Resistive Network Analysis

The analysis of an electrical network consists of determining each of the unknown branch currents and node voltages. A number of methods for network analysis have been developed, based on Ohms Law and Kirchoffs Law - we will look at several of these. General approach:

Define all relevant variables in a systematic way. Identify the known and unknown variables. Construct a set of equations relating these variables. Solve the equations, using the smallest set of equations needed to solve for all the unknown variables.

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The Node Voltage Method - 1

This is the most general method for analysing circuits. Basis: define voltage at each node as an independent variable. One node is selected as a reference node (often, but not
necessarily, ground).

Each of the other node voltages is referenced to this node. Ohms Law is applied between any two adjacent nodes to

determine the voltage flowing in each branch. Each branch current is expressed in terms of one or more node voltages, so currents do not appear in the equations.
R i va vb

branch current : i =

Kirchoffs Current Law is applied at each of the n nodes. This gives n-1 independent linear equations for the n-1
independent node voltages (nth = reference node).
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va vb R

The Node Voltage Method - 2

Methodology: (1) Select a reference node (usually ground). All other node voltages are referenced to this node. (2) Define the remaining n-1 node voltages as the independent variables. (3) Apply Kirchoffs Current Law at each of the n-1 nodes, expressing each current in terms of the adjacent node voltages. (4) Solve the linear system of n-1 equations in n-1 unknowns.
R1 va i1 i2 R2 vb R3 i3 vd

Example of applying KCL at one node (b):

i1 i2 i3 = 0 v a vb vb v c vb v d =0 R1 R2 R3

vc
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The Node Voltage Method - 3

Example: Direction of current flow chosen assumes is is a positive current. Reference node vc. Two other nodes: va and vb. Solve for these.

Application of KCL at node a: iS i1 i2 = 0 Application of KCL at node a: i2 i3 = 0 Application of KCL at node a: i1 + i3 iS = 0

node a R2 is R1 R3 node b

(not independent!)
i2 R2 vb

va

is is i1

R1

R3 i3

node c

vc = 0

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The Node Voltage Method - 4

Example continued:

Define currents as f(v,R):

i1 =

va vc R1

i2 =

va vb R2

i3 =

vb vc R3

Substitute these in the two nodal equations:

iS va va vb v a vb vb =0 =0 R1 R2 R2 R3
va i2 R2 i1 R1 R3 i3 vb

Solve for va, vb in terms of is, R1, R2, R3:

1 1 1 v a + v b = iS + R1 R 2 R2 1 1 1 + v a + v b = 0 R2 R 2 R3
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is is

vc = 0

The Node Voltage Method - 5

The node voltage method is easy to apply when current sources
are present because they are directly accounted for by KCL.

However, the node voltage method can also be applied when

voltage sources are present, and this case is actually simpler. Example: One node voltage is known: va = vs.
va vb vc

b: c:

v S vb vb vb vc =0 R1 R2 R3 vb vc v + iS c = 0 R3 R4
vs

R1

R3

R2

R4

is

Can solve for vb and vc in terms of is, and the four resistances.
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The Mesh Current Method - 1

This is an efficient and systematic method for analysing circuits
because meshes are easily identified in a circuit. Basis: define current in each mesh as an independent variable. The current flowing through a resistor in a specified direction defines the polarity of the voltage across the resistor.
vR i R

Current i, defined as flowing from left to right, determines the polarity of the voltage across R.

To avoid confusion, define positive mesh currents as clockwise. The sum of the voltages around a closed circuit must equal zero

by Kirchoffs Voltage Law. Apply KVL to each mesh to obtain a set of n equations, one for each mesh. Branch currents and voltages can be derived from mesh currents.
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The Mesh Current Method - 2

Methodology: (1) Define each mesh current consistently. Generally define mesh currents clockwise, for convenience. (2) Apply KVL around each mesh, expressing each voltage in terms of one or more mesh currents. (3) Solve the resulting linear system of equations, with mesh v2 currents as the independent variables.

Once the direction of current flow is selected, KVL requires: v1 v 2 v 3 = 0

R2 v1 R3 i a mesh v3

Note: an arbitrary direction can be assumed for any current in a circuit as long as signs are applied consistently. If the answer for the current is negative then the chosen reference direction is just opposite to the direction of actual current flow.

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The Mesh Current Method - 3

Example: Two-mesh circuit with two unknowns: i1 and i2. Consider each mesh independently. Mesh 1

Voltages v1 and v2 around the mesh have been assigned according

the clockwise direction of mesh current i1. Note: mesh current i1 is flowing through R1 (= branch current for R1) but is not the branch current for R2. This is i1-i2. So v2=(i1-i2)R2. Apply KVL for mesh 1: v i R (i i )R = 0
s 1 1 1 2 2

R1

R3

R1 v1

R3

vs

i1

R2

i2

R4

vs

i1

v2

R2

i2

R4

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Consider mesh 1

The Mesh Current Method - 4

Example continued: Mesh 2

Voltages v2, v3, and v4 around the mesh have been assigned

according the clockwise direction of mesh current i2. Note: mesh current i2 is the branch current for R3 and R4, but not for R2. This is i2-i1. So v2=(i2-i1)R2. This is the opposite to mesh 1 because the mesh currents flow through R2 in opposing directions. Apply KVL for mesh 2: (i i )R + i R + i R = 0
2 1 2 2 3 2 4 R1 R3 v3 vs R2 i1 v2 i2 R4 v4

Combine the equations for the two meshes to get:

(R1 + R 2 ) i1 R 2i2 = v S

R 2i1 + (R 2 + R 3 + R 4 ) i2 = 0 Solve for mesh currents i1 and i2. Derive other currents and voltages.
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Consider mesh 2

The Mesh Current Method - 5

The mesh current method is very effective when applied to
circuits that contain only voltage sources.

However, it may also be applied to circuits containing both

voltage and current sources - just be careful to identify the correct current in each mesh. Example: Solve for unknown voltage vx across the current source.

Presence of current source requires:

i1 i2 = iS = 2 A
5 i s= 2 A i2 4 2

10 5i1 v x = 0 KVL for mesh 2: v x 2i2 4i2 = 0

KVL for mesh 1: Solve to get:

i1 = 2 A i2 = 0 A v x = 6i2 = 0 V
vs =10 V i1

vx

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Dependent Sources
Dependent or controlled sources

are sources whose current or voltage output is a function of some

other voltage or current in a circuit (unlike ideal sources which are independent of any other element in a circuit)

example: transistor amplifiers

vs

Source type voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) voltage-controlled current source (VCCS) current-controlled current source (CCCS)
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Relationship vs=Avx vs=Aix is=Avx Is=Aix

is

Circuit Analysis with Dependent Sources - 1

The node voltage and mesh current methods can also be applied
to dependent sources, with minor modification.

When a dependent source is present in a circuit, it can be treated

initially as an ideal source, with the node or mesh equations then written down as previously described.

An additional constraint equation will also be needed, relating the

dependent source to one of the circuit voltages or currents.

This full set of equations can then solved. Note: once the constraint equation has been substituted into the
initial set of equations, the number of unknowns remains the same.

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Circuit Analysis with Dependent Sources - 2

Example: simplified model of a bipolar transistor amplifier

Two obvious nodes - apply node voltage analysis. 1 1 KCL at node 2: i + v 2 = 0 KCL at node 1: iS = v 1 b R R RC S b Current ib can be determined by considering a current divider: 1 Rb RS ib = iS = iS 1 Rb + 1 R S Rb + RS node 1
node 2

Insert this into eqn 2

to get two equations that can be solved for v1 and v2.
is ib Rs Rb

ib

Rc

vo

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Principle of Superposition - 1
In a linear circuit containing N sources, each branch voltage and current is the sum of N voltages and currents, each of which may be computed by setting all but one source equal to zero and solving the circuit containing the single source.

This is a conceptual aid rather than a precise analysis technique

like the mesh current and node voltage methods.

Useful in visualizing the behaviour of a circuit containing multiple

sources.

Applies to any linear system. While it can easily and sometimes effectively be applied to circuits
with multiple sources, other methods are often more efficient.
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Principle of Superposition - 2
Consider a circuit with two voltage sources connected in series.
+ _ + _
(from Rizzoni Figure 3.26)

vB2 + vB1 _

i R

vB1

+ _

iB1 R

vB2

iB2

Net current through R = sum of individual source currents: i = iB1 + iB 2 v + v B 2 v B1 v B 2 = + = iB1 + iB 2 More formally: i = B1 R R R This circuit is equivalent to the combination of two circuits, each
containing a single source. A short circuit is substituted for the missing source in each subcircuit.

A short circuit sees zero voltage across itself, so this is

equivalent to zeroing the output of one of the voltage sources.
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Zeroing Voltage and Current Sources

When applying the Principle of Superposition voltage sources are zeroed by substituting short circuits current sources are zeroed by substituting open circuits
1. In order to set a voltage source equal to zero, we replace it with a short circuit. R1 + vS _ iS R2 R1 iS R2

(no current can flow through an open circuit, so this is equivalent to zeroing the output of the current source)

A circuit

The same circuit with

vS = 0

2. In order to set a current source equal to zero, we replace it with an open circuit. R1 R1 + vS _ iS R2 vS + _ R2

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.27)

A circuit The same circuit with i S = 0
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Equivalent Circuits
Because Ohms Law and Kirchoffs Laws are linear, any DC
circuit can be replaced by a simplified equivalent circuit.

Applying Ohms Law to a combination of resistors can give an

equivalent resistor.

Applying Kirchoffs Laws to a combination of circuit elements can

give an equivalent circuit.

It is useful to view each source or load as a two-terminal device

described by an i-v curve.

This configuration is called a one-port network.

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Example of an Equivalent Circuit

i + vS + _ Source v Load R1 R2 R3
(from Rizzoni Figure 3.29)

REQ =

1 1 1 1 + + R1 R 2 R 3 vs REQ

and i =

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Thevenins Equivalent Circuit

The Thevenin Theorem

As far as a load is concerned, any network composed of ideal

voltage and current sources, and of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source, vT, in series with an equivalent resistor, RT.

i Source + v Load vT
+

RT
_

i + v Load

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.31)

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Nortons Equivalent Circuit

The Norton Theorem

As far as a load is concerned, any network composed of ideal

voltage and current sources, and of linear resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal current source, iN, in parallel with an equivalent resistor, RN.
i Source + v Load iN RN + v i Load

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.32)

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Determining Thevenin & Norton Equivalent Resistance

The first step in computing a Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit
is to find the equivalent resistance presented by the circuit at its terminals.

This is done by setting all sources in the circuit equal to zero and
calculating the effective resistance between the terminals.

Voltage and current sources in the circuit are set to zero using the
same approach as with the Principle of Superposition

voltage sources are replaced by short circuits current sources are replaced by open circuits

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Example of Thevenin Resistance - 1

Example: What is the equivalent resistance that load RL sees between terminals a and b?

Remove load resistance from

the circuit and replace voltage source vs by a short circuit.

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Example of Thevenin Resistance - 2

Equivalent resistance seen by the load: R1 and R2 are in parallel (connected between same two nodes) Let RT be total resistance between terminals a and b. Then R T = R3 + R1 || R 2
R3 a R1 R2 b R3 R 1||R 2
(from Rizzoni Figure 3.34)
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a RT b

13

Example of Thevenin Resistance - 3

Alternative method of determining the Thevenin resistance:

Hypothetical 1-A current source is

connected between a and b.

Voltage vx across a-b will then

equal RT (because is=1 A).

What is the total resistance the current iS will encounter in flowing around the circuit?
R
3

a +

The source current encounters

R3 as a resistor in series with the parallel combination of R1 & R2.

R1

R2

vx b

iS

iS

iS

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.35)

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= R

|| R

+R

Calculating Equivalent Resistance

Methodology for calculating equivalent resistance of a one-port network (Thevenin or Norton): (1) Remove the load. (2) Zero all independent voltage and current sources. (3) Compute the total resistance between load terminals, with the load removed.

This resistance is equivalent to that which would be encountered

by a current source connected to the circuit in place of the load.

Note that this procedure gives a result that is independent of the load. This is what we want, because once the equivalent resistance has been calculated for a source circuit, the equivalent circuit is unchanged if a different load is connected.
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Determining the Thevenin Voltage - 1

The equivalent Thevenin source voltage, vT, is equal to the open circuit voltage present at the load terminals with load removed.

i.e., in order to calcuate vT, it is sufficient to remove the load and to

compute the open circuit voltage at the one-port terminals

The open circuit voltage, vOC, and the Thevenin voltage, vT, must
be the same if the Thevenin Theorem is true (see below).

This is because in the circuit containing vT and RT, the voltage vOC
must equal vT because no current flows through RT and so the voltage across RT is zero. From KVL: v T = R T (0) + v OC = v OC

One-port network

v OC

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Determining the Thevenin Voltage - 2

Methodology: (1) Remove the load, leaving the load terminals open-circuited. (2) Define the open-circuit voltage vOC across the open load terminals. (3) Apply any preferred method (e.g., nodal analysis) to solve for vOC. (4) The Thevenin voltage is vT = vOC.

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A Circuit and Its Thevenin Equivalent

R1 vS + _ R2 R3 iL RL vS R2 + _ R1+R2 R3+R1||R2 iL RL
(from Rizzoni Figure 3.49)

A circuit

Its Thvenin equivalent

This is the circuit we considered earlier, along with its Thevenin equivalent. The two circuits are equivalent in that the current drawn by the load, iL, is the same in both:

iL = v S

R2 1 vT = R1 + R 2 (R3 + R1 || R 2 ) + RL R T + RL

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Determining the Norton Current - 1

The Norton equivalent current, iN, is equal to the short circuit current that would flow if the load were replaced by a short circuit.

Consider the one-port network and its Norton equivalent circuit: Current iSC flowing through the short circuit replacing the load is the
same as the Norton current iN because all of the source current in this circuit must flow through the short circuit.

One-port network

i SC

iN

RT = R N

i SC

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.57)

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Determining the Norton Current - 2

Lets find current iSC in this circuit.
vS + _ R1 v R3

i1

R2

i2

iS C

Short circuit replacing the load

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.58)

Mesh Current Method: Let i1 and i2=iSC be the mesh currents in the circuit. Two mesh equations (solve for iSC): (R1 + R 2 ) i1 R 2iSC = v S R 2i1 + (R 2 + R3 ) iSC = 0 Node Voltage Method: vS v v v = + Nodal equation (solve for v): R1 R 2 R3 v SR 2 v Thus: iN = = R 3 R1R 3 + R 2R3 + R1R 2
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Determining the Norton Current - 3

Methodology: (1) Replace the load with a short circuit. (2) Define the short circuit current iSC to be the Norton equivalent current. (3) Apply any preferred method (e.g., nodal analysis) to solve for iSC. (4) The Norton current is iN = iSC.

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Source Transformations - 1
Source transformations can be useful for determining equivalent circuits sometimes allow replacement of current sources with voltage sources and vice versa. The Thevenin and Norton Theorems state that any one-port network can be represented by a voltage source in series with a resistor, or by a current source in parallel with a resistor, and that either of these representations is equivalent to the original circuit.
RT
One-port network

Thevenin equivalent

v T +
_

Norton i equivalent N

RT

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.63)

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Source Transformations - 2
Implication: any Thevenin equivalent circuit can be replaced by a Norton equivalent circuit, if we use the relationship: v T = R TiN
R1 vS + _ R2 R3 i SC vS R1 R1 R2 R3 i SC

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.64)

The subcircuit on the left of the dashed line can be replaced by its
Norton equivalent, as shown. Current iSC can be easily found because the three resistors are in parallel with the current source - use a simple current divider. iSC flows through R3, so:

iSC = iN =

1 R3 vS v SR 2 = 1 R1 + 1 R 2 + 1 R3 R1 R1R 3 + R 2R3 + R1R 2

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Source Transformations - 3
Subcircuits amenable to source transformation:
Node a a R or + vS _ b Node b The venin subcircuits
(from Rizzoni Figure 3.65)
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a a

+ _ vS

iS

or i S

b b Norton subcircuits

Finding Thevenin & Norton Equivalents Experimentally 1

Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits can be evaluated
experimentally using simple techniques.

Basic idea: Thevenin voltage is an open-circuit voltage Norton current is a short-circuit current Therefore possible to make measurements to determine these
quantities.

Once vT and iN are known, the Thevenin resistance of the circuit can be found using R T = v T iN Need to measure vT and iN.

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Finding Thevenin & Norton Equivalents Experimentally 2

Measurement of open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current for an arbitrary network connected to any load:
a Unknown network An unknown network connected to a load b a A i SC rm Note: Do not short circuit a network by inserting an ammeter in series - this could damage the circuit or the ammeter! Load

Unknown network

b Network connected for measurement of short-circuit current a + Unknown vO C network b Network connected for measurement of open-circuit voltage
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rm

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.71)

Finding Thevenin & Norton Equivalents Experimentally 3

These measurements require care because the measuring
instruments are nonideal.

In the presence of finite meter resistance rm, this quantity must be

taken into account when determining the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current.

Quantities vOC and iSC have quotation marks to indicate that the
measured values are affected by rm and are not the true values.

The true values can be calculated using (prove this to yourself!):

R r iN =" iSC " 1 + m v T =" v OC " 1 + T rm RT
where iN = ideal Norton current, vT = ideal Thevenin voltage, and RT = true Thevenin resistance.
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Finding Thevenin & Norton Equivalents Experimentally 4

R r iN =" iSC " 1 + m v T =" v OC " 1 + T rm RT

Recall For an ideal ammeter, rm should approach zero (short circuit). For an ideal voltmeter, rm should approach infinity (open circuit). So these two equations can be used to find the true Thevenin and

Norton equivalent sources from an imperfect measurement of the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current, provided that the internal meter resistance rm is known. In practice, the internal resistance of voltmeters is high enough to be considered infinite relative to the equivalent resistance of most circuits. However, it is impossible to build an ammeter with zero internal resistance: need to know rm to determine the short circuit current.
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Maximum Power Transfer - 1

The Thevenin and Norton models imply that some of the power
generated by a source will be dissipated by the internal circuits within the source.

Given this unavoidable power loss, how much power can be

transferred to the load from the source under the most ideal conditions? Or, what is the load resistance that will absorb maximum power from the source?

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

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Maximum Power Transfer - 2

Power transfer between source and load: Practical source is represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit Given vT and RT, what value of RL will allow for maximum power
transfer?
RT Practical source RL Load + _ (from Rizzoni Figure 3.73)

vT

RL iL Source equivalent

Power absorbed by the load: PL = i RL vT Load current: iL = RL + R T v2 T Combine to get load power: PL = (R + R )2 RL L T
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2 L

Maximum Power Transfer - 3

Differentiate PL w.r.t. RL to find find the value of RL that
maximizes the load power (assuming constant vT and RT).

(R + RT ) 2v 2 dPL v 2 TRL (RL + R T ) = T L =0 dRL (RL + RT )4

2

Hence: (RL + R T )2 2RL (RL + R T ) = 0 For which the solution is: RL = R T

To transfer the maximum power to a load, the equivalent source
and load resistances must be matched (i.e., equal).

Thus, in order to transfer maximum power to a load, given a fixed

equivalent source resistance, the load resistance must match this equivalent source resistance.
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Voltage Source Loading Effects

Voltage source loading: When a practical voltage source is
connected to a load, the current that flows from the source to the load will cause a voltage drop across the internal source resistance, vint. As a result, the voltage seen by the load will be lower than the open-circuit (Thevenin) voltage of the source.

Load voltage is then:

v L = v T v int = v T iR T

Thus want small internal resistance in a practical voltage source.

+ vT + _ vint RT i Source Load RL

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.74)

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Current Source Loading Effects

Current source loading: When a practical current source is
connected to a load, the internal source resistance will draw some current, iint, away from the load. As a result, the load will receive only part of the short-circuit (Norton) current available from the source.

Load current is then: iL = iN v RT Thus want large internal resistance in a practical current source.
i iN
int

RT

+ v Load

RL

Source

(from Rizzoni Figure 3.74)

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