PULSE POWER FORMULARY

Richard J. Adler North Star Research Corporation

August, 1989 and March, 2001 Revised, August, 1991, June, 2002

Contributors: I.D. Smith, Pulse Sciences, Inc. R.C. Noggle, Rockwell Power Systems G.F. Kiuttu, Mission Research Corporation

Supported by The Air Force Office of Scientific Research and North Star Research Corporation North Star High Voltage
12604 N New Reflection Dr Marana AZ 85653 (520)780-9030; (206)219-4205 FAX

www.highvoltageprobes.com

North Star High Voltage 12604 N New Reflection Dr Marana AZ 85653 (520)780-9030; (206)219-4205 FAX [email protected] www.highvoltageprobes.com

PVM Series Portable High Voltage Probes to 60 kV DC

PVM series high voltage probes are designed for general use, and for exceptional high frequency response. The probes have applications ranging from automotive ignition to excimer laser system measurement to EMI measurement. They are factory calibrated, and they do not require adjustment. An optional switch which can compensate for various measurement instruments such as 10 Megohm meters and 1 megohm oscilloscopes is available. These units are intended for a wide range of applications where portability and ease of use are essential.
Model Number PVM-1 PVM-2 PVM-3 PVM-4 PVM-5 PVM-6 PVM-11 (PVM-10) 10/12 60 93 <0.1 % <1.5 % <2.% <4% 50/15 15/4.5 1,000:1 (100:1) 7/18 PVM-12

Max DC/Pulsed V (kV) Max Frequency (Mhz.) Cable Impedance (ohms) DC - 2 Hz.accuracy 2 Hz. - 200 Hz. accuracy 200 Hz. - 5 Mhz. accuracy > 5 Mhz. Accuracy Input R/C (Megohm/pf) Cable Length (ft./m) Standard Divider Ratio Length (inches/cm.)

40/60 80 50 <0.1% <1 % <1.5% <3% 400/13 15/4.5 1000:1 15/38

40/60 80 50 <0.1 % <1. % <1.5% <3% 400/13 30/9 1000:1 15/38

40/60 40 50 <0.2 % <2. % <3% <4% 400/10 100/30 10,000:1 15/38

40/60 110 93 <0.1 % <1. % <1.5% <5% 400/10 15/4.5 1000:1 15/38

60/100 80 50 <0.2% <1% <1.5 % <3% 400/12 15/4.5 1,000:1 19/45

60/100 80 50 <0.2% <1% <1.5 % <4% 400/12 30/9 1,000:1 19/45

25/30 80 50 <0.1 % <1.5 % <2.% <4% 150/7 15/4.5 1,000:1 9/23

North Star High Voltage 12604 N New Reflection Dr Marana AZ 85653 (520)780-9030; (206)219-4205 FAX [email protected] www.highvoltageprobes.com

VD Series High Voltage Probes 60 to 300 kV DC

VD series high voltage probes are floor standing high voltage probes which are designed for rugged day in - day out use. They are used in a wide range of applications ranging from television tube manufacturing to radar to advanced particle accelerator applications. Resistors with an extremely low voltage coefficient of resistance are used, and all capacitors are temperature, frequency, and voltage stabilized for the best possible performance. The probes all have field defining toroids as a standard item in order to minimize the proximity effect (stray capacitance) and maximize the reproducibility of the measurement. The high and low frequency calibrations are carefully matched before shipment. Very high frequency cable effects are also carefully compensated so accurate measurements can be made even when the cable length exceeds the pulse duration. No adjustments are necessary once the probes have been factory calibrated.
Model Number Max DC/Pulsed V (kV) Max Frequency (Mhz.) Cable Length (ft.) DC accuracy 10 Hz. - 1 Mhz. Accuracy 1 Mhz. - 20 Mhz. Accuracy Resistance (Megohms) Height (inches/cm.) Diameter (in/cm.) Capacitance (approx. pf) Base Diameter(in/cm.) Standard Divider Ratio VD-60 60/120 20 30 <0.1 % 1% 3% 800 19/48 12/29 27 10/25 10,000:1 VD-100 100/200 20 30 <0.1 % 1% 3% 1600 26/67 12/29 25 10/25 10,000:1 VD-150 150/280 20 30 <0.1% 1% 3% 2000 30/74 12/29 27 12/30 10,000:1 VD-200 200/300 16 30 <0.1% 1% 3% 2800 40/99 16/40 24 14/35 10,000:1 VD-300 300/400 12 30 <0.1 % 1% 3% 4500 57/137 24/61 20 24/61 10,000:1

North Star High Voltage 12604 N New Reflection Dr Marana AZ 85653 (520)780-9030; (206)219-4205 FAX [email protected] www.highvoltageprobes.com

Thyratron Driver Boards

North Star High Voltage offers thyratron driver boards without chassis for general purpose use. These boards are generally combined by the user with reservoir and heater circuits to make a complete driver package. The board can then be mounted in the same enclosure with the other support circuits. Extensive passive protection is provided for the board supported by a unique test program for the boards.
Model Number TT-G2 TT-DC/G2 TT-G1/G2 TT-S (special order only) 0.8 -150 - -200 N/A 400 600 >1000 N/A <5% Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110

G2 Open Voltage Pulse (kV) G2 DC Bias (V) G2 Closed Current (A) Std Rep Rate Burst Rep Rate (Hz) Custom Rep Rate (Hz) G1 Open Voltage (V) G1 Closed Current BNC/Plastic Fiber Adapter Std. Input Type Custom Input Type Power Input

2 0 30 400 600 >1000 150-200 N/A Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110/220 Select

2 -150 - -200 30 400 600 >1000 150-200 0.1 Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110/220 Select

2 -150 - -200 30 400 600 1000 500 30 Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110/220 Select

North Star High Voltage 12604 N New Reflection Dr Marana AZ 85653 (520)780-9030; (206)219-4205 FAX [email protected] www.highvoltageprobes.com

Ignitron Drivers
Ignitrons provide a unique high current switching capability for lasers, metal forming machinery, and a variety of capacitive discharge equipment. The IG5 unit meets or exceeds all ignitron requirements. It is delivered in a die cast aluminum box with convenient mounting studs. Only line power and a trigger are required for trigger pulse production. The IG5 is provided with a DC ready status indicator, and a current based trigger indicator for useful feedback. We include protection networks for ringing discharge protection for all IG5-F units and the customer can use this feature or not depending on the type of discharge.

Model Number

IG5-F

IG5-F (Protected)

IG5-F-HC

Open Circuit Voltage Pulse (kV) Ignitor Peak Current (A, typ) Closed Circuit Current (A) Std Rep Rate (Hz) Energy Stored (J) Std. Fiber Optic Length (m) BNC/Plastic Fiber Adapter Std. Input Type Custom Input Type Power Input

1.8 380 400 2 3.60 10 Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110/220

1.8 260 280 2 3.60 10 Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110/220

1.4 380 575 2 3.60 10 Included Plastic Fiber ST/SMA 110/220

1.0 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.0 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.1 MKS-CGS-English Mechanical Unit Conversions ....... 7 2.2 Color Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.0 CIRCUIT EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.1 Model Circuit Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.1.1 LRC Circuit with Capacitor Charged Initially . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3.2 Marx Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.3 Capacitor Charging Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.3.1 Resisistive Capacitor Charging, Constant Voltage Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.3.2 Resonant Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3.4 Energies and Energy Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 3.5 Transformer Based Application Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.5.1 Transformer Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.5.2 Generalized Capacitor Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.6 Magnetic Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4.0 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PULSE FORMING NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4.1 Discrete Pulse Forming Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4.2 Transmission Line Pulse Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 5.0 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Transmission Line Relationships-General as Applied to Pulse Generation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Skin Depth and Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Field Enhancement Functions in Various Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 MATERIALS PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Solid Dielectric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Gas Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Liquid Breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Vacuum Insulation and Surface Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Conductor Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Wire Data--Standard Sizes of Copper Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 20 22 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 30 31

7.0 APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 7.1 Intense Electron and Ion Beam Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3

7.2 Electron Beam/Matter Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 7.3 High Power Microwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7.4 Railguns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 8.0 DIAGNOSTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Sensitivity of an Unintegrated Square Current Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Rogowski Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 MECHANICAL DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Coarse Screw Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Fine Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Deflection of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 39 39 40 40 41 41 42 43

10.0 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Introduction The purpose of this document is to serve the user of pulse power in the variety of tasks which he or she faces. It is intended to be used as a memory aid by the experienced pulse power engineer, and as a record of pulse power facts for those with less experience in the field, or for those who encounter pulse power only through their applications. A great deal of pulse power work involves the evaluation of distinct approaches to a problem, and a guide such as this one is intended to help speed the calculations required to choose a design approach. In the formulary, we strived to include formulae which are 'laws of nature' such as the circuit equations, or well established conventions such as the color code. We have purposely avoided listing the properties of commercial devices or materials except where they may be regarded as generic. This has been done so that the formulary will not become obsolete too quickly. The formulas have intentionally been left in their original form, so that the use of the formulary tends to reinforce one's natural memory. We hope to expand this document, particularly by adding new applications areas. A section on prime power systems would also be desirable. Any suggestions on formulas which have been omitted or misprinted would be appreciated. The author would also like to thank W. Dungan and B. Smith of the US Air Force, W. Miera of Rockwell Power Systems, and J. Bayless and P. Spence of Pulse Sciences, Inc. for encouragement over the course of this and previous formula compilation efforts. Finally, we note that few written works are without error, and that even correct information can be misinterpreted. North Star Research Corporation and the US Air Force take no responsibility for any use of the information included in this document, and advise the reader to consult the appropriate references and experts in any pulse power venture. This work was supported by the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research under contract F49620-89-C-0005. NOTE: EXPONENTS ARE PLACED IN BRACKETS AT THE END OF A NUMBER EXAMPLE: 2.5(7) = 2.5 x 107

1.0 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS Nomenclature: note that numbers in brackets are base 10 exponents Example: 1.26 X 10-6 =1.26(-6) SYMBOL NAME VALUE-MKS(exp) VALUE-CGS(exp) ==================================================================== c Speed of light 2.9979(8)m/s 2.9979(10)cm/s e Electron charge 1.6022(-19)C 4.803(-10)esu eo Free Space Permittivity 8.8541(-12)F/m 1 mo Free Space Permeability 1.2566(-6)H/m 1 h Planck's Constant 6.6261(-34)J-S 6.6261(-27)erg-s ____________________________________________________________________ me Electron mass 9.1094(-31)kg 9.1094(-28)g mp Proton mass 1.6726(-27)kg 1.6726(-24)g amu Atomic mass unit 1.6605(-27)kg 1.6605(-24)g Electron charge/mass 1.7588(11)C/kg 5.2728(17)esu/g e/me mp/me p/e mass ratio 1.8362(3) -----_____________________________________________________________________ k Boltzman constant 1.3807(-23)J/K 1.3807(-16)erg/K -1 NB Avogadro constant 6.0221(23)mol -----s Stefan-Boltzman constant 5.671(-8)W/m2K4 5.671(-5) no Loschmidt constant 2.6868(25)m-3 2.6868(19)cm-3 atm Standard Atmosphere 1.0132(5)Pa 1.0125(6)erg/cm3 2 g Gravitational Const. 9.8067Kgm/s 9.8067(5)gcm/s2 Units: m=meter esu=electrostatic unit kg=kilogram K=degree Kelvin Energy Equivalence Factors 1 kg = 5.61(29) MeV l(m) = 1.2399(-6)/W(eV) 1 amu = 931.5 MeV 1 eV = 1.602(-19) J cm=centimeter F=Farad g=gram s=second H=henry erg=g-cm2/s2 q =coulomb=Amp-s J=Joule=kg-m2/s2

Pa=Pascals=Kg/ms2

W = Photon Energy and l is the wavelength

2.0 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS In order to convert a number in MKS units into Gaussian units, multiply the MKS number by the Gaussian conversion listed. The number 3 is related to c and for accurate work is taken to be 2.9979. In this work numbers in parentheses are base 10 exponents. Physical SymDimensions SI Gaussian Quantity bol SI(MKS) Gaussian Units Conversion Units ======================================================================== Capacitance C t2q2/m l 2 l farad 9(11) cm 1/2 3/2 coulomb 3(9) statcoul. Charge q q m l /t 2 3 Conductivity s tq /m l 1/t siemens/m 9(9) sec-1 Current I q/t m1/2 l3/2/t2 ampere 3(9) statamps 3 3 Density r m/l 3 kg/m 1(-3) gm./cm3 m/ l Displacement D q/l2 m1/2/l1/2t coul./m2 stat-coul./cm2 12p(5) Electric field Energy E U,W m l/t2q m l2/t2 m1/2/l1/2t m l2/t2 volt/m joule (1/3)(-4) 1(7) statvolt/cm erg

Energy density w,e m/lt2 m/lt2 joule/m3 10 erg/cm3 Force F m l/t2 m l/t2 newton 1(5) dyne ======================================================================== Frequency f t-1 t-1 hertz 1 hertz Impedance Z m l2/tq2 t/l ohm (1/9)(-11) sec/cm Inductance L m l 2/q2 t2/l henry (1/9)(-11) sec2/cm Length l l l meter(m) 1(2) cm 1/2 1/2 Magnetic intens. H q/l t m /l t amp-trn/m 4p(-3) oersted 1/2 1/2 Magnetic induct. B m/tq m /l t tesla 1(4) gauss Magnetization M q/lt m1/2/l1/2t amp-trn/m 1(-3) oersted Mass m,M m m kilogram 1(3) gram(g) Momentum p,P ml/t ml/t kg-m/sec 1(5) g-cm/sec ======================================================================== Permeability m ml/q2 1 henry/m 1/4p(7) 2 2 3 1 farad/m 36p(9) Permittivity e t q /ml 2 2 1/2 1/2 Potential V,F ml /t q m l /t volt (1/3)(-2) statvolt 2 3 2 3 Power P ml /t ml /t watt 1(7) erg/sec 2 2 Pressure p m/lt m/lt pascal 10 dyne/cm2 3 2 Resistivity r ml /tq t ohm-m (1/9)(-9) sec Temperature T K K Kelvin 1 Kelvin Thermal cond k ml/t3K m l/t3K watt/m-K 1(5) erg/cm-sec-K Time t t t sec. 1 sec. Vector pot. A ml/tq m1/2l1/2/t weber/m 1(6) gauss-cm

2.1 MKS-CGS-English Mechanical Unit Conversions Multiply English value by "Conversion" to obtain value in MKS units. Quantity MKS(SI) English Conversion ====================================================================== Length m foot (ft) 0.305 m/ft Mass kg slug 14.593 kg/slug Time sec sec Linear velocity m/sec ft/sec 0.305 m/ft Angular velocity rad/sec rad/sec ====================================================================== Linear momentum kg-m/sec slug-ft/sec 0.00430 Linear acceleration m/sec ft./sec 0.305 Angular acceleration rad/sec rad/sec Force Newton pound (lb) 4.4481 nt/lb Work Nt-m ft-lb 1.356 Nt /lb-ft ====================================================================== Energy Joule ft-lb 1.356 J/ft Power watt horsepower 747 W/hp Weight Kilogram lb. 0.4536 2.2 Color Code Color Number or Tolerance (%) Multiplier ====================================================================== Black 0 1 Brown 1 10 Red 2 100 Orange 3 1000 Yellow 4 10,000 Green 5 100,000 Blue 6 1,000,000 Violet 7 10,000,000 Gray 8 100,000,000 White 9 1,000,000,000 Silver 5% 0.01 Gold 10% 0.1 Resistors: First band = first digit; Third band = multiplier (or number of zeroes); Second band = second digit Fourth band = tolerance

3.0 CIRCUIT EQUATIONS 3.1 Model Circuit Results 3.1.1 LRC Circuit with Capacitor Charged Initially This is the basic pulse power energy transfer stage, and so is solved in detail. An important limit is the LRC circuit with a single charged capacitor, and that circuit is the C2 goes to infinity limit of the 2 capacitor circuit. t = L/R C = C1C2/(C1 + C2) wo2 = 1/LC w2 = ABS(1/LC - 1/(2t)2) Vo = initial C1 voltage 1) Oscillatory Case R2 < 4L/C (underdamped) I = (Vo/wL)exp(-t/2t)sinwt I(maximum) ~ Vo/((L/C)1/2 + 0.8R) V(C2) = 'output voltage' = [VoC1/(C1 + C2)]{1-exp(-t/2t)coswt + (1/2wt)exp(-t/2t)sinwt} V(C1) = VoC1/(C1 + C2) + VoC2e(-t/2t)(coswt + (1/2wt)sinwt)/(C1 + C2) V(C2 maximum) = [VoC1/(C1 + C2)]{1+exp(-p/2wt wt)} V(C1 minimum) = [Vo/(C1 + C2)]{C1 - C2exp(p/2wt wt)} Q = (L/C)1/2/R = Circuit Quality Factor 2) Energy transfer to C2 as a fraction of original C1 energy h h = [4C1C2/(C1 + C2)2]{1-exp(p/2wt wt)2}2

Efficiency of lossless energy transfer from C1 to C2.

Energy Fraction 1.2

1 Energy Transfer Fraction

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Capacitance Ratio

3) Overdamped case R2 > 4L/C I = {Voexp(-t/2t)/2Lw}[exp(+wt) - exp(-wt)] V(C2) = (Vo/2C2L w){2 w/wo2 - exp(-t/2t)[{exp(-wt/(w+(1/2t)))} + {exp( wt)/((1/2t) - w)}]} 3) Shunt resistance (Underdamped) may be important in the case of water capacitors or the charge resistors in Marx generators. For the underdamped case, a resistance shunting C2 of value Rsh may be included in the output voltage equation as given below: V(C2)=[VoC1/(C1+C2)]{exp(-t/Rsh(C1+C2))-exp(-(t/2t+t/2RshC2))[coswt+(1/2wt)sinwt]}

3.2 Marx Generators 3.2.1 Conventional Marx N = Number of capacitor stages C2 = Capacitance to be charged L = Lswitches + Lcaps + Lconnections Rs = Rswitches + Rcaps t = L/Rs C = Capacitance of single stage w2 = ((NC2 +C)/(NLCC2) - 1/(2t)2) Capacitive load = C2 V(C2 max) = [2NVoC/(C+NC2)]{1-exp(-p/2wt)} Losses when charging El with resistance R or inductance Lc per stage for N stages: El = N(Vo2/R)(p/w) El = N(Vo2/Lc)(p/2w)2 approximately, or use the data of section 3.1.1 where C1 = C/N. Resistive load RL, where Rs = RL plus the sum of all other series circuit resistances w2 = ((Rs/2L)2 -N/(LC)) t = L/Rs Vout = (NVoRLexp(-t/2t)/2Lw)[exp(+wt) - exp(-wt)] Tm = (1/2w)ln[(1 + 2wt)/(1 - 2wt)] = time at which voltage is peak Losses due to charging components for inductive and resistive charging during the discharge--specifically energy dissipation in the 2N charge resistors R during the pulse, or energy left in the 2N charge inductors Lc at the end of the pulse: El = NVo2Rs(Rs2C/2L - 1)/(R[(Rs2/4L)-N/C]) El = (Vo(RL + R)C)2/NLc

10

Peaking circuit Peaking circuits are used in order to get fast rise times from Marx based circuits for applications such as EMP testing. In EMP testing, an exponential waveform with a very fast rise time is required. Note that source resistances are ignored in this treatment, and that these may be included by referring to the treatment of 3.1.1. Cp = (L/R2)/(1+(L/R2C1)) is the peaking capacitance required to give an exactly exponential decay through the load resistance R. The switch is arranged to fire when the current is maximum at t = (LCPC1/(C1 + CP))1/2 cos-1(CP/C1) LC Marx 'Vector Inversion Type' Open circuit voltage w2 = 1/LC, t = L/R V = (nV/2)(1-exp(-t/2t)coswt)

11

3.3 Capacitor Charging Circuits TYPE Resistive, No filter Capacitor Inductive Application Low voltage, Small Caps. Pulse charging Advantages Simple Disadvantages Low eff. (50%)

Efficient Doubles voltage Efficient Efficient Efficient Efficient

Requires store capacitor, 1st pulse half voltage Complex, Expensive Complex, Capacitors undergo reversal Not versatile

Pulse Transformer Resonant Pulse AC resonant Switcher

High voltage pulse charging High voltage pulse charging Pulse charge All

3.3.1 Resisistive Capacitor Charging, Constant Voltage Power Supply R = charge resistance Vo = power supply voltage C = capacitance to be charged V(t) = Vo (1 - e-t/RC) I(t) = Voe -t/RC V/Vo (%) t/RC ====================== 50 0.7 75 1.4 90 2.3 95 3.0 99 4.6 99.9 6.9

12

3.3.2 Resonant Charging C1 C2 L V1 = Storage capacitance = Load capacitance = Charging inductance = Initial voltage on C1

w2 = (C1 + C2)/LC1C2 V2 = Final voltage on C2 I(t) = (V1/wL)sinwt, where V2(t) = V1(C1/(C1 + C2)) (1 - cos wt) V2max = GV, where ringing gain, G = 2C1/(C1+C2) also see section 3.1.1 Inductive store charging a capacitance using an opening switch Io = Initial Current w2 = LC - (1/4R2C2) t = RC R = Circuit total Resistance C = Capacitance to be charged V2(t) = (Io/wC)exp(-t/2tsinwt 3.4 Energies and Energy Densities Energy of a capacitor (Joules) CV2/2 C = Capacitance (F), V = Voltage (Volts) or Energy of an inductor (Joules) LI2/2 L = Inductance (H), I = Current (Amperes) Energy formulae also give results in joules for units of mF, mH, kV, kA Energy density of an E field (J/m3) e=permittivity(F/m), E = Elect. field (V/m) Energy density of a magnetic field (J/m3) m=permeability (H/m), B=magnetic field (T) eE2/2 mB2/2

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3.5 Transformer Based Application Circuits 3.5.1 Transformer Equivalent Circuit (suggested by I.D. Smith)

A number of transformer equivalent circuits exist, and they often differ in their details. In particular, many of the circuits are unable to treat coupling coefficients much less than 1. For transformers made from sheets, the relative current distribution in the sheet must be assumed to remain fixed in time for this model to be appropriate. In making measurements of equivalent circuit parameters, frequencies used must be close to those in actual use, and the effect of stray components must be quantified. For magnetic core transformers, measurements may need to be made in actual pulsed conditions since permeability can be a strong function of magnetizing current. The calculated turns ratio should be used instead of the counted turns ratio in the calculations below. L1 = Primary inductance (measured with the secondary open) L2 = Secondary inductance (measured with the secondary open) M1 = Mutual inductance referred to primary side k = Coupling coefficient R1 = Primary series resistance R2 = Secondary series resistance

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The equivalent circuit parameters are measured or computed as follows. All quantities are referred to the primary side except where indicated by an asterisk: N = (L2/L1)1/2 L2 = L2*/N2 Lps = primary inductance with the secondary shorted = primary leakage inductance Lss* = secondary inductance the primary shorted = secondary leakage inductance N2 = Lss*/Lps is a useful consistency check R2 = R2*/N2 k = (1 - Lps/L1)1/2 = (1 - Lss/L2)1/2 M*= k(L1L2*)1/2 M1= k(L1L2)1/2 l = Magnetic path length of core = 2pr for a toroidal core H = Magnetization of the core = (N1I1-N2I2)/l Energy loss due to magnetizing current = E = [VT]2/2kL1 where VT is integrated Voltage-time product. In general, the capacitances can be ignored in the circuit model unless the circuit impedance is high. Winding resistance (including skin losses) are usually important, as are the inductances. 3.5.2 Generalized Capacitor Charging General capacitor charging relations for arbitrary coupling coefficient, and primary and secondary capacitances. Losses are assumed to be negligible in these formulae Voltage on charging capacitor L2: V2 = kVo(cos s1t - cos s2t)/[(L1L2)1/2C2{w14 - 2(1-2k2)w12w22 + w24}]1/2 s12,s22 =(1/(2-2k2)){w12 + w12 + [w14 - 2(1-2k)w12w22 + w24]1/2 For w1 = w2 =w V2(t) =(L1/L2)1/2(Vo/2)[cos(wt/(1-k)1/2) - coswt/(1+k)1/2] Dual Resonance occurs for k = 0.6, and V2 is maximum at t = 4/w. A family of dual resonance solutions exists for lower values of k, however, these are of less practical interest 15

3.6 Magnetic Switching a = inner toroid diameter (m) b = outer toroid diameter (m) f = charge time/discharge time E = energy in capacitor (joules) dB =Br + Bs Br = field at reset (tesla) Bs = Saturation field (tesla) g = packing fraction of magnetic material inside windings N = number of turns t = charge time of the initial capacitor assuming inductively limited, capacitor - capacitor charging (1 - coswt waveform) = p(LC/2)1/2 where L is the charging inductance Minimal volume requirement for magnetic switching is that the relative magnetic permeability m >> f2 U = p3 X 10-7Ef2Q/(dBg)2 = Required switch volume (m3) for energy transfer between two equal capacitances Q = 1 for strip type magnetic switches, or thin annulii Q = ln(b/a)[(b+a)/2(b-a)] for general toroid case N = pVt(b+a)/2gdBU

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4.0 TRANSMISSION LINES AND PULSE FORMING NETWORKS 4.1 Discrete Pulse Forming Networks A variety of pulse forming networks have been developed in order to produce output pulses with a constant, or near constant amplitude for the pulse duration. The ideal physical transmission line may be approximated by an array of equal series inductors and capacitors as shown below. The examples below are optimized 5 element networks which produce the minimum amount of pulse ripple when charged and discharged. These pulse forming networks are discussed in great detail in the work of Glasoe and Lebacz. Negative inductances are not a misprint but reflect the results of calculations.

Five section Guilleman voltage-fed networks. Multiply the printed inductance values by Zt, the capacitances by t/Z where Z is the line impedance, and t is the pulse duration. Zero mutual inductance is assumed in the calculations.

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4.2 Transmission Line Pulse Generators Ideal pulse line of impedance Z connected to a load of resistance R Vo = open circuit voltage of the pulse line t = L/(Z + R) L = total inductance (switch + connections, etc.) l = physical length of line for continuous line T = 2 le1/2/c n = cycle number e = relative permittivity of the medium I = Vo(1 - exp(-t/t))/(Z + R) V = VoR(1 - exp(-t/t))/(Z + R) Rise time from .1 max V to .9 max V = 2.2t The 'plateau' value of load voltage (ignoring rise time effects) changes at time intervals of T. The nth amplitude (where n starts with 0) is: V(t = nT + T/2) ~ VoR(R-Z)n/(R + Z)n+1 Blumlein response Ideal Blumlein of impedance Z in each half line, with length l in each half L = switch plus connection inductance t = L/Z n = cycle number Isw = 2Vo[1 - exp(-t/t)]/Z V = VoR[1 - exp(-t/t)]/(2Z + R) V(t = 2nT + T/2) = VoR(R - 2Z)n/(R + 2Z)n+1 V(t = 2nT + 3T/2) = 0

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5.0 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM L, Inductance (Henries) l, Length (m, meters) Zo=377 Ohms=mo/eo c=Speed of light=3.0(8)m/sec C, Capacitance (Farads) Z, Impedance (W, Ohms) e, Rel. dielectric Const. t=2le1/2/c=Output pulse length of a distributed line

5.1 Transmission Line Relationships-General as Applied to Pulse Generation: C=e1/2l/Zc C=t/2Z L=Zle1/2c L=Z t/2 (LC)1/2=le1/2/c t=2(LC)1/2 Z = (L/C)1/2

Specific Common Transmission Lines Coaxial, a=ID, b=OD, Z=(Zo/2pe1/2)ln(b/a) Parallel Wires, d=wire diam, D=Wire center spacing Z=(Zo/pe1/2)cosh-1(D/d) Wire to ground, d=wire diam, D=Wire center-ground spacing Z=(Zo/2pe1/2)cosh-1(2D/d) ~ (Zo/2pe1/2)ln(4D/d), for D >> d Parallel Plate, Width w, Separation d, d < w Z ~ Zod/e1/2(d + w) Circuit Parameter Formulas Coaxial Inductor, b=OD, a=ID L=(mo l/2p)ln(b/a) Solenoid, l= solenoid length (m) r = solenoid radius (m) n = turns per meter, N=ln t = solenoid thickness (m) z = distance between field point and one end of solenoid (m) V = Volume of the solenoid (m3) Ideal solenoid, where l >> r L = mon2lpr2 = 1.26n2lpr2=4N2r2/l microhenries B = mag. field (tesla) = 1.26 X 10-6nI(A) P = (B2r/mo2)V(2t/r) = Power dissipation of an ideal DC solenoid Shorter Solenoid or near ends B = (monI/2)[z/(z2 + r2)1/2 + (l-z)//{(l-z)2 + r2}1/2]

Magnetic Field of a Long Wire r=distance from wire center(m), B=(mo/2p)I/r=200(I(kiloamps)/r(cm))gauss Inductance of a Current Loop L = N2(a/100)[7.353log10(16a/d)-6.386] microhenries a=mean radius of ring in inches, d= diameter of winding in inches, and a/d > 2.5 5.2 Skin Depth and Resistivity Skin depth d is the depth at which a continous, tangential sinusoidal magnetic field decays to 1/e times the incident field. w=2pf m=permeability of medium r=material resistivity (W-m); rc = 1.7(-8)W m(copper) d=(2r/wm)1/2=(6.61/f1/2)((mo/m)(r/rc))1/2 Resistance per square Rsq is the resistance of the surface for a length equal to the width at a given frequency l= length w = width R = Rsql/w Rsq = r/d=(wmr/2)1/2 Rsq = 2.61(-7)f1/2((m/mo)(r/rc))1/2

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High frequency resistance of an isolated cylindrical conductor D = Conductor diameter in inches Rac = Effective resistance for a CW ac wave Note that Rac is somewhat smaller for unipolar pulses than for ac. If Df1/2(mrrc/r)1/2 > 40: Rac ~ (f1/2/D)(mrr/rc)1/2 X 10-6 ohms/ft. If Df1/2(mrrc/r)1/2 < 3, then Rac ~ Rdc

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5.3 Field Enhancement Functions in Various Geometries Cylindrical Geometry where X is the distance between two conductors, and r is the radius of the smaller conductor.
Cylindrical Field Enhancement 3 2.5 Pk Field/Avg. Field 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Distance/Cylinder Radius Par. Cyl Coax Cyl. Plane

Field enhancement factor for cylindrical configurations. Upper: coaxial line, Intermediate : conducting cylinder adjacent to a plane. Lower: two parallel conducting cylinders Maximum field strength equations for Cylindrical Geometry: b = outer cylinder radius E = V/(rln(b/r)) Concentric cylinders

E = V(D2-4r2)/[2r(D-2r)ln{(D/2r) + ((D/2r)2-1)1/2}] where D = X + 2r for parallel cylinders, and D = 2X + 2r for a cylinder spaced X from a uniform ground plane and parallel to it. Semicylinder on a plane Em = 2E where E is the applied electric field 22

Spherical Geometry
Spherical Field Enhancement 7

5 Max Field/Mean Field

Concent. Sph-Sph Sph-Plane

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Spacing Divided by Smaller Radius

Spherical field enhancement including concentric spheres (upper) sphere-plane (middle) and adjacent spheres (lower). Maximum field strength equations for Spherical geometry. R = outer sphere radius r = inner sphere radius E = VR/r(R-r) Concentric spheres Equal spheres spaced X

E = V[(X/r) + 1 +((X/r) + 1)2 + 8)1/2]/4X

E = V[(2X/r) + 1 +((2X/r) + 1)2 + 8)1/2]/8X Sphere of radius r spaced X from a ground plane Hemisphere on a plane in a uniform field of amplitude E: 23 Em = 3E

6.0 MATERIALS PROPERTIES The dielectric properties of gases and liquids are understood (empirically), and are presented as such. The typical values of dielectric strength for solids are an exception to this understanding. Solid breakdown depends on preparation, pulse life requirements, and the medium in which the solid is contained. The values quoted in this document for solid breakdown actually refer to long term working strength, and must be considered to be of limited value. Note that in general, the dielectric strength of all materials decreases with increasing sample thickness. e is the relative permittivity below, and tan dis the energy loss per cycle. 6.1 Solid Dielectric Properties Material Diel. Const. Diel. Const. Diel. 60 Hz. 1 MHz. Strength* e tan d e tan d V/mil ============================================================ Aluminum Oxide 8.80 3.3(-4) 8.80 320 320 Barium Titanate 1250 0.056 1143 0.0105 75 Soda-Borosilicate Glass 4.97 ----4.84 3.6(-3) 400 Epoxy (Epon RN-48) 4.50 0.05 3.52 0.0142 800 Polycarbonate 3.17 0.009 2.96 0.01 400 ============================================================ Acrylic 4.0 0.016 2.55 0.009 400 Polyimide 3.4 0.002 3.4 0.003 570 Polyvinyl Chloride 3.20 0.0115 2.88 0.016 400 PTFE (Teflon) 2.10 <5(-4) 2.10 <2(-4) 550 Polyethylene 2.26 <2(-4) 2.26 <2(-4) 450 ============================================================ Polypropylene 2.55 <5(-4) 2.55 <5(-4) 650 Paper 3.30 0.010 2.99 0.038 200 *Typical DC values for .10 inch thick samples

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6.2 Gas Properties Gas breakdown, DC to approximately 1 microsecond E=24.5p + 6.7(p/Reff)1/2 kV/cm. Air

Reff = .115R for spheres, and .23R for cylinders, and the gap distance for planar geometries, where p is the pressure in atmospheres Resistive phase duration of an air arc t = 88p1/2/(Z1/3E4/3) nanoseconds where p is the pressure in atmospheres, E is the electric field in MV/m, and Z is the characteristic impedance of the circuit. Relative electric strengths: Relative breakdown field compared to air ====================================== Air 1.0 Nitrogen 1.0 2.7 SF6 Hydrogen 0.5 30% SF6, 70% air (by volume) 2.0 Paschen's Law Under most circumstances, the breakdown of gases is a function of the product of pressure (p) and gap length (d) only, where this function depends on the gas. V = f(pd) The breakdown strength of a gas is monotonic decreasing below a specified value of pd = (pd)crit and monotonic increasing above that value. The values of (pd)crit and the breakdown voltage at that value of pd are given below: GAS pdcrit V(pdcrit) (Torr-cm) (Volts) ======================================= Air 0.567 327 Argon 0.90 137 Helium 4.0 156 760 Torr = 1 standard atmosphere 25

6.3 Liquid Breakdown t = time that the pulse is above 63% of peak voltage (msec) A = Stressed area (cm2) d = gap between electrodes E = Electric field (MV/cm) Pulse Breakdown of Liquids Transformer Oil E+ = .48/(t1/3A.075) E- = 1.41E+ a (Positive Electrode) (Negative Electrode)

a =1 + .12[Emax/Emean) -1]1/2 Note: The above formulae do not apply if a DC pre-stress (> 500V/cm) is applied across the gap Water (areas > 1000 cm2) E+ = .23/(t1/3A.058) E- = .56/(t1/3A.070) (Positive Electrode) (Negative Electrode) E< 0.10/t1/2 is a design criterion for intermediate stores at large area

a =1 + .12[Emax/Emean) -1]1/2 Resistive phase rise time of a switch tr = 5r1/2/Z1/3E4/3 where r (g/cm3) is the density of the liquid, Z is the impedance of the circuit in ohms, and E is the electric field in MV/cm. This formula is thought to work for oil, water, and gas switches. General comments on breakdown of transformer oil Pulse power operation (typical) 100-400 kV/cm for pulsed operation with no DC prestress. The exact value is dependent on the oil, and field enhancements. For conservative DC operation 40 kV/inch is generally a reliable guideline. This value generally allows the user to ignore field enhancements and dirt when designing the DC system. If carbon streamers form in the oil during a pulse, these values no longer apply. Filtration and circulation are required in oil to avoid carbon build-ups. 40 kV/cm is a reliable number for careful DC design.

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6.4 Vacuum Insulation and Surface Flashover We assume in this section that the pressure is below 10-4 Torr, and note that variations due to the residual gas pressure are observed at pressures as low as 10-6 Torr. d = individual insulator length (cm.) A = insulator area (cm2) t = pulse duration or pulse train duration (msec) Pulsed 45 degree acrylic insulators in vacuum E = 175/(t1/6A1/10) kV/cm. typical for 1-2" long insulators, and more than 5 insulators E = 33/(t1/2A1/10d0.3) kV/cm for bipolar pulses DC Flashover Material Electric field (kV/cm.) ==================================== Glass 18/d1/2 Teflon 22/d1/2 Polystyrene 35/d1/2 Vacuum breakdown Vacuum breakdown between parallel electrodes depends on surface preparation, pulse length electrode history, and possibly gap length, as well as material type. We list typical values below primarily in order to give the reader an ordering of material strength. The typical voltage at which the data below is applicable is 500 kV. Material Pulse Breakdown (kV/cm.) 100 ns. ================================================ Aluminum 290 Graphite (Poco) 175 Lead 170 Molybdenum 460 Stainless Steel 300 Velvet cloth 20-50 A variation of breakdown strength with gap length of d-0.3 may be inferred from some data, however this effect is more pronounced in DC high voltage breakdown.

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6.5 Conductor Properties Conductivities of Conductors Material Density Resistivity(20C) Ht. Cap. Temp. Coef. 3) -6 (gm/cm (10 ohm-cm) (J/gmC) (1/C) ======================================================================== Aluminum 2.70 2.62 .946 0.0039 Beryllium 1.85 35 1.78 0.0042 Bismuth 9.80 115 0.123 0.004 Brass (66Cu,34Zn) 8.40 3.9 0.418 0.002 Chromium 7.19 2.6 0.460 ======================================================================== Copper 8.96 1.72 0.418 0.0039 Graphite (typical) 2.25 1400 0.894 -0.0005 Gold 19.3 2.44 0.130 0.0034 Indium 7.31 9 0.238 0.0050 Iron 7.87 9.71 0.452 0.0057 ======================================================================== Lead 11.34 21.9 0.126 0.004 Magnesium 1.74 4.46 1.04 0.004 Nichrome (typical) 100 --------0.00017 Nickel 8.9 6.9 0.268 0.0047 Silicon 2.4 85,000 0.736 -----======================================================================== Silver 10.5 1.62 0.234 0.0038 Stainless Steel 7.90 90 ---------Steel (.5%C) 7.90 13-22 0.520 0.003 Tantalum 16.6 13.1 0.151 0.003 Tin 7.3 11.4 0.226 0.0042 ======================================================================== Titanium 4.54 47.8 0.594 -----Tungsten 19.3 5.48 0.142 0.0045

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6.5.1 Wire Data--Standard Sizes of Copper Wire AWG B&S DIAM. OHMS PER LB. PER GAUGE (MILS) 1000 FT 1000 FT =================================================== 0000 460 .049 640 000 410 .062 509 00 365 .078 403 0 324 .099 318 1 289 .124 253 =================================================== 2 257 .157 200 3 229 .198 159 4 204 .249 126 5 182 .313 100 6 162 .395 79.4 =================================================== 7 144 .500 62.8 8 128 .633 49.6 9 114 .798 39.3 10 102 .997 31.5 11 90.7 1.26 24.9 =================================================== 12 80.8 1.59 19.8 13 72.1 1.99 15.7 14 64.1 2.52 12.4 15 57.1 3.18 9.87 16 50.8 4.02 7.81 =================================================== 17 45.3 5.05 6.21 18 40.3 6.39 4.92 19 35.9 8.05 3.90 20 31.2 10.7 2.95 21 28.5 12.8 2.46 =================================================== 22 25.4 16.1 1.95 23 22.6 20.3 1.55 24 20.1 25.7 1.22 25 17.9 32.4 .970 26 15.9 41.0 .765 =================================================== 27 14.2 51.4 .610 28 12.6 65.3 .480

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6.6 Magnetic materials Material Sat. flux Res. Flux Init. perm. Max. perm. Resistivity kG kG DC DC ohm-cm mi Br mm r Bs ============================================================ Metglas 2605SC 16.1 14.2 8,000 300,000 142(-6) 2605CO 18.0 16.0 5,000 250,000 160(-6) 3% Si-Fe 16.5 14-15 500 25,000 50(-6) Permalloy 7.5 6.0 20,000 150,000 45(-6) 50% Ni-Fe 16.0 2,500 25,000 45(-6) NiZn Ferrite CN20* 3.8 2.7 800 4,500 1(6) MnZn Ferrite 3C80** 5.0 1.6 2,000 4.8 MN80* 5.0 2.5 1,500 5,000 200 ============================================================ Note that the data above are applicable for low frequencies, and the performance at higher frequencies is dependent on frequency. Metal materials must be wound in thin insulated tapes for most pulse power applications. * Ceramic Magnetics ** Ferroxcube 6.6 Components 6.6.1 Capacitors N = number of pulses to failure E = Electric field in application Vb = DC breakdown voltage d = dielectric thickness Q = circuit quality factor b= thickness exponent, typically less than 3 Vr = reversal voltage N a (Ed/Vb)-8d-b Q-2.2 for plastic capacitors N a (Ed/Vb)-12Q-2.2 for ceramic capacitors Vr = 1 - p2Q

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Notes: Barium Titanate capacitors--unless specially prepared--vary in capacitance by about a factor of 2 over their range of voltage utilization Mica capacitors have an excellent combination of dissipation factor, and low change in value under voltage and temperature stress, but only at high cost. Paper and plastic capacitors can have significant internal inductance and resistance, and these quantities must be ascertained in any critical application. In practice it is nearly impossible to discharge any paper or plastic capacitor in less than 100 ns, and many capacitors may take much longer to discharge. 6.6.2 Resistors General comments on performance under pulse power conditions. Carbon composition resistors have excellent performance in voltage and power handling, but may have resistance variations with voltage of 2 -50 % depending on type, history, etc. Metal film resistors must be specially designed for high voltage and pulse power use. The pulse energy handling capability of film resistors is generally inferior to that of bulk resistors due to the relatively small mass of the current carrying component. Liquid resistors such as water/copper sulphate, etc, are subject to variation in resistivity with time. The preferred method for measuring the resistance of these components is with a pulsed high voltage (measuring current for a known voltage). DC measurments at low voltage can often be wrong by factors of 2 or 3.

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7.0 APPLICATIONS 7.1 Intense Electron and Ion Beam Physics Space charge limited electron emission current, or 'Child-Langmuir' current density V = Voltage applied in MV d = gap between anode and cathode in cm. Js = Current density = 2.34V3/2/d2 kA/cm2 for V < .5 MV Js = 2.7[(V/0.51 + 1)1/2 - 0.85]2/d2 kA/cm2 for V > .5 MV Bipolar flow in an anode-cathode gap where the anode is also a source of space charge limited ions J = 1.84 Js (V < .5 MV) J = 2.14 Js (V > .5 MV) Typical thermionic emitter data Material efficiency Typ. J Temperature hot R/cold R 2 (mA/watt) (amps/cm ) (Kelvin) R = Resistance ================================================================== Tungsten 5-10 .25-.7 2550 14/1 Th-W 40-100 0.5 - 3.0 2000 10/1 Tantalum 10-20 0.5-1.2 2450 6/1 Oxide 50-150 0.5-2.5 1100 ----Dispenser 100-2000 1.0-25 1400 ----200-500 1.0-60 1970 ----LaB6

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Vacuum beam propagation Space charge limiting current b = beam conducting drift tube diameter a = beam outer diameter f = ratio of ion to electron densities g = ln(b/a) for annular beams = 1/2 + ln(b/a) for solid beams a = 1 + ea dB/mc = 1 + adB/1.7 dB = change in magnetic field (kG in numerical formula) giving rise to rotation g = 1 + V/0.51 = 1/(1-b2)1/2 = relativistic factor b = v/c = normalized beam velocity Io = 4pmc/moe = 17,000 amperes I < 17(g2/3 - a2/3)3/2 /(1-f)g kiloamperes Uniform beam spread curve K = (2I/17b2 g)[1/g2 -f] a = dr/dz ao = initial beam radius r/ao = exp(a2/2K) Beam equilibrium condition I < 0.7bpB2a2g kA bp is the component of b in the direction of beam propagation, B is in kG, and a is in cm. Magnetic field energy required to focus a beam in equilibrium (note that this may not assure stability) k1 = ratio of field coil radius to beam radius k2 = ratio of field to minimum field k3 = ratio of field energy inside coil radius to field energy outside coil radius l= length of field region (cm.) E = Energy of magnetic field (joules) E = .036Ilk12k22k3/bpg

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Beam rotation wc = 2pfc = eB/gmc = 17B/g Ghz. = cyclotron angular frequency where B is in kG rL = bc/wc = 1.7(g 2 - 1)1/2/B cm. Cusp Condition dB = Binitial-Bfinal in kilogauss r < 3.4 (g2 - 1)1/2/dB Magnetic Insulation d = anode-cathode gap in cm. for planar geometry = (b2 - a2)/2a in cylindrical geometry (b=OD, a=ID) B > (1.7/d)(g 2 - 1)1/2 kG Self magnetic insulation Minimum current = I = 8.5(g2 - 1)1/2/ln(b/a) kiloamps = (Io/2)(g2 - 1)1/2/ln(b/a)

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7.2 Electron Beam/Matter Interaction Stopping Power and Range Note that electron beams do not have a well defined stopping point in material. The CSDA range follows the path of an electron ignoring scattering, and is the longest distance an electron can physically travel. The practical range is the linear extrapolation of the depthdose curve and indicates a point where the electron flux is a few percent of the incident flux. Electron ranges and stopping powers are approximately proportional to the electron density in the medium. Electron energy CSDA Range in Al. Practical Range in Al. 2 (MeV) gm/cm g/cm2 ===================================================== .1 .018 0.009 .5 .25 0.16 1.0 .61 0.42 2.0 1.33 0.95 5.0 3.3 2.40 10.0 6.1 5.0 Radiation production with electron beams 100 ergs/gram = 1 Rad 10 Joules/gram = 1 MRad

For 1-10 MeV Aluminum, 1 mCoulomb/cm2 ~ 0.2 megarads on average over the range X-ray production efficiency V = beam energy in megavolts Z = Target atomic number I = Beam current in kiloamperes (X-ray energy total/Beam energy) = 7(-4)ZV Dose rate D(rads/sec) at 1 meter directly ahead of the beam D = 1.7(6)IV2.65 for Z = 73 Blackbody Radiation Law T = Temperature (Kelvin) e = Emissivity of surface Radiation flux = 5.67(-8)eT4 W/m2 35

7.3 High Power Microwaves f(c)=frequency (of cutoff) c=speed of light=3.0 x 108m/sec lg=waveguide wavelength w=2pf k=2p/lg Frequency Band Designations: Tri-Service World War II F(Ghz.) Designation F(Ghz.) Designation Waveguide ================================================================ 0.0-.25 A .003-.030 HF .25-.50 B .030-.300 VHF .50-1.0 C .300-1.12 UHF 1.0-2.0 D 1.12-1.76 L WR650 2.0-3.0 E 1.76-2.60 LS WR430 3.0-4.0 F 2.60-3.95 S WR284 4.0-6.0 G 3.95-5.89 C WR187 6.0-8.0 H 5.89-8.20 XN WR137 8.0-10.0 I 8.20-12.9 X WR90 10.0-20.0 J 12.9-18.0 Ku WR6 20.0-40.0 K 18.0-26.5 K WR42 Waveguide Relations f2=fc2 + (c/lg)2 Rectangular Waveguide, dimensions a, b, a>b lg=2a TE01, lg=2a/(1+(a/b)2)1/2 TE11, lg=2a/(1+(a/2b)2)1/2 TE21, lg=2a/(1+(a/b)2)1/2 TM11,

lg=2a/(1+(a/2b)2)1/2 TM21,

Circular Waveguide, a=radius lg=1.640a lg=3.412a TE01 TE11 lg=2.613a TM01 lg=1.640a TM11

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7.4 Railguns Capacitor - Driven Rail Gun Circuit

Voltage: (Lo + LG)d2q/dt2 + (Ro + RG + (dLG/dx)v)dq/dt + q/C = Vo Eq. of Motion: (mp + (dma/dx)x)d2x/dt2 = (1/2)(dLG/dx)(dI/dt)2 - (dma/dx)(dx/dt)2 Electrode pressure: P=(1/2)((dLG/dx)/A)I2

for dma/dx = 0, I = constant: v = [(dLg/dx)Ix/mpA]1/2 RG = RGo + (dRG/dx)x for m = 0, I = Iexp(-atsinwt, LG = LGo + LGx C = driver capacitance Ro = driver resistance (fixed) Lo = driver inductance (fixed) q = charge A = cross-sectioned gun area dRG/dx = gun longitudinal resistance gradient dLG/dx = gun longitudinal inductance gradient x = Longitudinal distance v = Longitudinal projectile relocity mP = projectile mass dma/dx = longitudinal air mass gradient

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Ablation rate constants (Jerall V. Parker, Proceedings at the IEEE 3rd Symposimm on Electromagnetic Launch Technology, Austin, TX, 1988) Gun Mode Material Ablation Vaporization Erosion (gas - liquid) ================================================== Copper 28 g/MJ 118 g/MJ 143 - 1630g/MJ Tungsten 88 160 185 - 1575 Polyethylene 3.4 25 500 - 6,800 Lexan 5.6 40 G-10 6.7 40

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8.0 DIAGNOSTICS 8.1 Sensitivity of an Unintegrated Square Current Loop b = outer conductor distance to current source center(m) a = inner conductor distance to current source center(m) l = length of current loop(m) parallel to current axis N = number of turns in the current loop Vout = (molN/2p)ln(b/a)(dI/dt) Integrated using a passive RC integrator Vout = (molNln(b/a)/2pRC)I = 2Nl(ln(b/a)/RC)I l is in cm., I in kA, RC in msec R = resistance of the RC integrator C = capacitance of the RC integrator RC product in seconds or microseconds as appropriate above I = current to be measured 8.2 Rogowski Coil The Rogowski coil consists of N turns wound on a form circular in shape evenly along the major circumference. Each turn has an area A. The major circumference has a radius r, and the output is independent of the relative position of the current flow as long as the winding source is more than 2 turn spacings away from the current source. r = major radius of the Rogowski coil Vout = (moNA/2pr)dI/dt Vout = (moNA/2pr RC)I = (2NA/rRC)I = (12.63nA/RC)I unintegrated integrated integrated A(cm2), r(cm), RC(msec), I(kA) integrated A(cm2), RC(msec), n(cm-1)

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8.3 Current Transformer Given appropriate frequency response in the core, a current transformer will give linear output over a wide range of time scales and currents. R = total terminating resistance of the measurement circuit b = od of square core a = id of square core l= length of square core dB = saturation magnetization of core N = number of turns mo = Permeability (H/m) Vout = (R/N)I Z = R/N2 = insertion impedance of the current transformer t = mN2lln(b/a)/R = exponential decay time of signal Imax tmax = N2(b-a)ldB/R The risetime of current transformers is generally determined empirically 8.4 Attenuators T-pad type attenuators are commonly used in fixed impedance (typically 50 ohm) systems. We list the general equation for this type of attenuator, and several standard values. Z = characteristic impedance K = attenuation factor (>1) = voltage out/voltage in R1 = Z[1 - 2/(K+1)] R2 = 2ZK/(K2 -1) A = 20 Log10(K) = 10 Log10(Power in/Power out) = attenuation in db 50 ohm attenuator combinations K R1 R2 ======================= 2 16.7 66.7 5 33.3 20.8 10 43.9 10.1 40

9.0 MECHANICAL DATA 9.1 Coarse Screw Threads Size Thds. Major Minor Lead Angle per diam. diam. inch (inches) (inches) (deg.) (min.) ======================================================== 1 64 0.073 0.056 4 31 2 56 0.086 0.067 4 22 3 48 0.099 0.076 4 26 4 40 0.112 0.085 4 45 5 40 0.125 0.098 4 11 ======================================================== 6 32 0.138 0.101 4 50 8 32 0.164 0.130 3 58 10 24 0.190 0.145 4 39 12 24 0.216 0.171 4 1 1/4 20 0.250 0.196 4 11 ======================================================== 5/16 18 0.313 0.252 3 40 3/8 16 0.375 0.307 3 24 7/16 14 0.438 0.360 3 20 1/2 13 0.500 0.417 3 7 9/16 12 0.563 0.472 2 59 ======================================================== 5/8 11 0.625 0.527 2 56 3/4 10 0.750 0.642 2 40 7/8 9 0.875 0.755 2 31 1 8 1.000 0.865 2 29

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9.2 Fine Threads Size Thds. Major Minor Lead Angle per diam. diam. inch (inches) (inches) (deg.) (min.) ======================================================== 0 80 0.060 0.465 4 23 1 72 0.073 0.058 3 57 2 64 0.086 0.069 3 45 3 56 0.099 0.080 3 43 4 48 0.112 0.089 3 51 ======================================================== 5 44 0.125 0.100 3 45 6 40 0.138 0.111 3 44 8 36 0.164 0.134 3 28 10 32 0.190 0.156 3 21 12 28 0.216 0.177 3 22 ======================================================== 1/4 28 0.250 0.211 2 52 5/16 24 0.313 0.267 2 40 3/8 24 0.375 0.330 2 11 7/16 20 0.438 0.338 2 15 1/2 20 0.500 0.446 1 57 ======================================================== 9/16 18 0.563 0.502 1 55 5/8 18 0.625 0.565 1 43 3/4 16 0.750 0.682 1 36 7/8 14 0.875 0.798 1 34 1 12 1.000 0.910 1 36

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9.3 Deflection of Beams Rectangular Beams, d=vertical direction, l=length, b=wide direction, all units in inches, E=Elastic Modulus (lb/in2) W=Weight supported (pounds), h=deflection Supported at both ends, Fixed at both ends, Supported at both ends, Fixed at both ends, Uniform load Uniform load Center load Center load h=5Wl3/32Ebd3 h= Wl3/32Ebd3 h= Wl3/4Ebd3 h= Wl3/16Ebd3

Deflection of Circular flat plates, R=radius(inches), W=total load (pounds), t=thickness (inches) Edges supported, Edges fixed, Edges supported, Edges fixed Uniform load Uniform load Center load Center load h=0.221 WR2/Et3 h=0.054 WR2/Et3 h=0.55 WR2/Et3 h=0.22 WR2/Et3

Metric Note: The formulae above also apply if the lengths are in meters, the weights are in kilograms, and the elastic modulus is in kg/m2. Modulus of elasticity Material Elasticity (Millions of lb/in2) =========================================== Steel, (typical) 30 Steel, Stainless 28 Aluminum (most types) 10.3 Brass (typical) 15 Titanium 16 =========================================== Acrylic 0.40 Nylon 0.30 Polyimide 0.37 Alumina 41 Wood 1.4 - 2.3

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10.0 REFERENCES These references are intended to reflect useful references in the field, and they might form a basic library. A short computerized database of references for this formulary is available (for the cost of postage and handling) from North Star Research Corporation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. D.L. Book, NRL Plasma Formulary, (Laboratory for Computational Physics, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, 1983). W.J. Sarjeant and R.E. Dollinger, High Power Electronics, (TAB Books, Blue Ridge Summit, PA, 1989). G.N. Glasoe and J.V. Lebacqz, Pulse Generators, (Dover, New York, N.Y, 1948). H.W. Sams & Co., Reference Data For Radio Engineers, Sixth Edition, (Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1975). C.E. Baum, Dielectric Strength Notes, AFWL Report PEP 5-1, (Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Albuquerque, NM, 1975). E. Oberg, F.D. Jones, and H.H. Horton, Machinery's Handbook, 23rd Edition (Industrial Press, New York, N.Y, 1988). S. Humphries, Jr., Principles of Charged Particle Acceleration, (Wiley, New York, N.Y. 1986).

Errata, and correspondence regarding additional copies, large format copies of the formulary or database disks should be addressed to: North Star Research Corporation 4421 McLeod, NE, Ste. A Albuquerque, NM, 87109 Attn: Formulary Copies from the initial vest pocket printing are free while supplies last, but additional copies, or the related materials may be subject to handling charges.

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Fundamental constants: E.R. Cohen, and B.N. Taylor, Physics Today, 40, BG3 (1989). References: Solid Breakdown, Reference Data For Radio Engineers, Howard W. Sams & Co. New York, 6th. Edition, 1982. Plastics Reference Handbook, Regal Plastics Alberox Corp. Tech. Data Gas Breakdown--Alston (DC) DC flashover from Hackam Conductor resistivities, densities, etc. from Ref. Data Rad. Eng., Machinery's Hanbook, Stnd. Handbook For EE

CSDA Electron Range

L. Pages et. al. Atomic Data Volume 4, p. 1

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