Chapter 9

Flow over Immersed Bodies

We consider flows over bodies that are immersed in a fluid and the flows are termed external flows. We are interested in the fluid force (lift and drag) over the bodies. For example, correct design of cars, trucks, ships, and airplanes, etc. can greatly decrease the fuel consumption and improve the handling characteristics of the vehicle.

9.1 General External Flow Characteristics

z

A body immersed in a moving fluid experiences a resultant force due to the interaction between the body and the fluid surrounding it. Object and flow relation: stationary air with moving object or flowing air with stationary object Flow classification:

Figure 9.2
Flow classification: (a) two-dimensional, (b) axisymmetric, (c) three-dimensional.

Body shape: Streamlined bodies or blunt bodies

9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts

z

When any body moves through a fluid, an interaction between the body and the fluid occurs This can be described in terms of the stresses-wall shear stresses due to viscous effect and normal stresses due to the pressure P

Drag, D the resultant force in the direction of the upstream velocity Lift, L the resultant force normal to the upstream velocity

Resultant force--lift and drag

dFx = ( pdA) cos + ( w dA) sin and dFy = ( pdA) sin + ( w dA) cos
The net x and y components of the force on the object are, D = dFx = p cos dA + w sin dA L = dFy = p sin dA + w cos dA
z

Resultant force

Nondimensional lift coeff. CL and drag coeff. CD

CL = L D C , = D 1 U 2 A 1 U 2 A 2 2
A: charateristic area, frontal area or planform area?

Note: When CD or CL=1, then D or L equals the dynamic pressure on A.

Velocity and pressure distribution around an air foil

(From S.R. Turns, Thermal-Fluid Sciences, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)

Drag and lift due to pressure and friction: example of an air foil

(From S.R. Turns, Thermal-Fluid Sciences, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)

9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object

z

For typical external flows the most important of parameters are the Reynolds number the Mach number
Ul Re =
Ma = U c

the Froude number, for flow with a free surface

Fr = U
z

gl

Flows with Re>100 are dominated by inertia effects, whereas flows with Re<1 are dominated by viscous effects.

Flow past a flat plate (streamlined body)

Figure 9.5
Character of the steady, viscous flow past a flat plate parallel to the upstream velocity: (a) low Reynolds number flow, (b) moderate Reynolds number flow, (c) large Reynolds number flow.

Steady flow past a circular cylinder (blunt body)

z

The velocity gradients within the boundary layer and wake regions are much larger than those in the remainder of the flow fluid. Therefore, viscous effects are confined to the boundary layer and wake regions.

V9.2 Streamlined and blunt bodies

9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics

9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate

Figure 9.7
Distortion of a fluid particle as it flows within the boundary layer.

Boundary layer thickness,

=y where u=0.99U

Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate

Transition occurs at
Re xcr =

Ux = 2 105 ~ 3 106

depending on surface roughness and amount of turbulence in upstream flow

Figure 9.9
Typical characteristics of boundary layer thickness and wall shear stress for laminar and turbulent boundary layers.

V9.3 Laminar boundary layer V9.4 Laminar/turbulent transition

Boundary layer displacement thickness

*bU =
* or

(U u ) bdy
0

u = 1 U 0

dy

(9.3)

Figure 9.8 (p. 472)

Boundary layer thickness: (a) standard boundary layer thickness, (b) boundary layer displacement thickness.

Boundary layer displacement thickness

z

Represents the amount that the thickness of the body must be increased so that the fictitious uniform inviscid flow has the same mass flow rate properties as the actual viscous flow. It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the viscous effects on the plate.

Ex 9.3 Determine the velocity U=U(x) of the air within the duct
but outside of the boundary layer with * = 0.004( x)1 2

Boundary layer momentum thickness

z

Boundary layer momentum thickness

2 u U u dA = b u ( U u ) dy = bU ( ) 0

u U 0

u 1 U

dy

(9.4)

9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

z

The Navier-Stokes equations are too complicated that no analytical solution is available. However, for large Re, simplified boundary layer equations can be derived.

2-D Navier-Stokes Equations

2u 2u 1 p u u u +v = + 2 + 2 x x y x y 2v 2v 1 p v v u +v = + 2 + 2 y x y x y u v + =0 x y

(9.5) Elliptic equation (9.6)

Boundary layer assumption

z

The boundary layer assumption is based on the fact that the boundary layer is thin.
<< x so that v << u and
Thus the equations become, u v + =0 x y 1 p u u u u +v = + 2 x x y y
2

<< x y

(9.8)
parabolic equation
Detailed derivation is given in Cengel & Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, 2006, pp. 516-519.

(9.9)

Physically, the flow is parallel to the plate and any fluid is convected downstream much more quickly than it is diffused across the streamlines. For boundary layer flow over a flat plate the pressure is constant. The flow represents a balance between viscous and inertial effects, with pressure playing no role.

Boundary conditions
BCs: u = v = 0 , y = 0 u U , y It can be argued that the velocity profile should be similar In addition, order of magnitude analysis leads to: u u 2u uu u ~ 2 , u +v = 2 , x x y y u y =g U

~
2

x
U

~ U

Similarity variables
Define the dimensionless similarity variable y U 2 = y~ , x and stream function
1

= ( xU )
Thus

f ( ) where f ( ) is an unknown function

1 2 1 U 2 u = = ( xU ) f ( ) = Uf ( ) y x 1 U 2 d v = x = 4 x ( f f ) where ( ) = d

Then the parabolic equation (9.9) becomes 2 f + ff = 0 with the boundary conditions f (0) = f (0) = 0 at = 0, f () 1 as

(9.14a) (9.14b)

Blasius solutions
u = f ( ) U from the numerical solution
1

u 0.99 = 5.0 (Table 9.1) U

x U 2 = 5 = , = 5 U x Ux 5 or Re x = = x Re x

HW: Derive (9.14&9.18) and solve using Matlab to get Table 9.1

Blasius solution

Figure 9.10
Blasius boundary layer profile: (a) boundary layer profile in dimensionless form using the similarity variable . (b) similar boundary layer profiles at different locations along the flat plate.

Blasius solution
displacement thickness: from (9.3) momentum thickness: from (9.4)

*
x

1.721 Re x

(9.16) (9.17)

0.664 = x Re x

boundary layer Shear stress: u w = y = 0.332U

y =0 3 2

(9.18)

Note: For fully developed pipe flow shear stress, w U (why?)

9.2.3 Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate

z

One of the important aspects of boundary layer theory is the determination of the drag caused by shear forces on a body. Consider a uniform flow past a flat plate

Figure 9.11
Control volume used in the derivation of the momentum integral equation for boundary layer flow.

x-component of momentum equation: u v v u v v Fx = uV ndA + uV ndA

(1) (2)

= D =

plate

w dA = b

plate

w dx or

2 2

D = U (U ) dA + u dA D = U bh b u 2 dy
(1) (2) 0

Since Uh = udy, U bh = bU udy = b Uudy

2 0 0 0

D = U bh b u du = b Uudy b u dy = b u (U u )dy
2 2 2 0 0 0 0

D = bU 2

u u (1 )dy = bU 2 , and U U 0

dD d = bU 2 dx dx

The increase in drag per length of the plate occurs at the expense of an increase of the momentum boundary layer thickness, which represents a decrease in the momentum of the fluid.
Q dD = wbdx dD d = b w w = U 2 momentum integral equation by von Karman dx dx

Momentum integral equation

d w = U dx
2

momentum integral equation

If we know the velocity distributions, we can obtain drag or shear stress. The accuracy of these results depends on how closely the shape of the assumed velocity profile approximates the actual profile.

Example 9.4
u= Uy

d w = U dx U w =
2

0 y u =U y >

u = U 0 =

u 1 U

u dy = U 0
1

u 1 U

dy
2 3 1

y y y y 2 dy y y dy 1 = = = 2 3 0 6 0 0

6 U U 2 d dx , d = = 6 dx U

2
2

6 12 x 2 = x U U

or = 3.46

x U Ux

compare with Blasius solution

=5

Ux

= 3.46

= 0.576
2

x U
w = 0.332U
3 2

3 d 2 = 0.289U w = U dx x

Figure 9.12
Typical approximate boundary layer profiles used in the momentum integral equation.

Momentum integral equation for general profile of u/U

u u y = g (Y ) for 0 Y 1, = 1 for Y > 1 , where Y = U U B.C.: g (0) = 0 , g (1) = 1 Let u u D = bU (1 )dy = bU 2 g (Y )[1 g (Y )]dY = bU 2 C1 U U 0 0
2

w =

u y

=
y =0

U dg dY

=
Y =0

U C 2
x 5 ) Re x

we can obtain that

C1 = g (Y )[1 g (Y )]dY
0

2C2 / C1 Re x

(Blasius solution:
3 2

C2 =

w =

C1C2 U C2 = U 2

dg dY

Y =0

cf =

w
1 U 2 2 Df

= 2C1C2
l

2C1C2 = Ux Re x

(Blasius solution: c f =

0.664 ) Re x

CDf =

1 U 2bl 2

b w dx
0

1 U 2bl 2

8C1C2 Rel

, where Rel =

1.328 U l (Blasius solution: CDf = ) Rel

9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

z

The analytical results are restricted to laminar boundary layer along a flat plate with zero pressure gradient. Transition to turbulent boundary layer occurs at

Re x ,cr = 2 105

3 106

Example 9.5 Boundary layer

transition

Figure 9.9
Typical characteristics of boundary layer thickness and wall shear stress for laminar and turbulent boundary layers.

Figure 9.13 (p. 483)

Turbulent spots and the transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer flow on a flat plate. Flow from left to right. (Photograph courtesy of B. Cantwell, Stanford University.

Figure 9.14 (p. 484)

Typical boundary layer profiles on a flat plate for laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow (Ref. 1).

V9.5 Transition on flat plate

9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow

z

The structure of turbulent boundary layer flow is very complex, random, and irregular, with significant cross-stream mixing. Empirical power-law velocity profile is a reasonable approximation.
To begin with the momentum integral equaion: 2 d w = U dx 1 y 1 Y = ,Y < 1 u y 7 7 = =Y Assume U u = U ,Y > 1 and the experimentally determined formula:
w = 0.0225U U
2 1 4

Example 9.6

(1)

u = dy U 0 where is still unknown.

1 1 4

d w = U dx u u = 1 U U 0
2

u 1 U

1 1 7 7 7 = = 1 dY Y Y dY 72 0 1

(2)

To determine , we combine Eq. 1 with Eq. 2 to get the ODE:

1 7 4 2 d 4 or d = 0.231 dx U 0.0225U = 72 dx U U with BC: = 0 at x = 0, we obtain 2 1

= 0.370 U

x 5 , or

0.370 Re x
1 5

u = 1 U 0
*

u dy 1 = U 0
1 1 5

dY = 1 Y 0
1

dY = = 0.0463 8 U

= 0.036 = 72 U

<* <

 w = 0.0225U 2 1 4 U 0.37 ( / U ) 5 x 5
l l 1 2

0.0288 U 2 Re x
1 5

A 5 2 D f = b w dx = b0.0288U dx = 0.036 U , 1 Ux Rel 5 0 0

1 1 2 U A Rel 5 2 Note: The above results are valid for smooth flat plates with

A = bl

CDf =

Df

0.072

5 105 <Re x < 107 Turbulent B.L.: Laminar B.L.: x , w

5 4

x x

x , w
2

Friction drag coefficient for a flat plate

z

Although Fig. 9.15 is similar with Moody diagram (pipe flow) of Fig. 8.23, the mechanisms are quite different. For fully developed pipe flow, fluid inertia remains constant and the flow is balanced between pressure forces and viscous forces. For flat plate boundary layer flow, pressure remains constant and the flow is balanced between inertia effects and viscous forces.

Figure 9.15
Friction drag coefficient for a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow.

Empirical equations for CDf

Example 9.7

9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient Inviscid flow over a cylinder

Viscous flow over a cylinder

Viscous flow

Viscous flow over cylinder: velocity-pressure

z

Separated flow

No matter how small the viscosity, provided it is not zero, there will be a boundary layer that separates from the surface, giving a drag that is, for the most part, independent of the value of .

9.2.7 Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient

z

Outside the boundary layer

p+

U fs 2
2

= constant

dU fs dp = U fs dx dx
z

(9.34)

Momentum integral boundary layer equation

dU fs d d 2 * w = (for U = C , w = U 2 ) (9.35) U fs + U fs dx dx dx

This equation represents a balance between viscous forces ( w ), pressure forces( dp = U dU fs ), and the fluid fs dx dx momentum( ). Eq. 9.35 can be used to provide information about the boundary layer thickness, wall shear stress, etc,

Derivation of equation (9.35)

u v + = 0 (a) x y u u U 1 +v =U + u x y x y (b)- ( u U ) (a)

(b)

U 1 = + ( vU vu ) uU u 2 + (U u ) x y y x

U 1 dy = u (U u )dy + x 0 x y

(U u )dy +
0

( vU vu )dy y 0

v=0 at y=0,

1 U = + dy u U u dy ( ) y x x 0 0
U = u (U u )dy + x 0 x

(U u )dy
0

(U u )dy
0

u = U 2 x 0 U =

u 1 U

U u + 1 dy U x U 0

dy

U U 2 + U * x x

(9.35)

9.3 Drag
z

Any object moving through a fluid will experience a drag D -- a net force in the direction of flow due to pressure (pressure drag) and shear stress (friction drag) on the surface of the object.
Drag coefficient: D CD = 1 = ( shape, Re, Ma, Fr, / l ) 2 2 U A

These are determined experimentally, and very few can be obtained analytically.

9.3.1 Friction Drag

z z

Drag due to the shear stress w , on the object. For large Re, the friction drag is generally smaller than pressure drag. However, for highly streamlined bodies or for low Reynolds number flow, most of the drag may be due to friction drag. Drag on a plate of width b and length l

1 D f = U 2blCDf 2 where CDf is the friction drag coefficient.

Friction Drag
For laminar flow, CDf is independent of For turbulent flow, CDf is function of CDf

D along the surface of a curved body is

quite difficult to obtain

Example 9.8 Friction drag coeff. for a cylinder

9.3.2 Pressure Drag

z z

Drag due to pressure on the object. Pressure drag also called form drag because of its strong dependency on the shape or form of the object.
D p = p cos dA C p = p p0 : pressure coefficient 1 U 2 2 p cos dA C p cos dA Dp p0 : reference pressure = = = 1 1 A U 2 A U 2 A 2 2

CDp

Pressure drag--Large Reynolds number

For large Reynolds number, ( inertial effect viscous effect )

1 p p0 U 2 ( dynamic pressure ) 2 p p0 : pressure coefficient D p = p cos dA C p = 2 U / 2 1 1 A 2 U A U 2 A 2 2 Therefore, C p is independent of Reynolds number, CDp is also independent of Reynolds number ( Re 1) CDp = Dp p cos dA C = =
p

cos dA

Pressure drag--low Reynolds number

For very small Reynolds number ( inertial effect U p l U w l viscous effect ) U l 1 = Ul Re

( viscous stress )
CDp

Dp 1 U 2 A 2

1 U 2 2

Comparisons: 1 Re For large Reynolds number f constant ( pipe flow ) For laminar pipe flow f

Example 9.9 Pressure drag coeff. for a cylinder

Viscosity Dependence Inviscid, Viscous flows over object

For = 0, the pressure drag on any shaped object (symmetrical or not) in a steady flow would be zero. For 0, the net pressure drag may be non-zero because of boundary layer separation.

9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples

CD = shape, Re, Ma, Fr, l
Shape Dependence

Figure 9.20
Two objects of considerably different size that have the same drag force: (a) circular cylinder CD = 1.2; (b) streamlined strut CD = 0.12.

Shape Dependence

Figure 9.19
Drag coefficient for an ellipse with the characteristic area either the frontal area, A = bD, or the planform area, A = bl (Ref. 5).

Reynolds Number Dependence

Low Reynolds number, Re<1
viscous force pressure force D = f (U , l , ) From dimensional analysis D = C lU [= C ( U / l ) l 2 ] CD = D 1 U 2l 2 2 = 2C lU 2C Ul , Re = = U 2l 2 Re

Note: For Re<1, streamlining increases the drag due to an increase in the area on which shear force act.

Ex 9.10: particle in the water dragged up by upward

motion
D = 0.1mm, SG = 2.3, W = D + FB W = sand = SG H 2O CD = 24 Re
V9.7 Skydiving practice

to determine U FB = H 2O = H 2O

D3 ,

D3 ,

( For

Re < 1) = 3 H 2OUD

1 1 24 2 2 2 2 D = H 2OU D CD = H 2OU D H OUD / H O 2 4 2 4 2 2 SG H O D 3 = 3 H OUD + H O D 3

2

= g
SG ( U=
H 2O

H 2O gD 2

18

= 6.32 103 m m
3

s m2

For 15.6C , H 2O = 999 kg Re =

, H 2O = 1.12 103 N S

UD = 0.564

( Re < 1)

Moderate Reynolds Number

CD of cylinder and sphere
Re < 103 CD Re 1/ 2 [Re , CD (not D)] 103 < Re < 105 CD constant

Flow over cylinder at various Reynolds number

Re < 1 , no separation

Re 10, steady separation bubble

V9.8 Karman vortex street

Re 100, vortex shedding starts at Re 47

Flow over cylinder at various Reynolds number

Re 5 104

Re 4 105

from M. Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion

Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer Separation

from M. Van Dyke, An Album of Fluid Motion

Drag of streamlined and blunt bodies

Drag coefficients
The different relations of CD with Re for objects with various streamlining are illustrated in Fig. 9.22.
For streamlined bodies, CD when the boundary layer becomes turbulent. For blunt objects, CD when the boundary layer becomes turbulent.

Note: In a portion of the range 105<Re<106, the actual drag (not just CD) decreases with increasing speed.

V9.9 Oscillating sign V9.10 Flow past a flat plate V9.11 Flow past an ellipse

Example 9.11 Terminal velocity of a falling object

W = D + FB W = ice V , FB = air V 1 airU 2 D 2CD = W FB 2 4 ice air W FB 1 2 D 2CD = W = ice V airU 2 4 4 ice gD U = 3 C air D
1 2

Compressibility Effects
When the compressibility effects become important CD = (Re, Ma)

Notes: 1. Compressibility effect is negligible for Ma<0.5. 2. CD increases dramatically near Ma=1, due to the existence of shock wave.

Surface Roughness Effects

z

Surface roughness influences drag when the boundary layer is turbulent, because it protrudes through the laminar sublayer and alters the wall shear stress. In addition, surface roughness can alter the transitional critical Re and change the net drag.

In general, Streamlines bodies: Blunt bodies:

CD constant (pressure drag)

D until transition to turbulence occurs and the wake region becomes considerably narrower so that the pressure drag drops. (Fig. 9.25)

CD

Surface Roughness
A well-hit golf ball has Re of O(105 ), and the dimpled golf ball has a critical Reynolds number 4 104 dimples reduce CD Table tennis Reynolds number is less than 4 104 no need of dimples

Example 9.12 Effect of Surface Roughness for golf ball

and table tennis ball
dimpled

CD ,rough CD ,smooth

0.25 = 0.5 0.5

Froude Number Effects (flows with free surface)

When the free surface is present, the wave-making effects becomes important, so that CD = (Re, Fr)

Figure 9.26 (p. 507)

Typical drag coefficient data as a function of Froude number and hull characteristics for that portion of the drag due to the generation of waves.

Composite body drag

z

Approximate drag calculations for a complex body by treating it as composite collection of its various parts. e.g., drag on an airplane or an automobile. The contributions of the drag due to various portions of car (i.e., front end, windshield, roof, rear end, etc.) have been determined. As a result it is possible to predict the aerodynamic drag on cars of a wide variety ouf body styles (Fig. 9.27).

V9.14 Automobile streamlining

Example 9.13 Drag on a composite body

9.4 Lift (L)

9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution
z

Lift -- a force that is normal to the free stream.

For aircraft, L For car, L for better traction and cornering ability
CL =

, CL = shape, Re, Ma, Fr, 1 l U 2 A 2

L

Froude no. free surface present is relatively unimportant Ma is important for Ma > 0.8 Re effect is not great The most important parameter that affects the lift coefficient is the shape of the object.

Surface Pressure Distribution

z

Common lift-generating devices (airfoils, fans,) operate at large Re. Most of the lift comes from the surface pressure distribution. For Re<1, viscous effect and pressure are equally important to the lift (for minute insects and the swimming of microscopic organisms).

Figure 9.31
Pressure distribution on the surface of an automobile.

Example 9.14 Lift from pressure and shear distributions

Airfoil
z

For airfoils, the characteristic area A is the planform area in the definition of both CLand CD. For a rectangular planform wing, A=bc, where c is the chord length, b is the length of the airfoil. Typical CL ~O(1), i.e., L~(U2/2)A, Wright Flyer: 1.5 lb / ft 2 and the wing loading L/A~(U2)/2:
Boeing 747: 150 lb / ft 2

Aspect ratio A = b2/A (=b/c if c is constant)

In general, A CL , CD

Large A : long wing, soaring airplane, albatross, etc. Small A : short wing, highly maneuverable fighter, falcon

Lift and drag coefficient data as a function of angle of attack and aspect ratio

Figure 9.33
Typical lift and drag coefficient data as a function of angle of attack and the aspect ratio of the airfoil: (a) lift coefficient, (b) drag coefficient.

Ratio of lift to drag/Lift-drag polar

V9.15 Stalled airfoil

z

Although viscous effects contributes little to the direct generation of lift, viscosity-induced boundary layer separation can occur when is too large to lead to stall.

Lift of airfoil with flap

z

Lift can be increased by adding flap

V9.17 Trailing edge flap V9.18 Leading edge flap

Ex. 9.15
Figure 9.35
Typical lift and drag alterations possible with the use of various types of flap designs (Ref. 21).

From Cengel and Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill, 2006

9.4.2 Circulation
2-D symmetric air foil Kutta conditionThe flow over
both the topside and the underside join up at the trailing edge and leave the airfoil travelling parallel to one another.

--by inviscid theory --adding circulation

Note: The circulation needed is a function of airfoil size and shape and can be calculated from potential flow theory. (Section 6.6.3) L= -U (KuttaJoukowski Law)

From Cengel and Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill, 2006

Circulation
Flow past finite length wing
Figure 9.37 (p. 546)
Flow past a finite length wing: (a) the horseshoe vortex system produced by the bound vortex and the trailing vortices: (b) the leakage of air around the wing tips produces the trailing vortices.

V4.6 Flow past a wing V9.19 Wing tip vortex

Vee-formation of bird -- 25 birds fly 70% farther than 1 bird

Circulation
Flow past a circular cylinder
z

A rotating cylinder in a stationary real fluid can produce circulation and generate a liftMagnus effect EXAMPLE 9.16 Lift on a rotating table tennis ball

Figure 9.38
Inviscid flow past a circular cylinder: (a) uniform upstream flow without circulation. (b) free vortex at the center of the cylinder, (c) combination of free vortex and uniform flow past a circular cylinder giving nonsymmetric flow and a lift.