NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND CHILD LABOUR

(CASE STUDIES IN TWO CITIES OF ANDHRA PRADESH)

With the demise of child labour in the developed countries, the focus of attention on child labour has shifted to the developing countries, as it is a widespread phenomenon with a cause for concern for many developing countries. The number of children affected in these countries is unusually very high with the repercussions being that they seriously affect the personal development of the children. The premature development and its impact on the socio-economic development of the country are also a cause of concern for many. With rapid urbanisation of the developing countries, the demand for the use of child labour has also been steadily increasing. In many developing countries the process of industrialisation, in the globalised market economy, encourage the large-scale employment of children. Since the 1980s, the issues of child labour have gained significant attention of social scientists, particularly the development economists. Three factors are contributing to this development. First, a general realisation that the exploitation of child labour has become more serious and could well continue to do so in several parts of the world as economic conditions deteriorate and hamper social development, especially in the areas concerning employment and education. Secondly, an increasingly worrying concern that, by employing children at an early age and in conditions that do not conform to universally accepted standards, some countries try to gain a comparative advantage in international trade over those that are more strict about applying such standards. This is confirmed by the fact that the children in the developing countries are employed in export industries. In fact the children producing for export are substantially fewer than those employed in branches of activity geared essentially to meeting domestic consumption needs. It would be wrong, however, to view their numbers as insignificant. Finally, a strong public opinion on issues concerning human rights, particularly those of the children,

has generated the realisation that the issues of child labour are not specific to any geographical boundaries confined to national sovereign rights as they are considered transnational issues. Though the salient feature of child labour in India is that it is not the by product of capitalist industrialisation, the discourse on child labour often revolves around social and economic inequality in India. It is often argued that social inequality, by preventing the access to opportunities, results in economic inequality. This is particularly true in the case of the arguments on the child labour in a stratified society such as India. In a stratified society, the mobility across the strata has been controlled by the vested interests, which prevent access to education and employment. The notion of social hierarchy is obviously perceived in the policy formulation and implementation. The traditional Hindu notions of social rank and hierarchy are subtly incorporated into the ways Indians distinguish between education for the children of those who do manual work and those who are in the services of middle class employment. The education is still considered by many to be the preserve of middle and upper class and not meant for the children from lower class. This is confirmed by the States opposition and unwillingness to make education compulsory in India. The States policy instruments have only resulted in preserving and reinforcing the social divisions within the society. The ethnic and religious composition of child labour in India is reflective of the very social system in which they are present. The overwhelming majority of the child labourers in India come from communities and groups, which are at the lower rungs of Indias traditional, caste-based social hierarchy. An analysis of child labour in some of child labour dominated industries in India reveals that they belong to the OBCs, SC, ST and religious minorities. The structural factors are a fundamental root cause of child labour in India. Various other factors such as poverty, availability of cheap labour, lack of educational facilities, illiteracy and ignorance of parents and laxity in enforcement of labour laws are responsible for high number of child labour in India. High incidence of poverty, the demand for low-cost and non-unionised workers, the parents perception that education is irrelevant to their children are considered main factors

responsible for child labour in India. Poverty and inequality are the primary determinants of child labour in India. Equally important causes of child labour in India are the deliberate negligence of the State and society, the wilful intention of employers and their willingness to employ children in the labour market. There is a unanimous view that poverty is the main, although not the only cause of child labour. The children contribute an estimated 20-25 per cent to the household income. It is obvious that the survival of certain families depends on the childrens earnings. According to poverty argument, the parents are sending their children to work in order to supplement their income and the income derived from child labour, however meagre, is essential to sustain the family. The economic arguments of the children contributing considerably for the household expenditure have been widely accepted by many sociologists working on this area. The poor households that are in need of money substitute their children to earn the money. The reason that children are hired for labour is because of their low wage cost. They are also less organised unlike the regular work force. The incidence of child labour is also believed to diminish with economic growth. Social policy and the pattern of economic growth, not economic growth alone could influence the use of child labour. Education is presumed to be a powerful weapon in the immediate battle against child labour. The presence of child labour is a cause of embarrassment for India, where the children are thrusted upon the disproportionate role in the development of their families. The children in India are engaged in diverse activities such as family labourers, apprentices, paid workers, bonded labourers and self-employed children. They earn a livelihood not only for themselves but also for the family. Most of the children falling in this category reach their adult lives prematurely. The children work long hours and under strain for low wages in most precarious conditions, damaging their physical and mental growth thereby enduring deficit growth. Many of these children are exposed to risks and abuses while working in hazardous conditions exposing them to chemical and biological hazards. Being tender physically, children are susceptible to various work-related injuries and illnesses more than adults doing the same kind of work. Because they are not yet mentally

matured, they are less aware, even completely unaware, of the potential risks involved in their specific occupations or at the workplace. As a result, a large number of working children are affected by various hazards. The problem of the child labour is effectively addressed by social mobilisation by which the process of dialogue, negotiation and consensus building for action by people, communities and organisations effectively identify the ways of solving a common problem. The social mobilisation involves the participation of various branches and levels of the State, civil society, organisations, employers and trade unions, consumer groups, the media, families, children, teachers, health professionals and social workers. An important characteristic of the social mobilisation is that the impact of the combined effort is greater than the sum of various separate initiatives. The interplay between child labour on one hand and the family, State, Society and employers on the other hand shows the social mobilisation largely depends on the nature of this interplay. The role of the State is very important in redressing the problems of child labour in India. The efforts of social mobilisation are unlikely to succeed and produce lasting change without the co-operation and political will of the State. The State has its obligation and commitment to respond to peoples needs through appropriate legislation and law enforcement, supportive social policies and programmes. As a partner in social mobilisation, the State should also facilitate greater co-operation and consensus among all parties through strategic support to civil society initiatives. The State is rather cautious about initiating action against the issues of child labour, limiting its actions largely to the passage of minimum age legislation. However the State is not able to provide adequate support for the poor families consisting of older and infirm, which force to children to undertake employment. India does not have the compulsory primary education scheme that is necessary tool to fight child labour and keep them out of work places. The States inability to secure economic, social and political benefits to the poor and the marginalized sections of the society and the belief that the State cannot effectively manage the development process resulted in a situation where by the non-State actors, particularly the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), are

gaining attention as they assume a significant role of an alternative agents of development apart from exerting greater influence in social policy formation. Since the issues of child labour had a late entry into Indian development agenda, it was not the priority area for the State. In this area, the NGOs have been instrumental in campaigning against child labour. Hence the role of the NGOs in fighting the problems of child labour assumes greater significance as they have multiple roles in a civil society. Apart from assuming the role of regulatory agencies ensuring adherence to social and moral codes and rights, they also act as an important source for subcontracting governance. The efforts of the NGOs are of immense value in identifying, preventing, reducing and eradicating the problems of child labour. They are also effective in reintegrating the working children back to the mainstream society. The process of globalisation has not only limited the involvement and the role of State actors such as nation State, national market and civil society, but also the non-State actors such as national and transnational government organisations, international markets and international civil society. The importance of the State being the facilitator of the good has been passed on to the non-State actors. The role of the non-State actors assume greater significance when the State actors are being influenced by vested economic interests, which over-ride the concerns for humanitarian values and social rights. In this regard, the child labour in India assumes dualistic role of contributing to the household income along with strengthening the small-scale sector, whose cost competitiveness relies on the employment of child labour. The household poverty and the subsequent contribution of the children to the family income being the reasons for the presence of child labour, the State is less willing to involve it self in eradicating child labour as it would certainly mean increasing the suffering of millions of families depending on the contribution of their children. For the Indian State, the economic concern of the family takes precedent over the ethical and moral issues as it argues that poor families need income of their children and therefore should not be coerced into sending their children to school.

A call for action to eliminate child labour in India comes from the NGOs. The role of the NGOs is of immense value to the civil society. They are public service contractors, social innovators and a service providers. They are also social critics and policy advocates for specific issues such as child labour. They are also responsible for building and strengthening the civil society institutions. The NGOs are one of the powerful actors of social mobilisation. They incorporate a variety of approaches such as advocacy, public awareness raising campaigns, public debates and open forums, capacity building and focus group discussions. Moreover they have certain inherent strengths, which make them more effective than the State actors in implementing the policies. The NGOs have an experience of accessing child labourers in the informal sector, which is generically difficult. They have better access to information on child labour. They are responsible for most of the research documents on child labour that facilitate the States social policy formation. They are successful in creating the social awareness through their community meetings and discussions at community level. The NGOs are effective in dealing with the issues of child labour as they are familiar with the territory in which they are working. They work in the regions where the problem is highest. They provide comprehensive services - short and long term services that prioritise child workers themselves. Moreover they are involved in projects that raise parental income, reducing poverty cycles. The NGOs also provide basic legal advice and support extending from basic workers rights to more general human and child rights. This is particularly true in Andhra Pradesh, where the intervention of the NGOs in directly confronting the child labour problems is of immense value. The State of Andhra Pradesh has the dubious distinction of having the highest number of child labourers in the country. A considerable proportion of the States children do not attend school. The State has set itself an ambitious vision, known as Andhra Pradesh Vision 2020, according to which the State will: (i) eliminate the child labour by banning their employment from all hazardous and nonhazardous occupations; (ii) protect the rights of the child; (iii) ensure education for every children; (iv) prevent the practice of the child labour; and (v) care for children in difficult circumstances.

An important tool of social mobility, education, is not compulsory in India where there are no restrictions as to when children can enter the labour force. Many children and their parents are sceptical of the Government educational policies and they prefer childhood employment to formal education as they argue that compulsory education do not prepare their children for work. High dropout rates in schools demonstrate that many parents and children do not regard schools as necessary. Having realised the importance of imparting education to children in preventing them drifting into employment, the State has decided to: (i) ensure full literacy; (ii) provide more teachers and training; (iii) build more schools and classrooms; (iv) increase the number of residential schools; (v) redesign curriculum; (vi) expand early childhood care and education; (vii) strengthen programmes to bring drop-outs back to school; (viii) focus on specific disadvantaged groups and locations; and (ix) provide non-formal education. In its effort to implement the programmes effectively the State has been effectively co-operating with the NGOs. The three NGOs, the Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya Foundation (MVF), Balajyothi and Divya Disha, have been taken in this research to study their role in identifying and eradicating the problems of child labour in the two cities Andhra Pradesh. The Indian NGOs operational definition of the term child labour includes all work done by the children including non-hazardous works as they do not make any distinction between the working children and child labour. The NGOs operate with specific principles that no child should work and that all children should be in formal schools. They recognise that any child out of school is a child labour and that programme aimed to redress the problems of the child labour has to revolve around imparting education to the children. Nevertheless they have varied strategies to deal with age groups. The Indian NGOs argue that the children have the right to enjoy carefree childhood and the childhood should be an entirely work-free period. The NGOs contribution in redressing the issues of child labour through education is of immense value to the society. The case study on the role of these NGOs in dealing with the issues of child labour in the State of Andhra Pradesh reveals that they are important agents of

social development. They contribute immensely by their diversified work on various issues of child labour from the poor, neglected and marginalised communities. They highlight the existing measures designed to create awareness and protect the poor and the marginalised from exploitation. In this regard the NGOs have successfully created awareness in the society against the exploitation of children. The analyses of the NGOs confirm that they are different from the State in so far as their human resources are concerned. While the State, despite its noble vision, performs its responsibility to the society with disenchanted staffs, the NGOs employ educated and motivated youths with clear vision and dedication to the society. Many of their staffs are ideologically orientated towards many social issues. In India, the NGOs are an important element of social mobilisation as they represent an alternative development agents in place of weak State institutions. The NGOs are a catalyst of social change. Though these NGOs operate within the framework and jurisdiction of the State, their operational characteristics differ from those of the State. While the State traces the origin of child labour to the societys socio-economic inequality, the NGOs trace the origin to the failure of the State and its institutions for the cause of child labour. Though the NGOs agree that the societys socio-economic inequality gives rise to the child labour, they feel that the failure of the State and its institutions exaggerate the problems of child labour. Though many socioeconomists perceive the NGOs to be an alternative to the State, it could not be conceived as an alternative to the State because the NGOs operate within the domain of the State and hence there is little prospect of the NGOs offering an alternative to the State in its development programmes. This is particularly true in the case of Andhra Pradesh, where the NGOs co-exist with the State and often as junior partners in the States development programmes. Nevertheless there has been a concerted effort on the part of the State to co-operate with the NGOs. The NGOs feel that they are a part of the State and keep ultimate faith in the institutions of the State. The NGOs realise that they are a part of greater social system in which the government is a dominant institution to deal with. The nature of the State-NGOs relation is such that they depend on each other. While the State relies on the NGOs in influencing the community at micro-level, the States physical capabilities and

resources are of immense importance to the NGOs. The NGOs are more successful in reaching out to downtrodden and neglected than the State. While the State legislates the rehabilitation programmes they are efficiently implemented by the NGOs. The NGOs, because of their grass root operational characteristics, are more efficient in prioritising the need of the community. This is particularly true in issues such as imparting the importance of education to the children from the downtrodden and neglected community. The NGOs are successful in building congenial atmosphere, where parents feel they can send their children to school thereby making efforts to make education a normal part of their childrens life. The NGOs are more successful, than the State, in convincing that working is abnormal for children of school going age. The NGOs, by examining the micro needs of the community and building the policies at micro levels, are more successful in reaching out people through its micro-level planning as the States macro-level planning does not yield desired effect on local communities. The NGOs, by being an innovative and experimenting agencies works as pressure group on brining in the needed changes in the policies and implementation of the policies, are triumphant in involving the community in their operation. As a result of their continual experiment they gain authenticity. The NGOs, with their influence over the local community, are successful in influencing the State. Nevertheless there have been impediments to the NGOs developmental efforts because of their limited role. The NGOs role is limited to being an advisory body to the government in framing the developmental policies and the implementation agency for the government programmes. The NGOs lack legitimacy in enforcing their authority. Though the policy draft proposals are highly appreciated they are not able to deliver the desired effect of abolishing the existence of the child labour. The NGOs do not have any supervisory role in implementing the laws. This is left to the State. The States law concerning the child labour is flawed with enough loopholes to let loose the offender. Hence we see the laws being enacted in half measures. The NGOs studied in this research do not feel they could be an alternative to the State. However, they consider themselves to be an actor of social mobility.

The NGOs strongly believe in co-existing with other non-State actors within the framework of the State. They lay greater emphasis in co-operating with the State, as they know that the confrontationist approach would not yield desired dividend. The State is of great support to the NGOs activities. Though the State is unable to make primary education compulsory, it cannot be construed as an indirect effect of the pressure exerted upon the State by vested interests. The interdependency between the State and the NGOs is mutually beneficial to each other. While the State reaches out to the micro-community, the NGOs gain from the States infrastructural facilities. The NGOs role is often sought by the State in framing the policies. The NGOs also work in the domains of the Government where the latter finds its own ability to deliver the goods very limited. The voluntary sector is a collaborator of the Government and the private sector in activities, where community participation is essential. Though the NGOs cannot be an alternative to the State in implementing the welfare measures, they exert significant influence on the State in framing and shaping its policies to the benefit of the people. The NGOs are successful on issues in which the State failed to make positive contribution. One such issue is that the NGOs are more successful than the State in making the people realise their rights in the society. The NGOs are also successful in bringing into the forum the neglected communities so that their voice could be heard by the State. The NGOs are successful in mobilising the poor and neglected communities so as to participate in the welfare projects designed for them. The NGOs are successful in their attempt at community building and empowerment. The NGOs by being more flexible, innovative and experimental are cost effective in initiating and implementing projects at lower costs and greater efficiency. The NGOs studied in this research have successfully reached out the marginalised section of the society. Their low-key, non-hierarchical mode has advantages since it allows for a more sensitive out reach to people. They are able to propagate their thinking on the evil practice of child labour in the society. As a result there has been considerable decline in the number of children working in hazardous and non-hazardous industries. The children are more willing now than in the past to take up education,

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as they are made aware of the long-term consequences of learning. The parents no longer want to send their children to employment, as they are also aware of the long-term benefits associated with the learning process. This confirms that there has been a tremendous increase in the awareness created on the child labour among the poor and marginalised section of the society. They are also aware of their rights in the society and they do not hesitate to demand their rights any longer in the society. One of the most important contributions of the NGOs is creating awareness among the neglected communities. It is not only the infrastructural facilities, such as school buildings and roads to the villages that attract the children to the school. Reaching out to the children and their parents is the most important part of any developmental process. The State has not been able to reach out to the neglected communities while dealing with issues sensitive to the community. The community attitude towards the NGOs could be best understood by looking at the degree of co-operation between them. The NGOs gain great deal of co-operation from the local communities even in dealing with sensitive issues such as child labour and the childrens education. In this regard the NGOs are successful in imparting, among the downtrodden families, the importance of sending their children to school. The State has not only failed to make education compulsory to the children but it also failed to highlight the importance of education to the neglected communities. Also it has not been able to provide positive education to the children in that the children and their parents failed to realise that the long-terms gains of sending children to the schools would outweigh the short-term gains of the monetary incentives accrued from their childrens employment. The NGOs contribution in redressing the issues of child labour and their education is of immense value to the society. The key strategy of the NGOs is based on creating awareness in children and their parents. The NGOs-run rehabilitation homes give the feeling of a home rather than a hostel and with freedom to the children relieved from child labour. The NGOs use the tool of education to deal with the child labour problems more efficiently that the State. The State-run schools are purely straight-forward in that they offer only the service of educating the children with no scope for non-

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teaching undertakings, such as supervisory and advocacy roles. Where as the NGOs role is not only limited to teaching, but also to monitor the quality of education they offer. This increases the scope for improving the quality of education. They also conduct motivation centres to motivate the children to attend the school and give up their employment. The schools run by the NGOs cater to the needs of different categories of the children. The State-run schools, in this regard, are different from the NGOs-run schools as the former follows strict rules in their admission procedures. In this regard, the children without certification find it difficult to get access to these schools. The NGOs also offer counselling to the children and their parents to motivate them towards their childrens education and vocational training. The NGOs are different from the State in their operational characteristics in which minute details are looked at very carefully. Though they do not believe in certain societal divisions, such as the one based on caste and gender, they are willing to work and reach out to the community. For example the NGOs realise the gender sensitivity of the community in which they are working. They also realise and understand the micro-level communitys perception on gender differences. The NGOs look into the details on the perceived needs of different gender. The NGOs that have been studied in this research are more successful in networking and lobbying with State. They are also successful in reaching out to the depressed and neglected communities. The solution to the problem of the child labour, according to these NGOs, lies in imparting the importance of education to both the children and their parents. These NGOs are far successful, than the State, in appealing to the rationale of the society. These NGOs realise that the communitys and the societys co-operation is very important in redressing child labour problems. These NGOs have great success in reaching out to the communities though with a limited success in changing the societal attitude towards child labour. As a result a clear trend has been emerging whereby it is recognised that child labour is unacceptable behaviour in the society. The NGOs that have been studied in this research are committed to the cause of abolishing the child labour. Barring few incidents such as those concerning the funding, they are successfully

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marching towards fulfilling their objectives of abolishing the child labour from the two cities of Andhra Pradesh.

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