1

C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Transfer Functions
Convenient representation of a linear, dynamic model.
A transfer function (TF) relates one input and one output:
( )
( )
( )
( )
system
x t y t
X s Y s

The following terminology is used:
y
output
response
effect
x
input
forcing function
cause
2
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x, and an
output, y. Then, by definition
( )
( )
( )
Y s
G s
X s

where:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Y s y t
X s x t
(

(

L
L
Development of Transfer Functions
Example: Stirred Tank Heating System
3
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.
4
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid
holdup and flow rates:
( )
(1)
i
dT
V C wC T T Q
dt
= +
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 , 0 , 0 2
i i
T T T T Q Q = = =
where steady-state value of T, etc. For steady-state
conditions:
T
( )
0 (3)
i
wC T T Q = +
Subtract (3) from (1):
( ) ( ) ( )
(4)
i i
dT
V C wC T T T T Q Q
dt

(
= +

5
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
But,
( )
because is a constant (5)
d T T
dT
T
dt dt

=
Thus we can substitute into (4-2) to get,
( )
(6)
i
dT
V C wC T T Q
dt

= +
where we have introduced the following deviation variables,
also called perturbation variables:
, , (7)
i i i
T T T T T T Q Q Q


Take L of (6):
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 (8)
i
V C sT s T t wC T s T s Q s

( ( = =

6
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
( )
0 . T t

=
Evaluate
By definition, Thus at time, t = 0, . T T T

( ) ( )
0 0 (9) T T T

=
But since our assumed initial condition was that the process
was initially at steady state, i.e., it follows from (9)
that
Note: The advantage of using deviation variables is that the
initial condition term becomes zero. This simplifies the later
analysis.
( )
0 T T =
( )
0 0. T

=
Rearrange (8) to solve for
T s
( )
:

( ) ( ) ( )
1
(10)
1 1
i
K
T s Q s T s
s s
| | | |

= +
| |
+ +
\ . \ .
7
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
where two new symbols are defined:
( )
1
and 11
V
K
wC w

Transfer Function Between and
Q

Suppose is constant at the steady-state value. Then,

+
8
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Transfer Function Between and T

:
i
T

Suppose that Q is constant at its steady-state value:

+
Comments:
1. The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q and
on T. What about simultaneous changes in both Q and ?
i
T
i
T
9
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Answer: See (10). The same TFs are valid for simultaneous
changes.
Note that (10) shows that the effects of changes in both Q
and are additive. This always occurs for linear, dynamic
models (like TFs) because the Principle of Superposition is
valid.
i
T
2. The TF model enables us to determine the output response to
any change in an input.
3. Use deviation variables to eliminate initial conditions for TF
models.
10
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Properties of Transfer Function Models
1. Steady-State Gain
The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the steady-
state change in an output due to a steady-state change in the
input. For example, suppose we know two steady states for an
input, u, and an output, y. Then we can calculate the steady-
state gain, K, from:
2 1
2 1
(4-38)
y y
K
u u

For a linear system, K is a constant. But for a nonlinear

=
This important result is a consequence of the Final Value
Theorem
Note: Some TF models do not have a steady-state gain (e.g.,
integrating process in Ch. 5)
12
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
1
1 1 0
1
1
1 1 0
1
(4-39)
n n m
n n m
n n m
m
m
m
d y dy dy d u
a a a a y b
dt
dt dt dt
d u du
b b b u
dt
dt

+ + + = +
+ + +

Take L, assuming the initial conditions are all zero. Rearranging

13
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Definition:
The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the denominator
polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.
Physical Realizability:
For any physical system, in (4-38). Otherwise, the system
response to a step input will be an impulse. This cant happen.
Example:
n m
0 1 0
and step change in (4-41)
du
a y b b u u
dt
= +
14
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
3. Additive Property
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that
the transfer functions are known:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2
and
Y s Y s
G s G s
U s U s
= =
Then the response to changes in both and can be written
as:
1
U
2
U
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
Y s G s U s G s U s = +
The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:
G
1
(s)
G
2
(s)
Y(s)
U
1
(s)
U
2
(s)
15
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
4. Multiplicative Property
Suppose that,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 3
2 3
and
Y s U s
G s G s
U s U s
= =
Then,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 3 3
Y s G s U s and U s G s U s = =
Substitute,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 3
Y s G s G s U s =
Or,
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 3 2 3
3
Y s
G s G s U s G s G s Y s
U s
=
16
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Linearization of Nonlinear Models
So far, we have emphasized linear models which can be
transformed into TF models.
But most physical processes and physical models are nonlinear.
- But over a small range of operating conditions, the behavior
may be approximately linear.
- Conclude: Linear approximations can be useful, especially
for purpose of analysis.
Approximate linear models can be obtained analytically by a
method called linearization. It is based on a Taylor Series
Expansion of a nonlinear function about a specified operating
point.
17
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Consider a nonlinear, dynamic model relating two process
variables, u and y:
( )
, (4-60)
dy
f y u
dt
=
Perform a Taylor Series Expansion about and and
truncate after the first order terms,
u u =
y y =
( ) ( )
, , (4-61)
y y
f f
f u y f u y u y
u y


= + +

where and . Note that the partial derivative
terms are actually constants because they have been evaluated at
the nominal operating point,
Substitute (4-61) into (4-60) gives:
u u u

=
y y y

=
( )
, . u y
( )
,
y y
dy f f
f u y u y
dt u y


= + +

18
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
The steady-state version of (4-60) is:
( )
0 , f u y =
,
dy dy
dt dt

=
Substitute into (7) and recall that
(4-62)
y y
dy f f
u y
dt u y

= +

Linearized
model
Example: Liquid Storage System
Mass balance:
Valve relation:
A = area, C
v
= constant
(1)
i
dh
A q q
dt
=
(2)
v
q C h =
q
i
h
q
19
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Combine (1) and (2),
(3)
i v
dh
A q C h
dt
=
Linearize term,
( )
1
(4)
2
h h h h
h

Or
1
(5) h h h
R


where:
2 R h
h h h

20
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Substitute linearized expression (5) into (3):
1
(6)
i v
dh
A q C h h
dt R
| |

=
|
\ .
The steady-state version of (3) is:
0 (7)
i v
q C h =
Subtract (7) from (6) and let , noting that
gives the linearized model:
i i i
q q q

dh dh
dt dt

=
1
(8)
i
dh
A q h
dt R

=
21
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Summary:
In order to linearize a nonlinear, dynamic model:
1. Perform a Taylor Series Expansion of each nonlinear term
and truncate after the first-order terms.
2. Subtract the steady-state version of the equation.
3. Introduce deviation variables.
22
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
State-Space Models
Dynamic models derived from physical principles typically
consist of one or more ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
In this section, we consider a general class of ODE models
referred to as state-space models.
Consider standard form for a linear state-space model,
(4-90)
(4-91)

x = Ax + Bu+ Ed
y = Cx
23
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
where:
x = the state vector
u = the control vector of manipulated variables (also called
control variables)
d = the disturbance vector
y = the output vector of measured variables. (We use
boldface symbols to denote vector and matrices, and
plain text to represent scalars.)
The elements of x are referred to as state variables.
The elements of y are typically a subset of x, namely, the state
variables that are measured. In general, x, u, d, and y are
functions of time.
The time derivative of x is denoted by
Matrices A, B, C, and E are constant matrices.
( )
d / d . t = x x

24
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Example 4.9
Show that the linearized CSTR model of Example 4.8 can
be written in the state-space form of Eqs. 4-90 and 4-91.
Derive state-space models for two cases:
(a) Both c
A
and T are measured.
(b) Only T is measured.
Solution
The linearized CSTR model in Eqs. 4-84 and 4-85 can be written
in vector-matrix form:
11 12
21 22 2
0
(4-92)
A
A
s
dc
a a c
dt
T
dT
a a T b
dt

(

( ( (
(
( ( (

= +
(
( ( (

(

( ( (

(

25
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
Let and , and denote their time derivatives by
and . Suppose that the steam temperature T
s
can be
manipulated. For this situation, there is a scalar control variable,
, and no modeled disturbance. Substituting these
definitions into (4-92) gives,
1 A
x c

2
x T

1
x

2
x

s
u T

1 11 12 1
2 21 22 2 2
0
(4-93)
x a a x
u
x a a x b
( ( ( (
= +
( ( ( (

B
A
which is in the form of Eq. 4-90 with x = col [x
1
, x
2
]. (The symbol
col denotes a column vector.)
26
C
h
a
p
t
e
r

4
a) If both T and c
A
are measured, then y = x, and C = I in
Eq. 4-91, where I denotes the 2x2 identity matrix. A and B are
defined in (4-93).
b) When only T is measured, output vector y is a scalar,
and C is a row vector, C = [0,1].
y T

=
Note that the state-space model for Example 4.9 has d = 0
because disturbance variables were not included in (4-92). By
contrast, suppose that the feed composition and feed temperature
are considered to be disturbance variables in the original
nonlinear CSTR model in Eqs. 2-60 and 2-64. Then the linearized
model would include two additional deviation variables,
and .
Ai
c

i
T