A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into electrical signal.

This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the deformation (strain) as an electrical signal, because the strain changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Load cells of one strain gauge (quarter bridge) or two strain gauges (half bridge) are also available.
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The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few millivolts and

requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. The output of the transducer is plugged into an algorithm to calculate the force applied to the transducer. Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments. Other types include piezoelectric load cells (useful for dynamic measurements of force), and vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift. Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity. Load cells are used in several types of measuring instruments such as universal testing machines. Load Cell types & working principle:
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Cantilever or bending beam Compression Tensile Universal Shear Torque Hollow

Applications
  

Force measurement Portable weigh scales Platform scales

            
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Electronic weighbridge or truck weighing Electronic crane scales Hopper/Tank/Silo weighing Finding Center of gravity Onboard weighing Railcar weighing Structural health monitoring In-motion dynamic weighing check weigher Batch weighing Monitor inventory Feedback control Impact measurement Force gauge

Introduction to Load Cells

What is a Load Cell? A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a measurable electrical output. Although there are many varieties of load cells, strain gage based load cells are the most commonly used type. Load Cell History Before strain gage-based load cells became the method of choice for industrial weighing applications, mechanical lever scales were widely used. Mechanical scales can weigh everything from pills to railroad cars and can do so accurately and reliably if they are properly calibrated and maintained. The method of operation can involve either the use of a weight balancing mechanism or the detection of the force developed by mechanical levers. The earliest, pre-strain gage force sensors included hydraulic and pneumatic designs. In 1843, English physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone devised a bridge circuit that could measure electrical resistances. The Wheatstone bridge circuit is ideal for measuring the resistance changes that occur in strain gages. Although the first bonded resistance wire strain gage was developed in the 1940s, it was not until modern electronics caught up that the new technology became technically and economically feasible. Since that time, however, strain gages have proliferated both as mechanical scale components and in stand-alone load cells. Today, except for certain laboratories where precision mechanical balances are still used, strain gage load cells dominate the weighing industry. Pneumatic load cells are sometimes used where intrinsic safety and hygiene are desired, and hydraulic load cells are considered in remote locations, as they do not require a power supply. Strain gage load cells offer accuracies from within 0.03% to 0.25% full scale and are suitable for almost all industrial applications.

Load Cell Performance Comparison Weight Accuracy Apps Strength Weakness Range (FS) Mechanical Load Cells Hydraulic Up to 0.25% Tanks, bins Takes high Expensive, Load Cells 10,000,000 and impacts, complex. lb hoppers. insensitive Hazardous to areas. temperature. Pneumatic Wide High Food Intrinsically Slow Load Cells industry, safe. response. hazardous Contains no Requires areas fluids. clean, dry air Strain Gage Load Cells Bending 10-5k lbs. 0.03% Tanks, Low cost, Strain Beam platform simple gages are Load Cells scales, construction exposed, require protection Shear 10-5k lbs. 0.03% Tanks, High side Beam platform load Load Cells scales, rejection, off- center better loads sealing and protection Canister to 500k 0.05% Truck, tank, Handles No Load Cells lbs. track, and load horizontal hopper movements load scales protection Ring and 5- 500k Tanks, bins, All stainless No load Pancake lbs. scales steel movement Load Cells allowed Button 0-50k lbs 1% Small scales Small, Loads and 0-200 lbs. inexpensive must be washer typ. centered, Load Cells no load movement permitted Other Load Cells Helical 0-40k lbs. 0.2% Platform, Handles offforklift, axis loads, wheel load, overloads, automotive shocks seat weight Fiber optic 0.1% Electrical Immune to transmission RFI/EMI and cables, stud high temps, or bolt intrinsically mounts safe Piezo0.03% Extremely High cost, Type

resistive

sensitive, nonlinear high output signal output level

Load Cell Operating Principles: Load cell designs can be distinguished according to the type of output signal generated (pneumatic, hydraulic, electric) or according to the way they detect weight (bending, shear, compression, tension, etc.) Hydraulic load cells are force -balance devices, measuring weight as a change in pressure of the internal filling fluid. In a rolling diaphragm type hydraulic load cell, a load or force acting on a loading head is transferred to a piston that in turn compresses a filling fluid confined within an elastomeric diaphragm chamber. As force increases, the pressure of the hydraulic fluid rises. This pressure can be locally indicated or transmitted for remote indication or control. Output is linear and relatively unaffected by the amount of the filling fluid or by its temperature. If the load cells have been properly installed and calibrated, accuracy can be within 0.25% full scale or better, acceptable for most process weighing applications. Because this sensor has no electric components, it is ideal for use in hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin, and hopper weighing. For maximum accuracy, the weight of the tank should be obtained by locating one load cell at each point of support and summing their outputs. Pneumatic load cells also operate on the force-balance principle. These devices use multiple dampener chambers to provide higher accuracy than can a hydraulic device. In some designs, the first dampener chamber is used as a tare weight chamber. Pneumatic load cells are often used to measure relatively small weights in industries where cleanliness and safety are of prime concern. The advantages of this type of load cell include their being inherently explosion proof and insensitive to temperature variations. Additionally, they contain no fluids that might contaminate the process if the diaphragm ruptures. Disadvantages include relatively slow speed of response and the need for clean, dry, regulated air or nitrogen. Strain-gage load cells convert the load acting on them into electrical signals. The gauges themselves are bonded onto a beam or structural member that deforms when weight is applied. In most cases, four strain gages are used to obtain maximum sensitivity and temperature compensation. Two of the gauges are usually in tension, and two in compression, and are wired with compensation adjustments as shown in Figure 7-2. When weight is applied, the strain changes the electrical resistance of the gauges in proportion to the load. Other load cells are fading into obscurity, as strain gage load cells continue to increase their accuracy and lower their unit costs