Structures for

Discrete-Time Systems

Content
Introduction
Block Diagram Representation
Signal Flow Graph
Basic Structure for IIR Systems
Transposed Forms
Basic Structure for FIR Systems
Lattice Structures
Structures for Discrete-Time
Systems
Introduction
Characterize an LTI System
Impulse Response
z-Transform
Difference Equation
Example
| | | | ,
1
) (
1
1
1 0
a z
az
z b b
z H >

+
=

) 1 ( ) ( ) (
1 0
+ = n u a b n u a b n h
n n
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1 0
+ = n x b n x b n ay n y
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1 0
+ + = n x b n x b n ay n y
Computable
Noncomputable
Basic Operations
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1 0
+ + = n x b n x b n ay n y
Computable
Addition
Multiplication
Delay
In fact, there are unlimited variety of
computational structures.
Why Implement Using Different Structures?
Finite-precision number representation of a
digital computer.
Truncation or rounding error.

Modeling methods:
Block Diagram
Signal Flow Graph

Block Diagram Representation
+
x
1
(n)
x
2
(n)
x
1
(n) + x
2
(n)
Adder
x(n)
a
ax(n)
Multiplier
x(n)
x(n1)
z
1
Unit Delay
Example
) ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) (
2 1
n bx n y a n y a n y + + =
x(n)
+
+
b
a
1
z
1

z
1

a
2
y(n)
y(n1)
y(n2)
Higher-Order Difference Equations

= =
=
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (

=
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b
z H
1
1
1
) (

= =
+ =
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form I)

= =
+ =
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
M1
b
M
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nM)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nM)

v(n)
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form I)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
M1
b
M
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nM)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nM)

v(n)

=
=
M
k
k
k n x b n v
0
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
n v k n y a n y
N
k
k
+ =

=
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form I)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
M1
b
M
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nM)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nM)

v(n)

=
=
M
k
k
k n x b n v
0
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
n v k n y a n y
N
k
k
+ =

=
M
k
k
k
z b z H
0
1
) (

=
N
k
k
k
z a
z H
1
2
1
1
) (
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form I)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
M1
b
M
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nM)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nM)

v(n)

=
M
k
k
k
z b z H
0
1
) (

=
N
k
k
k
z a
z H
1
2
1
1
) (
Implementing
zeros
Implementing
poles
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
= =

N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b z H z H z H
1
0
2 1
1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form I)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
M1
b
M
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nM)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nM)

v(n)
How many Adders?
How many multipliers?
How many delays?
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form II)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
N1
b
N
x(n)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

w(n1)

w(n2)

w(nN)

w(n)
Assume
M = N
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form II)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
N1
b
N
x(n)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

w(n1)

w(n2)

w(nN)

w(n)
Assume
M = N
) ( ) ( ) (
1
n x k n w a n w
N
k
k
+ =

=
) ( ) ( ) (
0
n w k n x b n y
M
k
k
+ =

=
M
k
k
k
z b z H
0
1
) (

=
N
k
k
k
z a
z H
1
2
1
1
) (
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form II)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
N1
b
N
x(n)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

w(n1)

w(n2)

w(nN)

w(n)
Assume
M = N

=
M
k
k
k
z b z H
0
1
) (

=
N
k
k
k
z a
z H
1
2
1
1
) (
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =

M
k
k
k
N
k
k
k
z b
z a
z H z H z H
0
1
1 2
1
1
) ( ) ( ) (
Implementing
zeros
Implementing
poles
Block Diagram Representation
(Direct Form II)
+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
b
0
b
1
b
N1
b
N
x(n)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

w(n1)

w(n2)

w(nN)

w(n)
Assume
M = N
How many Adders?
How many multipliers?
How many delays?
Block Diagram Representation
(Canonic Direct Form)
+
+
+
b
0
b
1
b
N1
b
N
x(n)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

Assume
M = N
Block Diagram Representation
(Canonic Direct Form)
+
+
+
b
0
b
1
b
N1
b
N
x(n)

+
z
1

z
1

+
z
1

+
a
1
a
N1
a
N
y(n)

Assume
M = N
How many Adders?
How many multipliers?
How many delays? max(M, N)
Structures for Discrete-Time
Systems
Signal Flow Graph
Nodes And Branches
w
j
(n)
w
k
(n)
Associated with each node
is a variable or node value.
Nodes And Branches
w
j
(n)
w
k
(n)

Brach (j, k)
Each branch has an input
signal and an output signal.
Input w
j
(n)
Output: A linear transformation of input,
such as constant gain and unit delay.
More on Nodes
w
j
(n)
w
k
(n)
An internal node serves as a summer, i.e., its value is
the sum of outputs of all branches entering the node.
Source Nodes
Nodes without entering branches
x
j
(n) w
k
(n)
Source node j
Sink Nodes
Nodes that have only entering branches
y
k
(n) w
j
(n)
Sink node k
Example
x(n)
y(n) w
1
(n)
w
2
(n)
a
b
c
d
e
Source
Node
Sink
Node
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1
n bw n aw n x n w + + =
) ( ) (
1 2
n cw n w =
) ( ) ( ) (
2
n ew n dx n y + =
Block Diagram vs. Signal Flow Graph
x(n)
+
a

z
1

+
b
1
b
0
w(n) y(n)
x(n)
w
1
(n)
w
2
(n) w
3
(n)
a
b
1
b
0
z
1
1
2
3
4
w
4
(n)
y(n)
Block Diagram vs. Signal Flow Graph
x(n)
+
a

z
1

+
b
1
b
0
w(n) y(n)
x(n)
w
1
(n)
w
2
(n) w
3
(n)
a
b
1
b
0
z
1
1
2
3
4
w
4
(n)
y(n)
) ( ) ( ) (
4 1
n aw n x n w + =
) ( ) (
1 2
n w n w =
) ( ) ( ) (
4 1 2 0 3
n w b n w b n w + =
) 1 ( ) (
2 4
= n w n w
) ( ) (
3
n w n y =
Block Diagram vs. Signal Flow Graph
) ( ) ( ) (
4 1
n aw n x n w + =
) ( ) (
1 2
n w n w =
) ( ) ( ) (
4 1 2 0 3
n w b n w b n w + =
) 1 ( ) (
2 4
= n w n w
) ( ) (
3
n w n y =
) ( ) (
3
n w n y = ) 1 ( ) (
2 1 2 0
+ = n w b n w b
) ( ) (
1 2
n w n w = ) 1 ( ) (
2
+ = n aw n x
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
1 0
z W z b b z Y

+ =
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2
z W az z X z W

+ =
1
2
1
) (
) (

=
az
z X
z W
) (
1
) (
) (
1
1
1 0
z X
az
z b b
z Y

+
=
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1 0
+ + = n x b n x b n ay n y
Structures for Discrete-Time
Systems
Basic Structure for
IIR Systems
Criteria
Reduce the number of constant multipliers
Increase speed
Reduce the number of delays
Reduce the memory requirement
Modularity: VLSI design
The effects of finite register length and finite-
precision arithmetic.
Basic Structures
Direct Forms
Cascade Form
Parallel Form
Direct Forms

= =
=
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (

=
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b
z H
1
1
1
) (
Direct Form I

= =
=
N
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (
b
0
b
1
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nN)

y(n)

b
2
b
N-1
b
N
x(nN+1)

a
1
a
2
a
N-1
a
N
y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nN)

y(nN+1)

z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
v(n)

Direct Form I

= =
=
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (

=
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b
z H
1
1
1
) (
b
0
b
1
x(n)

x(n1)

x(n2)

x(nN)

y(n)

b
2
b
N-1
b
N
x(nN+1)

a
1
a
2
a
N-1
a
N
y(n1)

y(n2)

y(nN)

y(nN+1)

z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
v(n)

Direct Form II

= =
=
N
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (
x(n)

y(n)

w(n)

b
0
b
1
b
2
b
N-1
b
N
a
1
a
2
a
N-1
a
N
z
1
z
1
z
1
Direct Form II

= =
=
N
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (

=
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b
z H
1
1
1
) (
x(n)

y(n)

w(n)

b
0
b
1
b
2
b
N-1
b
N
a
1
a
2
a
N-1
a
N
z
1
z
1
z
1
Example
2 1
2 1
125 . 0 75 . 0 1
2 1
) (


+
+ +
=
z z
z z
z H
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
0.75
0.125
2
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
0.75
0.125
2
Direct Form I
Direct Form II
Cascade Form

= =
=
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (

=
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b
z H
1
1
1
) (
[ [
[ [
=

=
=

=


=
2 1
2 1
1
1 * 1 1
1
1
1 * 1 1
1
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 (
) (
N
k
k k
N
k
k
M
k
k k
M
k
k
z d z d z c
z h z h z g
z H
Cascade Form
[ [
[ [
=

=
=

=


=
2 1
2 1
1
1 * 1 1
1
1
1 * 1 1
1
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 (
) (
N
k
k k
N
k
k
M
k
k k
M
k
k
z d z d z c
z h z h z g
z H
[
=



+ +
=
s
N
k
k k
k k k
z a z a
z b z b b
z H
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 0
1
) (
Cascade Form
2nd Order
System
2nd Order
System
2nd Order
System
[
=



+ +
=
s
N
k
k k
k k k
z a z a
z b z b b
z H
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 0
1
) (
Cascade Form
[
=



+ +
=
s
N
k
k k
k k k
z a z a
z b z b b
z H
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 0
1
) (
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
a
11
a
21
b
11
b
21
b
01
z
1
z
1
a
12
a
22
b
12
b
22
b
01
z
1
z
1
a
13
a
23
b
13
b
23
b
03
Another Cascade Form
[
=



+ +
=
s
N
k
k k
k k k
z a z a
z b z b b
z H
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 0
1
) (
[
=



+ +
=
s
N
k
k k
k k
z a z a
z b z b
b z H
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
0
1
~ ~
1
) (
Parallel Form

= =
=
M
k
k
N
k
k
k n x b k n y a n y
0 1
) ( ) ( ) (

=
N
k
k
k
M
k
k
k
z a
z b
z H
1
1
1
) (

=

=

=

+ =
1 1
1
1 * 1
1
1
1
0
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
1
) (
N
k
k k
k k
N
k
k
k
N
k
k
k
z d z d
z e B
z c
A
z C z H
P
Parallel Form


Real Poles


Complex Poles


Poles at zero

=

+ =
s P
N
k
k k
k k
N
k
k
k
z a z a
z e e
z C z H
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 0
0
1
) (

=

=

=

+ =
1 1
1
1 * 1
1
1
1
0
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
1
) (
N
k
k k
k k
N
k
k
k
N
k
k
k
z d z d
z e B
z c
A
z C z H
P
Group
Real Poles
Parallel Form

=

+ =
s P
N
k
k k
k k
N
k
k
k
z a z a
z e e
z C z H
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 0
0
1
) (
z
1
z
1
a
1k
a
2k
e
0k
e
1k
Parallel Form
x(n)

y(n)


=

+ =
s P
N
k
k k
k k
N
k
k
k
z a z a
z e e
z C z H
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 0
0
1
) (
Example
2 1
2 1
125 . 0 75 . 0 1
2 1
) (


+
+ +
=
z z
z z
z H
2 1
1
25 . 1 75 . 0 1
8 7
8 ) (

+
+
+ =
z z
z
z H
8
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
0.75
0.125
8
7
Example
2 1
2 1
125 . 0 75 . 0 1
2 1
) (


+
+ +
=
z z
z z
z H
1 1
25 . 0 1
25
5 . 0 1
18
8 ) (

+ =
z z
z H
z
1
0.5
18
8
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
0.25
25
Structures for Discrete-Time
Systems
Transposed Forms
Signal Flow Graph Transformation
To transform signal graphs into different forms
while leaving the overall system function
between input and output unchanged.
Transposition of Signal Flow Graph
Reverse the directions of all arrows.
Changes the roles of input and output.
x(n)

y(n)
z
1
a

x(n)

y(n)
z
1
a

Transposition of Signal Flow Graph
x(n)

y(n)
z
1
a

x(n)

y(n)
z
1
a

Are there any relations between
the two systems?
Example:
1
1
1
) (

=
az
z H
z
1
a

x(n)

y(n)

z
1
a

x(n)

y(n)

z
1
a

x(n)

y(n)

Transposition of Signal Flow Graph
Reverse the directions of all arrows.
Changes the roles of input and output.
x(n)

y(n)
z
1
a

x(n)

y(n)
z
1
a

Detail proof see reference
Structures for Discrete-Time
Systems
Basic Structure for
FIR Systems
FIR
For causal FIR systems, the system
function has only zeros.

=
=
M
k
k
k n x b n y
0
) ( ) (

=
=
M
k
k n x k h n y
0
) ( ) ( ) (

=
=
othrewise
M n b
n h
n
0
, , 1 , 0
) (

Direct Form

=
=
othrewise
M n b
n h
n
0
, , 1 , 0
) (

x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
h(0)

h(1)

h(2)

h(M1)

h(M)

x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
h(0)

h(1)

h(2)

h(M1)

h(M)

Direct Form
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
h(0)

h(1)

h(2)

h(M1)

h(M)

x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
h(0)

h(1)

h(2)

h(M1)

h(M)

Direct Form
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
h(0)

h(1)

h(2)

h(M1)

h(M)

Cascade Form

=
=
M
k
k
k n x b n y
0
) ( ) (

=

=
M
n
n
z n h z H
0
) ( ) (
[
=

+ + =
s
M
k
k k k
z b z b b z H
1
2
2
1
1 0
) ( ) (
Cascade Form
[
=

+ + =
s
M
k
k k k
z b z b b z H
1
2
2
1
1 0
) ( ) (
x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
b
01
b
11
b
21
z
1
z
1
b
02
b
12
b
22
z
1
z
1
b
1Ms
b
2Ms
b
0Ms
M is even M is odd
h(Mn) = h(n)
h(Mn) = h(n)
Structures for
Linear Phase Systems
A generalized linear phase system
satisfies:
h(Mn) = h(n) for n = 0,1,,M
h(Mn) = h(n) for n = 0,1,,M or
Type I
Type III
Type II
Type VI
Type I

=
M
n
n
z n h z H
0
) ( ) (

+ =

+ + =
M
M n
n M
M
n
n
z n h z M h z n h
1 2 /
2 /
1 2 /
0
) ( ) 2 / ( ) (

+ =

+ + =
M
M n
n M
M
n
n
z n M h z M h z n h
1 2 /
2 /
1 2 /
0
) ( ) 2 / ( ) (


=

+ + =
1 2 /
0
2 /
1 2 /
0
) ( ) 2 / ( ) (
M
n
M n M
M
n
n
z n h z M h z n h
2 /
1 2 /
0
) 2 / ( ) )( (
M
M
n
M n n
z M h z z n h

=

+ + =

Type I
2 /
1 2 /
0
) 2 / ( ) )( ( ) (
M
M
n
M n n
z M h z z n h z H

=

+ + =

x(n)

y(n)

z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
z
1
h(M/2)

h(M/21)

h(0)

h(1)

h(2)

Type II, III and VI
Structures for Discrete-Time
Systems
Lattice Structures
FIR Lattice
Consider x(n)=o(n), one will see

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z H z A
1
1 ) ( ) (
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
FIR Lattice
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n x n e n e = =
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
=

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) ( n e n y
N
=
) (n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
i
k
i
k
1
z
) (
1
n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
Consider x(n)=o(n), one will see

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z H z A
1
1 ) ( ) (
FIR Lattice
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
z X z E z E = =
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z E z k z E z E
i i i i

=
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
1
1
1
z E z z E k z E
i i i i

+ =
) ( ) ( z E z Y
N
=
Consider x(n)=o(n), one will see
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n x n e n e = =
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
=

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) ( n e n y
N
=
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z H z A
1
1 ) ( ) (
FIR Lattice
Define
) (
) (
) (
0
z E
z E
z A
i
i
=
) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
0
z E
z E
z A
i
i
=
1 ) (
~
) (
0 0
= = z A z A

=
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A
1
) (
1 ) (
Consider x(n)=o(n), one will see
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
z X z E z E = =
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z E z k z E z E
i i i i

=
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
1
1
1
z E z z E k z E
i i i i

+ =
) ( ) ( z E z Y
N
=

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z H z A
1
1 ) ( ) (
FIR Lattice
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z A z k z A z A
i i i i

=
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
1
1
1
z A z z A k z A
i i i i

+ =
Show that
) ( ) (
~
1
= z A z z A
i
i
i
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1 1

= z A z k z A z A
i
i
i i i
Define
) (
) (
) (
0
z E
z E
z A
i
i
=
) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
0
z E
z E
z A
i
i
=
1 ) (
~
) (
0 0
= = z A z A

=
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A
1
) (
1 ) (
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z A z k z A z A
i i i i

=
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
1
1
1
z A z z A k z A
i i i i

+ =
1 ) (
~
) (
0 0
= = z A z A

=
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A
1
) (
1 ) (
i=1:
1
1 0
1
1 0 1
1 ) (
~
) ( ) (

= = z k z A z k z A z A
1
1 0
1
0 1 1
) (
~
) ( ) (
~

+ = + = z k z A z z A k z A
z k z A
1
1
1
1 ) ( =

) (
1
1
1
= z A z
) ( ) (
1
0
1
1 0

= z A z k z A
Show that
) ( ) (
~
1
= z A z z A
i
i
i
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1 1

= z A z k z A z A
i
i
i i i
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z A z k z A z A
i i i i

=
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
1
1
1
z A z z A k z A
i i i i

+ =
1 ) (
~
) (
0 0
= = z A z A

=
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A
1
) (
1 ) (
i = n: Assumed true
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1 1
z A z k z A z A
n n n n

+ +
=
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
1
1 1
z A z z A k z A
n n n n

+ +
+ =
) ( ) (
1 ) 1 (
1
+
+
+ = z A z z A k
n
n
n n
) ( ) (
1 ) 1 (
1
+
+
= z A z k z A
n
n
n n
Show that
) ( ) (
~
1
= z A z z A
i
i
i
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1 1

= z A z k z A z A
i
i
i i i
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1
1 1
1
z A z k z A z A
n
n
n n n
+
+

+
=
) (
1
1
) 1 (
+
+
= z A z
n
n
i = n+1 also true.
Prove
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice
1 ) (
~
) (
0 0
= = z A z A

=
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A
1
) (
1 ) (
) ( ) (
~
1
= z A z z A
i
i
i
) ( ) ( ) (
1
1 1

= z A z k z A z A
i
i
i i i

=
1
1
) 1 (
1
1 ) (
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A

=
+

+ =
+ =
1
1
) 1 (
1
1
) 1 ( 1
1

) (
i
m
m i
m i i
i
i
i
m
m i i
m i
i
i i
i
i
z a k z k
z a k z k z A z k
=
i
i
i
k a =
) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a a i m<
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice

=
N
m
m
m
z a z A
1
1 ) (
1 ) (
~
) (
0 0
= = z A z A

=
i
m
m i
m i
z a z A
1
) (
1 ) (
) ( ) ( z A z A
N
=
) ( N
m m
a a =
N
N
N N
k a a = =
) (
i
i
i
k a =
) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a a i m<
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice

=
N
m
m
m
z a z A
1
1 ) (
) ( ) ( z A z A
N
=
) ( N
m m
a a =
N
N
N N
k a a = =
) (
m=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
k
1
k
2

k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
) 0 (
m
a
) 1 (
m
a
) 2 (
m
a
) 3 (
m
a
) 4 (
m
a
) 5 (
m
a
) 6 (
m
a
m=1
m=2
m=3
m=4
m=5
m=6
) 2 (
1
a
) 3 (
1
a
) 3 (
2
a
) 4 (
1
a
) 4 (
2
a
) 4 (
3
a
) 5 (
1
a
) 5 (
2
a
) 5 (
3
a
) 5 (
4
a
) 6 (
1
a
) 6 (
2
a
) 6 (
3
a
) 6 (
4
a
) 6 (
5
a
Given the lattice, to find A(z).
i
i
i
k a =
) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a a i m<
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice

=
N
m
m
m
z a z A
1
1 ) (
) ( ) ( z A z A
N
=
) ( N
m m
a a =
N
N
N N
k a a = =
) (
Given A(z), to find the lattice.
) (i
i i
a k =
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (

+ =
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a a
i
i
i
k a =
) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a a i m<
m=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
) 0 (
m
a
) 1 (
m
a
) 2 (
m
a
) 3 (
m
a
) 4 (
m
a
) 5 (
m
a
) 6 (
m
a
m=1
m=2
m=3
m=4
m=5
m=6
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (

+ =
i
m i
i
m i
i
m i
a k a a
) (
) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 (

+ + =
i
m i
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a k a a
2
) ( ) (
) 1 (
1
i
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
k
a k a
a

+
=

) 6 (
1
a
) 6 (
2
a
) 6 (
3
a
) 6 (
4
a
) 6 (
5
a
) 6 (
6
a
m=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
) 0 (
m
a
) 1 (
m
a
) 2 (
m
a
) 3 (
m
a
) 4 (
m
a
) 5 (
m
a
) 6 (
m
a
m=1
m=2
m=3
m=4
m=5
m=6
) 6 (
1
a
) 6 (
2
a
) 6 (
3
a
) 6 (
4
a
) 6 (
5
a
) 6 (
6
a
FIR Lattice FIR Lattice

=
N
m
m
m
z a z A
1
1 ) (
) ( ) ( z A z A
N
=
) ( N
m m
a a =
N
N
N N
k a a = =
) (
Given A(z), to find the lattice.
) (i
i i
a k =
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (

+ =
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a a
) 5 (
1
a
) 5 (
2
a
) 5 (
3
a
) 5 (
4
a
) 5 (
5
a
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (

+ =
i
m i
i
m i
i
m i
a k a a
) (
) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 (

+ + =
i
m i
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
a k a k a a
2
) ( ) (
) 1 (
1
i
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
k
a k a
a

+
=

) 4 (
1
a
) 4 (
2
a
) 4 (
3
a
) 4 (
4
a
) 3 (
1
a
) 3 (
2
a
) 3 (
3
a
) 2 (
1
a
) 2 (
2
a
) 1 (
1
a
Example
) 9 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 ( ) (
1 1 1
+ = z jz jz z A
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1

+ = z z z
) (i
i i
a k =
2
) ( ) (
) 1 (
1
i
i
m i i
i
m
i
m
k
a k a
a

+
=

1 1 1 1
m=0
m=1
m=2
m=3
) 0 (
m
a
) 1 (
m
a
) 2 (
m
a
) 3 (
m
a
0.6728 0.7952
0.1820
0.9
0.64
0.576
Example
) (n x
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.576
0.576
0.1820
0.1820 0.6728
0.6728
1 1 1 1
m=0
m=1
m=2
m=3
) 0 (
m
a
) 1 (
m
a
) 2 (
m
a
) 3 (
m
a
0.6728 0.7952
0.1820
0.9
0.64
0.576
Inverse Filter
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n x n e n e = =
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
=

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) ( n e n y
N
=
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
2
n e
i
k
i
k
1
z
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
) (n y
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n x
1
z
1
z
1
z
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
All-Pole Filter

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z X
z Y
1
1 ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n x n e n e = =
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
=

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) ( n e n y
N
=
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
2
n e
i
k
i
k
1
z
) ( ) ( n x n e
N
=
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n y n e n e = =

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z Y
z X
1
1 ) (
) (
) (

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z X
z Y
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
All-Pole Filter
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
2
n e
i
k
i
k
1
z
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
i
k
1
z
i
k
) (n e
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
i
k
1
z
i
k
) (n y
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n x
1
z
1
z
1
z
) ( ) ( n x n e
N
=
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n y n e n e = =

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z Y
z X
1
1 ) (
) (
) (

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z X
z Y
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
All-Pole Filter
) (n e
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
i
k
1
z
i
k
) (n y
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n x
1
z
1
z
1
z
) ( ) ( n x n e
N
=
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n y n e n e = =

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z Y
z X
1
1 ) (
) (
) (

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z X
z Y
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
1
n e
N
) (
~
n e
N
) (
~
1
n e
N
) (
~
0
n e
N
k
N
k
1

N
k
1 N
k
1
k
1
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
) (
0
n e ) (
2
n e
N
) (
~
1
n e
1
z
All-Pole Filter
) (n e
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
i
k
1
z
i
k
) (
1
z A

) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
) (z A
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
1
n e
N
) (
~
n e
N
) (
~
1
n e
N
) (
~
0
n e
N
k
N
k
1

N
k
1 N
k
1
k
1
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
) (
0
n e ) (
2
n e
N
) (
~
1
n e
1
z
Example
) 9 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 ( ) (
1 1 1
+ = z jz jz z A
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1

+ = z z z
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1
1
) (

+
=
z z z
z A
) (n x ) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.6728
0.6728
0.1820
0.1820
0.576
0.576
) (n x
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.576
0.576
0.1820
0.1820 0.6728
0.6728
Example
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1
1
) (

+
=
z z z
z A
) (n x ) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.6728
0.6728
0.1820
0.1820
0.576
0.576
) (n x
0.9
1
z
1
z
1
z
) (n y
0.64
0.576
) 9 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 ( ) (
1 1 1
+ = z jz jz z A
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1

+ = z z z
Stability of All-Pole Filter

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z H
1
1
1
) (
1
) (
All zeros of A(z) have to
lie within the unit circle.
Necessary and sufficient conditions:
All of k-parameters k
i
s satisfy |k
i
| < 1.
Normalized Lattice
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z X
z Y
1
1 ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n x n e n e = =
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
=

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) ( n e n y
N
=
) ( ) ( n x n e
N
=
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n y n e n e = =

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z Y
z X
1
1 ) (
) (
) (

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z X
z Y
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z X
z Y
1
1 ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n x n e n e = =
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
=

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) ( n e n y
N
=
) ( ) ( n x n e
N
=
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n y n e n e = =

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z Y
z X
1
1 ) (
) (
) (

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z X
z Y
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
Normalized Lattice
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
2
n e
i
k
i
k
1
z
) (n e
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
i
k
1
z
i
k
Normalized Lattice
) (n x
) (
0
n e ) (
1
n e ) (
2
n e ) (n e
N
) (
~
0
n e ) (
~
1
n e ) (
~
2
n e ) (
~
n e
N
1
k
1
k
2
k
2
k
N
k
N
k
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
) ( ) ( n x n e
N
=
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
~
1 1
+ =

n e n e k n e
i i i i
) ( ) (
~
) (
0 0
n y n e n e = =

= =
N
m
m
m
z a z A
z Y
z X
1
1 ) (
) (
) (

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z X
z Y
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) 1 (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
1
2
+ =

n e k n e k n e
i i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z E z k z E z E
i i i i

+ =
) (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
1
1 2
z E z k n E k z E
i i i i i

+ =
Section
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) 1 (
~
1

n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
Normalized Lattice
Section
N
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
~
n e
N
Section
N1
Section
1
) (
0
n e
) (
~
0
n e
) (n y
Section
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) 1 (
~
1

n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z E z k z E z E
i i i i

+ =
) (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
1
1 2
z E z k n E k z E
i i i i i

+ =
) 1 (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
1
2
+ =

n e k n e k n e
i i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
Normalized Lattice
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
k
i
k
2
1
i
k
Section
i
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) 1 (
~
1

n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
) (
~
) ( ) (
1
1
1
z E z k z E z E
i i i i

+ =
) (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
1
1 2
z E z k n E k z E
i i i i i

+ =
) 1 (
~
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
~
1
2
+ =

n e k n e k n e
i i i i i
) 1 (
~
) ( ) (
1 1
+ =

n e k n e n e
i i i i
Three-Multiplier Form
Normalized Lattice
Four-Multiplier, Normalized Form
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
k
i
k
i
k 1
i
k + 1
Four-Multiplier,
Kelly-Lochbaum Form
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
u sin
i
u sin
i
u cos
i
u cos
1 | | <
i
k
i i
k = u sin
2
1 cos
i i
k = u
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
k
i
k
2
1
i
k
Three-Multiplier Form
Normalized Lattice
Section
N
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
~
n e
N
Section
N1
Section
1
) (
0
n e
) (
~
0
n e
) (n y

= =
N
m
m
m
z a
z A
z H
1
1
1
) (
1
) (
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
k
i
k
2
1
i
k
Three-Multiplier Form
Normalized Lattice
Section
N
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
~
n e
N
Section
N1
Section
1
) (
0
n e
) (
~
0
n e
) (n y

[ [
=

= =

+
=
+
=
N
m
m
m
N
i
i
N
i
i
z a
k
z A
k
z H
1
1 1
1
) 1 (
) (
) 1 (
) (
Four-Multiplier, Normalized Form
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
k
i
k
i
k 1
i
k + 1
Normalized Lattice
Section
N
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
~
n e
N
Section
N1
Section
1
) (
0
n e
) (
~
0
n e
) (n y

[ [
=

= =

u
=
u
=
N
m
m
m
N
i
i
N
i
i
z a
z A
z H
1
1 1
1
cos
) (
cos
) (
Four-Multiplier,
Kelly-Lochbaum Form
) (
1
n e
i
) (n e
i
) (
~
1
n e
i
) (
~
n e
i
1
z
i
u sin
i
u sin
i
u cos
i
u cos
Lattice Systems with Poles and Zeros
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
~
n e
N
) (
0
n e
) (
~
0
n e
) (n y
Section
N1
Section
1
Section
N
c
0
c
1
c
N2
c
N1
c
N
) (
~
1
n e
N
) (
~
2
n e
N
) (
~
1
n e
) (
1
n e
N
) (
2
n e
N
) (
1
n e

=
=
N
i
i i
z E c z Y
0
) (
~
) (

=
= =
N
i
i
i
z X
z E
c
z X
z Y
z H
0
) (
) (
~
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
1
0

= = z A z z A
z E
z E
i
i
i
i
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
) (
~
0
1
z E z A z z A z E
i
i
i i

= =
) (
~
) ( ) (
0
z E z A z X =
Lattice Systems with Poles and Zeros
) ( ) ( n e n x
N
=
) (
~
n e
N
) (
0
n e
) (
~
0
n e
) (n y
Section
N1
Section
1
Section
N
c
0
c
1
c
N2
c
N1
c
N
) (
~
1
n e
N
) (
~
2
n e
N
) (
~
1
n e
) (
1
n e
N
) (
2
n e
N
) (
1
n e

=
=
N
i
i i
z E c z Y
0
) (
~
) (

=
= =
N
i
i
i
z X
z E
c
z X
z Y
z H
0
) (
) (
~
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
1
0

= = z A z z A
z E
z E
i
i
i
i
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
) (
~
0
1
z E z A z z A z E
i
i
i i

= =
) (
~
) ( ) (
0
z E z A z X =

=

=
N
i
i
i
i
z A
z A z c
z H
0
1
) (
) (
) (
Lattice Systems with Poles and Zeros
) (
) (
z A
z B
=
) (
0
z A
z b
N
m
m
m
=

=


=

=
+
= =
1
0
) (
1
) ( 1
) (
i
k
k i
k i
i
i
k
k i i
k
i
i
i
z a z z a z z A z

=

=
N
i
i
k
k i
k i i
i
i
N
m
m
m
z a c z c z b
0
1
0
) (
0

+ =

=
N
m i
i
m i i m m
a c c b
1
) (

=

=
N
i
i
i
i
z A
z A z c
z H
0
1
) (
) (
) (

+ =

+ =
N
m i
i
m i i m m
a c b c
1
) (
Example
3 2 1
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1
3 3 1
) (


+
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z H

+ =

+ =
N
m i
i
m i i m m
a c b c
1
) (
) (n x
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.6728
0.6728
0.1820
0.1820
0.576
0.576
c
3
c
2
c
1
c
0
3 2 1
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1
3 3 1
) (


+
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z H

+ =

+ =
N
m i
i
m i i m m
a c b c
1
) (
) (n x
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.6728
0.6728
0.1820
0.1820
0.576
0.576
c
3
c
2
c
1
c
0
Example
1 1 1 1
m=0
m=1
m=2
m=3
) 0 (
m
a
) 1 (
m
a
) 2 (
m
a
) 3 (
m
a
0.6728 0.7952
0.1820
0.9
0.64
0.576
1
3 3
= = b c
9 . 3
) 3 (
1 3 2 2
= + = a c b c
4612 . 5
) 3 (
2 3
) 2 (
1 2 1 1
= + + = a c a c b c
5404 . 4
) 3 (
3 3
) 2 (
2 2
) 1 (
1 1 0 0
= + + + = a c a c a c b c
) (n x
) (n y
1
z
1
z
1
z
0.6728
0.6728
0.1820
0.1820
0.576
0.576
1

3.9

5.4612

4.5404

Example
3 2 1
3 2 1
576 . 0 64 . 0 9 . 0 1
3 3 1
) (


+
+ + +
=
z z z
z z z
z H
1
3 3
= = b c
9 . 3
) 3 (
1 3 2 2
= + = a c b c
4612 . 5
) 3 (
2 3
) 2 (
1 2 1 1
= + + = a c a c b c
5404 . 4
) 3 (
3 3
) 2 (
2 2
) 1 (
1 1 0 0
= + + + = a c a c a c b c