Introduction to Research

Dr. Ayaz Muhammad Khan

Content
Research Variable Types

of variable Hypothesis Advantages of hypothesis Disadvantages of hypothesis Types of hypothesis

RESARCH
Re

means thoroughly, completely as in refrigrator (Around the questions thoroughly) Search from Latin word CURCUS(Cheche)Around Method of creating knowledge

What is Research

the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.1 Research is not a straight road, but a system of bends, crossroads, and turns. Sometimes you need to retrace your steps or change direction, depending on what you find.

Business
A

persons regular occupation, profession or trade The process of making ones living by engaging in commerce the world of business

Business Education
Business

research is a field of practical study in which a company obtains data and analyzes it in order to better manage the company. Business research can include financial data, consumer feedback, product research and competitive analysis. Executives and managers who use business research methods are able to better understand their company, the position it holds in the market and how to improve that position.

Financial Data
Financial

data takes qualitative information--such as sales reports, revenues and cost reports--to see what areas make money and what costs money. By reviewing data, managers can find the products, staff and departments that are most efficient and determine areas of unnecessary costs.

Consumer Feedback
Understanding what the public says about the products and services a company provides is essential to making sure the company is meeting consumer needs. Customer feedback includes case studies, focus groups, customer surveys and questionnaires.

Product Research
Product

research seeks to improve the product to meet the needs of consumers. This may include technological advancements, improved customer service or access to the product through a variety of distribution channels.

Competitive Analysis
Competitive

analysis is when one company compares its products and services to those of another company. This can be done to improve the product, create a niche or determine a more attractive price point to lure customer

Kerlinger
the

systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about presumed relations among natural phenomena. (1970,p. 8)

Paradigm Paralysis
A paradigm is a model or a pattern. It's a shared set of assumptions that have to do with how we perceive the world. Paradigms are very helpful because they allow us to develop expectations about what will probably occur based on these assumptions. But when data falls outside our paradigm, we find it hard to see and accept. This is called the PARADIGM EFFECT.

Paradigm Paralysis
And when the paradigm effect is so strong that we are prevented from actually seeing what is under our very noses, we are said to be suffering from paradigm paralysis

Paradigm Shift
Paradigms: the Business of Discovering the Future" By Joel Barker In 1962, Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolution a radical change in underlying beliefs or theory

General Characteristics of Research

Empirical Systematic Valid Reliable Research

can take on a variety of forms

Systematic
Research

is systematic and within a broad framework follows steps of the scientific method. How ever across different types of studies there is extensive flexibility in how the steps are implemented

Validity
Capable

of being justified Internal validity is the extent to which the results of the research can be interpreted accurately and with confidence. External validity is the extent to which research results are generalizable to population and/or conditions

Reliability
It

concerns the replicability and consistency of the methods, conditions, and results.

1. Gaining experience is an uncontrolled and haphazard activity, while research is systematic and controlled. 2. Reasoning can operate in an abstract world, divorced from reality, while research is empirical and turns to experience and the world around us for validation.

3 Unlike experience and reason, research aims to be self-correcting. The process of research involves rigorously testing the results obtained, and methods and results are open to public scrutiny and criticism.

Knowledge
Sensation Perception Conception

Concepts
Concepts

corresponds to the characteristics of the things and not the object. We write down the representations we perceive in our head through symbols. They are of two types: 1. Attributes 2. Properties

Variable
Variable

is a concept that corresponds to properties that can take different values

Models
An

overall frame work for looking at reality It tells what reality is about and basic elements it contains (ontology)and what is the nature and status of knowledge (Epistemology). Like behaviorism, feminism

Concept
An

idea deriving from a given model Stimulus response (behaviorism) Concepts offers ways of looking at the world which are essential in defining a research problem.

Theory
A

set of concepts used to define and / or explain some phenomenon. With out theory there is nothing to research. It provides a basis for considering how what is unknown might be organized.

Hypothesis
A

testable proposition. Unlike theories, hypothesis are tested in research. In many qualitative researches there is no specific hypothesis at the outset.

Methodology
A

general approach for studying research topics It refers to the choices we make about cases to study, method of data gathering, forms of data analysis etc. in planning and execution of a study. In social science research methodologies may be defined very broadly (qualitative or quantitative)

Method
A

specific research technique. These include quantitative techniques like statistical correlation as well as qualitative techniques like observation, interviewing, and audio recording.

Categorical Hypothesis
If

I see A, I also see B but it does not mean that A causes B

Sequential hypothesis
If

I see A, B emerges and if do nothing to A, B does not change

Determinant
If

B is influenced, it is only because of A and nothing else

Serendipity
A

thing we find for which we were not looking

Variables
Variables

are the building blocks of hypotheses that are held together by the glue of the relationship we are studying. Bolton and Parker (1992) define a variable as characteristics of persons or things that can take on two or more values (p. 341).

Cont.
A

key element is that variables refer to characteristics that are not fixed but are able to vary, that is, to take on more than one value. For example, the word green would not be a variable but shades of green could be a variable. One inch is not a variable, however, length, which could be operationally defined as the number of inches as measured by a ruler would be a variable.

Example

Sex English proficiency Income Nationality IQ scores

Why variables are important

In quantitative research, they are what the researchers measure

Researchers

in quantitative studies look at

how variables are different in different groups how variables change over time how a change in circumstances can change the variable.

Quantitative vs. Categorical Variables

Quantitative

variable: Exist in some degree along a continuum from less to more, and we can assign numbers to different individuals or objects to indicate how much variables they possess. E.g. Height Weight Interest Length

Categorical Variables
Do

no vary in degree, amount or quantity but are qualitatively different. Eye color Gender Religious preference Occupation

EXAMPLE
Research

in education often study the relationship Two quantitative variables One categorical and one quantitative variables Two or more categorical variable

Two quantitative variables

Age

and amount of interest in school Classroom humanism and student motivation Amount of time and mathematic achievement

One categorical and one quantitative variable

Method

used to teach reading and reading achievement Counseling approach and level of anxiety Student gender and amount of praise given by teacher

Two categorical variable

Ethnicity

and father occupation Gender of teacher and subject taught Religious affiliation and political party membership.

Other variable
2.

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, or Ratio

Nominal: Names, classes, or symbols designating unique characteristics simple classification, no order.

Cont.
Ordinal:

Assignment of numbers of symbols indicates order of relationship. For example if an ordinal scale used the numbers from 1 to 6, one could say that 6 was greater that 3, but one could not say that it was twice the value of 3. Rank order data is an example of ordinal data.

Cont.

Interval: This type of data has the same ordering properties as ordinal data and it also has equal, meaningful intervals and an arbitrary zero point. Therefore in an interval scale, 4.5 would be meaningful. Ratio: This type of data has the same properties as interval data and also has an absolute zero point. In a ratio scale, 6 would be twice as much as 3.

Independent
A

variable that is independent of the outcome being measured. More specifically[it is] what causes or influences the outcome (Marczyk et al., p. 46). Note that categorical variables can also be independent variables. E.g. the number of teachers

Dependent variable:

is a measure of the effect (if any) of the independent variable (Marczyk et al. 2005, p. 44)

The term dependent implies it is influenced by the independent variable (Marczyk, et al, p. 46). Response variable or output. The factor that is observed or measured to determine the effect of the independent variable (Tuckman, 1988). Dependent Variables are also referred to as Outcome Variables

Dependent variable
Note

that the dependent and independent classifications are not as readily applicable to ex post facto studies in which relationships rather than causality are studied. They are similarly not applicable to descriptive studies. Dependent also quantitative variable is the amount of science learning.

Independent vs. dependent variables

Independent variables (Possible cause ) Dependent variable (presumed result)

Affects

Question
Will

students who are taught by a team of three teachers learn more science than student taught by one individual teacher? what are the independent and dependent variables in this question?

Answer
Independent variable

Independent variable
Independent

variable may be either manipulated of selected.

Examples
Independent variable Gender (categorical) Mathematical ability (quantitative) Gang membership (categorical) Test anxiety (quantitative) Dependent variable Musical aptitude (quantitative) Career choice (categorical) Subsequent material status (categorical) Test performance (quantitative)

Moderator variable
It

is secondary independent variable that has been selected for study in order to determine if it is effect the basic relationship between primary independent variable and the dependent variable.

Example
Anxiety

affects test performance, but the correlation is markedly lower for students with test taking experience. = anxiety level = test-taking experience = test performance

Extraneous variable
A

variable which influence or effect the independent and dependent variable are extraneous variable. E.g. Personality of consumer Experience level of people

Hypothesis
The hypothesis states the expected answer to the research question knowing that the investigation results will lead to its being supported or not supported or retention or rejection . A hypothesis is an educated-guess regarding the answer to a research question.

Example:
Research Question: What is the effect of preschool training on the achievement of culturally disadvantaged children in the first grade Hypothesis: Culturally disadvantaged children who have had preschool training achieve at a higher level in first grade than culturally disadvantaged children who have not had preschool training.

Not all studies have hypotheses:

for example if you have little insight into the problem as in survey or descriptive research for example if you want to know the opinions or attitudes of groups qualitative research rarely has a hypothesis in the beginning usually is generated as data accumulates

Hypothesis
A

hypothesis is a statement describing the relationship between two variables. Although it is possible to form a hypothesis from logic or from pure speculation, a good hypothesis is founded on established theories or developed from the results of the previous researches. Specifically a good hypothesis should be the logical conclusion of a logical argument

Consider the following example

Premise

1: Academic success is highly valued and respected by society(at least by parents and society) Premise 2: Being valued and respected by others contribute to high self esteem Conclusion or hypothesis: higher level of academic success are related to higher levels of self esteemed. Facts or research results leads to hypothesis

Testable hypothesis
A

testable hypothesis is one in which all the variables , events and individuals are real and can be defined and observed There is a relationship between intelligence and creativity

A Refutable hypothesis
That

can be demonstrated to be false. That is , the hypothesis allows the possibility that the out come will differ from the prediction. A good research hypothesis must also be refutable. There is no relationship between age and memory ability.

Not testable Not refutable

The

more sins a person commits, the less likely he or she is to get into heaven If people could fly, there would be substantially fewer cases of depression

Deriving a hypothesis:
Hypotheses derived inductively from observations of behavior or deductively from theory or from findings of previous research

Inductive hypothesis
Inductive

hypothesis the researcher observes behavior, notices trends or probable relationships and then hypothesizes an explanation for this observed behavior. Example: Children score higher on final measures of first-grade reading achievement when they are taught in small groups rather than large groups

Deductive hypothesis
to arrive at the logical consequences of the theory example: Piagets classic theory on the development of logical thinking in children suggested stages in mental development for example, concrete operations where kids move from dependence on perception to use more logic using this as a starting point

Cont.
hypothesize

that the proportion of 9-yearolds that will be able to correctly respond to the liquid conservation task will be greater than the proportion of 5-year- olds

Advantages of hypothesis
Force

us to think deeply about the possible outcome of the study. Involve philosophy of science. Help us to see if we are, or are not, investigating a relationship. If not, we may be promoted to formulate one.

Disadvantages of hypothesis
May

lead to biasness. It may be unnecessary or inappropriate in survey and ethnographic studies. Focusing attention on hypothesis may prevent from noticing other phenomena that might be important to the study.

Types of hypothesis
(a) directional there is a positive relation between self-esteem and reading achievement or (b) non directional there is a relationship between self-esteem and reading achievement

Null hypothesis
The

null hypothesis is often noted as H0 (H-sub-zero). What does "null" mean? Often researchers test what is called the nil null hypothesis. It means "nothing," "zero." In research terms, it means "no effect," "no difference," "no relationship." If, at the end of our study, we conclude that the null hypothesis has the best chance of being true, we mean that "nothing happened.

Cont.
Null

hypotheses are stated when there is little existing research or theoretical support for a hypothesis.

Alternative hypothesis
The

alternative hypothesis is usually noted as Ha (H-sub-a) or H1 (H-sub-one). If there's more than one alternative hypothesis The alternative hypothesis asserts that "something happened" (there is a difference or that there is a relationship). The alternative hypothesis is the one you'd like to accept as being true, since it would suggest that your program worked. One does not directly test the alternative hypothesis; one either rejects or fails to reject the null hypothesis.