Computers Are Your Future

2005 Prentice Hall, Inc.

Computers Are Your Future: Chapter 12

Computers Are Your Future

Chapter 12 Programming Languages and Program Development

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What You Will Learn About

9 What a programming language is 9 Machine language and assembly language 9 High-level programming languages 9 The shortcomings of early languages 9 Popular programming languages

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What You Will Learn About

9 The six phases of the program development life cycle (PDLC) 9 Why top-down programming makes programs easier to debug and maintain 9 The three basic types of control structures 9 Syntax errors and logic errors in programs

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Programming Languages
Machine Language Fortran COBOL Visual Basic Smalltalk BASIC C and C++ Assembly Language Pascal Ada Java

9 Programming languages are artificial languages created to tell the computer what to do 9 They consist of vocabulary and a set of rules to write programs 9 The program development life cycle (PDLC) is an organized method of software development
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Development of Programming Languages

9 Programming languages are classified by levels or generations 9 Lower-level languages are the oldest 9 The five generations of programming languages are:
Machine languages Assembly languages Procedural languages Problem-oriented languages Natural languages
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First-Generation Languages
9 Machine language:
Consists of binary numbers (0s and 1s) Is the earliest programming language Is the only language the computer understands without translation Is machine dependent
Each family of processors has its own machine language
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Second-Generation Languages
9 Assembly language:
Resembles machine language Is a low-level language Uses brief abbreviations for

program instructions.
Abbreviations are called

mnemonics A program is written in source

code (text file) and translated into machine language by an assembler

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Third-Generation Languages
9 Procedural languages:
Are high-level languages that tell the computer what to do and how to do it Create programs at a high level of abstraction Are easier to read, write, and maintain than machine and assembly languages Use a compiler or interpreter to translate code

9 Fortran and COBOL are third-generation languages

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Compilers and Interpreters

9 A compiler is a program that changes source code to object code 9 An interpreter translates source code one line at a time and executes the instruction
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Third-Generation Languages (continued)

9 Spaghetti Code and the Great Software Crisis:
GOTO statements resulted in programs that were difficult to follow This problem led to the software crisis of the 1960s
Programs were not ready on time Programs exceeded their budgets Programs contained too many errors Customers were not satisfied

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Third-Generation Languages (continued)

9 Structured programming languages:
Were developed to improve software development Include Algol and Pascal Forbid the use of GOTO statements Use control structures
IF-THEN-ELSE

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Third-Generation Languages (continued)

9 Modular programming languages:
Were developed because of problems in structured programming languages Are used to create programs that are divided into separate modules
Each module carries out a special function

Require specified input to produce specified output

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Fourth-Generation Languages
9 Types of fourth-generation languages include:
Report generators
Languages for printing database reports

Query languages
Languages for getting information out of databases

9 Fourth-generation languages are nonprocedural

They do not force programmers to follow procedures to produce results

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Object-Oriented Programming
9 Object-oriented programming (OOP):
Relies on component reusability
The ability to produce program modules that perform a

specific task.
Eliminates the distinction between programs and data Uses objects that contain data and procedures

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Objects
9 Objects are units of information that contain data as well as methods that process and manipulate the data 9 Classes of objects:
Hierarchy or category of objects Objects at the top of the category are broader in scope than the subclass objects

9 Inheritance refers to an objects capacity to pass on its characteristics to its subclasses

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Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL)

9 COBOL:
The earliest (1959) high-level language The most widely used business language A proven way to do accounting, inventory, billing, and payroll Requires programmers to explain what the program is doing at each step
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Sample Cobol program

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Formula Translator (Fortran)

9 Fortran:
Began in the 1950s Is suited to scientific, mathematical, and engineering applications Is used to solve complex equations Features simplicity, economy, and ease of use Sample Fortran program

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Ada
9 Ada:
Named after Augusta Ada Byron Incorporates modular programming The required language for the U.S. Defense Department Suitable for control of real-time systems (missiles) Sample Ada program

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Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC)

Sample BASIC program

9 BASIC:
An easy-to-use language available on personal computers Widely taught in schools as a beginners programming language Designed as an interpreted language
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Visual Basic (VB)

Sample Visual Basic

9 Visual Basic:
Is widely used in program development packages Uses event-driven programming Enables the programmer to develop an application by using on-screen graphical user interfaces

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Pascal
Sample Pascal program

9 Pascal:
Is named after Blaise Pascal Encourages programmers to write well-structured programs Widely accepted as a teaching language Has been updated to reflect new approaches to programming
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C
9 C:
Sample C program Was developed by AT&Ts Bell Labs in the 1970s Combines highlevel programming Difficult to learn and language with programming is time assembly language consuming Programmers manipulate bits of data within a processing unit
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Smalltalk
Sample Smalltalk program

9 Smalltalk:
Developed in the 1970s by Xerox Corp 100% pure object-oriented programming language Not often chosen for software development

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C++
9 C++:
Incorporates objectoriented features Is widely used for professional program development Sample C++ program

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Java
9 Java:
Developed by Sun Microsystems An object-oriented, high-level programming language with a twist First true cross-platform programming language Gained acceptance faster than any other programming language A simplified version of C++

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Java
9 Java, continued :
Java is designed to run on any computer platform Java Virtual Machine enables cross-platform use Java applets or small programs are downloaded to computers through networks Weaknesses include: The security risk in downloading applets The speed in running the programs

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Sample Java Program

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Web-Based Languages
9 Markup languages:
Hypertext markup language (HTML) sets the attributes of text and objects within a Web page Extensible markup language (XML) is used for sharing data and objects in a Web environment

9 Scripting languages:
VBScript is used to write short programs (scripts) that are embedded in Web pages JavaScript is used to write scripts on Web pages

9 Visual Studio .NET:

Used for the development of scripts and programs that are accessible from the Web
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The Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC)

9 The PDLC was introduced in the 1970s to address problems in creating programs 9 It provides an organized plan for breaking down the task of program development into manageable parts 9 Six phases of the PDLC:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Defining the problem Designing the program Coding the program Testing and debugging the program Formalizing the solution Implementing and maintaining the program
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Phase 1: Defining the Problem

9 The first step in program development 9 Systems analysts provide program specifications (specs) to programmers 9 Specs define:
Input data Processing Output Appearance of user interface

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Phase 2: Designing the Program

9 Programmers create the programs design
Top-down design focuses on the programs main goal (main routine), then breaks the program into manageable components (subroutines/modules) Control structures are used to see how each subroutine will do its job

9 Developing an algorithm is a step-by-step description of how to arrive at a solution 9 Program design tools:
Structure charts show the top-down design Flow charts show the logic of program Pseudo code alternative to flow charts
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Structured Design
9 Control structures are logical constructs that specify how the instructions in a program are to be executed 9 Three types of control structures:
Sequence control structure Instructions are executed in the order in which they appear Selection control structures The program branches to different instructions depending on whether a condition is met; IFTHENELSE Repetition control structure The program repeats the same instructions over and over; DO-WHILE and DOUNTIL

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Structure Chart and Flowchart

Structure Chart Flowchart

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Phase 3: Coding the Program

9 Coding requires the translation of the algorithm into specific program instructions 9 An appropriate programming language is chosen, and the code is typed according to its syntax rules

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Phase 4: Testing and Debugging the Program

9 Testing and debugging eliminate all errors 9 Syntax and logic errors are corrected 9 Debugging is the process of eliminating errors

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Phase 5: Formalizing the Solution

9 Documentation is created for future use 9 The variable names and definitions, a description of the files needed, and the layout of the output are produced 9 A user manual is developed to explain how the program works

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Phase 6: Implementing and Maintaining the Program

9 The program is: Tested by users Thoroughly documented Maintained and evaluated regularly

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Chapter 12 Summary
A programming language is an artificial language consisting of a vocabulary and a set of rules Machine language is the lowest-level programming language Assembly language contains symbols for programming instructions Third-generation (high-level) languages require programmers to specify the procedures to be followed Object-oriented languages combine procedures and data

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Chapter 12 Summary, continued

The PDLCs six phases are: Defining the program Designing the program Coding the program Testing and debugging the program Formalizing the solution Implementing and maintaining the program Top-down programming makes programs easier to debug and maintain Debugging requires finding and correcting syntax errors and logic errors

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