Insulation Audit and the Economic Thickness of Insulation

Course No: T04-005 Credit: 4 PDH

A. Bhatia

Continuing Education and Development, Inc. 9 Greyridge Farm Court Stony Point, NY 10980 P: (877) 322-5800 F: (877) 322-4774 [email protected]

Insulation Audit and the Economic Thickness of Insulation Overview One of the primary purposes of insulation is to conserve energy and increase plant profitability by reducing operating expenses. In existing plants, the planned and conscientious maintenance of insulated steam, chilled water, and other process distribution pipelines is required to minimize financial and thermal losses. This seems like a statement of the obvious, and it is. However, the maintenance and upgrade of thermal insulation is generally regarded as a low priority, or on a "do it later" basis. What eventually transpires is that pipeline insulation maintenance issues tend to accumulate until major repairs are required, and more importantly, extensive financial losses have been incurred. Part -1 of the course titled Process Plant Insulation & Fuel Efficiency focused on the type, properties, application, and installation guidelines of insulation material and finishes. A brief recap of these topics follows: Insulation is used to perform one or more of the following functions: Reduce heat loss or heat gain to achieve energy conservation. Protect the environment through the reduction of CO2, NOx,, and greenhouse gases. Control surface temperatures for personnel and equipment protection. Control the temperature of commercial and industrial processes. Prevent or reduce condensation on surfaces. Increase operating efficiency of heating/ventilation/cooling, plumbing, steam, process, and power systems. Prevent or reduce damage to equipment from exposure to fire or corrosive atmospheres. Reduce noise from mechanical systems. Other than the application of insulation, the selection aspects of the insulation material are also very important. The following design and installation considerations must be noted: Type of insulation rigid, flexible, ease of handling, installation, and adjustment. Ease to modify, repair, and alter. Requirement of skilled and unskilled labor. Safety & environment considerations. Weight and density of insulation material.

Ease of removal and replacement. Type of vapor retarder and insulation finishes. Thermal performance. This part of the course focuses on the assessment of thermal heat losses and includes examples of savings that can be realized using the systematic approach of the insulation audit, economics, and the acceptable thickness of insulation. In heat transfer we study energy in motion through a mass by conduction, from a solid to a moving liquid by convection, or from one body to another through space by radiation. Heat transfer always takes place from a warmer environment to a colder one. Heat transfer for conduction and for convection is directly proportional to the driving temperature differential (T1 T2). Heat transfer by radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature difference (T14 T24). Small changes in temperature can create relatively large changes in radiation heat transfer. Quantitative heat transfer is proportional to the heat transfer surface area. Identifying the rate of thermal energy (heat) loss from an inadequate or uninsulated surface is the starting point for understanding the incentive for installing thermal insulation. Lets look at some basic thermodynamic equations that govern the heat transfer principles. Heat Gain / Loss from Flat Surfaces The heat loss (in Btu/hr) under a steady-state energy balance through a homogeneous material is based on the Fourier equation, Q = k * A * dt/dx. In practice the equation is modified to include film resistance at its surfaces. Q = A x U x (T1 - T2)

For a flat surface covered with insulation,

= A x (T1 - T2) / (L/k) Q T1 T2 Ta U = heat transfer from the outer surface of insulation in Btu/hr = the hot face temperature, F = the cold face temperature, F = the surrounding air temperature, F = Overall coefficient of heat transfer per degree of temperature difference

between the two fluids which are separated by the barrier

L k
L

= thickness of insulation = thermal conductivity of insulation, Btu/h ft F

For a unit area, the heat transfer in Btu/ft hr is

( T 2
(T 1 L k

T )f a
T ) a + 1 f

The surface temperature may be calculated from the equation:

a
2

Where f is the surface coefficient, Btu in/ft hr F The lower the thermal conductivity or the k value, the higher the R value, or greater the insulating power. The thermal conductivity of insulation changes as the difference in temperature between the hot surface and the ambient temperature changes. The thermal conductivity value of a material is taken at the mean temperature (T1 + T2)/2 F and it varies with mean temperature, material density, and with moisture absorption. Heat Gain / Loss from Cylindrical Surfaces like Pipes Unlike flat surfaces, the inner and outer surface areas for pipes are different and therefore the heat transfer equation is different. The pipe wall surface will gain heat directly by conduction from the fluid flowing through it. The heat is then dissipated to the atmosphere, or it flows at a restricted rate through the insulation if the pipe is insulated. The exact rate of heat loss is very complicated to calculate on a theoretical basis alone, since it is affected by: Color, texture, and shape of the casing. Vertical or horizontal orientation of the casing. Air movement or wind speed over the casing.

Exposure to thermal radiation, e.g. sunlight - all of these in addition to the temperature parameters, etc.

Because of the number of complicating factors, generalizations must be utilized. The theoretical methods for calculating heat transfer for pipe or any other cylindrical objects like tanks, is based upon the equivalent thickness of insulation and the area of outer surface of insulation. The most basic model for insulation on a pipe is shown below.

R3

R2 hi R 1

ho

R1 and R2 are the inside and outside radius of the pipe. R2 and R3 are the inside and outside radius of the insulation. The equivalent length of insulation is given by the equation:
Equivalent length = R 3 log e ( R3 / R 2 )

Considering the other factors viz. the pipe thickness, the overall thermal conductivity (U) value is defined by,
1 U = R R 3 3 log e (R2 / R 1) + R1 h i k pipe + R3 log e (R3 / R2) + k insulation 1 h o

Where, hi is the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe (air /liquid film conductance inside) in Btu/ft hr F; ho is the air film conductance on the outer surface in Btu/ft hr F; k pipe is the thermal conductivity of the pipe material; k insulation is the thermal conductivity of the insulation.
2 2

The heat loss is defined by equation:

Or the heat loss per unit of area is given by:

T Q =

inside pipe

T ambient R 3 loge (R3 / R2 ) + k insulation 1 h o

R R 3 3 loge (R2 / R1 ) + R1 h i k pipe

Typically when dealing with insulation, engineers are concerned with linear heat loss or heat loss per unit length.
2 Q L = R3 R 3 loge (R2 / R1) + R1 h i k pipe + R3 loge (R3 / R2 ) k insulation 1 + h o R3

inside pipe

T ambient

The surface temperature may be computed from the equation:

(f

Q x

R2 R3

)+

ambient

f is the surface coefficient, Btu in/ft hr F For simplicity, the temperature difference is shown as (T inside pipe T ambient). In actual practice, the log mean temperature difference is taken. The heat transfer isdefined by,
Q = 2 R3 L U TLM

Where
(T T LM = 2 LN T amb T ) (T 1 - T amb )

( T2 1

- T amb - T amb

Depending on the complexity of the system, it may be necessary to make more than one calculation to arrive at mean temperatures and the losses in different parts of the system. F (40 W/m K). This coefficient will The heat transfer coefficient of ambient air is 7.0 Btu/h ft increase with wind velocity if the pipe is outside. A good estimate for an outdoor air coefficient in warm climates with wind speeds less than 15 mph is around 8.8 Btu/h ft F (50 W/m K). Since heat loss through insulation is a conductive heat transfer, there are instances when adding insulation actually increases heat loss. The thickness at which insulation begins to decrease heat loss is described as the critical thickness. This is discussed further in a subsequent section.
2 2 2 2

Insulation Audit A thermal insulation audit is a service oriented toward bringing existing shortcomings and unrealized opportunities of saving energy through insulation to the attention of energy managers and engineers, on whom lies the onus of achieving higher and still higher plant energy efficiency. Concept Until a few years ago, insulation was never designed. Insulation was applied only to reduce surface temperature. Even when designed on a scientific basis in a few progressive plants, the design was based on the then fuel costs. Existing insulation systems in almost every plant are therefore obsolete and ineffective. The pressing need is to asses the existing insulation systems, identify the critical energy loss areas and upgrade the insulation systems of such areas on a priority basis. It is essential to know precisely the heat loss/gain from hot pipelines and equipments in operation. Annual heat losses in terms of money are then determined. A new insulation system, with upgraded insulation materials, is then designed separately for plant piping and each piece of equipment. An economic analysis is then carried out to study the economic viability of this technically superior proposal. The installed cost of the proposed insulation system and the payback period of this investment are calculated. Also, the anticipated reduction in plant fuel consumption due to the savings in heat loss is estimated. Instrumentation The instrumentation required to make the necessary measurements are: 1. Electronic temperature indicator; 2. Surface contact and point contact type thermocouple probes compatible to the temperature indicator; 3. Pyrometer or non-contact type infrared thermometer for extremely hot and remote surfaces; 4. Whirling hygrometer for relative humidity (RH) measurement or an ordinary dry bulb (DB) and wet bulb (WB) thermometers to serve this purpose; 5. Anemometer for wind speed measurement with a range of zero to 15m/s. Methodology The following operational parameters and office data are collected from plant authorities: 1. Type of fuel used (coal, fuel oil, natural gas, LNG etc); 2. Landed cost of fuel, calorific value, and boiler efficiency for arriving at the unit heat cost;

3. Number of plant operating hours per year; 4. Individual operating temperatures of pipelines and equipment: 5. Pipe nominal bores, outer diameters, and pipe lengths; 6. Equipment dimensions; 7. Existing insulation thickness. Obtain the insulation design basis and data 1. Ambient temperature; 2. Maximum permissible surface temperature; 3. Wind speed; 4. Emissivity of insulation system surface; 5. These data are determined in consultation with plant authorities and available meteorological data. 6. Design of upgraded insulation system. Measurements The following parameters are measured and recorded at the site: 1. Insulation system surface temperature measured at regular intervals over the entire pipeline/equipment, circumferentially and longitudinally, and by physical contact between the thermocouple sensor and the insulation system surface. 2. Ambient temperature measured at a1 meter distance from the insulation system surface. This temperature is measured separately against each reading of the insulation system surface temperature. The ambient temperature is measured by holding and swaying the thermocouple probe in the air. 3. Wind speed is measured once in a particular location near the insulated system by an anemometer. 4. Observed emissivity of insulation system surface. Emissivity is read from standard tables for the material, state of polish, or color of paint of the final finish of the insulating system. 5. For a cold system only, relative humidity measured near the insulated system by a hygrometer. Care should be taken to insure that:

1. Both the wind speed and the relative humidity of only the immediate atmosphere enveloping the insulated systems are measured. 2. Radiation from a hot surface like unlagged valves, flanges, and such, do not lead to errors in insulation system surface temperature and ambient air temperature measurements. 3. Insulation system surface temperature is measured with the surface contact type thermocouple probe. Apart from the above measurements, the following parameters are inspected and recorded: 1. Location and dimensions of unlagged areas of piping/equipment; 2. Condition of the final finish, whether it be Aluminum, GI cladding, plaster etc., the state of polish (bright, dull, coated with dust/dirt deposit etc) of cladding, or the color of paint, insulation and/or cladding damage or rupture its extent and location. At least six readings of surface temperature and ambient temperature are taken at a particular location. Surface temperature readings should be normalized or modified to be compatible to the design ambient temperature, so that a comparison between the existing insulation system and the new upgraded insulation system to be designed and proposed, may be made based on the same datum. Analysis The data collected during the plant audit are than analyzed systematically and calculations are performed on the present value to arrive at the quantity of energy losses both in thermal and dollar values. Usually a software program is used to estimate the heat losses. Computations Once the data is collected, the heat loss can be computed for the uninsulated surface and from the surface with the proposed insulation. Energy savings can be calculated as follows: E savings = Q uninsulated Q insulated-----------------------------------------------------------1 Heat Loss from the Un-insulated Surfaces Hot surfaces lose heat to the surroundings via convection and radiation. The equation for heat loss, Q, to the surroundings at ambient temperature Ta, from a hot surface at Ts, with area A is: Q Total = Q Convection + Q Radiation Q uninsulated = h x A x (Ts Ta) + y x A x E x (Ts Ta ) --------------------------2
4 4

Where, Q uninsulated is a total heat loss in Btus/ft

Ta is the ambient temperature in degrees absolute ( F + 460) Ts is hot surface temperature in degrees absolute ( F + 460) A is the area (ft ) h is the convection coefficient (Btu/ft hr F) y is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (0.1714 x 10 Btu/ft -hr- R )
-8 2 4 2 2

E is the emissivity factor that depends on color and texture of the surface. It varies from about 0.1 for aluminum to 0.9 for dark surfaces. F. For hot For warm surfaces, the value of the convection coefficient h is about 1.5 Btu/ft -hr- surfaces, the value of the convection coefficient should be calculated as a function of the orientation of the surface and the temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding air. First verify if the flow is laminar or turbulent. Flow is Laminar if: D T < 63 Turbulent if: D T > 63 An empirical relation of convection coefficient (h) is then calculated as follows: Horizontal Surfaces Loosing Heat Upwards: h Lam = 0.27 x (T/L)
0.25 3 3 2

; h Tu r = 0.22 x (T)

0.33

--------3

Tilted / Vertical Surfaces: h Lam = 0.29 x (T x (Sin B)/L)

; h Tu r = 0.19 x (T x (Sin B)/L)

0.33

-------4

Horizontal Pipes and Cylinders: h Lam = 0.27 x (T/D)

; h Tu r = 0.18 x (T)

0.33

---------------------------5

Using these relations for the convection coefficient, Equation 2 can be solved for Q uninsulated to estimate the current heat loss. In all relations, 1. L is the characteristic length (ft), 2. T is the temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding air (F), 3. D is the characteristic diameter (ft), 4. B is the tilt angle of the surface from the horizontal, and

5. h is the convection coefficient (Btu/ft hr F). Dimensional approximations for convection coefficients are listed in ASHRAE Fundamentals, 1989. Once h is calculated as shown above, the heat loss equation can be solved for Quninsulated. Heat loss from the Insulated surfaces Heat loss estimation from the insulated surfaces is a little tricky. When calculating the heat loss or gain from an uninsulated surface, one has to equate Q Total to the sum of Q Convection + Q Radiation (Refer to equation 2). When insulation is considered over a bare surface, the heat loss/gain equation is modified as: Q insulated = h x A x (Tos Ta) + y x A x E x (Tos Ta ) --------------------------------------------------6 Unfortunately the value of outside surface temperature Ts is not known and therefore the equation has two unknown variables, namely h and Ts. To solve this equation, another equation is written for a steady-state energy balance for the surface of the insulation. The heat lost through the insulation must balance with the heat lost (or gained) via the surrounding air. Q insulated = A * (Tis Tos)/ R = A * (Tos Ta)* f = A * (Tis Ta) / (R + 1/f) -------------------------------7 Where, A is the area (ft2). Tis is the hot face or inner surface temperature ( F) of the insulation. The hot face temperature of insulation is equivalent to the uninsulated surface temperature Ts used in equation 2 above. Tos is the cold face or outer surface temperature ( F) of the insulation. Ta is the ambient temperature (F). h is the convection coefficient (Btu/ft hr F). y R ). is the Stefan-Boltzman constant (0.1714 x 10 Btu/ft -hr-
-8 2 4 2 4 4

E is the emissivity factor that depends on the color and texture of the surface. It varies from about 0.1 for aluminum to 0.9 for dark surfaces.

R is the resistance of the insulation (R = L/k), where L is the thickness of insulation in inches and k is the thermal conductivity of insulation in Btu/h ft F.

For cylindrical surfaces such as pipes, R = ln (Ro/ Ri) / 2 k, where

Ri = internal radius of insulation = diameter of pipe (ft) and Ro = outer radius of insulation = diameter of pipe (ft) + insulation thickness (ft)

f is the surface coefficient (Btu in/ft hr F).Generally the heat transfer coefficient of F (40 W/m K). This coefficient willl increase with wind velocity ambient air is 7.0 Btu/h ft if the pipe is outside. A good estimate for an outdoor air coefficient in warm climates with wind speeds less than 15 mph is around 8.8 Btu/h ft F (50 W/m K).
2 2 2 2

Equating equations 6 & 7; h x A x (Tos Ta) + y x A x E x (Tos Ta ) = A * (Tis Tos) / R OR h x A x (Tos Ta) + y x A x E x (Tos Ta ) - A * (Tis Tos) / R = 0-----------------8 One of the easiest ways to solve this system of nonlinear equations is successive substitution. In the successive-substitution method the following methodology is adopted: Step #1: An initial value for Tis (hot face temperature) is used to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Step #2: Than depending on the flow and the type of surface, one of the applicable equations 3, 4, or 5 is chosen, and the value of h is substituted into equation 8 to determine a new value of Tos. Step#3: The final values of Tos and h can then be substituted into Equation 6 to find Qinsulated. (Refer to illustrations 1 and 2 as practical examples) Obviously the estimation of heat losses at varying operating temperatures involves large scale, laborious, and repetitive calculations that increase depending on the number of pipelines, equipments, vessels, tanks, furnaces, boilers, etc., surveyed in a plant. Such large scale calculations could utilize standard pre-calculated tables, charts, and insulation software programs available with from manufacturers, as well as various handbooks. The surface temperature of the insulation is a good indicator of insulation effectiveness and the following norm may be adopted to evaluate the effectiveness of improving insulation levels. As a rule of thumb, for a quick check of the performance of insulation, the T or temperature difference between the surface temperature of insulation and ambient air, should be less than the values indicated in the table below:
4 4 4 4

FOR Operating Temperature <= 200C (392F) Operating Temperature >200 C (392 F) and <= 400C (752F) Operating Temperature >400 C (752 F) and <= 600 C (1112F) Operating Temperature >600 C (1112F)

T (T surface T ambient) 7C (12.6 F) 10 C (18F)

15 C (27F)

20-25C (36 -45F)

These values insure that apart from a tolerable insulation system surface temperature, the heat losses are within limits, payback of investment on insulation is excellent, and workspace temperature around insulated system is comfortable. Economics The economic benefits of insulation vary according to the application and the method of financial appraisal. One of the simplest methods of financial appraisal is the Pay back analysis, where costs are compared with savings and the result is expressed in terms of a pay back period. A process plant will almost certainly be insulated to give a payback of less than two years. The payback period actually increases with insulation thickness with incremental thickness having an increased time of payback. The final increment should pay for itself well within the life of the plant, or that of the insulation, whichever is deemed to be the shorter. The simple payback period is calculated as follows: 1. IC = Installed cost including cost of insulation material, freight, taxes, ancillary and supporting materials, cladding, labor, etc. of the insulation system; 2. SHC = Savings in cost of heat lost per annum; 3. PB = Payback period of investment of the new upgraded insulation system; 4. PB = IC * 12/SHC months. Illustration # 1 Energy audit data on a 3 inch hot water pipe distributing to various process equipment indicates an average surface temperature of 180 F. The avera ge temperature of the air is 78 F. The pipe length is 250 feet. Calculate the present heat losses and the savings possible if the pipe is insulated with 2 inch thick fiberglass insulation having conductivity (k-value) of 0.30 Btu-in/hr ft
2

F. What will be the simple payback if the total cost of providing the insulation is $2,000? Assume

the hot water generation is through a gas fired boiler operating at 60% efficiency, using natural gas at $4 per mcf.

Solution Step # 1 (Check for laminar or turbulent convection flow is) Dimensional approximations for convection coefficients are checked in accordance with ASHRAE Fundamentals, 1989. Flow is Laminar if Flow is Turbulent if Substituting the values : D T = (3/12) * (180 78) = 1.6 which is < 63 Therefore the flow is Laminar. Step # 2 (Find the convection coefficient) For laminar flow, the convection coefficient, using dimensional units of feet and F is about: The convection coefficient for laminar flow from a pipe; h Lam = 0.27 x (T/D) 0.25 Or h Lam = 0.27 x (180 - 78)
0.25 3 3

D T < 63 D3 T > 63

/ (3/12)

0.25

= 1.21Btu/ft F hr

Step # 3 (Find the heat loss for the uninsulated surface) Assuming emissivity E = 0.90, the heat loss from the pipe is given by equation: Q uninsulated = h x A x (Ts Ta) + y x A x E x (Ts Ta ) Area A per unit length = * D = 3.14 * (3/12) = 0.785 ft
2 4 4

Q uninsulated = 1.21 * 0.785 * (180 78) + (0.1714 x 10-8) * 0.785 * 0.9 * ((180 + 460)4 (78 +460)4) Q uninsulated = 199 Btu/hr per ft length of pipe Total heat loss for the 250 foot length of uninsulated pipe Q uninsulated = 49,750 Btu/hr Step # 4 (Find the resistance value of insulation) Conductivity of the insulation; k = 0.30 Btu in / hr ft F = 0.025 Btu/hr ft F. The thermal resistance of two inches of insulation would be about: R insulation = ln (Ro/ Ri) / 2 k, where Ri = internal radius of insulation = diameter of pipe = 0 .125 ft and Ro = outer radius of insulation = diameter of pipe + insulation thickness (ft) = 0.29 ft Therefore R insulation = ln (0.29 / 0.125) / 2 * 3.14 * 0.025 = 5.4 hr F ft / Btu
2

Step # 5 (Find the heat loss from an insulated surface) Assuming steady state conditions, the heat loss through the insulation would equal the heat loss from the insulation surface by convection and radiation. h x A x (Tos Ta) + y x A x E x (Tos Ta ) = A * (Tis Tos) / R The above equation can be rearranged and solved for the temperature of the outer surface of the insulation Tos: 0 = h * ( * D) * (Tos Ta) + y * ( * D) * E * (Tos Ta ) - (Tis Tos) / R insulation 0 = {0.27 x (Tos - 78) 0.25 / (3/12)0.25} * ( * D) * (Tos Ta) + y * ( * D) * E * (Tos 4 Ta 4) - (Tis Tos) / R insulation Where ( * D) is 3.14 * 3/12 = 0.785 0 = 0.27 * (Tos 78) Tos) / 5.4 Or Tos = ~90 F The heat loss through per feet length of the distribution piping would be about: Q = (Tis Tos) / Rinsulation = (180 90) / 5.4 = 16.7 Btu / hr /ft Total heat loss for 250 length of pipe Q Total insulated = 4175 Btu/hr Step # 6 (Estimate Savings) Assuming the efficiency of the boiler is 60% and 8,760 hours of operation per year, the energy savings (natural gas) would be about: E savings = (Q uninsulated Q insulated) / boiler = (49750 4175)/ 0.6 X 8760 = 665.39 x 106 Btus / yr Heat value of natural gas = 1 m Btus per mcf Savings in Natural Gas = ~666mcf per annum Step # 7 (Estimate Simple Payback /Return on Investment) Cost of providing the insulation Savings in Natural Gas @ 4 per mcf` Simple Payback Period = $ 2000 = $ 2664 per annum = $ 2000 * 12 / $ 2664 per year = ~ 9 months
0.25 4 4 4 4

* 0.785 + (0.1714 x 10 ) * 0.785 * 0.9 * ((Tos + 460) (78 + 460) ) - (180

-8

Illustration # 2 Energy audit data on a hot water condensate tank indicates an average surface temperature of 170 F and an average temperature of the air and th e surrounding walls is 78 F. The tank dimensions are 2.5 feet in diameter and 6 feet in length. Calculate the heat losses and the savings possible if the tank is insulated with 2 inch thick fiberglass insulation having conductivity (k-value) of 0.30 Btu-in/hr ft2 F. Solution Step # 1 (Check for laminar or turbulent convection flow) Dimensional approximations for convection coefficients are checked in accordance with ASHRAE Fundamentals, 1989. Flow is Laminar if Flow is Turbulent if Substituting the values : D3 T = (2.5)3 * (170 78) = 1437.5 which is > 63 Therefore the flow is turbulent. Step # 2 (Find the convection coefficient) The convection coefficient for turbulent flow from a horizontal cylinder; h tur = 0.18 x (T) Or h tur = 0.18 x (170 - 78)
0.33 0.33

D T < 63 D T > 63
3

= 0.81 Btu/ft F hr

Step # 3 (Find the heat loss for the uninsulated surface) Assuming emissivity E = 0.90, the tank heat loss from the tank is given by equation: Q uninsulated = h x A x (Ts Ta) + y x A x E x (Ts Ta )
4 4

2 =6* D A = L D + 2

3.14

* 2.5 +

3.14

*(2.5) 2 = 56.9 ft 2
-8 4 4

Q uninsulated = 0.81 * 56.9 * (170 78) + (0.1714 x 10 ) * 56.9 * 0.9 * ((170 + 460) (78 +460) ) Q uninsulated = 10714 Btu/hr Step # 4 (Find the resistance value of the insulation) Conductivity of the insulation; k = 0.30 Btu in / hr ft F = 0.025 Btu/hr ft F. The thermal resistance of two inches of insulation in the radial direction would be about: R insulation = ln (Ro/ Ri) / 2 k, where
2

Ri = internal radius of insulation = diameter of tank = 1.25 ft and Ro = outer radius of insulation = diameter of tank + insulation thickness (ft) = 1.42 ft Therefore R insulation = ln (1.42 / 1.25) / 2 * 3.14 * 0.025 = 0.81 hr F ft / Btu Step # 5 (Find the heat loss from an insulated surface) Assuming steady state conditions, the heat loss through the insulation would equal the heat loss from the insulation surface by convection and radiation. h x A x (Tos Ta) + y x A x E x (Tos Ta ) = A * (Tis Tos) / R Or Q/L = h * ( * D) * (Tos Ta) + y * ( * D) * E * (Tos Ta ) = (Tis Tos) / R insulation The above equation can be rearranged and solved for the temperature of the outer surface of the insulation Tos: 0 = h * ( * D) * (Tos Ta) + y * ( * D) * E * (Tos Ta ) - (Tis Tos) / R insulation h tur = 0.18 x (T)
0.33 4 4 4 4 4 4

= 0.18 x (Tos Ta)

0.33

0 = 0.18 x (Tos Ta) 0.33 * ( * D) * (Tos Ta) + y * ( * D) * E * (Tos 4 Ta 4) - (Tis Tos) / Rinsulation Where ( * D) is 3.14 * 2.5 = 7.85 = 0.18 * (Tos 78) Tos) / 0.81 Or Tos = 88 F The heat loss through the cylindrical walls of an insulated tank would be approximately: Q = L * (Tis Tos) / R insulation = 6 * (170 88) / 0.81 = 607 Btu / hr The heat loss through the two flat ends would be approximately: Q = A * (Tos Ta) / (R + 1/f) = 2 * 3.14 * (2.5)2 / 4 * (88 78) / (2 / 0.3 + 1/1.1) = 13 Btu / hr The total heat loss = Heat loss from walls + Heat loss from 2 ends = 607 + 13 =620 Btu / hr Step # 6 (Estimate Savings) Assuming the efficiency of the boiler is 60% and 8,760 hours operation per year, the energy savings (natural gas) would be about: E savings = (Q uninsulated Q insulated) / boiler = (10714 620)/ 0.6 X 8760 = 147.4 x 10 Btus / yr Heat value of natural gas = 1 m Btus per mcf Savings in Natural Gas = 147.4 mcf per annum
6 1/3

* 7.85 + (0.1714 x 10 ) * 7.85 * 0.9 * ((Tos + 460) (78 + 460) ) - (170

-8

Illustration # 3 Standard Reference Tables of Heat Losses in Steam Distribution Piping Consider for example the following set of conditions for steam distribution piping downstream of a boiler: 1. Pipe steel emmitance - 0.8 2. Wind Speed- 0 mph 3. Ambient Temperature- 75 F 4. 8,760 Hours/Year operation 5. Conversion Efficiency- 75% 6. #6 grade Fuel Oil, 7. Heat Content per Gallon- 138,700 BTU's, 8. Cost per gallon- $0.60 The effect of uninsulated piping versus insulated piping, operating under the same set of conditions is illustrated below in Table 1 and Table 2: Table -1 Uninsulated Steam Line Losses Steam Pipe Diameter Pipe Diameter 4 Inches Pipe Diameter 6 Inches Pipe Diameter 8 Inches Pipe Diameter 10 Inches

Pressure 2 Inches (PSI) 100 452.5 Btu/ft/hr 3,964,000 Btu/ft/yr $22.68 Loss/ft/yr. 150 533.2 Btu/ft/hr. 4,671,000 Btu/ft/yr $26.94 Loss/ft/yr 200 602.6 Btu/ft/hr. 5,279,000 Btu/ft/yr $30.45 Loss/ft/yr 250 660.6 Btu/ft/hr. 5,787,000 Btu/ft/yr

794.7 Btu/ft/hr

1131 Btu/ft/hr

1434 Btu/ft/hr
7

1751 Btu/ft/hr
7

6,959,000 Btu/ft/yr 9,908,000 Btu/ft/yr 1.256 x10 Btu/ft/yr 1.534 x10 Btu/ft/yr $40.14 Loss/ft/yr 938.1 Btu/ft/hr. $57.15 Loss/ft/yr 1337 Btu/ft/hr.
7

$72.44 Loss/ft/yr. 1697 Btu/ft/hr.

$88.46 Loss/ft/yr 2073 Btu/ft/hr.

8,218,000 Btu/ft/yr 1.171 x10 Btu/ft/yr 1.486 x10 Btu/ft/yr 1.816 x10 Btu/ft/yr $47.40 Loss/ft/yr 1062 Btu/ft/hr. $67.56 Loss/ft/yr 1515 Btu/ft/hr.
7

$85.72 Loss/ft/yr 1923 Btu/ft/hr.

$104.70 Loss/ft/yr 2351 Btu/ft/hr.

9,302,000 Btu/ft/yr 1.327 x10 Btu/ft/yr 1.685 x10 Btu/ft/yr 2.060 x10 Btu/ft/yr $53.65 Loss/ft/yr 1166 Btu/ft/hr.
7

$75.56 Loss/ft/yr 1665 Btu/ft/hr.

$97.18 Loss/ft/yr 2114 Btu/ft/hr

$118.80 Loss/ft/yr 2585 Btu/ft/hr.

1.021 x10 Btu/ft/yr 1.458 x10 Btu/ft/yr 1.852 x10 Btu/ft/yr 2.265 x10 Btu/ft/yr

Steam

Pipe Diameter

Pipe Diameter 4 Inches

Pipe Diameter 6 Inches

Pipe Diameter 8 Inches

Pipe Diameter 10 Inches

Pressure 2 Inches (PSI) $33.38 Loss/ft/yr

$58.90 Loss/ft/yr

$84.11 Loss/ft/yr

$106.80 Loss/ft/yr $130.60 Loss/ft/yr

The table below provides loss data for the same parameters as above with the difference that the pipelines are insulated and aluminum jacketed for external protection. The insulation material considered is Perlite pipe block conforming to ASTM C610-99, and the aluminum cladding is considered to be 0.1 emissive. The insulation thickness considered is sufficient to limit the surface temperature to 120 F or less. Table - 2 Insulated Steam Line Savings Steam Pressure (PSI) Pipe Diameter 2 Inches 2.5 inches 100 insulation 477,700 Btu/ft/Yr $20.10 ft/yr saving 2.5 inches 150 insulation 544,100 Btu/ft/yr $23.80 ft/yr saving 3.0 Inches 200 Insulation 552,300 Btu/ft/yr $27.26 ft/yr saving Pipe Diameter 4 Inches Pipe Diameter 6 Inches 3.0 Inches Insulation 835,800 Btu/ft/yr $52.33 ft/yr saving 3.5 Inches Insulation 852,400 Btu/ft/yr $62.64 ft/yr saving 4.0 Inches Insulation 870,900 Btu/ft/yr $71.54 ft/yr saving Pipe Diameter 8 Inches Pipe Diameter 10 Inches 3.5 Inches Insulation 1,064,000 Btu/ft/yr $82.32 ft/yr saving 4.0 Inches Insulation 1,115,000 Btu/ft/yr $98.27 ft/yr saving 4.5 Inches 4.0 Inches Insulation Insulation 1,038,000 Btu/ft/yr $91.19 ft/yr saving 1,138,000 Btu/ft/yr $112.20 ft/yr saving 5.0 Inches 4.5 Inches Insulation Insulation 1,039,000 Btu/ft/yr 1,145,000 Btu/ft/yr
o

3.0 Inches Insulation 634,600 Btu/ft/yr $36.48 ft/yr saving

3.0 Inches Insulation 981,100 Btu/ft/yr $66.78 ft/yr saving

3.0 Inches Insulation 722,700 Btu/ft/yr $43.23 ft/yr saving

3.5 Inches Insulation 1,021,000 Btu/ft/yr $79.83 ft/yr saving

3.5 Inches Insulation 734,500 Btu/ft/yr $49.41 ft/yr saving

3.0 Inches 250 Insulation 593,000 Btu/ft/yr $29.96 ft/yr saving

3.5 Inches Insulation 788,600 Btu/ft/yr $54.35 ft/yr saving

4.0 Inches Insulation 935,000 Btu/ft/yr $78.72 ft/yr saving

$100.80 ft/yr saving $124.00 ft/yr saving

Using tables 1 and 2, the reader should note that one foot of uninsulated 10 inch steam line operating at 250 PSI would consume approximately 217 gallons of fuel. The data and calculations are as follows: Uninsulated 10 inch steam line at 250 PSI, Refer to table # 1 1. Heat loss = 2.265 x10 Btu/ft/yr 2. Heat content of fuel per gallon = 138,700 BTU's 3. Conversion Efficiency- 75% 4. Fuel consumption = Heat loss/ (Heat content of fuel * Conversion efficiency) 5. Or fuel consumption = 2.265 x10 / (138,700 * 0.75) = 217 gallons 6. Cost of fuel = $ 0.6 per gallon 7. Total cost of fuel = 217 * 0.6 = $130.6 With 5 inches of Perlite Insulation applied to the 10 inch pipeline operating at 250 PSI, Refer to table# 2, 1. Heat loss = 1,145,000 Btu/ft/yr 2. Heat content of fuel per gallon = 138,700 BTU's, 3. Conversion Efficiency- 75% 4. Fuel consumption = Heat loss/ (Heat content of fuel * Conversion efficiency) 5. Or fuel consumption = 1,145,000 / (138,700 * 0.75) = 11 gallons 6. Cost of fuel = $ 0.6 per gallon 7. Total cost of fuel = 11 * 0.6 = $6.6 8. Potential savings $130.6 - $ 6.6 = $ 124 per ft per year Similarly the savings can be computed for un-lagged valves and fittings. The heat losses from uninsulated gate valves are tabulated below: Table - 3 Heat Energy Losses from Un-insulated Gate Valves in Btu/hr Operating Temp. ( F) 200 300
o 7 7

3"Valve 1,690 3,630

4" Valve 2,020 4,340

6" Valve 3,020 6,500

8" Valve 4,030 8,670

10" Valve 4,790 10,300

12" Valve 6,050 13,010

400 500 600

6,260 9700 14,150

7,470 11,680 16,900

11,210 17,575 25,340

14,940 23,170 33,790

17,750 27,510 40,130

22,420 34,750 50,690

Consider a 6 inch gate valve located in a 400 F pipe line. Considering yearly total hours of plant operation on 8760 hours basis (24/7/365 continuous operation), the heat loss amounts to (8,760 x 11,210)/0.75 = 130.9 MM/Btu Year We can now estimate the savings achievable by insulating this valve with a Perlite block valve cover from the table 2. Considering the fuel oil cost of $0.6 USD per gallon, the calorific value of the fuel as 138,700 Btu/Gallon, and the conversion factor is 75%. Then the cost per MM/Btu will be: Cost of fuel per MM Btu = (10 /138,700) x 0.6 = $4.32 USD per MM/Btu Yearly financial losses due to the un-insulated 6 inch gate valve on the 250 psi steam line = 130.9 x 4.32 = $565.49 USD per Year Note that the financial loss incurred is for a single valve only. The total losses incurred will be much higher on numerous valves in the facility. As a rule of thumb, the heat loss from an uninsulated flange would have the heat loss of approximately 0.5 m of same size uninsulated pipe and an un-insulated valve could have more than twice this.
6

Factors that affect Heat Loss/Gain Quantitative heat transfer is proportional to the heat transfer surface area, the temperature differential, and the thermal conductivity (k-value) of the insulation material. Other than these, the other important factors that affect heat gain/loss through the surface are: Insulation Finishes and Emissivity With insulation systems, the surface finish or emissivity of the cladding or jacketing over the insulation must be considered. Emissivity is defined as the relative power of a surface to emit heat by radiation. The emissivity (E) of a surface material is measured on a scale 0 to 1. In practice both the values 0 and 1 are unachievable. The emittance of 0.1 is considered to be representative of aluminum jacketing. An emittance of 0.8 is considered to be representative of non-metallic surfaces. A dull finish increases the emissivity and thereby allows more heat to radiate from the system. A reflective metal finish decreases the emissivity and retains more heat within the system.

Depending on the particular temperature requirement of the process, the amount of heat transferred can be controlled by both insulation thickness and the emissivity of the jacketing. Surface Resistance With the dull finish of plain fabric, the resistance to heat loss is low because it allows more heat to radiate from the system. The table below shows the variations of surface resistances, or the resistance to heat loss, for still air with different finishes. Values for Surface Resistances for Still Air in ft F / Btu TSURFACE TAMBIENT Plain Fabric Dull Metal F 10 25 50 75 100 C 5 14 28 42 55 E = 0.95 0.53 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.46 E = 0.4 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.75 0.72 E = 0.2 0.90 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.80 Stainless Steel Aluminum
2

The table below illustrates the effect of the surface coefficient on heat losses and surface temperature for a 6 inch (150 mm) pipe in ambient air at 86 F (30 C) for different operating temperature values. For reference, Aluminum (E = 0.2), Stainless Steel (E = 0.4) and Cloth (E = 0.95). Surface temperature Ts is in C. Q is the heat loss in Kcal /hr/meter run; and k is the thermal conductivity in Kcal/hr/m/ C (For conversion purposes, 1 Kcal = 3.56 BTU) Temperature Deg C 100 25mm; k= 0.041 50mm; k= 0.041 50mm; k= 0.052 100mm; k= 0.052 100mm; k= 0.067 Insulation Q 85.9 Cloth Ts 41 Galvanized Steel Q 87.9 Ts 43 Aluminum Q 78.8 Ts 46

100

42.0

36

42.0

37

40.0

39

300

205.5

53

203

57

196.6

63

300

94.1

42

91.5

44

91.2

48

500

206.5

53

204.9

57

201.3

64

Temperature Deg C 500 Wind Speed

Insulation Q 150mm; k= 0.067 127.9

Cloth Ts 45

Galvanized Steel Q 126.4 Ts 48

Aluminum Q 124.3 Ts 53

Increased air movement has a greater effect on heat loss from bare piping than from insulated piping. The table below shows the effects of wind velocity on heat loss from bare and insulated surfaces. The reference is for a 150 mm pipe at 300 C, ambient temperature of 30 C, Insulation k = 0.0515 kcal/m/hr/ C, and a finish of galvanized m ild steel. Effect of wind velocity on heat loss (kcal/m/hr) Wind Velocity (m/sec) 0 1 5 10 3415 4197 7086 10490 Bare 25mm 507 537 572 576 Insulation Thickness 50mm 307 319 330 336 75mm 232 238 247 248 100mm 191 198 205 206

Factors that contribute to pipeline insulation degradation: 1. Failure to repair or replace damaged pipe insulation after repairs to pipeline components or fittings; 2. Steam leaks and moisture contaminate insulating material; 3. Failure to correctly prioritize maintenance tasks and resources; 4. Lack of awareness concerning cost of steam and the potential financial losses incurred; 5. Production constraints; 6. Failure of engineering personnel and management to prioritize and manage available resources; 7. Magnitude of potential financial losses not understood at engineering and production management level; 8. For reasons of their shape, valves and fittings tend to be overlooked in pipeline insulation projects. 9. Access difficulties; "Out of site, out of mind."

Practices for effective maintenance of insulation Insulation systems must be inspected and maintained to Insure that the system continues operation according to design. Periodic inspections are needed to determine the presence of moisture that will lower the insulation thermal efficiency, often destroying the insulation system. Further, if moisture is present and the temperature is above 25F (-4 C), corrosion may develop on the exterior surface of the pipe. The frequency of inspection should be determined by the critical nature of the process, the external environment, and the age of the insulation system. The following practices are suggested for O&M personnel: 1. Regular and timely energy audits. 2. Regular use of thermographic equipment to isolate areas of concern. 3. Follow-up for the completion of audit findings on regular basis. 4. Heat balance of the system on a routine basis. 5. Communication to all concerned departments of heat losses and increase in fuel consumption. 6. Computing specific energy consumption, i.e. developing an energy use pattern per unit of production. 7. The extent of moisture present within the insulation system and/or the corrosion of the pipe will determine the need to replace the insulation. Replace all soaked / compressed insulation. 8. Routing examination of the pipe and equipment surfaces for corrosion if the insulation is physically wet. 9. Addition of insulation based on revised temperature conditions. 10. Insuring fresh insulation material receipts as per the specifications given by the licensor. 11. Regular maintenance of insulation systems. The practices include: Look for jacketing integrity and open seams around all intersecting points, such as pipe transitions, branches, and tees. Look for signs of moisture or ice on the lower part of horizontal pipe, at the bottom elbow of a vertical pipe, and around pipe hangers/saddles, as moisture may migrate to low areas. Look for bead caulking failure especially around flange and valve covers.

Look for visible cloth through the mastic or finish if the pipe is protected by a reinforced mastic weather barrier.

Additionally, as the line operates, it must be continuously inspected for any breaches in the vapor and/or weather barrier to protect the insulation from moisture infiltration. If any damage is sighted, it is imperative to take action immediately and repair it.

Quality of Insulation Job Five distinct components characterize a quality insulation job. It is important to define and distinguish each one. 1. Insulation Material The insulation itself should be a low thermal conductivity material with a low water vapor permeability; it should be non-wicking. 2. Insulation Joint Sealant All insulation, particularly that operating at below ambient conditions, should utilize a joint sealant. The joint sealant should be applied as a full bedding coat to all sealant joints. A properly designed and constructed insulation/sealant/insulation joint will retard liquid water and water vapor migration through the insulation system. 3. Vapor Retarders Vapor retarders function to prevent water vapor infiltration, thus keeping the insulation dry. Closed-cell insulation materials have a lower tendency to absorb water. But typically most insulation materials will absorb a certain amount of water. Care should be taken to either use low permeance (water vapor permeability less than 0.1 perm-inches) insulation materials or use a continuous and effective vapor retarder system. The vapor retarder application along with closed-cell insulation material should be considered for cold surfaces to prevent surface condensation. The service life of the insulation and pipe depends primarily on the in-place water vapor permeance of the vapor retarder. Therefore, the vapor retarder must be free of discontinuities and penetrations. The insulation and the vapor retarder will expand and contract with ambient temperature cycling. The vapor retarder system must be installed with a mechanism to permit this expansion and contracting without compromising the integrity of the vapor retarder.

4. Jacketing The purpose of jacketing on the pipe and vessel surfaces is to prevent weather and abrasion damage to vapor retarder and insulation. Protective jacketing is also required whenever piping is exposed to wash downs, physical abuse, or traffic. Various plastic and metallic products are available for this purpose. The jacketing must be of the band type, which holds and clamps the jacketing in place circumferentially. Pop rivets, sheet metal screws, staples or any other item that punctures should not be used because they will compromise the vapor retarder. 5. Weather Barrier Joint Sealant All metal-jacketed insulation systems operating at below ambient conditions should utilize a weather barrier joint sealant. The joint sealant should be a liquid water resistant elastomeric material available to bond to the specified metal surface. The joint sealant is applied to all joints to prevent driven water from migrating through the joints, accumulating within the insulation system.

SECTION II

ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF INSULATION

Insulation of any thermal system means capital expenditure. Therefore, one of the most important factors in any insulation system is to analyze the thermal insulation with respect to cost. The effectiveness of insulation follows the law of diminishing returns; the first installment of insulation is most valuable, with every succeeding increment less so. There is a definite economic limit to the amount of insulation that is justified. In other words, there is a thickness below which the insulation is insufficient and the loss of heat is more. An increased thickness is wasteful in terms of cost, and cannot be recovered through small heat savings. This limiting value, termed the economic thickness of insulation, is that thickness of insulation at which the costs of heat loss, plus the installed cost of insulation is at a minimum, over a given period of time. The figure below demonstrates this principle.

H +I

COST

MC M

INSULATION THICKNESS

Where I H I+H M MC = Cost of Insulation = Cost of Heat Loss = Total Cost = Economic Thickness = Minimum Cost

The determination of economic thickness requires the attention to the following factors: 1. Value of fuel (fuel cost plus cost of labor, maintenance etc.); 2. Annual hours of operation; 3. Heat content of fuel; 4. Efficiency of combustion of fuel;

5. Average exposure ambient still air temperature; 6. Required exterior surface temperature (120 F default); 7. Pipe diameter/thickness of surface; 8. Type of insulation material; 9. Estimated cost of insulation installed; 10. Amortization (repayment) period; 11. Heat loss per linear meter (or square meter, if a flat surface is used). Assessment of Insulation Thickness Broadly speaking, the exercise of selecting the economic thickness and type of insulation is influenced by three important factors: 1. Economics; 2. Safety; 3. Process conditions. The first part is facilitated by comparing the heat losses vis--vis the possible savings and the investment on the total installed cost of insulation over a period of time. The second part is safety. One of the invaluable rules of thumb refers to the fact that the surface temperature should be limited to less than 130 F. The third part of the assessment pertains to the effect of heat losses on the physical state of the fluid being transported. Excessive long run of pipes will deliver working fluids at comparatively lower temperatures and in the case of steam; it could be delivered in a very wet, saturated condition. Bearing these points in mind, the exercise of selecting the economic thickness and type of insulation varies with the particular application. Economics Determining the economic thickness of insulation is a well-documented calculation procedure. The calculations typically encompass the entire cost of installing the insulation, including plant depreciation. When we say the total cost, it includes the material, labor, and installation cost of the finishing materials as well. This is particularly relevant when comparing high performance insulation with more conventional materials. If a 2 inch diameter pipe is insulated with 1 inch of high performance insulation instead of 3 inches of conventional insulation, then the surface area
o o

is reduced by a factor of 3. If the surface cladding is stainless steel then the cost savings derived would go a long way toward paying for the higher cost of the high performance insulation. Also bear in mind that insulation takes up space. For example, an adequate gap is required between pipes to accommodate insulation. The space constraint in some locations for the routing of air conditioning ducts over false ceiling is sometime a limiting factor. The low thickness high performance insulation would be less taxing on the space. Insulation adds weight. This implies that higher thicknesses of insulation can result in higher stress and additional support that can add to capital cost. Loading on the insulation material is a function of its compressive strength. ASME B31 standards establish basic stress allowances for piping material. Standard data charts for calculating the economic thickness of insulation are widely available. Below are the economic thickness tables that have been adapted from Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook: Table- 1 ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INDOOR INSULATION AT VARIOUS PIPE TEMPERATURES IN F (At 80 F Still Ambient Air for Aluminum Clad Calci um Silicate Insulation) Pipe Diameter (Inches) 0.75 Insulation Thickness (Inches) 1.5 2 2.5 3 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 2 1.5 2 1050 700 500 1050 450 850 400 750 1100 750 550 1000 450 850 1050 400 700 900 1200 800 600 1200 500 1000 450 900 1200 400 800 1050 1100 400 650 800 1150 350 700 350 700 1000 1150 350 600 750 1100 300 300 950 600 550 400 1100 1750 350 1000 1050 300 900 950 250 800 850 250 750 800 1200 300 700 900 950 300 500 650 1000 300 600 1 2 Energy Costs, $ per million BTU 3 4 5 6 7 8

Pipe Diameter (Inches)

Insulation Thickness (Inches) 2.5 3 1 2

Energy Costs, $ per million BTU 3 4 5 6 7 8

1100

950 1200

1000 1050 350 600 850 900

750 950 300 550 750 800

700 850 300 500 700 750 1150

650 800 250 450 650 700 1050 200 500 550 600 900 1200

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

950

600 1100

500 850 1200

400 700 1000 1050

1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

600

350 1100

300 850 900 1150

250 700 800 1000

250 600 650 850

200 550 600 750 1100

200 500 550 700 1000

10

2 2.5 3 3.5 4

1100 1200

850 900 1050

700 750 900

650 700 750 1200

550 600 700 1050

500 550 600 950

450 500 550 900 1200

16

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

950

650 1000 1200

500 800 950

400 700 800

350 600 700 1150 1200

300 550 600 1050 1100 1150

300 500 550 950 1000 1050

300 450 500 850 900 950

Table- 2 ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF OUTDOOR INSULATION AT VARIOUS PIPE TEMPERATURES IN F (At 60 F Average Speed 7.5 mph for Aluminum Clad C alcium Silicate Insulation) Pipe Diameter (Inches) 0.75 Insulation Thickness (Inches) 1 450 300 250 250 200 200 150 150 1 2 Energy Costs, $ per million BTU 3 4 5 6 7 8

Pipe Diameter (Inches)

Insulation Thickness (Inches) 1.5 2 2.5 800 500 1 2

Energy Costs, $ per million BTU 3 4 5 6 7 8

400 1150 1100

300 950 1000 200 400 900 1200

250 850 900 200 350 800 1050 1100

250 750 800 150 300 700 950 1000 150 300 550 750 1050 150 300 600 650 850 150 250 450 600 750

200 700 750 150 300 700 850 900 150 250 500 700 1000 150 250 550 600 750 150 200 400 500 650

200 650 700 150 250 600 800 850 150 250 450 600 900 150 250 550 600 700 150 200 350 500 600 1150

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

400 1000

300 650

250 500 1100

1.5

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

350 900

250 600 1000

200 450 850 1150

200 350 700 950

150 300 600 800 1200

1 1.5 2 2.5 3

350 900

250 550 1150

200 450 900 1000

150 400 750 850 1050

150 300 650 750 950 150 250 500 650 850

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

250 750

200 500 950 1150

150 350 750 950 1150

150 300 600 750 1000

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

250 450

150 300 900 1050

150 200 700 800 1050

150 200 600 650 900

150 150 500 600 750 1150

150 150 450 500 700 1050

150 150 400 450 600 950 1200

150 150 350 400 550 850 1150 1200

Example 1: Consider a 6 inch pipe at 500 F temperatures in an indoor setting. With an energy cost of $5.00/million Btu, what is the economic thickness? Answer: From table 1 above for indoor insulation, the corresponding block for 6.0 inch pipe and $5.00/million Btu energy costs, we note temperatures of 250 F, 600 F, 650 F, and 850 F. Since our temperature does not reach 6000 F, we use the thickness before it. In this case, 2500 F corresponds to 1.5 inches of insulation. At 600 F, we would increase the thickness to 2.0 inches of insulation. Economic thickness charts from other sources will work in much the same way as this example. Economic Thickness and the Present Energy Cost As discussed above, the thermal insulation thickness that satisfies an economic assessment of the minimal cost of owning and operating a thermal system is called the economic thickness. The economic thickness pays for itself besides earning a return over its original cost. From this definition, any changes occurring in the prices of fuel or in the insulation cost will tend to shift the economic thickness to another value. Therefore the insulation levels, which were uneconomical in the 1970s, may be quite lucrative now due to the drastic increase in fuel prices in recent years. Based on the prevailing cost structure, one has to review the entire insulation system and assess if additional insulation is necessary to achieve optimum economy. Found below are generic tables 3 and 4, indicating the economic thickness of insulation in inches with the surface exposed to a 10 mph wind. The tables have been calculated using a surface emittance of 0.1 and an ambient temperature of 70 F. Notice that the thickness increases when the energy cost is higher. Given the importance of the cost of energy as a factor, two levels of energy cost were considered: $3 per million BTUs and $6 per million BTUs. These costs are for energy delivered to the system being considered, including energy conversion efficiency and other losses. Table- 3 Insulation Thickness when energy cost is $3 per million BTUs Nom. Pipe Diameter (inches) 200 1 2 1 1 1 400 1 1.5 1.5 600 1.5 2 2 800 2.5 2.5 3 1000 2.5 3 3 1200 3 3 4 Process Temperature (F)
0 0 0 0 0 0

Nom. Pipe Diameter (inches) 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Process Temperature (F)

2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4

3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6

Source: U.S. Department of Energy; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Industrial Technologies Washington, D.C. 20585 from September, 1995 ORNL/M-4678

Table- 4 Insulation Thickness when energy cost is $6 per million BTUs Nom. Pipe Diameter (inches) 200 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 400 1.5 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 600 2.5 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 800 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 1000 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 1200 3 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 8 8 Process Temperature (F)

Source: U.S. Department of Energy; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Industrial Technologies Washington, D.C. 20585 from September 1995 ORNL/M-4678 Methodology of computing economic thickness Step #1 - Compute the heat loss per year on 100 feet of surface Step #2 - Compute the installed insulation cost per year. This figure is equivalent to the cost of 100 linear feet of insulation divided by the amortization period* (years of repayment). Step #3 - Add the cost of heat to the insulation cost. Step #4 - Plot this summation for various values of insulation thickness; the lowest point on the curve indicates economic thickness. The mathematical analysis for determining optimum thickness is: Cost of heat loss per year = q * N * P / (n * H) in $ per year Where N P n H q = Number of hours of operation of plant per year = Price of fuel in $ per gallon = Efficiency of generation or conversion = Gross calorific value of fuel in BTU per gallon = Heat loss in BTUs per hour = c/a

Annual Cost of Insulation Where c a

= Cost of insulation including outer protective covering = Amortization period

Amortization period is defined by a Where r z = Percentage return on capital = Plant life in years = 1/ (r/100 + 1/z)

The cost of heat losses per year is computed for a range of insulation thickness at intervals, and tabulated. These costs are added to each thickness and from that, the minimum cost becomes apparent.

The following case will illustrate the computation of economic thickness. A process industry has a package boiler using furnace oil as fuel. Efficiency of the package boiler is 80%. The plant operates for 6,000 hours each year. It is necessary to calculate the economic thickness of insulation for a cylindrical surface, a steam pipe, whose hot face temperature is 300 F. The insulation material being used is mineral wool with a density of 120 kg/cu m. The outer surface of insulation is covered with a thin aluminum sheet of 0.56mm thickness. Cost of fuel Calorific value of fuel Boiler efficiency Plant operational hours Rate of capital required Assume plant life Average ambient temperature Cost of useful heat Cost of useful heat per annum = $ 0.60 per gallon = 138,700 BTU's per gallon = 75% = 6,000 hours per year = 20% = 5 years = 75 F = 0.60 / 0.75 * 138,700 = $ 0.0000058 per BTU = $ 0.035 per BTU per annum = 2.5 years

Amortization period (yrs of repayment) = 1/ (.2 + 1/5)

Tabulation of heat losses and insulation cost for cylindrical surface at 300 F Insulation Thickness (inches) Heat loss / year (Btu per 100 ft length) Annual Cost ($ / 100 ft) of Heat Loss (Btu) (a) Insulation * (b) Total Cost ($ / 100 ft) (a) + (b) 1 1 2" 2 3 3 4 4120 3460 3140 2800 2650 2450 2400 144 121 110 98 93 86 84 80 92 100 108 122 134 142 224 213 210 206 215 220 226

* Annual cost of insulation = Total cost of insulation / Amortization period

Per definition, the economic thickness is a thickness at which the cost of heat loss plus the installed cost of insulation is minimum. Therefore, the economic thickness in the example above is 2 inches. The data reflected in the table is for guidance only. The purpose of the above example was to provide a direction regarding the proper use of such application data, so that the engineer and designer involved in the selection of economical thickness can make the appropriate decision and/or apply proper engineering judgment. In real situations the total cost of insulation should be estimated from the suppliers data and the heat loss figures could be quantified from standard tables. For a quicker evaluation of insulation levels, tables 1 through 4 above can be utilized. Safety Pipes and surfaces that are readily accessible by workers are subject to safety constraints. The recommended safe "touch" temperature range is from 130 F to 150 F (54.4 C to 65.5 C). Insulation calculations aim to keep the outside temperature of the insulation around 120 F to 140 F (60 C). An additional tool employed to help meet this goal is aluminum covering wrapped around the outside of the insulation. Aluminum's thermal conductivity of 209 W/m K (390 Btu/h ft
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F) does not offer much resistance to heat transfer, but it does act as another resistance while

also holding the insulation in place. Typical thicknesses of aluminum used for this purpose range from 0.2 mm to 0.4 mm. When considering safety, engineers need a quick way to calculate the surface temperature that will come into contact with workers. Using heat balance equations is certainly a valid means of estimating surface temperatures, but it may not always be the fastest. Charts are available that utilize a characteristic called "equivalent thickness" to simplify the heat balance equations. Since the heat loss is constant for each layer, one calculates Q for a bare pipe, and then solves the equation below for T surface (surface temperature). If the economic thickness results in too high a surface temperature, the calculation is repeated by increasing the insulation thickness by 1/2 inch each time, until a safe touch temperature is reached.
Tinside pipe T surface T surface T ambient

Equivalent Thickness

= k R

Where, k R = is the thermal conductivity of the insulation at the mean temperature = surface resistance

The equation above can be used to easily determine how much insulation will be needed to achieve a specific surface temperature. Example 2: A 16 inch pipe contains a heat transfer fluid at 850 F (454 C) that must be covered with insulation so that the surface temperature does not exceed 130 F. The design ambient temperature is 85 F (29.4 C). Assume the pipe will be provided with calcium silicate insulation with aluminum cladding. Find the equivalent thickness of the insulation. Step # 1: For T surface T ambient = 130 F 85 F = 45 F, determine the R s value for aluminum. From standard tables R s = 0.865 h ft
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F/Btu.
0 0 0

Step # 2: For mean temperature of (850 F + 85 F)/2 = 467.5 F, select the thermal conductivity of calcium silicate insulation (k ins = 0.0365 Btu/h ft F) from manufactures tables. Step # 3: Compute the Equivalent thickness using the relation,
Tinside pipe T surface T surface T ambient
0

Equivalent Thickness

= k R

Equivalent Thickness = 6.1 inches (155 mm) The equivalent thickness is a baseline. The manufacturer data charts show the actual thickness corresponding to the equivalent thickness. For instance, for the calcium silicate material the equivalent thickness of 6.1 inches corresponds to nearly 5 inches of insulation (Refer to manufacturers catalogues). As a standard practice, the table below provides data for the insulation thickness required to obtain a surface temperature below 125F with zero wind and calculated using an emittance 0.1 and an ambient temperature 80 F. Nom. Pipe Diameter (inches) 200 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 400 2 2 2.5 2.5 600 3 3.5 4.5 5 800 5 6 7 8 1000 7 8 9 >10 1200 10 >10 >10 >10 Process Temperature (F)

Nom. Pipe Diameter (inches) 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3.5 3.5 3.5 4 4 4

Process Temperature (F)

5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8

8 9 9 10 10 10 >10 >10 >10

>10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10

>10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10

Source: U.S. Department of Energy; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Industrial Technologies Washington, D.C. 20585 from September, 1995 ORNL/M-4678 Process Conditions The temperature of a fluid inside an insulated pipe is an important process variable that must be maintained from one node to another in most situations. Consider the length of pipe connecting two pieces of process equipment shown below:
Heat Loss

Heat Loss

The fluid is flowing from equipment 1 at temperature T1 to equipment 2. In order to predict T2 for a given insulation thickness, we first make the following assumptions: 1. Constant fluid heat capacity over the fluid temperature range; 2. Constant ambient temperature; 3. Constant thermal conductivity for fluid, pipe, and insulation; 4. Constant overall heat transfer coefficient; 5. Turbulent flow inside pipe; 6. 15 mph wind for outdoor calculations;

For pipe surface the heat transfer is governed by equation:

Where
1 U = R3 R3 log e( R2 / R1 ) + R1 hi k pipe + R3 log ( R3 / R2 ) e k insulation 1 + h o

(T T LM =

LN

amb T

) -

(T 1

- T amb )

( T2 1

- T amb - T amb

0.023 * C h i = A

m p * 3

Cp k fluid

2 R1 m A

0.2

k = thermal conductivity of fluid = viscosity of fluid Cp = heat capacity of fluid hi = heat transfer coefficient inside pipe ho = 7.0 Btu/h ft F indoors and 8.8 Btu/h ft F outdoors A = internal area of pipe m = mass flow rate of fluid
2 2

Another heat balance equation at steady state condition yields:

Solving the two heat transfer equations above for T2 yields:

(T 1 -

Tamb ) exp

(- 2

R3 U L m Cp

)+

Tamb

This equation is very useful in analyzing insulation and its impact on a process. The example below illustrates this. Example 3 Consider a typical process having an uninsulated length of 100 meter pipe connected to a heat exchanger and a reactor. With the data indicated below, check whether insulating this piece of pipe provides an opportunity for energy savings. Calculate the current reactor entrance temperature (T2) compared with the entrance temperature after applying the economic insulation thickness to pipe.
Heat Loss

T2 Reactor Heat Loss T1

To Process

Heat Exchanger From Feed

Data: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. Calcium silicate insulation; Temperature of stream exiting the heat exchanger ( T1) is 400 C (752 F) Ambient temperature is 23.8 C (75 F) Mass flow = 350,000 kg/h (771,470 lbs/h) Rinside pipe = R1 = 101.6 mm (4.0 in) Routside pipe = R2 = 108.0 mm (4.25 in) Thermal conductivity of pipe = kpipe = 30 W/m K (56.2 Btu/h ft F) Ambient air heat transfer coefficient = ho = 50 W/m K (8.8 Btu/h ft Fluid heat capacity = Cp fluid = 2.57 kJ/kg K (2.0 Btu/lb F) Fluid thermal conductivity = kfluid = 0.60 W/m K (1.12 Btu/h ft F) Fluid viscosity = ufluid = 5.2 cP Energy costs = $3.79/million kJ ($4.00/million Btu) Equivalent length of pipe = 100 meters (328 feet)
0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

F)

Solution Corresponding to an energy cost of $3.79/million kJ ($4.00/million Btu), a pipe outside radius 101.6mm (4.0), the economic thickness of insulation for an outdoor location is 63.5 mm (2.5 inches). [Refer to the economic thickness table above, example 1] Therefore, the outside radius of pipe after insulation, R3 = 108.0 mm + 63.5 mm = 171.5mm Mean temperature of (400 C + 23.8 C)/2 = 211.9 C or 413 F Thermal conductivity of calcium silicate at 211.9 C or 413 F, kins = 0.070 W/m K or (0.13 Btu/h ft
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F)
0.023 * C * m p A

0.023 * 2.57 * 350000 or h

( kfluid) (
2

Cp

= 0.0324 * 5.2 3 *0.101* 350000) ( 2.57 ) ( 20.0324 0.60 * 5.2 2 0.2

)
2

Or h1 = 1400 W/m K or 247 Btu/h ft F

1 U = R3 R3 log e( R2 / R1 ) + R1 hi k pipe + R3 log ( R3 / R2 ) e + k insulation 1 h o

1 U = bare pipe 0.1715 0.1016* 1400 +

0.1715 LN( 0.1016)

0.108

1 + 50

30
2

Or U bare pipe = 46 W/m K or 8.1 Btu/h ft F

0.108

0.1715 LN( 0.108 )

0.1715

1 50

30

0.07

Or U insulated = 0.87 W/m2K or 0.15 Btu/h ft2 F With bare pipe the temperature of the fluid at node 2 at the entrance of reactor will be given by the equation
T2 =

(T 1 -

Tamb ) exp

(- 2

R3 U L m Cp

)+

Tamb

T2

( 400 -

23.8

exp

(-2

0.1715 * 46 * 100 350000 * 2.57

)+

23.8

T2 (bare pipe) = 398 C (748.4 F) Similarly, calculating with insulation:

( 400 -

23.8

exp

(-2

0.1715 * 0.87 *100 350000 * 2.57

)+

23.8

T2 (with insulation) = 399. 96 C (752F) Temperature difference with insulation is nearly 2 0C (3.6 F).

Annexure-A Key Data Specification for Insulation Systems in Industrial Projects Insulation Class Class 1 Heat Conservation Insulation Material Calcium Silicate, Cellular glass, Mineral wool at temperature > 420C Class 2 Cold Service Insulation Cellular glass Jacket Material Non metallic weather proofing membrane or metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum Non metallic weather proofing membrane or metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum Class 3 Personnel Protection Either of class 1-9 or perforated sheet metal guards In accordance with classes 1-9 as applicable Perforated guards to be Stainless steel. If insulation is used, it should be designed so that the jacket temperature do not exceed 70 C Class 4 Frost Proofing Cellular glass Non metallic weather proofing membrane or metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum Class 5 Fire Proofing Cellular glass + ceramic fiber or mineral wool when necessary Stainless Steel Insulation requirements are dependent on protection requirements and must be accepted by authority having jurisdiction. Class 6 Cellular glass, Ceramic fiber or Non metallic weather proofing membrane or 30mm cellular glass + 25mm fibers + metallic Vapor Barrier Vapor Barrier Remarks

Acoustic Insulation 10dB

Mineral wool

metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum

jacketing (or aluminum foil + nonmetallic jacketing)

Class 7 Acoustic Insulation 20dB

Cellular glass, Ceramic fiber or Mineral wool

Non metallic weather proofing membrane or metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum

30mm cellular glass + 38mm fibers + heavy synthetic sheets + metallic jacketing (or aluminum foil + nonmetallic jacketing)

Class 7 Acoustic Insulation 30dB

Cellular glass, Ceramic fiber or Mineral wool

Non metallic weather proofing membrane or metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum

30mm cellular glass + 38mm fibers + 2 x heavy synthetic sheets + 25mm fibers + 2 x heavy synthetic sheets + metallic jacketing (or aluminum foil + nonmetallic jacketing)

Class 9 External Condensation

Cellular glass

Non metallic weather proofing membrane or metallic Stainless Steel or Aluminum

Vapor Barrier