Lecture 1: General Background

What is photonics? Optical fields and Maxwells equations The wave equation Plane harmonic waves. Phase velocity Polarization of light Maxwells equations in matters Optical power and energy Reflection and transmission at a dielectric interface Photon nature of light

References: Photonic Devices, Jia-Ming Liu, Chapter 1 Introduction to Modern Optics, G. R. Fowles, Chapters 1-2 A Students Guide to Maxwells Equations, Daniel Fleisch Applied Electromagnetism, 3rd Ed., Shen and Kong, Chapters 2-4
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What is photonics?

What is photonics?

Photonics is the technology of generating / controlling / detecting light and other forms of radiant energy whose quantum unit is the photon. The uniqueness of photonic devices is that both wave and quantum characteristics of light have to be considered for the function and applications of these devices. The photon nature (quantum mechanics) of light is important in the operation of photonic devices for generation, amplification, frequency conversion, or detection of light, while the wave nature (Maxwells equations) is important in the operation of all photonic devices but is particularly so for devices used in transmission, modulation, or switching of light.
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What is photonics?

The spectral range of concern in photonics is usually in a wavelength range between ~10 m (mid-IR) and ~100 nm (deep-UV).

What is photonics?

In free space (i.e. vacuum or air)

= c = 3 108 m/s

e.g. = 0.5 m = 500 nm = 0.5 10-6 m, gives = 6 1014 Hz = 600 1012 Hz = 600 THz Optical carrier frequency ~ 100 THz, which is 5 orders of magnitude larger than microwave carrier frequency of GHz. Potentially ~THz information can be modulated on a single optical carrier!

Photonic technologies at a glance

Communications --- fiber optic communications, optical interconnect Computing --- chip-to-chip optical interconnect, on-chip optical interconnect communications Energy (Green) --- solid-state lighting, solar Human-Machine interface --- CCD/CMOS camera, displays, picoprojectors Medicine --- laser surgery, optical coherence tomography (OCT) Bio --- optical tweezers, laser-based diagnostics of cells/tissues Nano --- integrated photonics, sub-diffraction-limited optical microscopy, optical nanolithography Defense --- laser weapons, bio-aerosols monitoring Sensing --- fiber sensors, bio-sensing, LIDAR Data Storage --- CD/DVD/Blu-ray, holography Manufacturing --- laser-based drilling and cutting Fundamental Science --- femto-/atto-second science Space Science --- adaptive optics Entertainment --- light shows And many more!!

A Brief Historical Note

Beyond the middle ages: Newton (1642-1726) and Huygens (1629-1695) fight over nature of light 18th19th centuries Fresnel, Young experimentally observe diffraction, defeat Newtons particle theory Maxwell formulates electro-magnetic equations, Hertz verifies antenna emission principle (1899) 20th-21st century Quantum theory explains wave-particle duality Invention of holography (1948) Invention of laser principle (1954) 1st demonstration of laser (1960) Proposal of fiber optic communications (1966) 1st demonstration of low-loss optical fibers (1970) Optical applications proliferate into the 21st century: nonlinear optics, fiber optics, laser-based spectroscopy, computing, communications, fundamental science, medicine, biology, manufacturing, entertainment, (Let all flowers blossom!)

The nature of light: Models

Quantum Optics Electromagnetic Optics Wave optics Ray optics

Ray optics Wave optics EM Optics

Quantum Optics

Limit of wave optics when wavelength is very short compared with simple optical components and systems. Scalar approximation of EM optics. Most complete treatment of light within the confines of classical optics Explanation of virtually all optical phenomena
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The nature of light

Quantum Optics Electromagnetic Optics Wave optics

Ray optics

Ray optics: propagation of light rays through simple optical components and systems. Wave optics: propagations of light waves through optical components and systems. Electromagnetic optics: description of light waves in terms of electric and magnetic fields. Quantum optics: emission/absorption of photons, which are characteristically quantum mechanical in nature and cannot be explained by classical optics (e.g. lasers, light-emitting diodes, photodiode detectors, solar cells)

Remark on Ray Optics or Geometrical Optics

Wavelength << size of the optical component
ray wavefront

In many applications of interest the wavelength of light is short compared with the relevant length scales of the optical components or system (e.g. mirrors, prisms, lenses). This branch of optics is referred to as Ray optics or Geometrical Optics, where energy of light is propagated along rays. The rays are perpendicular to the wavefronts.

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Light as electromagnetic waves

The electromagnetic wave equation derived from Maxwells equations show that light and all other electromagnetic waves travel with the same velocity in free space (c 3 108 m/s). Two variables in an electromagnetic wave the electric and magnetic fields E and B, both are vector quantities, both transverse to the direction of propagation, and mutually perpendicular, and mutually coupled B In free space their magnitudes are related by
E

E = cB c is the velocity of light in free space

k
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Optical fields and Maxwells equations

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Electromagnetic field
The electromagnetic field is generally characterized by the following four field quantities: Electric field Magnetic induction Electric displacement Magnetic field E(r, t) V m-1 B(r, t) T or Wb m-2 D(r, t) C m-2 H(r, t) A m-1 (The units are in SI units) (coulomb C = As) (weber Wb = Vs)

E and B are fundamental microscopic fields, while D and H are macroscopic fields that include the response of the medium. They are functions of both position and time. e.g. E(r, t) = E(r) e-it, where r = xex + yey + zez

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Maxwells Equations in free space

E = 0
B = 0
B E = t
E B = 0 J + 0 t

Gauss law for electric fields

Gauss law for magnetic fields

Faradays law

Ampere-Maxwell law
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(Cm-3): total charge density, J (Am-2): total current density

The permittivity and permeability of free space

The constant proportionality in Gauss law for electric fields is the permittivity of free space (or vacuum permittivity). 0 8.85 10-12 1/36 10-9 C/Vm (F/m)

Gauss law as written in this form is general, and applies to electric fields within dielectrics and those in free space, provided that you account for all of the enclosed charge including charges that are bound to the atoms of the material. The constant proportionality in the Ampere-Maxwell law is that of the permeability of free space (or vacuum permeability). 0 = 4 10-7 Vs/Am (H/m)

The presence of this quantity does not mean that the Ampere-Maxwell law applies only to sources and fields in a vacuum. This form of the Ampere-Maxwell law is general, so long as you consider all currents (bound and free).

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Conservation of charge

Consider the Ampere-Maxwell law again:

E B = 0 J + 0 t

Apply the vector identity:

( a ) 0

both sides of the Ampere-Maxwell law, interchange the time-space derivatives

J + 0 E = 0 t Law of conservation of = 0 electric charge => J + t

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Conservation of charge

Law of conservation of electric charge is a direct consequence of Maxwells equations. What is the physical meaning of the conservation law?

J = t
Flow of electric current out of a differential volume Rate of decrease of electric charge in the volume

This implies that electric charge is conserved it can neither be created nor be destroyed. Therefore, it is also known as the continuity equation.
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Electromagnetic fields in a source-free region

In a source-free region, Maxwells equations are E = -B/t B = 00E/t E=0 B=0

These are equations normally used for optical fields as optical fields are usually not generated directly by free currents or free charges.

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The wave equation

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The wave equation in free space

Now we are ready to get the wave equation from Maxwells equations. First, take the curl of both sides of the differential form of Faradays law: ( B ) B ( E ) = = t t Next we need a vector operator identity which says that the curl of the curl of any vector field equals the gradient of the divergence of the field minus the Laplacian of the field:

( A) = ( A) 2 A
where
2 2 2 A A Az y 2 x A= + + 2 2 x y z 2

This is the Laplacian operator.

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The wave equation

Thus,

( B ) ( E ) = ( E ) E = t
2

You know the curl of the magnetic field from the differential form of the Ampere-Maxwell law:
E B = 0 J + 0 t

So

E 0 ( J + 0 ) t ( E ) = ( E ) 2 E = t
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The wave equation

Using Gauss law for electric fields

E = 0

Gives

E 0 ( J + 0 ) t ( E ) = ( ) 2 E = t 0

Putting terms containing the electric field on the left side of the equation gives
2 E J 2 + E 0 0 2 = 0 t t 0

In a charge- and current-free region, = 0 and J = 0,

2E E = 0 0 2 t
2
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Characteristics of the wave equation

A similar analysis beginning with the curl of both sides of the Ampere-Maxwell law leads to
2 B 2 B = 0 0 2 t

The wave equation is a linear, second-order, homogeneous partial differential equation that describes a field that travels from one location to another --- a propagating wave.

Linear: The time and space derivatives of the wave function (E or B) appear to the first power and without cross terms Second-order: the highest derivative present is the second derivative Homogeneous: all terms involve the wave function or its derivatives, no forcing or source terms are present Partial: the wave function is a function of multiple variables (space and time in this case)

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Phase velocity

This form of the wave equation does not just tell you that you have a wave --- it provides the velocity of propagation as well ! The general form of the wave equation is (same for mechanical waves, sound waves, etc.)
2 1 A 2 A= 2 v t 2

Speed of propagation of the wave (known as phase velocity)

For the electric and magnetic fields

1 = 0 0 v = 2 v

0 0

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Phase velocity in free space

Recall 0 8.854 10-12 C/Vm (1/36) 10-9 C/Vm And o = 4 10-7 Vs/Am

(0 0)-1/2 = (4 10-7 (1/36) 10-9)-1/2 (s2m-2)-1/2 = 3 108 ms-1 *It was the agreement of the calculated velocity of propagation with the measured speed of light that caused Maxwell to write, light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws.
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Plane harmonic waves, phase velocity

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Waves in one dimension

2/z2 = (1/v2) 2/t2 (1-D wave equation) assume = A cos [2 (z/ t/)] 2/t2 = -(2/)2 A cos [2 (z/ t/)] 2/z2 = -(2/)2 A cos [2 (z/ t/)]

v2(2/)2 = (2/)2

v = / =
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Plane harmonic waves

A
/4 t = t0 t = t0+/4

= A cos [2 (z/ t/)] At any point a harmonic wave varies sinusoidally with time t. At any time a harmonic wave varies sinusoidally with distance z.
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Key parameters of harmonic waves

The frequency of oscillation is = 1/. It is often convenient to use an angular frequency = 2. A propagation constant or wave number k = 2/

In terms of k and :

= A cos (kz t)

The vector quantity k = (2/)n, where n is the unit vector in the direction of k, is also termed the wavevector. Here = A cos (kz t) describes the plane wave is moving in the direction +z, so k is pointing in the +z direction.
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Plane harmonic waves

= A cos (kz t) wavefronts ( k) x z k = ez k = ez 2/ (wavevector)

(plane wave in free space)

Wavefronts: surfaces of constant phase

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Phase velocity
For a plane optical wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field has a phase varies with z and t = kz - t For a point of constant phase on the space- and time-varying field, = constant and thus kdz - dt = 0. If we track this point of constant phase, we find that it is moving with a velocity of vp = dz/dt = /k phase velocity

In free space, the phase velocity vp = c = /k = the propagation constant k = /c

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Complex exponentials

Another powerful way of writing harmonic plane wave solutions of the wave equation is in terms of complex exponentials = A exp i(kz t)

The complex exponentials form can vastly simplify the math of combining waves of different amplitudes and phases (phasor analysis). The Euler identity: exp i(kz t) = cos (kz t) + i sin (kz t)
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Plane wave as the basic solution

Consider a plane wave propagating in free space in the z direction, E = Eo exp i(kz - t) 1-D wave equation 2E/z2 = 00 2E/t2 k2 E = 00 2 E k2/2 = 00 k2/2 = (2/)2 / (2)2 = 1/()2 = 1/c2 = 00
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Consider the complex exponential expression for a plane harmonic wave in three dimensions

exp i (k r t )

Taking the time derivative

exp i (k r t ) = i exp i(k r t ) t

Taking the partial derivative with respect to one of the space variables, say x

exp i (k r t ) = exp i (k x x + k y y + k z z t ) x x = ik x exp i (k r t )

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Hence on application of the del operator

+y +z =x x y z

It follows that
exp i (k r t ) = ik exp i (k r t )

Thus we have the following operator relations

i t

ik

which are valid for plane harmonic waves

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Maxwells equations for plane harmonic waves

Using the relations

ik , i t

Maxwells equations in free space become

k = B

k B = 0 0E

k = 0 kB =0

E k

Based on Maxwells equations, we can show that E and B are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation k. Such a wave is called a transverse wave. Furthermore, E and B are mutually perpendicular E, B, and k form a mutually orthogonal triad.

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Maxwells equations for plane harmonic waves

We can also write

k = B k B = 0 0

1 B = k c E = cB k
B E

=k/k where k

E = cB
k
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Polarization of light

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Polarization

At a fixed point in space, the E vector of a time-harmonic electromagnetic wave varies sinusoidally with time. The polarization of the wave is described by the locus of the tip of the E vector as time progresses. If the locus is a straight line the wave is said to be linearly polarized. It is circularly polarized if the locus is a circle and elliptically polarized if the locus is an ellipse. An electromagnetic wave, e.g. sunlight or lamplight, may also be randomly polarized. In such cases, the wave is unpolarized. An unpolarized wave can be regarded as a wave containing many linearly polarized waves with their polarization randomly oriented in space. A wave can also be partially polarized, such as skylight or light reflected from the surface of an object i.e. glare. A partially polarized wave can be thought of as a mixture of polarized waves and unpolarized waves.

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Polarization

The plane harmonic wave discussed so far is linearly polarized. E(z, t) = x E0 cos(kz - t)

Tracing the tip of the vector E at any point z shows that the tip always stays on the x axis with maximum displacement E0. => the plane wave is linearly polarized. Now consider a plane wave with the following electric-field vector: E = x a cos(t - kz + a) + y b cos(t - kz + b)

The E vector has x and y components. a and b are real constants.

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Linear polarization

Condition for linear polarization = b a = 0 or

When this relation holds between the phases Ex and Ey, Ey = (b/a)Ex

This result is a straight line with slope (b/a). The +ve sign applies to the case = 0, and the ve sign to = .

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Circular polarization

Conditions for circular polarization = b a = /2 and Consider the case = /2 and A = 1.

A = b/a = 1

Ex = a cos (t kz + a) Ey = -a sin (t kz + a)

Elimination of t yields: Ex2 + Ey2 = a2 This result is a circle in the Ex-Ey plane, and the circle radius is equal to a. The tip of E moves clockwise along the circle as time progresses. If we use left-hand fingers to follow the tips motion, the thumb will point in the direction of wave propagation. We call this wave left-hand circularly polarized. The wave is right-hand circularly polarized when = -/2 and A = 1.

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Left or right circularly polarized

H
k LHC

H E
k RHC

Consider an observer located at some arbitrary point toward which the wave is approaching. For convenience, we choose this point at z = /k at t = 0. Ex (z, t) = -ex E0, Ey (z, t) = 0 E lies along the x axis.
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Left or right circularly polarized

At a later time, say t = /2, the electric field vector has rotated through 90o and now lies along the +y axis. Thus, as the wave moves toward the observer with increasing time, E rotates clockwise at an angular frequency . It makes one complete rotation as the wave advances through one wavelength. Such a light wave is left circularly polarized. If we choose the negative sign for , then the electric field vector is given by E = E0 [ex cos(t kz) + ey sin(t kz)]

Now E rotates counterclockwise and the wave is right circularly polarized.

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Elliptical polarization

The wave is elliptically polarized if it is neither linearly nor circularly polarized. E.g. = -/2 and A = b/a = 2. Ex = a cos (t kz + a) Ey = 2a sin (t kz + a)

Eliminating t yields (Ex/a)2 + (Ey/2a)2 = 1 This result is an ellipse.

For other and A values, the wave is generally elliptically polarized.

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Elliptical polarization

For general values of the wave is elliptically polarized. The resultant field vector E will both rotate and change its magnitude as a function of the angular frequency . We can show that for a general value of (Ex/E0x)2 + (Ey/E0y)2 2(Ex/E0x) (Ey/E0y) cos = sin2 which is the general equation of an ellipse.

This ellipse represents the trajectory of the E vector = state of polarization (SOP)
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Polarization of light wave

x = y
z

Eox=Eoy |x - y|=/2
z

Eox Eoy |x - y|=

z

Propagation direction

y Linear

y Circular

y Elliptical

x
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Maxwells equations in matters

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Maxwells Equations in matters

Maxwells equations apply to electric and magnetic fields in matters and in free space. When you are dealing with fields inside matters, remember the following: ALL charge bound and free should be considered ALL currents bound and polarization and free should be considered The bound charge is accounted for in terms of electric polarization P in the displacement field D. The bound current is accounted for in terms of magnetic polarization M in the magnetic field strength H.
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Response of a medium

The response of a medium to an electromagnetic field generates the polarization and the magnetization: Polarization (electric polarization) P(r, t) Magnetization (magnetic polarization) M(r, t) Cm-2 Am-1

They are connected to the field quantities through the following constitutive relations: D(r, t) = 0E(r, t) + P(r, t) B(r, t) = 0H(r, t) + 0M(r, t) where 0 1/36 10-9 Fm-1 or AsV-1m-1 is the electric permittivity of free space and 0 = 4 10-7 Hm-1 or VsA-1m-1 is the magnetic permeability of free space.

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Response of medium

Polarization and magnetization in a medium are generated by the response of the medium to the electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, P(r, t) depends on E(r, t), M(r, t) depends on B(r, t)

At optical frequencies (1014 Hz), the magnetization vanishes, M = 0. Consequently, for optical fields, the following relation is always true: B(r, t) = 0H(r, t)
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Response of medium

This is not true at low frequencies. It is possible to change the properties of a medium through a magnetization induced by a DC or low-frequency magnetic field, leading to the functioning of magneto-optic devices. Even for magneto-optic devices, magnetization is induced by a DC or low-frequency magnetic field that is separate from the optical fields. No magnetization is induced by the magnetic components of the optical fields.
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Response of medium

Except for magneto-optic devices, most photonic devices are made of dielectric materials that have zero magnetization at all frequencies. The optical properties of such materials are completely determined by the relation between P(r, t) and E(r, t). This relation is generally characterized by an electric susceptibility tensor, ,

P ( r , t ) = 0 dr ' dt ' ( r r ' , t t ' ) E ( r ' , t ' )

D(r , t ) = 0 E (r , t ) + 0 dr ' dt ' (r r ' , t t ' ) E (r ' , t ' )

= dr ' dt ' (r r ' , t t ' ) E (r ' , t ' )

where is the electric permittivity tensor of the medium.

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Response of medium
and represent the response of a medium to the optical field and thus completely characterize the macroscopic electromagnetic properties of the medium.
1.

Both and are generally tensors because the vectors P and D are, in general, not parallel to vector E due to material anisotropy. In the case of an isotropic medium, both and can be reduced to scalars. The convolution in time accounts for the fact that the response of a medium to excitation of an electric field is generally not instantaneous or local in time and will not vanish for some time after the excitation is over. Because time is unidirectional, causality exists in physical processes. An earlier excitation can have an effect on the property of a medium at a later time, but not a later excitation on the property of the medium at an earlier time. Therefore, the upper limit in the time integral is t, not infinity.
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2.

Response of medium

The convolution in space accounts for the spatial nonlocality of the material response. Excitation of a medium at a location r can result in a change in the property of the medium at another location r. E.g. The property of a semiconductor at one location can be changed by electric or optical excitation at another location through carrier diffusion. Because space is not unidirectional, there is no spatial causality, in general, and spatial convolution is integrated over the entire space. The temporal nonlocality of the optical response of a medium results in frequency dispersion of its optical property, while the spatial nonlocality results in momentum dispersion.
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Dipole moment

Within a dielectric material, positive and negative charges may become slightly displaced when an electric field is applied. When a positive charge Q is separated by distance s from an equal negative charge Q, the electric dipole moment is given by p = Qs where s is a vector directed from the negative to the positive charge with magnitude equal to the distance between the charges.
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Electric field and dipole moment induced in a dielectric

No dielectric present Displaced charges dielectric + + +

External electric field

induced field

p = Qs
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Electric polarization

For a dielectric material with N molecules per unit volume, the dipole moment per unit volume is P = Np

A quantity which is also called the electric polarization of the material. If the polarization is uniform, bound charge appears only on the surface of the material. If the polarization varies from point to point within the dielectric, there are accumulations of charge within the material, with volume charge density given by where b represents the volume density of bound charge (charge that is displaced by the electric field but does not move freely through the material).

b = P

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Bound charge
Ewave Ewave
+ 59

+ cancel + -

+ + -

+ + -

+ + -

+ + -

+ -

The polarization is uniform, bound charge appears only on the surface of the material.

The polarization is nonuniform, bound charge appears within the material.

Gauss law for electric fields

In the differential form of Gauss law, the divergence of the electric field is E = 0 where is the total charge density.

Within matter, the total charge density consists of both free and bound charge densities: = f + b
free charge bound charge density density

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Gauss law for electric fields

Thus, Gauss law may be written as

f + b E = = 0 0

Substituting the negative divergence of the polarization for the bound charge and multiplying through by the permittivity of free space gives

0 E = f + b = f P
or

0E + P = f
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The displacement field

Collecting terms within the divergence operator gives

( 0 E + P ) = f

In this form of Gauss law, the term in parentheses is often written as a vector called the displacement, which is defined as

D = 0E + P
=>

D = f

This is a version of the differential form of Gauss law that depends only on the density of free charge.
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Electric susceptibility and relative permittivity

The relation between E and P is through the electric susceptibility function . P(r, t) = 0 E(r, t) D = 0 (1+ ) E(r, t) = 0 r E(r, t) = E(r, t) where the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) r is defined as 1+, and the permittivity of the medium = r 0.

For isotropic medium, and r are scalars so that E // P and D // E. (E = (1/) D = 0 in source-free media) In general, and r are second-rank tensors (expressed in 33 matrices), in which case the medium they describe is anisotropic. (E not // P, D not // E, in general E 0)

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Effect of magnetic materials on magnetic fields

One interesting difference between the effect of dielectrics on electric fields and the effect of magnetic materials on magnetic fields is that the magnetic field is actually stronger than the applied field within many magnetic materials. These materials become magnetized when exposed to an external magnetic field, and the induced magnetic field is in the same direction as the applied field.
Magnetic dipole moments align with applied field Applied magnetic field produced by solenoid current I

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Bound current

Just as applied electric fields induce polarization (electric dipole moment per unit volume) within dielectrics, applied magnetic fields induce magnetization (magnetic dipole moment per unit volume) within magnetic materials. Just as bound electric charges act as the source of additional electric fields within the material, bound currents may act as the source of additional magnetic fields. The bound current density is given by the curl of the magnetization:

Jb = M
where Jb is the bound current density and M represents the magnetization of the material.
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Polarization current

Another contribution to the current density within matters comes from the time rate of change of the polarization, as any movement of charge constitutes an electric current. The polarization current density is given by

P JP = t Thus, the total current density includes not only the free current density, but the bound and polarization current densities:

J = J f + Jb + J P
free bound polarization
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The Ampere-Maxwell law

Thus, the Ampere-Maxwell law in differential form

E B = 0 ( J f + J b + J P + 0 ) t

Inserting the expressions for the bound and polarization current and dividing by the permeability of free space

P E B = J f + M + + 0 0 t t 1

Gathering curl terms and time-derivative terms gives

P ( 0 E ) M = J f + + t 0 t B
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The Ampere-Maxwell law

Moving the terms inside the curl and derivative operators gives
B M 0 ( 0 E + P ) = Jf + t

In this form of the Ampere-Maxwell law, the term

H= B

is often called the magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength Thus, the differential form of the Ampere-Maxwell law in terms of H, D and the free current density is
D H = J f + t
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Maxwells Equations in a medium

D = free
B = 0
B E = t
H = J free + D t

Gauss law for electric fields

Gauss law for magnetic fields

Faradays law

Ampere-Maxwell law
69

free (Cm-3): free charge density, Jfree (Am-2): free current density

Maxwells Equations in a medium free of sources

D = 0
B = 0
B E = t
H = D t

Gauss law for electric fields

Gauss law for magnetic fields

Faradays law

Ampere-Maxwell law

These are the equations normally used for optical fields because optical fields are usually not generated directly by free currents or free charges.

70

Wave equation

Now we are ready to get the wave equation. First, take the curl of Faradays law and using B = 0H and H = D/t :

2D ( E ) + 0 2 = 0 t Using D = 0E + P,
2E 2P ( E ) + 0 0 2 = 0 2 t t 2P 1 2E ( E ) + 2 2 = 0 2 c t t
Speed of light in free space

Polarization in a medium drives the evolution of an optical field

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(0 0)-1/2 = (4 10-7 (1/36) 10-9)-1/2 (s2m-2)-1/2 = 3 108 ms-1

Propagation in an isotropic medium free of sources

For an isotropic medium, () is reduced to a scalar and

= 1 D = 0 ( )

By using the vector identity The wave equation

2 0 ( ) 2 = 0 t
2

Note that for an anisotropic medium, the above wave equation is generally not valid because () is a tensor and E 0

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Phase velocity in dielectric media

vp = 1/(0) = 1 /(00r) The velocity of light in a dielectric medium is therefore vp = c /r where we used the relation 00 = 1/c2 and c is the speed of light. vp = c / n n = r *The refractive index n is rooted in the material relative permittivity.
73

Remark on dispersion

The index of refraction is in general frequency or wavelength dependent. This is true for all transparent optical media. The variation of the index of refraction with frequency is called dispersion. The dispersion of glass is responsible for the familiar splitting of light into its component colors by a prism. In order to explain the dispersion it is necessary to take into account the actual motion of the electrons in the optical medium through which the light is traveling. We will discuss the theory of dispersion in detail in Lecture 2.

74

Optical power and energy

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Optical power and energy

By multiplying E by Ampere-Maxwell law and multiplying H by Faradays law D E ( H ) = E J + E t

B H ( E ) = H t

B D (E H ) = E J + E +H t t P M 0 2 0 2 + 0 H E J = ( E H ) E + H E t t 2 t 2
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Using the vector identity B ( A) A ( B) = ( A B ) We can combine the above relations

Optical power and energy

Recall that power in an electric circuit is given by voltage times current and has the unit of W = V A (watts = volts amperes). In an electromagnetic field, we find similarly that EJ is the power density that has the unit of V A m-3 or W m-3. Therefore, the total power dissipated by an electromagnetic field in a volume V is
V

E J dV

P M 0 2 0 2 E JdV E H n dA E H dV E H + = + dV 0 2 t t t V 2 V A V
Surface integral over the closed surface A of volume V, n is the outward-pointing unit normal vector of the surface (Each term has the unit of power.)

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Optical power and energy

The vector quantity S=EH is called the Poynting vector of the electromagnetic field. It represents the instantaneous magnitude and direction of the power flow of the field.

The scalar quantity u 0 =

0
2

E +

0
2

has the unit of energy per unit volume and is the energy density stored in the propagating field. It consists of two components, thus accounting for energies stored in both electric and magnetic fields at any instant of time.
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Optical power and energy

The quantity

P Wp = E t

is the power density expended by the electromagnetic field on the polarization. It is the rate of energy transfer from the electromagnetic field to the medium by inducing electric polarization in the medium.

The quantity

Wm = 0 H

M t

is the power density expended by the electromagnetic field on the magnetization.

79

Optical power and energy

Hence the relation

P M 0 2 0 2 + E H dV E H + 0 t 2 2 t t V V dV

dA E JdV = E H n
A

simply states the law of conservation of energy in any arbitrary volume element V in the medium: the total energy in the medium equals that in the propagating field plus that in the electric and magnetic polarizations.

For an optical field, J = 0 and M = 0,

dA = S n
A

u0 dV + W p dV t V V

which states that the total power flowing into volume V through its boundary surface A is equal to the rate of increase with time of the energy stored in the propagating fields in V plus the power transferred to the polarization of the medium in this volume.
80

Energy flow and the Poynting vector

The time rate of flow of electromagnetic energy per unit area is given by the vector S, called the Poynting vector, S=EH This vector specifies both the direction and the magnitude of the energy flux. (watts per square meter) Consider the case of plane harmonic waves in which the fields are given by the real expressions (note that E and H are in phase)
E0 cos(kz t ) E ( z, t ) = x

H 0 cos(kz t ) H ( z, t ) = y
81

Average Poynting vector

For the instantaneous value (~100 THz) of the Poynting vector:

E0 H 0 cos 2 (kz t ) S = EH = z
As the average value of the cosine squared is , then for the average value of the Poynting vector (detector does not detect so fast!)

time

1 = z E0 H 0 2

As the wavevector k is perpendicular to both E and H, k has the same direction as the Poynting vector S.

82

Irradiance
An alternative expression for the average Poynting flux is <S> = I k/k unit vector in the magnitude of the average Poynting flux direction of propagation I is called the irradiance (often termed intensity), given by I = EoHo = (n/2Zo) |Eo|2 |Eo|2 [W/cm2] = [V2/(cm2)] = [1/] [V/cm]2 Thus, the rate of flow of energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric field. Z0 is the intrinsic impedance of free space in units of .

83

Impedance

We can write in a medium of index n

k = 0 H k H =

n H= k Z0 Z0 E= H k n

=k/k where k

Z0 = (0/0)1/2 120 377 is the free-space impedance. The concept of this impedance is analogous to the concept of the impedance of a transmission line.
84

Propagation in a lossless isotropic medium

In this case, () is reduced to a positive real scalar. All of the results obtained for free space remain valid, except that 0 is replaced by (). This change of the electric permittivity from a vacuum to a material is measured by the relative electric permittivity, /0, which is a dimensionless quantity also known as the dielectric constant of the material. Therefore, the propagation constant in the medium

n 2n 2n = = k = 0 = c c
where n = (/0)1/2 is the index of refraction or refractive index of the medium.
85

Lossless medium

In a medium that has an index of refraction n, the optical frequency is still , but the optical wavelength is /n, and the speed of light is = c/n. Because n() in a medium is generally frequency dependent, the speed of light in a medium is also frequency dependent. This results in various dispersive phenomena such as the separation of different colors by a prism and the broadening or shortening of an optical pulse traveling through the medium. We also note that the impedance Z = Z0/n in a medium. The light intensity or irradiance

| |2 I =2 = 2 Z | |2 Z
86

Reflection and transmission at a dielectric interface

87

The laws of reflection and refraction

We now review the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light from the standpoint of electromagnetic theory. Consider a plane harmonic wave incident upon a plane boundary separating two different optical media. *The space-time dependence of these three waves, aside from constant amplitude factors, is given by exp i(kir - t) exp i(krr - t) exp i(ktr - t) incident reflected transmitted
88

ki kr incident i r reflected t transmitted kt

The law of reflection

Assume that the interface is at z = 0. As r varies along the interface, the exponentials change. In order that any constant relation can exist for all points of the boundary and for all values of t, it is necessary that the three exponential functions be equal at the boundary.

e

ik t r

=e

ik i r

=e

ik r r

The equality of exponentials can only hold so long as

ikt r = iki r = ik r r
(For z = 0, r is confined to x-y plane)
89

The law of reflection and Snells law

The dot product gives the projection of k onto the x-y plane.

k t r = k i r = k r r k t r sin t = k i r sin i = k r r sin r => kt sin t = ki sin i = k r sin r

Note that ki = k0n1 = kr

ki sin i = k r sin r i = r (Law of Reflection)

Note that kt = k0n2

kt sin t = ki sin i n2 sin t = n1 sin i (Snells Law)

90

Boundary conditions for the electric and magnetic fields

We need boundary conditions when we solve Maxwells equations for waveguides and reflection coefficients. Boundary conditions describe how the electric and magnetic fields behave as they move across interfaces between different materials. Here we consider dielectric media with no free charges or free currents: n H1t H2t B1n B2n D1n D2n E1t E2t
91

Medium 1 Medium 2

Boundary conditions for dielectric media

Without free surface charge or surface currents in the absence of magnetic media

2 E 2 n 1 E1n = 0

E2t E1t = 0
H 2 n H1n = 0 H 2t H1t = 0
Subscript n represents normal component to the boundary Subscript t represents tangential component to the boundary

92

Boundary conditions for dielectric media

The tangential components of E and H must be continuous across an interface, while the normal components of D and B are continuous. Because B = 0H for optical fields, the tangential component of B and the normal component of H are also continuous. Consequently, all of the magnetic field components in an optical field are continuous across a boundary. Possible discontinuities in an optical field exist only in the normal component of E or the tangential component of D.
93

Boundary conditions for dielectric media

For the electric field The normal component of the electric field is discontinuous across a dielectric interface (even when there is no free surface charge). The tangential component of the electric field must always be continuous across a dielectric interface For the magnetic field The normal component of the magnetic field is continuous across a dielectric interface (for nonmagnetic materials). The tangential component of the magnetic field must be continuous across a dielectric interface (without surface currents).
94

Dipole fields produce a discontinuity

+ cancel + + cancel +

+ +

E2 Ewave
+ + + + -

+ + -

E1 Edipole

Dipole fields produce a discontinuity in the electric fields on either side of the interface. (1 = n1, 2 = n2) E2 = (1/2)E1 = (n1/n2)2 E1
95

Boundary conditions in terms of electric fields

Restate the last two boundary conditions in terms of the electric field for convenience. Recall the relation between the magnitude of the magnetic and electric fields in a dielectric k E = 0 H The four boundary conditions can be stated as

2 E2 n 1 E1n = 0

E2t E1t = 0
(k 2 E2 ) n (k1 E1 ) n = 0 (k 2 E2 ) t (k1 E1 ) t = 0
96

Fresnel reflectivity and transmissivity

Here we derive the Fresnel reflectivity and transmissivity from the boundary conditions. The Fresnel reflectivity and transmissivity apply to electric fields rather than power. We must keep in mind that the fields in the boundary conditions represent the total field on either side of the boundary. We have three variables but only need to solve for two in terms of the third (the incident field). We therefore require two equations in the three variables.

We describe the reflected field in terms of the incident field; and the transmitted field in terms of the incident field.
97

Using the boundary conditions

Assume region 2 refers to the transmission side of the interface while region 1 refers to the incidence side The total fields: E1 = E i + Er E2 = E t H1 = Hi + Hr H2 = Ht

Using the boundary conditions for the tangential components:

E2t E1t = 0
(k 2 E2 ) t (k1 E1 ) t = 0
98

TE polarization (s-wave)
The electric field is linearly polarized in a direction perpendicular to the plane of incidence, while the magnetic field is polarized to the plane of incidence. This is called transverse electric (TE) polarization. This wave is also called s-polarized. n Ht n2 n1 Hi ki x Ei t i r x Et Hr kr
99

kt

x Er

Fresnel reflectivity and transmissivity for TE fields

Substitute the total fields to the boundary conditions Note that the E-fields are transverse to the plane of incidence

Et ( Ei + Er ) = 0

(drop the tangential t subscript)

(kt Et ) t (ki Ei ) t (k r Er ) t = 0
=>

Et k0 n2 cos t Ei k0 n1 cos i + Er k0 n1 cos i = 0

The reflected k-vector makes an angle of - with respect to the vertically pointing unit vector.
100

 The reflection coefficient, rTE, and the transmission coefficient, tTE, of the TE electric field are given by the following Fresnel equations: rTE Er/Ei = n1 cos i n2 cos t n1 cos i + n2 cos t 2n1 cos i n1 cos i + n2 cos t = n1 cos i - (n22 n12 sin2i)1/2 n1 cos i + (n22 n12 sin2i)1/2 2n1 cos i n1 cos i + (n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

tTE Et/Ei =

The intensity reflectance and transmittance, R and T, which are also known as reflectivity and transmissivity, are given by RTE Ir/Ii = n1 cos i n2 cos t n1 cos i + n2 cos t
101

TTE It/Ii = 1 - RTE

TM polarization (p-wave)
The electric field is linearly polarized in a direction parallel to the plane of incidence while the magnetic field is polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence. This is called transverse magnetic (TM) polarization. This wave is also called p-polarized. n Et Ht kt

n2 n1 Ei ki Hi

t i r Er

xH

Note the reverse direction of Hr

102

kr

Fresnel reflectivity and transmissivity for TM fields

Again, using tangential components of E and H are continuous

(kt Et ) t (ki Ei ) t (k r Er ) t = 0 ( Et ( Ei + Er ))t = 0

Note that the H fields are all perpendicular to the unit vector n s.t. (note the field vector directions)

k0 n2 Et k0 n1 Ei + k0 n1 Er = 0 Et cos t Ei cos i Er cos i = 0

103

 The reflection coefficient, rTM, and the transmission coefficient, tTM, of the TM electric field are given by the following Fresnel equations: rTM Er/Ei = -n2 cos i + n1 cos t n2 cos i + n1 cos t 2n1 cos i n2 cos i + n1 cos t = -n22 cos i + n1(n22 n12 sin2i)1/2 n22 cos i + n1(n22 n12 sin2i)1/2 2n1n2cos i n22 cos i + n1(n22 n12 sin2i)1/2

tTM Et/Ei =

The intensity reflectance and transmittance for TM polarization are given by 2 -n2 cos i + n1 cos t RTM Ir/Ii = n2 cos i + n1 cos t TTM It/Ii = 1 - RTM
104

Reflection and transmission coefficients

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

tTM tTE Brewsters angle B = tan-1(n2/n1) rTM

rTE

The reflection and transmission coefficients versus the angle of incidence for n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5

105

Reflectivity and transmissivity

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

TTM TTE

RTE RTM

The reflectivity (reflectance) and transmissivity (transmittance) versus the angle of incidence for n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5

106

Internal reflection coefficients

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

rTE

rTM

The reflection coefficients versus the angle of incidence for n1 = 1.5 and n2 = 1

107

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 108

n1 = 1.5 (internal n2 = 1.0 reflection) B ~ 34o (Brewster angle) c ~ 42o

total internal reflection for > c

Normal incidence

RTE B

RTM c

Brewster angle

For parallel polarization, we see that r = 0 gives n2 cos b = n1 cos t

And the phase matching condition, n1 sin b = n2 sin t Solving both equations, we find t + b = /2 and b = tan-1 (n2/n1) Brewster angle

If a wave is arbitrarily polarized and is incident on the boundary of the two dielectric media at the Brewster angle, the reflected wave contains only the perpendicular polarization because the parallel-polarized component of the wave is totally transmitted. For this reason, the Brewster angle is also called the polarization angle.

109

Total Internal Reflection

For i > c sin i > n2/n1 n1 cos i - i (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2 n1 cos i + i (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2

|rTE| =

=1

|rTM| =

-n22 cos i + i n1(n12 sin2i n22)1/2 n2 cos i + i

2

n1(n12

sin2

n2

2)1/2

=1

110

Phase changes in total internal reflection

In the case of total internal reflection the complex values for the coefficients of reflection, given by the Fresnel coefficients rTE and rTM, imply that there is a change of phase which is a function of the angle of incidence. As the absolute values of rTE and rTM are both unity, we can write rTE = ae-i / aei = exp iTE rTM = -be-i / bei = -exp -iTM where TE and TM are the phase changes for the TE and TM cases, and the complex numbers ae-i and be-i represent the numerators in rTE and rTM. Their complex conjugates appear in the denominators. 111

aei =

n1 cos i + i (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2

be+i = n22 cos i + i n1(n12 sin2i n22)1/2 We see that TE = 2 and TM = 2. Accordingly, tan = tan (TE/2) and tan = tan (TM/2). We therefore find the following expressions for the phase changes that occur in internal reflection: tan (TE/2) = (n12 sin2i - n22)1/2 / (n1 cos i) tan (TM/2) = n1(n12 sin2i n22)1/2 / (n22 cos i)
112

Total internal reflection phase shifts

3.5

Phase change (radian)

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0

n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1 TM

TE

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Angle of incidence
113

Evanescent wave
In spite of the fact that the incident energy is totally reflected when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, there is still an electromagnetic wave field in the region beyond the boundary. This field is known as the evanescent wave. Its existence can be understood by consideration of the wave function of the electric field of the transmitted wave: Et = Et exp i (kt r - t) Choose the coordinate axis such that the plane of incidence is on the xz plane and the boundary is at z = 0.
114

exp (-z) exp i((ki sin i) x - t) z wavefronts /(n1sin i) n2 n1 i > c Ei kt r = kt x sin t + kt z cos t = kt x (n1/n2) sin i + kt z (1 (n1/n2)2 sin2 i)1/2 = ki x sin i + i kt z ((n12sin2i/n22) 1)1/2
115

vp = /(ki sini)

x
/n1

Er

total internal reflection

The wave function for the electric field of the evanescent wave is Eevan = Et exp (-z) exp i ((ki sin i) x - t) where = kt ((n12sin2i/n22) 1)1/2

The factor exp (-z) shows that the evanescent wave amplitude drops off very rapidly in the lower-index medium as a function of distance from the boundary. The oscillatory term exp i ((ki sin i) x - t) indicates that the evanescent wave can be described in terms of surfaces of constant phase moving parallel to the boundary with phase velocity /(ki sin i). The evanescent field stores energy and transports it in the direction of surface propagation, but does not transport energy in the transverse direction. Therefore, evanescent wave is also known as surface wave. 116

Evanescent wave amplitude normal to the interface drops exponentially

e-z
1.2 1

0.8

= 600 nm

z n2=1 n1=1.5 i= 42o c

0.6

1/e
0.2

0.4

0 0 100 200 300

i= 60o
400 500

i= 44o
600 700 800 900 1000

Position z (nm)
117

Evanescent coupling between two components in close proximity

the partial transmission depends on the gap separation

gap separation ~ sub-wavelength

ni nt ni i > c Ei

i
evanescent field

Er
118

Photon nature of light

119

Photon nature of light

When considering the function of a device that involves the emission or absorption of light, a purely electromagnetic wave description of light is not adequate. In this situation, the photon nature of light cannot be ignored. The material involved in this process also undergoes quantum mechanical transitions between its energy levels. The energy of a photon is determined by its frequency , or its angular frequency . Associated with the particle nature of a photon, there is a momentum determined by its wavelength , or its wavevector k.

120

Quantum Mechanics: de Broglies wavelength

Wave and particle duality All particles have associated with them a wavelength (confirmed experimentally in 1927 by Thomson and by Davisson and Germer),

(de Broglie wavelength)

h = p

For any particle with rest mass mo, treated relativistically,

E = p c + mo c
2 2 2

2 4
121

Photon de Broglie wavelength

For photons, mo = 0 E = pc also E = h

h h h c = = = = h p E c c

But the relation c = is just what we expect for a harmonic wave (consistent with wave theory)
122

Photon in free space c = Speed

Energy Momentum

h = h = pc
h h p= = = hk c

The energy of a photon that has a wavelength in free space can be calculated as follows,

h =

hc

1.2398

m eV =

1239.8

nm eV

e.g. at an optical wavelength of 1 m, the photon energy is 1.2398 eV.

123

Photon energy

Recall that h = 6.626 10-34 Js For photon energy h=hc/, we often use the energy unit of Electron-volt (eV) = 1.602 10-19 J (electronic charge (e) = 1.602 10-19 C, and C V = J) hc (6.626 10-34 1/1.602 1019 eVs) (3 1017 nm/s) 1240 nmeV The photon energy = 400 nm is 3.1 eV = 700 nm is 1.77 eV = 1550 nm is 0.8 eV

These are in the range of the bandgaps of most semiconductors. Photon energy is an important factor that determines the behavior of an optical wave in a semiconductor photonic device.

124