiop.) Church

(ed.BEzoLD, in Swain-

1838

Gadla Yrd (ed. CONTI ROSSINI, 1904) 5, 5 . . . . . . . 453 29 sq. ( = Is. 6,1) . 485

e ,24s

456

son's ' Greek Liturgies', 1884) 388 paen 467 384,11 194

40, Band I I , 403 410) mere orthographie references being omitted I, 1 326 II, 2 326 39 409

I N D E X O F PASSAGES.
Synaxaria (followed severally by the names of their respective

581
Testamentum Ad ami (ed.

Synaxaria

month s;e.g. Sx. Mag.'

is

'Synaxarion

of the saint of the BEZOLD, in ' Oriental. day) Studien', 1906) Gen. ref. to Enc. 267, 392 899 sqq 490 Sx. Mag. 8, Enc. . . 420

MagabiV. The reference generally includes the day of the month, and sometimes points also to the

versified encomium
added to the 'acts'

Genb. (= Genbt) i S . . . . . 397 Weise Philosophen {'Das Buch der weisen Genb. 28 . . . . 347 Philosophen' COR Genb. 28, Enc. . 347 NILL, 187 5)=Mashafa Sen. (= Sen) 1, Falasf Tabibn Enc 480 51 . . . . 347, 440 sq.

ADDENDUM.
References to brief Footnote-explanations of certain Terms occasionally met with in Works on Semitic Philology.

Absoluter Vorhalt or Logischer Vorhalt. Atbash Imla Mutlaq Vocalanstoss

505 19 182 264 26

A D D I T I O N A L CORRECTION. P. 52, 1. 29. The first letter should be 1*.

Ti>le L

Ohaimotara o f the Ethiopie Alphabet.

Namea of the Characters according to DiLLiuint ('lex.' or 'Or.') Names acoording to IanvaBea If* T X L Nanus Ground- n. With Tn. m. T. If. Hioaoin the form pro- With With With With 1 With 8aRoman noonoed orvith < I baio N.T. with oatanj Voal PhooaUo Value and Traoaariptioo Oorrcapondinf Habraw or Arabic LetUra n S c 0

1. 2. 3.

ITf. Hii A**" Lawe -Jit*--!- Haut

It- MM
tfff*^* Saut

om-f. 0
A

IIA-

t
A.

1
A

u
A p <h A

ir
A"

V
1

h I Origtnallj strong h (h); prooounced later like No. 1 M OriginRlly sh (S); pronounced Inter like No. 7 r

****
If.
/')

< h

<h-

A.

Ji

Ih

4. 6.

A * > IP

aw

-1

*
< 5
A.

"I "1

r /*
c
A

y
e
A P

I
)

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Ottl Re'en Sat W a 4 - Bit Tawe \CT Harm

CM, A *

CXA A *

:
A

<A-

.cr

ft* .*
V/l>

ft>+

n
-i

n-

* n.
*
i
A.

A,

A
n X y

*
*

fl

8 (uttuial k (q)
h t Originally clt hard {Jj); pronounced later like No. 1 8j>iritus Law ('J I
II

D P 3 n

+
ttr

+
i h
h < 9 0

+
s hta-

v
t k
h

C
1 K 1 1 P

19. V/b Nakis 13. kA-P Alf 14. h-P, hf-KaforKSf 15. Wawi or W&w ('Or.', 1. m% n OJVJ Uttt [rFawe)

flA-P

1A iSA-P h-P t

"

h
h

h. P 1 1

ll

in.

at
H

r
H

e X

17. UfLZai 18. f ">, P*T> 3 aman or Toman r o , 7-T" 19. M * Dent or D a n . 90. 17"A Garni ('ffr. Gen-I) WA.WA 91. o i l (0t1-, F. N . , OOTIJI) 29. ftMIZ+Pait S3. M * M$adi
1

M*

it

H-

*}
WA AlMftW X*

r f. t m

t
rn-

IL f.

H.
K.

* *
V
T

r^>

H
r i
B

ft ft
0

24.

0ft $appi

ft. ft. ft
at f f T

ft. ft. ft ft. ft.

t

m.

"1

m.

*
c T

Peculiar Aapiratetiuttural ( ' ) ; prflu. later like No. Soft (e) V il y hard Emphatic t (t) Emphatic p (]>) Emphatic, explosive Sibilant, Is (?) Originally a Mute (<); pronounced later like No. 23 f Slightly assibilated

r
t>

25. 26.

T,TAPo"Po (Tfl
) 8i.

PBUTT.)

fc-p T

TA

i. X

4r

<.
T

P (P'>

U-cuitaih| SittiraJt nd Palatal*. 1. n. | m . With With 1 With i 1 t t hh* *

With I qu, Iju, ku, gtt,

FroDuncittioD qui, qu, que, que. tjut, Jju, Iju, ftu. kut, hu, ku, hue. tii, (fu$, fpt, ffn.

>

V- 1

Nunrlca. Signt. Ethio- Greekl pie Ethiopie i l 1 12 l 18 C

1 4

Ethiopie.

*
H.
r

'*

A
H I' K i /. H H

or

bette r

!*
i-F. Imt

20*

40 50

<8 >6

Jt

'0

16 16

16 I

g f

K A M
N E 0 11

l"%

'*

l'*

" W'rt BO jf
90 100

1 9

ji)

!*

i!O K

1 '

oooi)!
10000 fi 1(1000(1 ff

Aahario ModMcation of th. Ethiopie Alphabet. I Oround>forni with If M l y od Tf / K a*

1

With e If S u TC en. K

WitbJFor VII. without I With vowel

n
fi .ir

V U v K

Table H The F o r m a t i o n of Ver A. Tki TrmaVsal Vtrk.

1. Simple Qround-Stem (1,1). (s) PsrfMt. Bf. _. , I Transitive Strong Verb | Singular. s' m. Plnral. m.

iU* A-no*

Mediae gutluralis, Trs. and Intra. Tertiae gutturalit, T n . and Intra Mediae gemwtae \ Mediae itfirmae
... ,. , f Intransitive with . with i . with . with t : Tertiae infirmae Transitive . Intransitive Vowel-ending & Middle-Aspirate

rte*

ich AflAh r*ch MUHi ftlilb Tfh trh ftA-Hi] 1+A-h ) onwi CXJl

wCO* it.* Mlil* i* +iim* ont* arttine *AIM> *TJkC *rt* *tr.t: HUI taa-jc tAr -f-ih-U

a f. Ol. AlUih. fliCh. "^*h. um. cm. t n l+Asw-h.) l+A-h. J onpn.

1 c.

3 m.

3 f.

1 c.

ehAlUlhr*cvb Wt*\Y MUM> MHlta** f+Aaw-lrl+A-httlf.tr Ottf.tr CK.tr X11C XAIIA XfMiC XTtWl Xa-lC XAXr XAU XfX

VKA-flAf M VC0-

A4M i* mn PI i i +A* iter out Cht t-ritAM MMUH M Mild *a1*. M l f* MX jH-At MlO<P

ilCiiaAflAh" Wi-tilMUSiiafOha

Chi AflAh) Mi" MMta? Trti)

ilCi MM r*c

MMta i*AA bit CX*

> n < i >

/+As-lia *l J+Asw-hll (+A>1 l +A-ha* j l + A - M j 1+A- I hit-ivYtlWi b^M ont-w OflM CM CAJia**VK4-Aaotint+A1M YilC lAflA >r*c
>/*<*

tri

(I) labJaistKn. a. u v 1 ( Transitive Strong verb . { Intransitive

T

t-k\m

+Ann

Mediae gutturatis, Trs. and Intri.

Tertiae uttitralw, Trs. and Intrs. .... . . f Intransitive

t-r/kc

Tilt t-AIM.

fAMr t-rcoM-OftJ%-"I<! M1fAHMX-

*r*c *ri-b **"JC *lit: MiH

*rte tm
0(1. frA* +AH. A.

*r<h* m turn1-A* +<hH*1h. *r~ *"L*~ l-l -AO". Wtom. *M

+/fiH

Mediae gemmatae |

T r u u i i i

, I AVfrfl
t

Mediae gutturalit. ; f a h Tertiae gutturatis . MX I wr Mediae m/irmae | *

with Transitive . Intransitive.

( Strong Formation . frima | Weak

">"HI 1s-7C 1AJt )<hH

f."t.r
M-A-

tlx tv-r

tn.
++AfrhOa*

1-fX M-A* ^tlOT

m
i"tr
+a- C+)

M"A*\to* *\tt *Mf. *COf. +Of.

tun.

xvr xtr X*A-

H Tertiae I infirmae ]
with

or Mediae gut turalie. . MM** Transitive . tAti

Intransitive. turafa.

*+>(+) ++*(+)
Mil* *to *cof. *ot1-bc*. M*. *co*.

f.-f+An. X+-(+> W * XhOaV Xh<: fJiutm. f-toctf.M f-COtffl*

/how

t
\

or Mediae gut- f-ar-

xn
hCOP hot-

wnr
t-cot tot ten* +PP +0*

}*n^
1C0

Primae so, mediae gutturalis.,r-cof. tertiae infirmae ( i f ) . I tot-

Table H L The Formation of Verbs.

A. The Trl-radlcal Verb. 1. Simple Ground-Stem (1,1).

() la
S i n g ular. 9 f. 9 m. TIC A<C Mediae geminalae. Intransitive. I * * Primae 0, Transitive. . . . ne Strong Verb, Transitive . . . lis* JM. u t-T * + * hoi: t-Ain. *+. ItVI f-A-P * + * ho* Plural 9 m. in/fi<. IM 9 r. Intransitive . Tertiae -rutturafo. Transitive . . . J Intransitive . . 1 Tertiae gutturalis. . . . . Singular. 2 f. 9 m. AAA fi- HW1 Mt . fit ur with i , Transitive. . M with t, Intransitive ttf. Mediae gutturulie. .\ tOfADA. HO-flOJ A* I t hCf. Aflf. .on. P i n ral. 9 m. AAAreoin- a-no-) A* flv bc n* tot9 f. AIM /"CI i n rt-nn) A4 f* -ti he* ny tot

Mediae imfirmae, with .

r rani Te

. w . *ATertiae ( **' -^ *'*. . J with , Intransitive . * + ( + ) ( Mediae aullural hosw-

3 m. Strong Yerb, Trans, k Intrs. . WTC thfi w a c Mediaegetninatae. Trans, Intrs.j s m * m u *4BAJt & mediae gutiuratie. t *-Alf Mediae infirmae \ ? ' 1 with i . .

Singular. 2 m. Hie +xr-> +rAc -h** f-flA A * An

() lass-*-* (" sailve).

9 f. +i\rt -t-rA-s . f-nA. A * All. 1 c. MIC Msri w a c MR* hr -AA A0A* riO -AH hwt-r MitMiffM i < S S m. WWf f . M* M-nAM'A* M AHs r. W7-Jrhrv n i MA MA--. ftw -A*

Plural. 9 m. 1. +Jr>*riMM. J-r-nnA4AH-

9 f. tilt+Jr-t tr*<% *w *rA +mM -t-0-AH

1 c. me \rt ir*c tr-AA

ISW-ATI

frilc +J>ri +r*c MS* tMft s-etAAtaw-AU

M'ATertiae and med. gutturalis . Miffmfirmae Mm and med. gutturalie . M A

++Alu1

*+*
ho-Hi*

t+A-e Hi** -Hie*

M-Aa. Mm*

+*.

M'A* Mi** fhet t-fit

-I-+AO. *h*. rlM

*.?
A* *h*T +hcf t-A/ 1+Aiho 1h<5

Table I V . The Formation o f Verbs.

A. The Tri-raolcal Verb. 2. The r e m a i n i n g V e r b a l Stems.

Strung

iYtmftr I Mtttia* ~\~ Ttrtiae eiattaro/if J gutturalU j aufturattt U true rvc MUC j AA ! *JAA >AA I JUAA DArh M A A AAA

| j

Jfedta eratMofae

Media* infirmae tv Am AT MAT I f rnn htvA h0-A tttw-A Mka-A On t-l* At-

Tertia

infirmt

I , 2. Simple Intensive Stem

Perfect stA Snbj. t-Uir Imperat. | tStT Imperf. I f-iJKf Perfect Snbj. I Imperf./ Imperat nan finch nan

! M V ! j&Jvn V>T j j&fc-n A-C-i MCC ACC

wif IPt

t-mt*

j MHI I f-Ml-fl

1,9. Simple Influencing Stem

tAa>

7+r P i t

. hWlA XW 1 *.) r,ci MUT I tr-on r -c j Mlfh+An r +AAh.* i\+Ay+v

-t JkA+f *A+. J>At

Perfect I M i s t 11,1. Causative of Simple Ground-Stem ATA*. Subj. ! Imperat. j IS VIC

I

fivrc hhrc thrc AJM1

rm>>
JiHlli MR*

f>A)t Xsa-Afr ta>t\Kr

, Imperf.

file JS-tt-r* lutr K-ut-r

tin* hott AA0A ] JtX-iMi hAPAJ tAAA i /AHA JiAAA I hrVflA TiUA . H A Ah- Ji-TAR PTA* M'A* +!.+> +0R t-wtr *^r l r . + 0 R e (A) + i + - (*) l+ORt*- f +-iCf / +-1ti* +<:? I+-7AH 1+7011 +7071 +7071 f+XAA 1+JrtiA MtAA +XAA MJsA +*7<hA *+MiA +TAA +"AX +MI +AK *+AJf +1IH1 +-iv* +0AI1 t.*VHk +A-*A P+hB7l +>.S71 f+WITI +V00 p*Ah +Ah f.+tAh +-PAH1 jl+TAT r-vn-n I +-PAT +t>0 I *+rpu ! +tvv I P+fVPO +-L0A J&+-&0A +AA f-+<CiA +!* *+/ +^jr
1

I I , 2. Causative of Intensive Stem

Perfect Subj. Imperat. Imperf. Perfect Subj, 1 Imperf.] Imperat

hmmi fW0-1 hifi

hart* ?mf.*

AM< fHfi*

n, 3. Causative of Influencing Stem I I I , 1. ReflexivePassive of Simple Ground-Stem

M+A JA+A MtA

(Mis) ()

IsThf r-Ptt.

Perfect

1+a-rtm Subj. | [t-toir. Imperf.] IM --A+ Imperat. +7C l+a-AT Perfect Subj. Imperat. Imperf. Perfect Subj. } Imperf.) Imperat. ' +7C %*i.%r

+fS0

*+-fc
+AX

+U>h +oah +tto

+AA"

+M*

+0oh

I l l , 2. ReflexivePassive of Intensive Stem I I I , 3. Reflexive, of Influencing Stem, or Stem of Reciprocity

+mf* t-mt* +mf* yim.f+ +hfK P+hf* +bf*-

+7 H 1 (7) +R7s- (7) ML7> (7) +^A> Jl^-A-

ffit f.u-,f. +u>,f,

*uir

t-t-iAr

+^nfc *+P0li : +PHh

+Jf

8. Ttw INWtttrti V.rt With Repetition of l u t Hsaicsl Rf*AA M M 1 < 1 MOT* M i l l f.f.rhh 1 ! With loDg Vowel i s S* Rsdiwl Vltimat infirma* Week in more then one letter |J*W (A-AeV ilWrA* l lA-Alike Subj.

Strong

With Aepirstee

Perfect I. Simple Stem Subj. Imperat. \ Imperf. Perfect

"Ulsft

loi M A I "TAI

fAA

A7+ M l * at* Mi* AaalA fa-IAJtOlV t*itr +-"AaB MO*, M-1M ><.

l/tsM
(osw-ra (MaIra*

i
I

nvch
Pa-uch Wfi9i ttitt Helfrl. Snw I ti-UCV f*CAA Ao-ftft

AfA* ' M l /Ml* same aa Subjunctive Afclr

ro>

J.-MV

Causative Stem Imperat. J JiftVM Imperf. tKVtt

**
JitAI I i 'MW same as Subjunctive +A t u n I +1^* I

M7f

*<.* -rHTHI+1 'M^a-WI 1 M-a-hlHlJ MT

I Ml* M l same as Snbjunctivo

+rVAfl +A.A MUH M-AMtwUllis-

III, l . Reflexive-Passive Stem

Perfect +"1Rfl Subj. Imperat. | -r*?<n Imperf. Perfect Subj. j Imperf. j Imperat. I *<)-fl -f-ftAA lKAA tfKAA | XA+dlltA MT-Ol n>CTC M>CT*C fVHfr-e

-rflOAe M"t +AJ. -rAh+f !

same as Subjunctive

same aa Subjunctive +H*e mrtav

i n , 8. Stem of Reciprocity I V , 1. 3. Causative-Reflexive Sum V. Second or Weaker Reflexive Stem

fiat?**

AAVfctw-t-Afhtv+AII+

Perfect

J t A - r i W J t . Imperfect f A + A t f k -

Perfect 8ubj. Irapernt. Imperf.

M4.C0A ! SttCAJr MACAff i fiU&K

M4AA0 J144AA M4AAA MOM

MmAA rimAA M<"AA like Subj.

Mj4fl>

to?**.

mx
M

MM" not* MAOI X same as Subjunctive

Table V . The F o r m a t i o n of Verbs. A. the Trt-rkateal Verk.

9. The r e m a i n i n g V e r b a l Stems. Strong Irimat pUtaralu irattmlis fstmiMatac j Jfeiirie uf#na | Tertitu wfirmoM

1 XA-Mis*-*!i /(,+* A AA+s-AA SA+sv-AA XrW-shA M+tlA XA+obA fA-PttlA j

'

"

'

rv.i. Cauatfre-ReflexiTe
of Simple Ground-Stem I V , 2.

fXA-MAA Perfect IXA+AlA Subj. fA+TCA Imperat. XA+l-t-A Inperf. tin-tea

Perfect Subj. Impent. Imperf. Perfect 8obj. j Imperf. ] Imperat.

XA^A-PC fA-NX-PC M+OVfM-mr XA+Pli-" to+vir XA-rXhr

/XA+C-tV* lXA+<:-f>+ fA-HTA* XA-f-CA-p fA-TCA-P

IXA+fl-p--0 JXA++1X XA-MI-K-A

XA+-.iw tnnrr

XA+Air M+A-J XA4-A4 M+Arf M+-\ra JA+-WI XA-t"tPA f A+-VM fA+Af XA+A*Mr+AfXAt-tt* XA-M->XA-KAf th+ta. XrVMA. ttt-HA. j XA+-W XA-f--*k

i
1

XA-f-X.A XA+X1A

CauatiTc-Reflexive
of InUniire Stem I V , 8.

I 1 j XAti-u fA+*iC XA-M1C

Th-H.fi, XA +.VA /A+C/*"A XA-KMIX /A-fXlX XA+-3-I1X ha+Ui taticc

XA-TKC

of Influencing Stem and Causative of SUm of Reciprocity

GtwutiTe-KeflexiTe

XA +-POI.

XA+*.t l+?e+ XA+*W>-+

1 XA+*r* JA+MMr XA+-.Mr

tu+nc XA+V1C

SA-f-Xh,

XA+flMl

Table V I The F o r m a t i o n
(a) This.
m.

of Pronouns.
(6) That.

I. Danaaatratlve Pranouat.
t. H H
n. f. n.

t.

m.

f.

Sing.

Nom. H Acc. H
NOB.

or t or m+ or JufMi or >,>+

IM; H+ X4T* M">+

fflh VH-1> or mr+ <uh+> M ^ l r t Hb or n t r + (Tih+) M ^ - h +

AAV>

Plur

Mr M

Acc.

AAtM> or hMl* AAtr+ or AAtl-t-

2. Relative aad Interrogative Pranauaa.

(a) TTAo, uiAt'ch, Mai.
(6) TFAO? Want?

(c) Which? Sing. A Plur.

ra. f. Plnr. r. XA

n.

Nom. "V- f " H Acc !

Nom. httr Acc. Af+

3. Paraoaal Praaauae.
Singular. nt. I . Peri. I I . Per. I I I . Per. Plural. c
f.

m.

e.

A"J+
Nom. ta-A-fi Acc. > ) , +

AI*
JSfcr Nom.

Xe--}+
or

> * >
M M or

AH**

4. Suffixed Perionil Pronoune.

T. Pan.

m.

I I . Pert. I.

i I T es Nominal Suffix " ' J u Verbal Suffix Plur. i

b g

h.

Tabla V I L The A t t a c h m e n t
1. I.

of Verbal Suffixes. Plural.

3 f. 1.

Forms
which end in a
II.

11 ich ic 1st1*1 tint-1 MA ichMichK-1

1lt liebt vu* l*k 11*. >.{. ICija*.

i m. tub ilCTh tlaVh 1a%h ich-h iif-h i-h

Singular. S f. Hb. nch. ittM. i<-b.

(ich liichifnevu11A0M1aM>" Mat-Unew"

ne

m.

1* /ich l1ChV icry i%?

11 ich laV 1*

m. twb*9

3 m.

3 f.

ilhl
~~

ItTaw1Ct>a ICTIfawi*ir* Ml^lTe AlTs-

1CJ ichl icTiri ItMT Ml*m MaMTl

iicvh-

icvm iit-m

Forms
which end in a

1Aha iich-hJK-h*"K-ha

1a%M icb-M tt-M it-M

ich-h. ilt-h. MIMu

tit-i
IChT IC* tichr* ic CT ich tjicf

tlt-i
IM ICha* 1*. "1 ich frtlC net 11+ Iii 11 IIa

III.

Forms
which end in u

icr ichrr ICI lier ictor *1Cfncr-

tin-1
ich. *i n<s

t-vn-x
ich. +1C*. net ist-n

IChPI ilCWICfl 1Ca 1Ch**"~ i c h r f MlCPa ICf Cra ichf- **1Cf ncr-a*

tien
IChM 1-J1CM ncr u-F HUT *iir hum im ichir

IV.

Forms which sad in

V.

1l+h K+h.
m w a a

iict
HC? MU.

*
Forms which end in a Consonant MIC ICI 1C } W1C J 11C ich
-

f-vta.
*1lt 711*.

mat mai
li"UXt

Ii* irr

Mllh.

vne
MIC

tili, tilt-

Il+h* 11ha Mllha lUlh

iti-rM U M MIIM WKW

ticho-

tue tie

tuttu.
ichv

tncticichira MltT

ill+awM1C* tiea MIC

tun

MIC Subjnnctive- M I C Forms MIC T1C

Mil*.

Mich

Mich.

une

MlaV

Mil

Micha

Michl

M i

Table V i n .

The Gender- a n d N u m b e r - F o r m a t i o n o f N o m i n a l
I. Th Banter- ana Numbar-Formatlon of MjecUvaa ana Participle*.
.1.
f. f.

Stems.

i.

Sing. * / * Plur.

A1.fl
* m

<h-tD

pirr*

n-p** n-M-i-

!kt<n

/.M.VH
I
7.

wlf,* win wit*

i-*--r>
8.

PS,"**

Sing. - K n Plur. - . R V r f )

-RTlat Mlft

<-vcn

<-*cf*

a*+cn *cM- ftMm-n

M-tv?*

2. The Plural-Formation of SubttaaUvei.

(a) T h e Outer P l u r a l - F o r m a t i o n .
EUlus i f 1. F l e r i l .

(J) 3.

with

Feilslss E K I i g i f Ike Plsrsl.

4.

6.

6.

7. Raw-st 15.

8.

sing, Jwijt
Plur. Kim 2. Sing. -VrX Plur. $VM Sing,

tw-p-r
Plur. 9. Sing. fAA. 10. ii.

""-p-h

fcrc-H7P

*\rc*
14.

Kit*
16.

Plur. fAAf-p
17.

m-p*
18.

H-P H;**
19.

i a

nic

13.

JtA-PA-P frA-PA^t
21. OTA

IK

Hoot

1H*
22.

j*A-r
23.
-

no";*
24.

20.

oruc
rvtrk

Sing. <rtVfl
Pirn.

Plur.

Tnn-r

tor

-the "in**

w
OfScisl Nsmei. 25. Sing. h l Plur. h u r t

OTA*
26.

/"A"! ! rt\mi*

i-XMH

VM*

rihi-r riht-n*

For the rest, v. the Adjectives.

l'ro|Hir Nunci.

Table I X . The Gender- and N u m b e r - F o r m a t i o n of N o m i n a l 2. The Plural-Formation of 8ubstanttvei.

(b) T h e I n n e r Plur. Sing. Plural-Formation. Plur. Second Form hitnc Sing. Plur. Third Form ( Sing. **'
7

Stems.

that
hflav

hui hit

hAQA MAC* Ivfrt-c

1. Fifth Form

AflC A-flA thC 1+4 Aur

6.

n*c

M t H -

Sixth Form

hAIW*
4.

6.

8.

Plur. flVAA
Seventh Form Sing. A1AA

hfttthr
bh-o
10.

WH-C

+hrc thret
12.

4P"* A1
13.

VA+

ftmUl
14. hp-J-H-

aHI1 "TIM*
15.

-..ht

Plur. Wa>'}4Sing. ,."

hAtv-Ahe*

torn**

Ah-V

h** he*

huit

3. The Attachment of Nominal Suffixe.

(a) T o S i n g u l a r Stems,
(s) Te Stssis ssais| Is ii, f, a.

Nom. and A c e .

Sing. K%t

i a.
fflh IflhaohiXh flMLh-*ohA-h hAh*/"coMi /"aH-h*"/"CO+h

9 r.

3 m.

Plur. j f l

x-ih. Jtihi
>iA.h. flhiXhl

Itltfaira* -fl)iA.flkAjTi**'flhA.lrfliA.ir /"CO* /"CO-f*"/"CO* /"CO-fo^ -flhA.y -n<vA.m ni.A.y

( To Stasis I l l i n g Is i

Norn f

0 n l

8 i l

j Plur. KhlU

* WW

-flr.rt.fi. <lr.rt.ir> /"col-h. /"col-m /**CO+h?

nhtxvt

(T) TS s t e m ssdlsi Is s Cessossst.

Norn
Acc
A C C

fCOtt
{
8 i n g

reo? rco+t reo? rco-n

rCOl-t
/-con

\ piur.

(6) To P l u r a l Stems. Norn, nnd A c c . I Sing. 0 > 4 M l * f

I Hur. 4 M t t

MMl-fch "ihiVth. llih-tha* O A M r t h l

iMrtitMHrir*

AMi-ty

Ahtrtirt

I N D E X OF PASSAGES.

577

Hen.

Hen.

Hen.

14, 2 431 26, 4 , . . . 436, 511 52, 2 170 . .. 4 356 5 . . 393, 426, 511 3 . . . . 334, 499 6 169, 226, 292 27, 5 4 446 7 5 432 517 28, 2 . 377, 393, 398 bis, 10, 11 i 496 412, 554, 555 7 266, 494 12 534 29, 2 471 8 513 * 15 473 30, 1 509 170 # 426 31, 3 53, 3 18 . . . 315, 316 # 4 . 315, 316, 516 19 401, 426,' 491 32, 2 . . 398, 402, 480 21 .456 512 3 . . 478, 485, 523 6 245 461 5 521 7 447 22 24 523 6 . . 295, 360, 480 54, 5 438 & 25 483, 503 33, 2 . . . 447, 505 15, 1 480 3 533 55, 539 2 509 34, 2 . . . . 374, 484 4 . 171 56, 1 . . . . 229, 493 480 36, 4 3 2 331 336, 521 37, 3 . . . . 329, 455 4 4 5 397, 398 4 473 407 5 6 463 5 395 7 500 7 398 413, 506 38, 2 3 8 . 357 11 33 16, 1 380 4 . . . . 377, 505 57, 2 494 3 6 . . . . 343, 377 58, 3 493 413 4 415 39, 5 . . . . 501, 504 5 540 17, 1 380 6 . . . . 511, 512 59, 1 391 534 8 2 4 . . . 299, 418 490 9 433 60, 1 7 328 10 517 357 447 5 8 18, 4 445 11 493 7, 8 . . . 285 6 535 12 519 61, 1 316 10 404 40, 1 . 368, 372, 511, 512 62, 4 455 12 2 474 10 415 508, 511 3 488 15 169 19, 1 267, 546 266 5 . , . . 428, 484 63, 1 2 . . . 393, 531 20, 5 8 . . . . 334, 499 3 342 273, 399, 461 274 463 4 . . . . 173, 540 6 9 5 521 306 41, 2 . 485,493,538, 542 7 336 3 6 476 21, 4 516 4 10 . . 269, 433, 454 5 5 . . 342, 379, 400, 65, 1 . . . . 485, 542 372, 471 6 436, 469 2 372 7 513, 536 7 391 3 417 8 379, 474, 496 22, 1 323 8 342 4 401 507 5 433 2 474, 496 43, 2 358 6 298 3 329, 491 44, 478 12 4 398, 405 45, 3 67, 9 555 4, 516 6 bis 342 529 461 46, 1 8 245 13 . 478 8 11 473 68, 2 471 14 519 47, 3 4 5 513 23, 2 382 3 433 69, 1 212 517 48, 1 24, 3 2 , . . . 404, 494 296 462 11 502, 545 5 3 . . . . ! 474 bis, 496 . . . 441, 525 456 14 6 6 398 70, 3 . . . . 315, 316 25, 3 530 8 4 . 495, 509 511 545 9 471 71, 1 494 6 2 . 476 433, 471, 502 49, 2 7 361 3 529 8 372 , , 401 26, 2 4 462 12 . * 296, 329 2-- 4 426 50, 2 13 . . . 372, 487 3 471,' 511 5 72, 1 374,395 ,465 ,499 37