Environmental Management

in Kenya
Have the National Conservation Plans Worked?
Wellington Nguya Wamicha
and
Justus Inonda Mwanje
Environmental Forum Publications Series, no. 2
Organizat ion for Social Science Research
in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA)
<D 20()() Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa
(OSSREA)
OSSREA acknowledges the support of Ford Foundation, Norwegian Agency for
Development Co-operation (NORAD), Swedish Intemational Development Co-
operation Agency (SidaiSAREC), The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and
International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
Mss. submitted 1997
All rights reserved. Published 20()()
Printed in Ethiopia
Copyediting: Taye Assefa
Text layouts: Eta/em Engeda
Organization for Social Science Research in
Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA)
P.O. Box 31971, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
F"", 251-1-551399
E-mail: [email protected]
,
Contents
Acknowledgements
Tables and Figures
Acronyms
I . Introduction
1. 1 Natural Environment of Kenya
1.2 The Need for the Present Study
2. Background
2. 1 A Global Overview
2.2 Environmental Initiatives in Africa
2.3 Major Environmental Concerns at the National Level
3. Conservation Plans in Kenya
v
vi
vii
4
7
8
12
3. I Historical Development of Resource Use Planning in Kenya 20
3.2 The Legal Framework
4. Major Environmental Actors and Their Mandates
4. 1 Central Government Ministries
4.2 Specialised Agencies and Presidential Commissions
4.3 Resources Mapping and Survey Agencies
4.4 The Role of Research Organisations
4.5 The Role of Non-Governmental Organisations
4.6 Regional Authorities
5. Why Haven't the Conservation PlansIPolicies Worked?
5.1 The Constitutional and Legal Framework
5.2 Resource Management Issues
6. Future Prospects
6. 1 Constitutional Change
26
29
29
29
33
34
34
35
37
42
Contents
IV
6.2 Sectoral Legislation 45
6.3 Institutional Framework 45
7. Conclusion and Recommendations
7.1 Conclusion 45
7.2 Recommendations 49
8. Bibliography 52
Annex I: List of Statutes 58
Notes on Authors 62

Acknowledgements
We are most grateful to Prof. George Eshiwani, Vice-Chancellor of Kenyatta
University, for availing us time in Kenya to prepare the paper and present it in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. We are also deeply indebted to Prof. John Shiundu, the Vice-

President of OSSREA, for his confidence in our ability to handle the task in a very
short time. We note with appreciation the secretarial services provided to us by Ms.
Peninnah W. Kariuki and Miss Rukia Kageha Kayasi. We sincerely thank the
Government of Kenya for readily making available through its officers all the
information we requested for reference. Last but not least, we thank the various
agencies we visited during the research period.
Tables and Figures
.
VI

Table I.
Table 2.
Table3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
Table 7.
Table 8.
Table 9.
Figure I.
Figure 2.
International ConventionsIPolicies on the Environment
I and Usc Conflicts in Kenya
Population of Kenya, 1961
Agricultural Production in the African Areas, 1960
,
9
13
21
22
Classification of the African I and 22
I and Transfer to Smallholder Settlement 23
Non-electrical Energy Requirements, 1985-2000 25
Central Government Ministries 30
Government Specialised Agencies and Presidential Commissions 32
Administrative Units of Kenya 2
Main Drainage Areas in Kenya 6
ACRONYMS
AHI
ASALS
CBD
CFCs
CILSS
CSI
ECA
FAO
GEMS
ICRAF
IGADD
MASL
NPKs
OAU
PACD
UN
UNCED
UNCHE
UNCOD
UNESCO
UNIFEM
WHO
WWF
African Highland Initiative
Arid and Semi -Ari<,l Lands
Central Business District (of an Urban Centre)
Chloro Fluor Carbons
Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in
the Sahel
Coastal Regions and Small Islands
Economic Commission for Africa
Food and Agriculturnl Organisation of UN
Global Environmental Monitoring System
International Centre for Research on Agroforestry
Inter-Govemmental Authority on Drought and Development
Metres Above Sea Level
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Fertilisers
Organisation of African Unity
Plan of Action to Combat Desertification
United N a t i o n ~
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Conference on Human Environment
United Nations Conference on Desertification
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Culturnl
Organisation
United Nations Development Fund for Women
World Health Organisation
World Wide Fund for Nature
..
VII
I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Natural Environment of Kenya
1.1.1 Location of Kenya
The Republic of Kenya is situated on the C<lstern side of the African continent with a
coastline that runs along the Western seaboard of the Indian Ocean. The equator
bisects the country into almost equal halves, being between 4 40" N and 4 04" S
latitudes. The country also lies between longitudes of 33 50" E and 41 45" E (Fig.
I) . The country has an area of about 580,367 km'.
1.1.2 Geology and Physical Features
From the Indian Ocean seaboard to about 200 meters above sea level (m.a .s.!)
Eastern Kenya is underlain by marine sediments of various ages that constitute a
plain. Between about 200 and 1500 m.a.s.! there is a fast-eroded plateau that is
underlain by metamorphic rocks, which are more than 500 million years old, of the
MOUlmbique Belt. In the central parts of Kenya, the Rift Valley and a complex of
high volcanic mountains interrupt the plateau. The spectacular Rift Valley runs the
entire length of the country and has characteristic lakes from Turkana in the North to
Magadi in the South. Only Lake Naivasha and Bogoria have fresh waters. Inside and
on either side of the Rift Valley there are volcanic rocks ranging in age from the
Miocene period to recent times, from I to 50 nlillion years old.
To the west of the Rift Valley there are metamorphic rocks with plateaux similar to
those of the East of the Rift Valley. However, the Lake Victoria basin has rocks of
the Nyanzian (Sedimentary and Igneous) System that arc more than 2000 million
years old. Kenya therefore has a wide range of physical features and hence climatic
characteristics change rapidly over very short distances. These also influence the
vegetation and land use types.
1.1.3 Climate
Since Kenya lies within the equatorial zone, seasonal temperature variations are
minimal. Such variations result from altitudinal changes. So Nairobi, being about
1900 m.a .s.l, has a mean annual temperature of about 20C while Mombasa (at sea
level) has about 30C. Due to marine influence, there is a narrow humid to sub-
humid belt along the Indian Ocean. In the hinterland rainfall is also very much
controlled by the altitude, with modifications caused by large water bodies such as
Lake Victoria.
Typical rainfall distribution in Kenya is bi-modal whereby the long wet season is
mainly from March to June while the short one is from October to December. To the
west of the Rift Valley the wet seasons may be longer due to influence by Lake
Victoria. Rain failures culminating in drought have also occurred in the recent past,
for example, in 1960, 1966, 1974, 1983,1994 and 1997.
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1.1.4 Vegdation Types
Kenya has a narrow coastal strip (about 10 km wide) of high potential land in terms
of rainfall and soils. lbis strip, which used to be extensively covered with forests, has
now given way to agricultural production, urban settlements and tourist hotels. Along
the coastline in the intertidal zone are to be found mangrove swamps.
Most of the land between 100 to 1800 m.a.s.1 has poor scrub vegetation near the
coast which gradualIy changes to a barren desert in the Chalbi desert near Lake
Turkana to the north. Similar conditions, though not so severe, occur in the
Northwest portion of Kenya to the west of the Rift Valley.
In Central Kenya, forests used to cover most of the humid and sub-humid areas on
the Rift ValIey volcanic complex extending Westwards to the shores of Lake
Victoria. Except on the high mountains (Kenya, Aberdares, Mau and Elgon) these
forests have now been cleared to give way to farmlands . Hence, by 1900 Kenya had
about 30% of forest cover but by 1963 only 3% of the land surface of Kenya was
covered by forests. Currently, forest cover is estimated at below 2.5% of the
country' s total land surface.
1.1. 5 Land Use Types
The area capable of supporting intensive cropping and/or grazing without irrigation
is limited to the narrow strip of land along the Indian Ocean coastline and to the
higher elevations (above 1800 m.a.s.1). These are areas with a reasonable probability
of receiving more than 900-mm annual average rainfall. Such arcas cover only about
20% of the land surface of Kenya. Hence about 80% of Kenya is a rangeland used
for livestock and wildlife grazing.
1.1.6 Biodiversity and Renewable Resources
The major terrestrial ecosystems include the forests and grasslands ranging from
bush grasslands to pure grasslands. In the interphase between the aquatic and
terrestrial environments there are different types of wetland ecosystems. Freshwater
aquatic ecosystems in Kenya include a few inland lakes such as Victoria, Naivasha
and Bogoria, and the rivers (Fig. 2). The saline aquatic ecosystems include most of
the Rift ValIey lakes such as Natron, Magadi, Elementaita, Nakuru, Baringo and
Turkana, and the Indian Ocean marine system.
These ecosystems are habitats of different plants (flora), birds (avifauna), and
animals (fauna) which have hence been exploited as renewable resources . Such
resources include wood, reeds and papyrus, fish, wild birds' eggs (e.g., of ostrich)
and game meat. The Kenyan biodiversity has also been a major basis of the tourist
industry. Major threats to these resources have been, for example, deforestation,
draining of wetlands, overexploitation of the mangroves and polIution.
Some species of plants, birds, and animals are also threatened with extinction. Of
these the elephant and rhino have received worldwide recognition. Deforestation has
also threatened many indigenous trees .
Environmental Forum Publications Series, no. 2
4
Woodfuel, which is a renewable source of energy, is the most important in the energy
sector. Other sources of renewable energy include the hydroelectric power,
geothermal power, solar energy, wind energy, and sea-waves energy. Here it is only
the hydroelectric power that has been developed to an appreciable scale.
1.1.7 Non-renewable Resources
The Kenyan economy is mainly based on agricultural production, for which soil is
the most important resource. This is a resource that is partly renewable, naturally
through weathering or artificially through the use of fertilisers . However, the use of
fertilisers is hindered by their costs. Some farmers also use fertilisers
indiscriminately, and this can lead to soil pollution.
Gemstones and gold are mined on a small-scale in many parts of Kenya. For
instance, gold is mined in Migori, Kilgoris, Vihiga and Kakamega areas of Western
Kenya. Gemstones such as rubies are mined in Taita-Taveta District. The mining of
the newly found titanium is set to commence in Kilifi District, close to the littoral
environments. Quarrying of different types of building stones, murram, cement lime
and ballast is perhaps the most important mining activity in Kenya.
1.1.8 The Drainage Basins
The Rift Valley forms a major inland drainage basin with rivers such as Turkwel,
Kerio and Ewaso Nyiro (in the south) which drain into lakes. River Ewaso Nyiro (in
the north) drains into an inland wetland. To the east of the Rift Valley major rivers
which flow into the Indian Ocean include the Voi , Athi and Tana. To the west of the
Rift Valley, there is the expansive Victoria-Nile basin (Fig. 2) .
1.2 The Need for the Present Study
During the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Conference, the United Nations outlined the
challenges of environment and development in the World. In Kenya the environmental
and development challenges include ensuring an equitable and sustainable pattern of
development to meet the needs and aspirations of the people. Also the environment
and the natural resource base require to be enhanced. Other challenges for the
country include:
ensuring sustainable industrial production
developing/adopting environmentally sound technologies, and
building capacity for sustainable development planning.
However while development planning has been very comprehensive throughout the
history of Kenya, environmental planning has received far less emphasis. The
different aspects of environment have therefore been planned on a sectoral basis
rather than comprehensively. As is evident from the following, this sectoral planning
has failed to a varying degree:
although Kenya has one of the most sophisticated soil conservation programs
in Africa, sedimentation is still a major threat to its dams and lakes;
Wamicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya
5
Kenya derives enonnous income from wildlife through tourists yet some of
the large mammals, the most conspicuous, i.e., elephant and rhino, are
threatened with extinction; and
while the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources would like
wetlands preserved in order to conserve their biodiversity, the Department of
Land Reclamation would like the same wetlands reclaimed for agricultural
usc.
This is the dilemma. The current study therefore ' reviews sectoral environmental
planning in Kenya and suggests how a comprehensive plan can be developed. In such
a plan, a clear statement on the financing of "Environment Impact Assessment
. (EIA)" of development projects, and "Clean Technology and Conservation of
Resources", should be well spelt out. In other words, national development should be
economically, socially, culturally, and ecologically sustainable.
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Environmental Forum Publications Series, no. 2
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Wamicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya 7
2. BACKGROUND
2.1 A Global Overview
The absolute age of the earth is now taken to be about 4.5 billion years. All living
organisms are believed to have been single-{:elled with simple undifferentiated matrix.
This then transformed into the multicellular organisms, emerging in a full range of
multicellular body-plans that constituted the base on which dominant life in both
aquatic and terrestrial habitats has developed. Man is seen to have come late in the
game about I million years ago, although the primitive forms (the Australopithecus,
"Lucy") yield fossils of around 3 million in age.
The natural environment where man lives is complex and dynamic and that any
conservation plans designed by man must have the exposition of sensitivity.
Consequentl y, different people think differently about what should be the right health
status of the natural environment. Henee the question: Have conservation plans in
Kenya worked?
2. I. 1 Environmental Awareness
Widespread global cnvironmcntal awareness is said to have started in the 1930s. By
then man realised that the technologies of the Industrial Revolution were not always
working or favouring the preservation of natural resources. This was mainly due to
widespread cases of accelerated soil erosion. Awarcncss about soil salinisation was
also recorded. Land degradation therefore threatened food production and hence
human survival.
2. I. 2 Establishment of UN Organisations
Soon after its birth in 1945, the UN started establishing different organisations, some
devoted to environmental management. These include the Rome-based FAO, which
globally deals with the management of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries together
with the related natural resources; and the Paris-based UNESCO is devoted to
education in general where it can play a major role in the development of
environmental edueation curricula.
The Vienna-based International Atomic Agency has mandate to control hazardous
radiation sources. There are also the Geneva-based World Meteorologic.al
Organisation (WMO) devoted to atmospheric sciences and World Health
Organisations (WHO), dealing with health including environmcntal health. Then the
first Nairobi-based UN organisation is the Habitat, which is devoted to human
settlements. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), which is the second
UN organisation in Nairobi, has mandate to co-ordinate research and conscrvation of
all global environmental resources.
2.1.3 Other International Organisations
Some monetary organisations such as the World Bank and International Monetary
Fund (IMF) have been and continue to be involved globally in the exploitation of
natural resources. There are also multinational companies involved in manufacturing,
Environmental Forum Publication. Series, no. 2 8
mineral exploitation, agricultural production and trade. The last 3 decades have also
seen the mushrooming of international NGOs involved in environmental affairs.
2.1.4 Global Inventories of Natural Resources
One or more of the UN organisations have co-<lrdinated such inventories. The "Soil
Map of the World" was co-<lrdinated by FAO and UNESCO between the 1960s and
1980s. In 1984 assessment of the status and trend of desertification was undertaken
by the UNEP. A similar assessment was also executed in 1990-91 and a "World Map
of Drylands" was prepared by the GEMS/GRID Progranune. Activity Centre of
UNEP. There is also the long-term WMO World Weather Watch Progranune which
collects, analyses and disseminates both meteorological and hydrological data.
Between 1970 and 1986 observations on the Ozone hole had confirmed that
consumption of CFCs was a major threat to the Ozone layer.
2.1.5 International Conventions/Policies
There are conventions/policies dealing with the different spheres (Pedolithosphere,
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and the Biosphere) of the environment. There are also
conventions/policies on pollution which cut across these spheres (table I).
2.1.6 Global Conferences on the Environment
The 1972 Stockholm UN Conference on Human Environment (UNCHE) culminated
in the establishment of UNEP. There was also the Habitat I Conference in 1976 in
Vancouver, Canada, which discussed the question of adequate shelter for all human .
beings. The 1977 Nairobi UN Conference on Desertification (UN COD) set out a
Plan of Action to combat Desertification (PACD). In 1992 there was the Rio de
Janeiro UN Conference on Environment and Development' (UNCED) which came out
with "Agenda 21". Then there was the Population Summit held in Cairo in 1994 and
the Copenhagen Social Development Conference (SDC) in 1995. The Habitat II
Conference of 1996 in Istanbul, Turkey, looked at the process of urbanisation by
considering the goals of economic planning, environmental sustainability and
universal justice.
2.2 Environmental Initiatives in Africa
2.2.1 Economic Reforms in Africa
In the recent past famine has become a major topical issue in Africa. As long as
rainfall is sufficient for crop and pasture production famine in Africa is an economic
phenomenon. This is because African economics are still very much dependent on
agriculture, together with the related natural resources. So, economic reforms are
almost synonymous with agricultural reform. Hence, a UN Special Session on Africa
held in May 1986 was the first one ever devoted to the economic development
problems of a single continent.
Wamicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya
Table I. International conventions/policies on the environment
Sphere ConventionIPolicy
(a) Biosphere CITES Convention on Trade in Endangered Species
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
(b) Pedo-Lithosphere Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
(1971)
(c) Hydrosphere
(d) Atmosphere
(e) Pollution
Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (PACD)
World Soils Policy (1982)
Convention for Prevention of Maritime Pollution by Dumping
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
Convention f(l! the Prevention of PoBution of Sea by Oil
London Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fonn Ships
Viena Convention for Protection of Qzone Layer (1985)
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
( 1987)
Nairobi Declaration on Climatic Change (1990)
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
Basel Convention on the Ban of Trans-boundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes ( 1989)
9
The UN Special Session on Africa, therefore, recommended a fundamcntal shift in
agricultural research priorities. Research was henceforth supposed to be geared
towards screening and adapting technology from the global agricultural research
system. The following items were highlighted for research:
soil and water management techniques
development of promising (new) crops, including tree crops
animal nutrition
range management.
One of the reasons why agriculture has suffered in Africa is because it has always
been the profession pursued by the elderly, illiterate people and the peasants. In many
African countries, government support and/or community organisation (co-
operatives) has been minimal. Hence economic reforms towards a bettcr agricultural
production were initiated in many African countries in the 1980s to cater for these
Environmental Forum Publications Series, no. 2 10
drawbacks. In Africa South of the Sabara women provide food for the family. For a
very long time, they have been like tenants on their husbands' land. Refonns to give
women more rights on land have therefore been initiated in several of these countries.
The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) has been playing a
major role in empowering women.
2.2.2 Afforestation Projects
Woodfuel is still the most important source of domestic energy in Africa. Trees are
also required as a source of timber both for domestic consumption and export. Tree
cutting can therefore lead to deforestation, soil erosion and desertification in many
parts of Africa. Regional tree planting initiatives have therefore been established, and
the Intemational Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) has a role to play.
2.2.3 Pest Control Programmes
The impact of various pests in Africa is illustrated by the following statements.
Desert locusts have the potential of infesting the whole of Sub-Sabaran African
countrics. Over 10 million km' of Africa's land (i.e., nearly 40% of the tropical land
in the continent) suitable for crop production and/or animal husbandry is infested
with tsetse fly (Glossina Spp.). River blindness is a major handicap in the
development of river basins (especially the Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal) in
West Africa. Guinea wonn afflicts many wetlands in Africa, especially in the
Southern Sudan. Such pests require regional organisations to control them.
International support has also been recorded towards these efforts.
2.2.4 Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa
In Africa, there is a rapid depiction of the living natural resources. Currently there
are efforts to implement the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). For
this to succeed it will require political, economic, social, cultural, ecological, and
biological actions at country as well as inter-regional levels. The critical parts of
Africa requiring urgent action to save species and ecosystems have been identified by
the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF).
Deforestation, land degradation and desertification are the main processes affecting
the loss of biodiversity.
2.2.5 Efforts to Combat Land Degradation/Desertification
During the 1968-1973 Sabelian drought, over 150,000 people and millions of
livestock died. In Africa, also desert encroachment is estimated at 1.5 million ha per
annum and is hence threatening about 34% of the land surface of the continent. Also
about 36% of the population or 186 million people out of the 513 million in 1983
were in danger. This has called for initiatives to combat desertification.
The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) Conference of Ministers adopted
resolution 264 (XIII) in 1975 initiating technical efforts to combat desertification
Also in 1993, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) Council of Ministers meeting
adopted, in its 57th Ordinary Session in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Resolution
(CMlRES 1438/L VIII). This called on experts to:
Environmental FOMlm Publications Serie .. no. 2 12
traditional environmental conservation and protection. This initiative has begun along
the Eastern African coastline and should spread to other coastlines of Africa.
2.2.8 Refugees Influx and Environmental Damage
Africa has experienced more tragedies than any other continent in recent memory.
This has had tremendous implications for the continent's natural environmental
health, as well as political, social, economic, and cultural life. The problem of
refugees in the Great Lakes Region continues to pose tremendous threats to
environmental conditions in the host states. Such threats emanate from civil war, the
associated refugee camps and use of resources such as building materials (timber and
building stones) and water.
2.3 Major Environmental Concerns at the National Level
2.3. J Deforestation
The first major pressure on forests is clearing for agricultural land. Also about 75%
of the energy consumed in Kenya today is derived from forest products. There is also
increased demand for fuelwood, charcoal, timber and wood products. This has led to
deforestation in many regions of the country resulting in the ecosystems' instability.
2.3.2 Water Shortage and Pollution
It has been the government's policy to provide potable water to all Kenyans by the
year 2000 AD. A Water Master Plan is in place. However, it is reported that by the
year 1991 an estimated 17 million Kenyans were without reasonable access to water
while about 13 million lacked adequate sanitary facilities Lack of adequate water
has therefore been rated as one of the most serious problems in most Kenyan
districts, especially in the ASALs.
With increasing intensification of agriculture, an emerging concern is that of
pollution of water bodies from agrochemicals. Pollution from industriaVurban
effluents has also taken place. In addition, there is destruction and pollution of
underground water aquifers by petrochemicals such as motor oils and other
pollutants. In some eases pollution has made drinking water a health hazard to human
beings, livestock and wildlife.
2.3.3 Land Degradation and Decline of Agricultural Productivity
Land degradation has occurred extensively in Kenya mainly due to soil erosion.
Initially erosion results in the loss of topsoil which is usually the most fertile in terms
of plant nutrients.
Soil erosion is a consequence of overgrazing in the ASALs and poor land
management in cultivated areas. This results in reduced agricultural productivity and
land degradation. The advanced stage of soil erosion results in very deep gullies that
are difficult to rehabilitate. However, awareness about soil erosion is quite
widespread in Kenya.
Desertification is the process of land degradation in the ASAL areas. The following
have led to land degradation in these areas:
Environmental FOMlm Publications Serie .. no. 2 12
traditional environmental conservation and protection. This initiative has begun along
the Eastern African coastline and should spread to other coastlines of Africa.
2.2.8 Refugees Influx and Environmental Damage
Africa has experienced more tragedies than any other continent in recent memory.
This has had tremendous implications for the continent's natural environmental
health, as well as political, social, economic, and cultural life. The problem of
refugees in the Great Lakes Region continues to pose tremendous threats to
environmental conditions in the host states. Such threats emanate from civil war, the
associated refugee camps and use of resources such as building materials (timber and
building stones) and water.
2.3 Major Environmental Concerns at the National Level
2.3. J Deforestation
The first major pressure on forests is clearing for agricultural land. Also about 75%
of the energy consumed in Kenya today is derived from forest products. There is also
increased demand for fuelwood, charcoal, timber and wood products. This has led to
deforestation in many regions of the country resulting in the ecosystems' instability.
2.3.2 Water Shortage and Pollution
It has been the government's policy to provide potable water to all Kenyans by the
year 2000 AD. A Water Master Plan is in place. However, it is reported that by the
year 1991 an estimated 17 million Kenyans were without reasonable access to water
while about 13 million lacked adequate sanitary facilities Lack of adequate water
has therefore been rated as one of the most serious problems in most Kenyan
districts, especially in the ASALs.
With increasing intensification of agriculture, an emerging concern is that of
pollution of water bodies from agrochemicals. Pollution from industriaVurban
effluents has also taken place. In addition, there is destruction and pollution of
underground water aquifers by petrochemicals such as motor oils and other
pollutants. In some eases pollution has made drinking water a health hazard to human
beings, livestock and wildlife.
2.3.3 Land Degradation and Decline of Agricultural Productivity
Land degradation has occurred extensively in Kenya mainly due to soil erosion.
Initially erosion results in the loss of topsoil which is usually the most fertile in terms
of plant nutrients.
Soil erosion is a consequence of overgrazing in the ASALs and poor land
management in cultivated areas. This results in reduced agricultural productivity and
land degradation. The advanced stage of soil erosion results in very deep gullies that
are difficult to rehabilitate. However, awareness about soil erosion is quite
widespread in Kenya.
Desertification is the process of land degradation in the ASAL areas. The following
have led to land degradation in these areas:
Wamicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya
13

overstocking, leading to overgrazing;
low income and food deficiencies among the pastoralists, leading to charcoal
burning for a livelihood;
communal land ownership and therefore lack of effective grazing
management systems;
salinisation, especially in lands under irrigation;
lack of:
exploitation of environmentally neutral livestock enterprises such as
honey production (bee-keeping), camel production, and game farming;
sufficient livestock water sources and their poor distribution;
conservation of water catchment areas and protection of water sources;
adequate and ecologically suitable perennial range grass seed and fodder
trees to the pastoralists.
2.3.4 Land Use Policy and Land Use Planning
The high to medium potential land surface of Kenya is about 5.2 million ha or about
20% of the country. This land is very precious both aesthetically and in monetary
terms. The quest for land has therefore generated differcnt conflicts in Kenya. Given
the existing land use and land tenure systems in the country, only in the high and
medium potential areas can we say that there exists a comprehensive tenure system.
Here, land predominantly belongs to individuals. However, in ASAL areas the
situation is different, as most of the land is communally owned. Hence major
environmental conflicts result from competition for land (table 2), and water use .

Table 2. Land use conflicts in Kenya
Area
Land neighbouring game
reserves and national parks
AEZ N and V
Hilltops and Hill sides
Riverine areas
Land nSf' conflict
Wildlife destroying crops
Poaching of wildlife
Competition for pasture and water resources between
wildlife and livestock
Cultivation vs. grazing
Cultivation and/or grazir.g vs. afforestation for water
catchment protection
Cultivation vs. riparian vegetation conservation
Cultivation vs. dry season grazing
Note: AEZ = Agroecological Zones.
Environmental Forum Publication. Serie., no. 2
14

The 1994-1996 National Development Plan stressed the need for sustainable
development of land through appropriate management of the high potential land and
reclamation of the ASALs. However, land use policy on the system of laws, rules,
regulations .and land ownership is still lacking. Also lacking is a land use plan or
zoning based on the suitability of land resources for socio-economic purposes.
Further, there is a lack of modalities for the transfer of public land to private
ownership. Their land management remains chaotic.
2.3.5 Population Growth, Distribution and Impad on Natural Resources
The total population of Kenya has increased from II to 21.4, and 25 million in 1969,
1989 and 1995, respectively. The general population density was 27 and 37 persons
per km' in 1979 and 1989, respectively. However, there are islands of very high
densities (300 - 500 persons per km') in the high potential areas, but as low as five
persons per km' in the ASALs. Currently the country' s population growth rate of
about 3.4% per annum which is one of the highest in the world. Due to the very high
population densities there has been over-exploitation of land resources with the
consequent decline in agricultural productivity and land degradation (deforestation
and overgrazing).
2.3.6 Refugees Influx in the ASALs
In the ASALs of Kenya, especially within the North Eastern Province, refugees have
been known to result in formidable high populatiolJ densities. These refugees then
compete for the available resources (water, land and energy) with the local people. In
some cases cyclic desertification has occurred around refugee camps.
2.3.7 Settlement Patterns, Sedentarisation of Pastoralists and Squatterism
The land-use structure of most high potential areas in Kenya was historically
modelled on the exclusive European Settlement Policy. The dramatic socio-economic
changes and heterogeneity following independence in 1963 led to change in this
policy. The government introduced settlement schemes for indigenous Kenyans to
take over the former White Highlands. However, in some cases these Kenyans were
not aequainted with the environmental conditions of the White Highlands, a factor
that then led to low agricultural productivity.
About 80% of the land surface of Kenya are ASALs and arc occupied by nomadic
pastoralists. Permanent settlements (market centres) dot throughout the ASAL area,
especially around the administrative centres due to the need for security. Also,
provision of water leads to an automatic settlement at water points, depending on the
security situation. Such sedentary settlements are rarely planned prior to
implementation.
In the urban areas the destitute establish poverty-stricken slum villages characterised
by unemployment. There are also squatters occupying government and private land.
Slum and squatter settlements are characterised by environmental health problems.
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2.3.8 Coastal Erosion and Rehabilitation
Several developments of building structures are taking place close to the shoreline. In
the case of the sea walls, some parts are affected by erosion. There are also problems
of siltation along the coastline and this affects marine habitats. As a result fish
catches are diminishing as the breeding habitats continue to be destroyed by human
use systems.
2.3.9 Loss of Genetic Resources and Biodiversity
Biodiversity encompasses all plants, animals and microorganisms together with their
interactions and habitats. Indigenous terrestrial and mangrove forests, coastal and
inland wetlands, coral reefs and gardens, and other ecosystems are important for
genetic resources and biodiversity. These ecosystems are improperly exploited, with
the result of high ecological and economic costs. To overcome these costs, the
community needs to acquire knowledge and resources, as well as incentives to
sustainablly utilise the biological resources. It is noteworthy that the threat to genetic
resources and biodiversity is triggered by rising human population pressure and the
need to clear more land in order to increase food production.
2.3.10 Lack of Participatory Management of Natural Resources
A trend of planning which Kenya inherited from the colonial system was the "Top-
down Approach" to environmental issues. This approach never sought the views of
the local communities. Hence in many cases natural resources were regarded as
belonging to the government. For example most resources in National Parks and
Game Reserves are usually perceived by people as belonging to the government due
to the overprotection and lack of efforts to create awareness through community-
based progranunes. On the other hand people around Game Reserves, which are
managed by the local County Councils, are increasingly accepting the resources
therein. The struggle for the control of nature reserves between County Councils and
Community Groups has already been recorded in the Trans Mara and Lake Baringo
areas. More is envisaged in the future as awareness increases and the politics of
resource control becomes more important in society.
The Kenya Wildlife Service "new" policy has therefore been reviewed to include
aspects of community participation. Communal groups for soil erosion and
afforestation also serve to enhance community awareness. The role of NGOs in this
regard could be enhanced.
2. 3.11 Conflicts in Resource Utilisation
Due to increasing human settlements, conflicts of resource utilisation occur between
man and wildlife, agriculture, fisheries and forestry. The conflicts are caused by
increasing population in settlement schemes, which in tum brings man face to face
with wildlife in his endeavour to fish or to cultivate crops or even to obtain woodfuel.
The wild animals often stray out of the National Parks or Game Reserves and
damage crops and sometimes cause loss of human life. These conflicts are more
severe during the drought period when, for instance, elephants are very notorious for
causing havoc to crops and water installations.
Environmental Forum Publications Series. no. 2 16
Land and water-use conflicts have also been experienced in many areas. As the
demand for land for settlement schemes continues to rise, the traditional grazing
areas are being taken up by ranchers and settlers from other areas/districts, as is the
case with water catchment areas. This process has resulted in the pushing of the
pastoralists into rather more marginal areas, with enhanced resource use impacts
which may lead to rapid land degradation.
2.3.12 Absence 0/ a Common Environmental Law
In Kenya Parliamentary Acts governing environmental matters are mainly sectoral.
For example, there is the Agriculture Act, the Water Act, the Land Acquisition Act,
etc. At the same time, these sectoral legislations usually lack co-ordiriation such that
in some cases they may be contradictory. For example, in order to increase food
production, the Agriculture Act may allow the draining of wetlands and bottomlands
in a reclamation project. Such action contradicts any endeavour to conserve Wetland
Biodiversity. The harmonisation of environment-specific legislation could improve
the conservation practice.
2.3.13 Absence o/Environmental Economics in Natural Resource Management
The economics of development is well developed in Kenya. The country has always
given estimates of costs for every National Development Plan. However, expenditure
on environmental conservation and/or improvement is only incorporated accidentally.
The result has been the neglect of the conservation of fragile ecosystems, resulting in
serious damage to water, soil and genetic resources, hence land productivity.
2.3.14 The Poverty Problem
Poverty in Kenya is pervasive and getting much worse. The poor people in Kenya
recognise very clearly the gravity of their situation, and possible mitigating options.
However they have no capacity to implement the latter.
Recent studies on the poverty situation in Kenya has revealed that the poor are
ycarning for some action against the problems afflicting them. One ex-Mau Mau
freedom fighter, Muthuni, put it thus: "Don't ask me what poverty is because you
have met it outside my house. Look at my house and count the number of holes (in
the walls) . Look at my utensils and the clothes that I am wearing. Look at everything
and write what you can see. What you see is poverty" (1996).
In copping with poverty, one of the popular options is to exploit whatever natural
resources that could be found within the living environment, such as vegetation, with
the consequence of land degradation.
A disturbing overall feature of the poverty situation is the apparent long-term trend of
impoverishment. Resource use is equally deteriorating. To improve on the
conservation practice in Kenya, the poverty situation must therelore be urgently
tackled.
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17
2.3.15 Impacts of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)
The African debt crisis is a fusion of social forces characterised by organisation and
distribution of wealth under the capitalist system of economic management. By
November 1992, Africa's total debt stood at around US$300 billion.
Of the total debt servicing payment from Sub-Saharan Mrica (excluding Nigeria),
nearly 30% of it goes to paying loans given by the private banks. The African debt
system is driven by the market economy and governed by making of profits. In tbis
regard all consumable commodities are produced for the market and not simply for
humans. With tbis we have exploitation (of the meagre natural resources),
accumulation and domination as major facets of the capitalist system. We know that
Africa is endowed with a wealth of natural resources, Kenya included.
The World Bank has recently found it prudent to talk about poverty eradication.
While it is the view of the World Bank that SAPs are necessary for Africa' s
economic revival and agricultural growtb, it is gratifying to note, however, that the
Bank has recently admitted that it made mistakes in introducing structural adjusttnent
progranunes in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya. The mistakes are founded on
the assumptions they made at the time of introducing the SAPs policy. However,
damage has already been made on the African natural environment.
2.3.16 Impacts of Famine
On the advent of a famine in Kenya, it is foreseen that disastrous impacts on the
natural environment, on the economy, as well as on political fronts are eminent.
Famine is a sure weapon for causing the destruction of natural resources through
poor exploitation strategies, decline of economic growtb and the death of democracy.
The country is poised to witness extensive practice of the disturbing phenomenon of
"food for votes" in its democratic process, a feature that threatens the free practice
necessary for effective natural resource conservation.
In the Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 based on African Socialism, the Government
of Kenya set out to eradicate hunger and other social ills. The natural resources
development has therefore focused on: reduced over-reliance on foreign debt
propelled economic policies; grassroots initiatives that view food security from the
household level, and articulated resource conservation policies. So far present efforts
in tbis regard are yet to yield tangible results in the form of organised and effective
conservation plans.
2.3.17 Environmental Health
With the current commercial activities and potential for industrial growtb, Kenyan
urban centres require co-ordinated planning to be able to cope with environmental
problems that go with such growtb. In the past, there has been a lot of unplanned
constructions which have affected the physical development of these centres.
Mushrooming residential areas often have poor road communication, poor drainage
and poor sewerage system.

EavirollmeataJ Forum Publicatioas Serie=:s"' .:: ac:. 0.:..:2=--_ _________ _ _ ...;I'-'-. S
In general, the garbage collection by the Nai robi City Council for example, is below
the expected standards and could do with privatisation. The sewerage system is
choked, oxidation ponds are overloaded and are being encroached on by upcoming
residential estates, such as Soweto Housing Scheme in Embakasi area.
Communicable diseases in urban centres of Kenya are on the increase. Environmental
health is therefore lacking and thus causing serious resource development problems
which impact negatively on conservation practices.
2.3.18 Wildlife Menaces
Wildlife menaces are directed at livestock and crops mainly in areas next to the game
reserves. To minimise such problems, the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, with the
assistance of the provincial administration, should have carried out field education
for the local community through Chiefs barazas on the need to exercise basic
protection. It may also be necessary for the game reserves to be partly fenced off
especially in areas adjacent to human settlements. A better way of controlling
animals should be found and implemented with urgency. COlIfhcts between man and
wildlife reduce food and income ai household level but also a lot of time is spent
trying to keep the smaller animals like monkeys and squirrels from destroying crops .
2.3.19 Food Insecurity

Most communities in Kenya rely on rain-fed agriculture for food production.
However, given the poor soil fertility in two-thirds of the Republic, and also the fact
that most of the districts are either arid or very arid, there is sometimes insufficient
food production. The monopoly of prime agricultural lands by the rich contributes to
the famine situation.
2.3.20 Fisheries Depletion
There has been a significant drop in the recorded fish output in most inland lakes and
along the shoreline of the Indian Ocean. Possible reasons for this may be the high
siltation of the lucustrine environments and ocean pollution. Also the reduction in the
quantity of water entering the inland lakes due to irrigation activities intensified
around such lakes as the Naivasha, Turkana and Victoria has been recorded. Another
factor that could be of importance is the over-exploitation of the diminishing fish
stocks. However, in the case of Lake Victoria, the inversion of the dreaded and
rapidly spreading water hyacinth is thought to have destroyed productive fi shing
grounds in the region. Serious conservation issues are therefore experienced within
the lucustrine and coastal littoral environments of Kenya. In the latter case the
problem has been compounded by lack of water. Furthermore, due to lack of marine
police, it has become increasingly difficult to monitor activities of foreign vessels
which are often engaged in fishing activities.
2.3.21 Mining and Quarrying
There are several small-scale and large-scale sand harvesting enterprises in Kenya.
The most affected district being Machakos (e.g., along Athi River) . Stone quarrying
is equally a real problem in rural Kenya. This unplanned mining is increasingly
Warnicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya
19
threatening the water courses in the country. Coral rocks mining in coastal areas is
creating instability in coastal ecosystems. The recent discovery of large deposits of
titanium in the Magarini Sands of Mamburui and Sokoke areas of Malindi District is
likely to enhance the vulnerability of coastal ecosystems when exploitation
commences. Proper and thorough Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies
could be helpful.
As a major cause of land degradation, it is poised to increase with the rising demand
due to rapid growth of Kenya' s urban centres, especially Nairobi and Mombasa. In
addition, the operators of such mines and quarry never rehabilitate them, thereby
causing serious conservation problems.
2.3.22 Demoralised Professionals
The country continues to witness the proliferation of demoralised professionals
working in government service, national universities, and even in certain private
sector establishments. Due to the poor remuneration paid for the high quality services
offered, some professionals have been forced start engaging themselves in activities
unrelated to their training background. This has led to internal as well as external
brain drain. Hence, there is a low commitment to the proper implementation of
conservation plans.
2.3.23 Aids Pandemic
The AIDS pandemic has exerted major stress on natural resources management.
Apart from the rapidly increasing rate in the demise of highly trained scientists,
resource managers, policy makers, etc., even skilled ordinary citizens engaged in
conservation activities have not been spared. The disease, while it is poised to
continue to have an impact on the conservation practice in Kenya, is predicted to
have adversely affected the national economy, thereby triggering a vicious cycle of
damage on the natural environment.
2.3.24 Gender Issues
A larger proportion of the Kenyan population in the rural areas is women, who
experience the roles of being housewives, motherhood and food providers. Given their
daily activities, women are the actual managers of natural resources.
The new world concern with environmental protection and conservation has been
used to control use of some of these resources. Notable in this regard is the Kenyan
Development Plan of 1984-1988, which states that "the main concern with
environment ... is to control human behaviour". Since attitudes and perceptions
influence practice in resource utilisation, women have an important role in
environmental management. This continues to be a major issue in Kenya.
Environmental Forum Publications Series, no. 2 20
3. CONSERVATION PLANS IN KENYA
3.1 Historical Development of Resource Use Planning in Kenya
3.1.1 Before 1900: The Pre-Colonial Period
During the pre-colonial era, resource management in the interior of Kenya depended
very much on whether a group was agrarian or pastoral. The agrarian societies
depended very much on tilling the land for crop production. The pastoralists on the
other hand believed that all livestock was given to them by God. Most groups lived
almost wholly on milk, blood and flesh, supplemented with what they obtained
through barter trade with the agrarian societies along the border areas. The
pastoralists also had better-organised warriors to extend and protect their territories.
Both the agrarian and pastoral societies left large tracts of land for resource
management purposes, whose disruption constituted a major environmental problem
in Kenya.
Along the Kenya coastline the seeds of colonialism were sowed mainly with the
coming of the Portuguese in the 1500s. However, these were removed mainly by the
people of Asian origin, especially the Arabs. When Seyyid Said made his imperial
seat in Zanzibar, then about 20 km strip from the coastline to the interior was
annexed as part of his empire along the East Coast of Africa. This disadvantaged the
pcople of African descent because the strip had land of high agricultural production
potential.
3.1.2 1900-1930: Settlement in the White Highlands
The colonial white settlers erroneously perceived any tract of land left fallow as no
man's land and annexed it. The colonial white settlers began to move into these
territories, thus effectively creating barriers that separated the different societies
which hitherto interacted freely as in, for example, Thika District between the Kikuyu
and Akamba people or in the Limuru area between the Kikuyu and Maasai . Then
other groups such as the Maasai were moved from areas where land was of high
potential to areas of low potential. The net effect was to increase population densities
in the low potential areas such that by 1930 some pockets had densities of up to 500
people per km', which led to accelerated land degradation.
3.1.3 1931-1953: Consolidation of White Settlements
A European Settlement Board (ESB) was fonned in 1945 with an annual budget of
2 million per year provided by the Colonial Government. By 1960, the Board had
settled 493 White fanners on about 1.2 million ha of land. Most of the Europeans
settled in the fonner "Kenyan White Highlands" between 1918 and 1948. During this
period the African land resources development was mainly administered through the
African Land Development Board (ALDEV), without any specific plan up to 1946.
Development was essentially piecemeal in the African areas and limited almost
entirely to subsistence crops such as maize, beans, etc.
It was during this period that the degradation of African land was realised. This was
as a result of the fact that both the agrarian and pastoral societies had been