Cell Biology

Outline
Cell Structure and Organelles Cell Molecular Components Water and Chemical properties Cell Membrane Osmotic Properties of cells Cell molecule transportation

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Structure of Animal Cells

Cell Organelles
Nucleus
1 Nuclear envelope Chromatin and DNA Nucleolus

Mitochondria
Double membrane Mitochondrial (maternal) DNA Power House of the cell Food converted into energy Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Consumes Oxygen, produces CO2

What is ATP?
Nucleotides
Carry chemical energy from easily hydrolyzed phosphoanhydride bonds
Combine to form coenzymes (coenzyme A (CoA) Used as signaling molecules (cyclic AMP)

Cell Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Site where cell membrane and exported material is made Ribosomes (rough)
Make protiens Smooth ER- lipids

Golgi Apparatus
Receives and modifies Directs new materials

Lysosomes
Intracellular digestion Releases nutrients Breakdown of waste

Cell Organelles
Peroxisomes
Hydrogen Peroxide generated and degraded

Cytosol
Water based gel Chemical reactions

Cytoskeleton
Filaments (actin, intermediate and microtubules) Movement of organelles and cell Structure/strengthen cell

Vessicles
Material transport Membrane, ER, Golgi derived vessicles

Organic Molecules of Cells

Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids

Proteins
Most diverse and complex macromolecules in the cell Used for structure, function and information Made of linearly arranged amino acid residues
folded up with active regions

Types of Proteins
1) Enzymes catalyzes covalent bond breakage or formation 2) Structural collagen, elastin, keratin, etc. 3) Motility actin, myosin, tubulin, etc. 4) Regulatory bind to DNA to switch genes on or off 5) Storage ovalbumin, casein, etc. 6) Hormonal insulin, nerve growth factor (NGF), etc. 7) Receptors hormone and neurotransmitter receptors 8) Transport carries small molecules or irons 9) Special purpose proteins green fluorescent protein, etc.

Humans have around 30,000 genes.

Each cell has the full set of the human genes but only makes specific protein. Why? Implication in tissue engineering

Lipids
Hydrophobic molecules
Energy storage, membrane components, signal molecules Triglycerides (fat), phospholipids, waxes, sterols

Carbohydrates
Sugars, storage (glycogen, starch), Structural polymers (cellulose and chitin) Major substrates of energy metabolism

Nucleic Acids
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA encode genetic information for synthesis of all proteins Blue print

Water Molecule
Polarity of H2O allows H bonding Water disassociates into H+ and OH Imbalance of H+ and OH- give rise to acids and bases

- Measured by the pH
pH influence charges of amino acid groups on protein, causing a specific activity Buffering systems maintain intracellular and extracellular pH

Water Molecule
Hydrophobic Water-fearing
Molecule is not polar, cannot form H bonds and is repelled from water Insoluble

Hydrophillic Water-loving
Molecule is polar, forms H bonds with water Soluble

Cell Membrane

Cell Membrane Composition

Plasma membrane encloses cell and cell organelles Made of hydrophobic and hydrophillic components
Semi-permeable and fluid-like lipid bilayer

Cell Membrane Composition

Integral proteins interact with lipid bilayer
Passive transport pores and channels Active transport pumps and carriers Membrane-linked enzymes, receptors and transducers

Sterols stabilize the lipid bilayer

Cholesterol

Lipid Molecules

Osmotic Properties of Cells

Osmosis (Greek, osmos to push)
Movement of water down its concentration gradient

Hydrostatic pressure
Movement of water causes fluid mechanical pressure Pressure gradient across a semi-permeable membrane

Hydrostatic Pressure

Donnan Equilibrium
Add Ions Deionized water

Semi-permeable membrane

Balanced charges among both sides

Donnan Equilibrium
Add anion

Diffusion

More Cl- leaves I to balance charges

Ionic Steady State

Potaasium cations most abundant inside the cell Chloride anions ions most abundant outside the cell Sodium cations most abundant outside the cell

Donnan Equilibrium
[K+]i
[Cl-]ii = [K+]ii [Cl-]i
ACa2+K+ A- Cl-K+ K+ A- ANa+ Na+ Na+

No osmotic pressure - cell is in an isotonic solution - Water does not cross membrane Increased [Osmotic] in cytoplasm - cell is in an hypotonic solution - Water enters cell, swelling

Erythrocyte Cell Equilibrium

Decreased [Osmotic] in cytoplasm - cell is in an hypotonic solution - Water leaves cell, shrinking

Cell Lysis
Using hypotonic solution Or interfering with Na+ equilibrium causes cells to burst This can be used to researchers advantage when isolating cells

Molecules Related to Cell Permeability

Depends on
Molecules size (electrolytes more permeable) Polarity (hydrophillic) Charge (anion vs. cation) Water vs. lipid solubility

Cell Permeability
Passive transport is carrier mediated
Facilitated diffusion Solute molecule combines with a carrier or transporter Electrochemical gradients determines the direction Integral membrane proteins form channels

Crossing the Membrane

Simple or passive diffusion Passive transport
Channels or pores

Facilitated transport
Assisted by membrane-floating proteins

Active transport pumps and carriers

ATP is required Enzymes and reactions may be required

Modes of Transport

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Integral protein binds to the solute and undergo a conformational change to transport the solute across the membrane

Channel Mediated Transport

Proteins form aqueous pores allowing specific solutes to pass across the membrane Allow much faster transport than carrier proteins

Coupled Transport
Some solutes go along for the ride with a carrier protien or an ionophore
Can also be a Channel coupled transport

Active Transport
Three main mechanisms:
coupled carriers: a solute is driven uphill compensated by a different solute being transported downhill (secondary) ATP-driven pump: uphill transport is powered by ATP hydrolysis (primary) Light-driven pump: uphill transport is powered by energy from photons (bacteriorhodopsin)

Active Transport
Energy is required

Na+/K+ Pump
Actively transport Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell

Against their electrochemical gradients

For every 3 ATP, 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in

Na+/K+ Pump
Na+ exchange (symport) is also used in epithelial cells in the gut to drive the absorption of glucose from the lumen, and eventually into the bloodstream (by passive transport)

Na+/K+ Pump
About 1/3 of ATP in an animal cell is used to power sodium-potassium pumps In electrically active nerve cells, which use Na+ and K+ gradients to propagate electrical signals, up to 2/3 of the ATP is used to power these pumps

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Exocytosis - membrane vesicle fuses with cell membrane, releases enclosed material to extracellular space. Endocytosis - cell membrane invaginates, pinches in, creates vesicle enclosing contents

Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

 The cytoskeleton, a component of structural functions, is critical to cell motility. Cells have three types of filaments that are distinguishable by the diameter. Actin filaments (microfilaments): 5-9 nm diameter with twisted strands.

The Cytoskeleton

Intermediate Filaments: 9-nm diameter

Microtubules: hollow tube-like structure ~ 24 nm diameter

Cell Locomotion
Why do we care about cell locomotion? Host defense Angiogenesis Wound healing Cancer metastasis Tissue engineering

Steps: Protrusion Adhesion Traction

 External signals must dictate the direction of cell migration. Cell migration is initiated by the formation of large membrane protrusion. Video microscopy showed that G-actin polymerizes to F-actin. (Drugs can alter this process). Actin exists as a globular monomer (G-actin) and; A filamentous polymer (F-actin) protein. The addition of Mg2+, K+ or Na+ to a solution of Gactin induces the formation of F-actin and this process is reversible. Elastic mechanical property of actin filament.