Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Lecture 3 Mircea Marin

October 2013

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Outline

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest DAG recognition Topological sort of DAGs Computation of strong components of digraphs

Undirected graphs
Denition, main notions Main operations

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Depth-rst search

Given a graph G = (V , E ) and a node s V Find all nodes reachable by a path from s, by searching "deeper" in the graph whenever possible. Edges are explored out of the most recently discovered vertex v that still has unexplored edges leaving it. When all of v s edges have been explored, the algorithm "backtracks" to its parent node, to explore other leaving edges.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Depth-rst traversal (DFT)

Iterative version (see also Lecture 2)

procedure dfs(v : vertex) rst -visit -op(v ) /* first visit of v */ S:= a stack containing only node v while S is not empty u :=S.peek() if u has unvisited neighbors w :=the rst unvisited neighbor of u rst -visit -op(w ) /* first visit of w */ mark[w ]:=visited S.push(w ) else w :=S.pop() last -visit -op(w ) /* last visit of w */ N OTES : mark is a global array (or map) initialized with mark[w ] := unvisited for all nodes w a node is marked as visited when it is rst encountered.
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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Compare with breadth-rst traversal

A simplied version of breadth rst-search (see also Lecture 2)

procedure bfs(v : vertex) rst -visit -op(v ) /* first visit of v */ Q:= a queue containing only node v while Q is not empty extract last element u from Q last -visit -op(u ) /* last visit of u */ for all neighbours w of u do if mark[w ] = unvisited mark[w ] := visited rst -visit -op(w ) /* first visit of w */ Q .push(w ) N OTES : mark is a global array (or map) initialized with mark[w ] := unvisited for all nodes w a node is marked as visited when it is rst encountered.
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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Depth-rst traversal (DFT)

Recursive version

DFT is more natural to describe recursively (pseudocode): procedure dfs(v : vertex) mark[v ] := visited rst -visit -op(v ) /* first visit of v */ for each neighbor w of v do if mark[w ]=unvisited then dfs(w ) /* recursive call */ last -visit -op(v ) /* last visit of v */ N OTES : mark is a global array (or map) initialized with mark[w ] := unvisited for all nodes w a node is marked as visited when it is rst visited.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

F Consider the digraph G E G

A [B , C ] with adjacency lists D [C ] F [B ]

B D

A C
C [A]

B [C , D ] E [F , G] G [F , D ]

Some depth-rst traversals of G do not visit all nodes of G: A B C D Nodes E , F , G are not visited.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

F Consider the digraph G E G

A [B , C ] with adjacency lists D [C ] F [B ]

B D

A C
C [A]

B [C , D ] E [F , G] G [F , D ]

Some depth-rst traversals of G do not visit all nodes of G: A B C D Nodes E , F , G are not visited. By selecting unvisited nodes as long as possible and restarting depth rst traversal from them, we produce a depth-rst spanning forest.
Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

F Consider the digraph G E G

A [B , C ] with adjacency lists D [C ] F [B ]

B D

A C
C [A]

B [C , D ] E [F , G] G [F , D ]

Some depth-rst traversals of G do not visit all nodes of G: A B C D F E G

Nodes E , F , G are not visited. By selecting unvisited nodes as long as possible and restarting depth rst traversal from them, we produce a depth-rst spanning forest.
Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest
1 5

A
2 6

E
7

B C
3 4

F D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Drawing strategy: The nodes of depth rst-search tree are drawn from left to right, in the order of their rst visit. Assign a number dfnumber [n] to every node n, starting from 1, in the order in which they are visited rst by the depth-rst search. The trees are drawn from left to right, in the order in which they are generated.

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest
1 5

A
2 6

E
7

B C
3 4

F D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Drawing strategy: The nodes of depth rst-search tree are drawn from left to right, in the order of their rst visit. Assign a number dfnumber [n] to every node n, starting from 1, in the order in which they are visited rst by the depth-rst search. The trees are drawn from left to right, in the order in which they are generated. Remarks: There are 4 kinds of arcs

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest
1 5

A
2 6

E
7

B C
3 4

F D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Drawing strategy: The nodes of depth rst-search tree are drawn from left to right, in the order of their rst visit. Assign a number dfnumber [n] to every node n, starting from 1, in the order in which they are visited rst by the depth-rst search. The trees are drawn from left to right, in the order in which they are generated. Remarks: There are 4 kinds of arcs
1

The solid arcs connecting nodes in the depth-rst search trees are tree arcs.

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest
1 5

A
2 6

E
7

B C
3 4

F D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Drawing strategy: The nodes of depth rst-search tree are drawn from left to right, in the order of their rst visit. Assign a number dfnumber [n] to every node n, starting from 1, in the order in which they are visited rst by the depth-rst search. The trees are drawn from left to right, in the order in which they are generated. Remarks: There are 4 kinds of arcs
1 2

The solid arcs connecting nodes in the depth-rst search trees are tree arcs. The other arcs, which are dashed, are of 3 kinds: (1) back arcs: connect a node with an ancestor in its tree: C A, D A (2) forward arcs: connect a node with a descendant in its tree: AC (3) cross arcs: all other arcs: F B, G F , G D
Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

A
2 3 6 4

E
7

B D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

A
2 3 6 4

E
7

B D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Characterizations of the node relations by vertex numbering

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

A
2 3 6 4

E
7

B D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Characterizations of the node relations by vertex numbering

1

A node u is a descendant of v iff dfnumber [v ] dfnumber [u ] dfnumber [v ]+ number of descendants of v . Thus: forward arcs go from low-numbered nodes to high-numbered nodes. back arcs go from high-numbered nodes to low-numbered nodes.

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm

Depth-rst spanning forest

A
2 3 6 4

E
7

B D

dfnumber [A] = 1 dfnumber [B ] = 2 dfnumber [C ] = 3 dfnumber [D ] = 4 ...

Characterizations of the node relations by vertex numbering

1

A node u is a descendant of v iff dfnumber [v ] dfnumber [u ] dfnumber [v ]+ number of descendants of v . Thus: forward arcs go from low-numbered nodes to high-numbered nodes. back arcs go from high-numbered nodes to low-numbered nodes.

All cross arcs go from high-numbered to low-numbered nodes.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Directed acyclic graphs (DAGs)

A directed acyclic graph (DAG for short) is a digraph without cycles.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Directed acyclic graphs (DAGs)

A directed acyclic graph (DAG for short) is a digraph without cycles. 1 DAGs are useful in representing the syntactic structure of arithmetic expressions with common subexpressions. Example (DAG for (a + b) c + ((a + b) + e) (e + f )) (a + b) c ) + + + a b c + e f

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Directed acyclic graphs (DAGs)

A directed acyclic graph (DAG for short) is a digraph without cycles. 1 DAGs are useful in representing the syntactic structure of arithmetic expressions with common subexpressions. Example (DAG for (a + b) c + ((a + b) + e) (e + f )) (a + b) c ) + + + a
2

+ c b e

DAGs can be used to represent partial orders (=irreexive and transitive).

Example (DAG for the relation between subsets of {1, 2, 3})

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of depth-rst search

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of depth-rst search

1

Test for acyclicity: Determine whether a digraph is acyclic. Solution: Generate a depth-rst spanning forest.
The digraph is acyclic iff it contains a back arc.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of depth-rst search

1

Test for acyclicity: Determine whether a digraph is acyclic. Solution: Generate a depth-rst spanning forest.
The digraph is acyclic iff it contains a back arc.

Topological sort

Scenario A large project is often divided into a collection of smaller tasks, some of which have to be performed in certain specied orders so that we may complete the entire project. For example, a university curriculum may have courses that require other courses as prerequisites. We can model the required orders with a DAG, e.g.: C1 C3 C5 C2 C4 Requirement: Assign a linear ordering to the nodes of a DAG s.t. if there is an arc from i to j then i occurs before j in the linear ordering. The linear ordering is called a topological sort.

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of depth-rst search

1

Test for acyclicity: Determine whether a digraph is acyclic. Solution: Generate a depth-rst spanning forest.
The digraph is acyclic iff it contains a back arc.

Topological sort

Scenario A large project is often divided into a collection of smaller tasks, some of which have to be performed in certain specied orders so that we may complete the entire project. For example, a university curriculum may have courses that require other courses as prerequisites. We can model the required orders with a DAG, e.g.: C1 C3 C5 C2 C4 Requirement: Assign a linear ordering to the nodes of a DAG s.t. if there is an arc from i to j then i occurs before j in the linear ordering. The linear ordering is called a topological sort. Topological sort can be accomplished easily with depth rst search.
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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Topological sort using depth-rst search

topsort(node v) is the depth-rst search procedure adjusted with a statement to print the nodes accessible from a node v in reverse topological order. Pseudocode void topsort(node v) { nodeColor[v]=BLACK; for every node w adjacent to v do if (nodeColor[w] == WHITE) { topsort(w); } cout << v.getName(); } // mark v as visited // if w is not visited

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Topological sort using depth-rst search

topsort(node v) is the depth-rst search procedure adjusted with a statement to print the nodes accessible from a node v in reverse topological order. Pseudocode void topsort(node v) { nodeColor[v]=BLACK; for every node w adjacent to v do if (nodeColor[w] == WHITE) { topsort(w); } cout << v.getName(); } // mark v as visited // if w is not visited

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Topological sort using depth-rst search

topsort(node v) is the depth-rst search procedure adjusted with a statement to print the nodes accessible from a node v in reverse topological order. Pseudocode void topsort(node v) { nodeColor[v]=BLACK; for every node w adjacent to v do if (nodeColor[w] == WHITE) { topsort(w); } cout << v.getName(); } // mark v as visited // if w is not visited

Remark. When topsort nishes searching all nodes adjacent to a node x , it prints x .

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Topological sort using depth-rst search

topsort(node v) is the depth-rst search procedure adjusted with a statement to print the nodes accessible from a node v in reverse topological order. Pseudocode void topsort(node v) { nodeColor[v]=BLACK; for every node w adjacent to v do if (nodeColor[w] == WHITE) { topsort(w); } cout << v.getName(); } // mark v as visited // if w is not visited

Remark. When topsort nishes searching all nodes adjacent to a node x , it prints x . topsort(v ) will print in a reverse topological order all nodes of a DAG which are accessible from v by a path in the DAG.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Strong components

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a digraph.
A strongly connected component of G is a subgraph (V , E ) of G where V is a maximal subset of V s.t. there is a path from any node in the set to any other node in the set. v w iff there exists a path from v to w and also a path from w to v is an equivalence relation on V V can be partitioned into a family {Vi | 1 i r } of equivalence classes w.r.t. , and then build the strong components Gi = (Vi , Ei ) of G.

A digraph with only one strong component is called strongly connected.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Strong components

Assumption: G = (V , E ) is a digraph.
A strongly connected component of G is a subgraph (V , E ) of G where V is a maximal subset of V s.t. there is a path from any node in the set to any other node in the set. v w iff there exists a path from v to w and also a path from w to v is an equivalence relation on V V can be partitioned into a family {Vi | 1 i r } of equivalence classes w.r.t. , and then build the strong components Gi = (Vi , Ei ) of G.

A digraph with only one strong component is called strongly connected. Example a d b
has 2 strong components:

a d
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b c

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Strong components
Remarks Every node of a digraph belongs to a strong component. Some arcs of a digraph may not belong to a strong component. Such arcs are cross-component arcs. The strong components of a digraph G can be found by constructing a reduced graph G of G:

the nodes of G are the strong components of G there is an arc from C in C in G iff there is an arc in G from some node in C to some node in C .

Example: a, b , c a d b
has the reduced graph

c
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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Applications of Depth-First Search

Computation of strong components

Perform a depth-rst search of G and number the nodes in post-order traversal of the depth-rst search tree (that is, assign to the parent node a larger number than to its children) Construct the digraph Gr obtained from G by reversing the direction of all its arcs. Perform depth-rst search of Gr , starting the search from the node with highest number assigned in step 1. If depth-rst search does not reach all nodes, start the next depth-rst search from the highest-numbered remaining node. Each tree in the resulting spanning forest is a strongly connected component of G.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Computation of strong components

Example
4

a c b
Fig. 3

a d

b c
Fig. 1

a d

b c
Fig. 2

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Computation of strong components

Example
4

a c b
Fig. 3

a d

b c
Fig. 1

a d

b c
Fig. 2

Start performing depth-rst search from node a in Fig. 1; number increasingly the vertices during the time of their last visit (step 1) and revert the arcs of G (step 2) digraph Gr shown in Fig. 2.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Computation of strong components

Example
4

a c b
Fig. 3

a d

b c
Fig. 1

a d

b c
Fig. 2

Start performing depth-rst search from node a in Fig. 1; number increasingly the vertices during the time of their last visit (step 1) and revert the arcs of G (step 2) digraph Gr shown in Fig. 2. Perform depth-rst search in Gr starting with a because a has highest assigned number. The rst depth-rst search tree will contain nodes a, b, c . Then, continue with root d to build the next depth-rst search tree . . .

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Computation of strong components

Example
4

a c b
Fig. 3

a d

b c
Fig. 1

a d

b c
Fig. 2

Start performing depth-rst search from node a in Fig. 1; number increasingly the vertices during the time of their last visit (step 1) and revert the arcs of G (step 2) digraph Gr shown in Fig. 2. Perform depth-rst search in Gr starting with a because a has highest assigned number. The rst depth-rst search tree will contain nodes a, b, c . Then, continue with root d to build the next depth-rst search tree . . .
Depth-rst spanning forest shown in Fig. 3.

Mircea Marin

Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Computation of strong components

Example
4

a c b
Fig. 3

a d

b c
Fig. 1

a d

b c
Fig. 2

Start performing depth-rst search from node a in Fig. 1; number increasingly the vertices during the time of their last visit (step 1) and revert the arcs of G (step 2) digraph Gr shown in Fig. 2. Perform depth-rst search in Gr starting with a because a has highest assigned number. The rst depth-rst search tree will contain nodes a, b, c . Then, continue with root d to build the next depth-rst search tree . . .
Depth-rst spanning forest shown in Fig. 3. Each tree of the forest forms a strong component of the original graph.
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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Undirected graphs
G = (V , E ) where V = nite set of vertices (or nodes) E = nite set of edges between nodes. Every edge e E connects two nodes u , v V called the nodes incident to e. An undirected graph can be simple: there is at most one edge between any two nodes. An edge between u v nodes u , v is represented as u v and drawn as . It is assumed that edges are unordered, thus u v = v u . If u v is an edge than we say nodes u and v are adjacent. multiple: there can be more than one edge between two nodes. Distinct edges between same nodes are distinguished by labeling them. An edge with label e between nodes u and v is represented as e e u v u v and drawn as . It is assumed that edges are unordered, thus u v = v u . path = sequence of nodes = v1 , . . . , vn such that v1 v2 , . . . , vn1 vn E . The length of is n 1. is a path between v1 and vn . simple path = path with distinct nodes, except possibly the rst and last. simple cycle = path of length at least 1 that begins ad ends at the same node.
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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Examples of undirected graphs

Acquaintanceship graph=simple graph where edges connect people that know each other.

Computer network: multigraph where edges are between cities linked by computer connections.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Auxiliary notions
Assumption: G = (V , E ) undirected graph.
Subgraph of G: G = (V , E ) where V V and E = the set of edges in E between nodes in V .

a d

b c

b c

V = {a, b, c , d }

V = {a, b, c }

Two nodes are connected if there is a path between them. A connected component of G is a subgraph G = (V , E ) with V maximal such that every u , v V are connected.

Figure : An unconnected graph with 2 connected components

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Undirected graphs: Methods of Representation

Adjacency matrix, adjacency lists, and edge list

a d

b c

Adjacency matrix Note: This is a symmetric matrix. Adjacency lists

Edge list: [ab, bc , c d , d a, d b]

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

Operations on Undirected Graphs

All operations on directed graphs carry over to undirected graphs, with the difference that every undirected edge u v may be thought as the pair of directed edges u v and v u . Terminology specic to unconnected graphs G = (V , E ) Connected component = maximal connected induced subgraph G = (V , E ) of G, that is:
All nodes of V are connected There is no path between a node in V and a node in V V .

Free tree = a connected acyclic graph. Properties of depth-rst spanning forests in undirected graphs:
1

There is no distinction between forward and backward edges. There are no cross edges, that is, edges v w such that v is neither ancestor nor descendant of w .

all edges are either tree edges or back edges.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs

References

Alfred V. Aho et al. Data Structures and Algorithms. Chapters 6 and 7. K. H. Rosen. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. Chapter 9.

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Applications of the depth-rst search algorithm Undirected Graphs