100

Some Simple Facts in

Propositional Logic
101
Socrates is a man.
SOCRATESMAN
Plato is a man.
PLATOMAN
Better representations :
MAN(SOCRATES)
MAN(PLATO)
All men are mortal.
MORTALMAN
Better representation :
Limitations of Propositional Logic
102
A Predicate Logic Example
1. Marcus was a man.
2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
3. All Pompeian were Romans.
4. Caesar was a ruler.
5. All Romans were either loyal to Caesar or
hated him.
6. Everyone is loyal to someone.
7. People only try to assassinate rulers they
are not loyal to.
8. Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.
103
A Predicate Logic Example
104
An Attempt to Prove
105
Three Ways of Representing
Class Membership
106
Overriding Defaults
Suppose we add:
But now we have a problem with 5:
So we need to change it to :
107
Another Predicate Logic Example
1. Marcus was a man.
2. Marcus was a Pompeian.
3. Marcus was born in 40 A.D.
4. All men are mortal.
5. All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D.
6. No mortal lives longer than 150 years.
7. It is now 1991.
8. Alive means not dead.
108
A Set of Facts about Marcus
109
One Way of Proving That Marcus Is Dead
110
Another Way of Proving That Marcus Is Dead
111
Conversion to Clause Form
Problem :
Solution :
Flatten
Separate out Quantifiers
Conjunctive Normal Form :
Clause Form :
Conjunctive Normal Form
No instances of
112
Algorithm : Convert to Clause Form
113
Examples of Conversion to Clause Form
Example :
1 Eliminate
2 Reduce scope of
3 Standardize Variables.
114
Examples of Conversion to Clause Form
4 Move quantifiers.
5 Eliminate existential quantifiers.
will be converted to
while
will be converted to
6 Drop the prefix.
7 Convert to a conjunction of disjuncts.
115
Examples of Conversion to Clause Form
The Formula
becomes
and then becomes
116
The Basis of Resolution
Given :
becomes
117
Herbrands Theorem
Toshowthatasetof clausesSisunsatisfiable, itisnecessarytoconsider
onlyinterpretationsoveraparticularset, calledtheHerbranduniverseof
S.
Aset of clausesSisunsatisfiableif andonlyif afinitesubset of ground
instances(inwhichall boundvariableshavehadavaluesubstitutedfor
them)ofSisunsatisfiable.
118
Algorithm : Propositional Resolution
1. Convert all thepropositionsof Ftoclauseform.
2. Negate P and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses
obtainedinstep1.
3. Repeat until either acontradictionisfoundor noprogresscanbemade:
(a) Select twoclauses. Call thesetheparent clauses.
(b) Resolve them together. The resulting clause, called the resolvent, will be the
disjunction of all of the literals of both of the parent clauses with the following
exception: If thereareanypairsof literalsLandLsuchthat oneof theparent clauses
contains L and the other contains L, then select one such pair and eliminate both L
andLfromtheresolvent.
(c) If the resolvent is the empty clause, then a contradiction has been found. If it is not,
thenaddit totheset of clausesavailabletotheprocedure.
119
A Few Facts in Propositional Logic
120
Resolution in Propositional Logic
121
Unification
122
Finding General Substitutions
Given :
We could produce :
123
Algorithm : Unify (L1, L2)
1. If L1 or L2 are both variables or constants, then:
(a) If L1 and L2 are identical, then return NIL.
(b) Else if L1 is a variable, then if L1 occurs in L2 then return {FAIL}, else return (L2/L1).
(c) Else if L2 is a variable then if L2 occurs in L1 then return {FAIL}, else return (L1/L2).
(d) Else return {FAIL}.
2. If the initial predicate symbols in L1 and L2 are not identical, then return {FAIL).
3. If LI and L2 have a different number of arguments, then return {FAIL}.
4. Set SUBST to NIL.
5. For i 1 to number of arguments in L1:
(a) Call Unify with the /th argument of L1 and the ith argument of L2, putting result in S.
(b) If S contains FAIL then return {FAIL}.
(c) If S is not equal to NIL then:
(i) Apply S to the remainder of both L1 and L2.
(ii) SUBST : =APPEND(S, SUBST).
6. Return SUBST.
124
Why Do the Occur Check?
Example :
125
Resolution in Predicate Logic
Example :
Yield the substitution :
Marcus/x
1
So it does not yield the resolvent :
mortal/x
1
It does yield :
mortal(Marcus)
126
Algorithm : Resolution
1. Convert all thestatementsof Ftoclauseform.
2. Negate P and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of clauses
obtained in1.
3. Repeat until either a contradiction is found, no progress can be made, or a
predeterminedamount of effort hasbeenexpended.
(a) Select twoclauses. Call thesetheparent clauses.
(b) Resolvethemtogether. Theresolvent will bethedisjunctionof all theliteralsof both
parent clauses with appropriate substitutions performed and with the following
exception: If there is one pair of literals T1 and T2 such that one of the parent
clauses contains T2 and the other contains T1 and if T1 and T2 are unifiable, then
neither T1nor T2should appear in the resolvent. If there is more than one pair of
complimentaryliterals, onlyonepair sholdbeomittedfromtheresolvent.
(c) If theresolvent istheemptyclause, thenacontradictionhasbeenfound. If it isnot,
thenaddit totheset of clausesavailabletotheprocedure.
127
A Resolution Proof
128
An Unsuccessful Attempt at Resolution
129
The Need to Standardize Variables
130
Using Resolution with Equality and Reduce
131
Trying Several Substitutions
132
Answers Extraction Using Resolution
133
The Need to Change Representations
What happened in 79 A.D.?
But we have
erupted(volcano, 79)
134
Unification Examples
135
Resolution Example
John likes all kind of food.
Apples are food.
Chicken is food.
Anything anyone eats and isnt killed by is food.
Bill eats peanuts and is still alive.
Sue eats everything Bill eats.
136
Resolution Example
The members of the Elm St. Bridge Club are Joe, Sally, Bill and
Ellen.
Joe is married to Sally.
Bill is Ellens brother.
The spouse of every married person in the club is also in the club.
The last meeting of the club was at Joes house.
137
Resolution Example
Steve only likes easy courses.
Science courses are hard.
All the courses in the basket weaving department are easy.
BK301 is a basket weaving course.
138
Order of Substitutions
139
A Problem
Given :
Prove :
Whats wrong with :
140
The Need for the Occur Check
Unify: