ier CalculusANMOL PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD. 4374/4B, Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi - 110 002 Ph.: 23261597, 23278000 Visit us at: www.anmolpublications.com Differential Calculus © Reserved First Published, 2004 [All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.] PRINTED IN INDIA Published by J.L. Kumar for Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi - 110 002 and Printed at Mehra Offset Press, Delhi.Contents 13. Fundamental! operations of rational numbers 14, Meaningless operation of division by zero 15. Representation of rational numbers by points on a straight line 1.6._ Irrational numbers. 1,7, Decimal representation of real numbers L8._Modulus or Absolute value of a real number Chapter 2, Functions ....scccssensresseserssereerererrereeranernaeesassemes 1S 2.1. Domain and range of a function 2.2. Graphs of functions 23, Operation on real functions . 24. Polynomial functions and rational functions 2.5. Constant functions and identity functions 2.6._ Modulus function 2.7. The greatest and the smallest integer function 2.8. Square root function 2.9. Exponential function 2.10. Logarithm function 2.11. Signum function 2.12. Reciprocal function(vi) 2.13. Trigonometric function 2.14. Inverse Trigonometric functions 2.15. Function of a function: Composition of functions 2.16. _Invertible functions Chapter 3, Limits and Comtinuity ....scssesssscsessccssecusssssesestetnecssesseees 38 3.L_Introduction 3.2._Limit ofa function 33._A of limits 3.4. Infinite limits and variables tending to infinity 35. Extension of tions on limits 3.6._Limits of trigonometric functions 3.7._Continuity 3.8. Types of discontinuity 3.9, Al of continuous i 4.15, Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions 4,16. Derivative of hyperbolic functions 1 Urheberrechtlich geschiltztes Material(vii) 4.17. Derivative of inverse of hyperbolic functions 4.18. Derivative of parametric function 4.19. Differentiation of implicit function ” 420. Logarithm differentiation 121. Diff jon of infini . Chapter 5. Successive Difterentiation.... $1. Definiti 52._nth derivati f lard functi 52.1. Determination of the n” derivative of (ax+5)" 52.2, Determination of the n* derivative of In(ax+b) 523. D ination of the n® derivative of 5.24. Determination of the n® derivative of sin(ax+4) 52.5. Determination of the n® derivative of cos(ax+5) $2.6. Determination of the n® derivative of esin(bx+c) $3._D ination of nth derivative of rational functi 5.4. The derivatives of the products of the powers of sines and cosines 55. Leibnitz’ Chapter 6. Tangents and Normals ............+..ecssscssssesssessessseeseemeseaeee LOL 6.1. Equation of a tangent 6.1.1. Tangent to the curve x = /(), y = g(0), at the point ‘?’. 6.1.2. Tangent to the curve f(x, y) = 0 at any point (x, y) 62. Equation of the normal at a point 62.1. Slope to the curve x =/(0), » = g(#), at the point ‘7’. 62.2. Slope to the curve f(x, y) = 0 at any point (x, y) 63, Angle of intersection of two curves 64, Length of the tangent, subtangent, normal and subnormal at any point of a curve 65, Pedal equation of a curve 66. Angle between radius vector and tangent(viii) 6.7. Length of the perpendicular from pole to the tangent 68. Length of the polar tangent, polar normal, polar subtangent and polar subnormal 69, Pedal equation of a curve whose polar equation is given, Chapter7. Mean Value Theorenmts .....- ZL_Rolle’s theorem 72. Lagrange’s mean value theorem 73.__Graphs of h lic functions 73.1. Graph of y= sinkr 73.2, Graph of y= coshkx 73.3,_Graph of y = tanhx 7.34. Graph of y= cothx, y = sechx, y = cosechx 74, Cauchy’s mean value theorem .5,_Generalised mean value theorem 16. Maclaurin’s thearem 7.7._ Power series expansions of some standard functions 7.8. Formal expansions of functions 195 19__ Monotone functions Chapter 8. Maxima and Minima ........ssssssnereererreeeserresssnsessaseeseee 241 8.1. Maxi imini I fa fimneti 82. A necessary condition for extreme values 83. Suffici ition f 1 84. Use of i Jerivati 85. Application to problems Chapter 9. Indeterminate FOrM......+ssreesenreeersererenereerrenesssneerseses 268 9.1. Introduction 92. The Indeterminate form : 0/0 92.1. L’Hopital’s rule when x + a+ 0 and when x + a—0 922. L'Hopital’s rule when x -> 0 92.4. Preliminary transformation i i oofChapter 10. Partial Differentiation ,........10-+ +++ 288 10.1._Introduction 102._Functi f iahl 03. Funeti r iabl 104. Nei urhood of a point (a, 10.5. Continuity of a function of two variables 106. Limit ofa function of iabl 107. Partial derivati 10.7.1. Partial derivtive of higher orders 10.8. Geometrical representation of a function of two variables 10.8.1. Geometrical interpretation of partial derivatives of the first order 10.9. Homogenous function 10.10. Total differential 10.11. Differentiation of composite function 10.12. Change of variables 10.13. Differentiation of implicit function Chapter 11. Curvature and Evolutes ...... LL.1. The curvature of a curve at a given point LL2._ Curvature ofa circle LL3._Radius of curvature 11.4. Length of arc as a function U.S. Radius of curvature for cartesian curves 11.5.1. Explicit form y= 11.5.2. Implicit form fly, y)= 0 11.5.3. Parametric form x =/(), y= 2(f 11.5.4, Parametric form x = f(s), y= g(5°(x) 11.6. Radius of curvature for polar curves 11.6.1. Radius of curvature for curves r = /(8) 11.6.2, Radius of curvature for curves v= /(6), where w= l/r 11.6.3. Radius of curvature for pedal curves 11.6.4. Radius of curvature for polar tangent curves 11.7. Radius of curvature at the origin 11.7.1 Radius of curvature at the origin by Maclaurin’s series 11.7.2. Radius of curvature by Newton’s formula 1L8,_Centre of curvature 11.9. Properties of the evolute Chapter 12. Concavity and Convenity .........1..ssssereseernssensorseessensssne D7 1 12.L_Introduction 122. Criteria for concavity upwards, concavity downwards and inflexion at a given point 12.3. Sign of the radius of curvature Chapter 13. Singular Point ...rssssssrsesessssserssessssssssssssessssassssnsssseseess IOS 13.L__ Introduction 132. Multiple points 133. Tangents at the origin 13.4. Multiple points on the curve f(x, y) = 0 13.5. Slopes of the tangents at a double point 13.6. Types of Cusps 13.7._ Radii of curvature at multiple points Chapter 14. Asymptotes ........sssermscorresesesensrsensenerseesssnescereatenersserseennes 411 Definiti 142. Determination of asymptotes 143. Determination of asymptotes parallel to the co-ordinate axes 143.1, Asymptote parallel to Y-axis 14.3.2. Asymptotes parallel to X-axis 14.4. General Method for finding oblique asymptotes 14.5. The case of parallel asymptotes(xi) 1446. Special Methods for finding asymptotes 14.6.1. As S inspection 14.7, Intersection of a curve and its asymptotes 148. Asymptotes by expansion 14.9. Position of a curve with respect to an asymptotes 14,10, Asymptotes in polar co-ordinates Chapter 15, Curve Tracing os. 15.L._Introduction 152. Procedure for tracing cartesian equations 153. Equations of the form » = f(x) 15.4. Equation of the form y= f(x 155. Parametric Equations 15.6. Tracing of polar curves 15.7._ A mixed approachPreface Differential calculus is intended to the students appearing for undergraduate examinations conducted by different universities of our country. Much efforts have been made to present this subject matter in a manner as to enable a student of ordinary caliber to solve the problems without any external to the student of higher caliber in solving challenging problems. To achieve this aim, the chapters are provided with examples, diagrams and basic concepts. The problems have been carefully selected and well graded. They are designed to test comprehension. A serious effort has been made to keep the book free from mistakes while preparing this book, | have not sacrificed the traditional approach of leaming mathematics. On the contrary, care has been taken to provide an extensive foundation of knowledge required for the University Examination. A large number of exercises have been provided in order that mathematical skills may be developed, mastered and maintained. I take this opportunity to thank Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, the publishers, for their help and co-operation during the production and Mr. R. K. Ahuja for his kind assistance during the preparation of the manuscript. I also express my loving thanks to Ms. Suchismita Mohanty and Er. Prashant Kumar Sahu for their valuable discussions. | had with them from time to time and to several friends and students for their valuable suggestions. Suggestions for further improvement of the book are most welcome. New Delhi Er. R. K. Mohanty1 Real Numbers 1.1. INTRODUCTION The real number system is the foundation on which the entire branch of Mathematics known as Real Analysis rests. It specially introduces and deals with the limit operation, the algebraic operations of Addition and Multiplication and their Inverses, Subtraction and Division. Thus, it is applied to Geometry, Mechanies and other branches of Theoretical Physics, Economics and Psychology. Ancient Greek Mathematicians knew that a satisfactory theory of real numbers was not available until late in the 19th century. During the second half of the 19th century, three different theories for constructing the real numbers were put forth by three Greman Mathematicians- Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897), Richard Dedekind (1831-1916) and Georg Cantore (1845-1918). In 1889, the famous Italian Mathematician Guiseppe Peano (1858-1932) enunciated five axioms for the natural numbers which could be taken as the starting point for the construction of real numbers. The importance of real numbers for the study of the subject in hand being thus clear. We will, in some of the following articles, see how starting from the set of natural numbers, we arrive at the set of real numbers. The real number system satisfies a deep philosophical need to base the theory part of Calculus on the notation of number alone to the entire exclusion of every physical basis.2 ~—s«ODifferential Calculus 1.2. RATIONAL NUMBER 1.2.1. Natural Numbers The numbers 1,2,3,4,5 etc. is known as the set of Natural numbers. It is denoted as V. V={1,2,3,........}. Natural numbers are positive integers. 1.2.2, Fractional Numbers The set of numbers like x/y, where x and y are natural numbers i.e., x € V and y € N and y # 0. Thus, fractional numbers are a new set of numbers of which natural numbers are subset. In this case q = 1. 1.2.3. Rational Numbers The set of all positive fractions, negative fractions and zero is known as the set of Rational numbers. It is denoted as Q. If we take gain as positive number, then loss will be negative number. Similarly, rise is taken as positive number where as fall is taken as negative number. The natural numbers 1,2,3,4,5.... are called positive integers and the numbers -],-2,-3,-4.... are called negative integers. The set {0, +1, +2, +3, £4.....}, called the set of integers. It is denoted as I. 1.3. FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL NUMBERS There are two fundamental algebraic operations on the set of rational numbers. I. Closure for Addition: The set Q is closed with respect to addition if a and 5 be any two rational numbers, then a + 0 is also a real number. 2. Commutative Law of Addition and Multiplication (C.L.A. & CLM.) If a and } be any two rational numbers, then at+tbh=bt+a ab= ba . 3. Associative Law of Addition and Muttiplication (A.L.A, & ALM.) Addition and Multiplication of rational numbers is associative. If a, & and c be any three rational numbers, thenReal Numbers 3 a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c a(bc) = (abc 4. Identity element for Addition and Multiplication There exists a rational number, namely O(zero), such that a+0=0+a=aforallaeQ Again, there exist a rational number, namely 1(one), such that a.1=).a=aforallaeQ 5. Existence of negatives and inverses. Corresponding to each real number a, there exist a real number 5 (called negative of a in case of addition and inverse of a in case of Multiplication) such that at+b=b+a=0 ab=ba=1 6. Distributive law of Multiplication over addition (D.M.A.) If a, 6 and ¢ be any three rational numbers, then according to distributive law of Multiplication over addition, a(b+c)=ab+ac 1.4. MEANINGLESS OPERATION OF DIVISION BY ZERO. Suppose we want to divide a by 5. Let a+b=c be=a The division will be intelligible, if and only if, the determination of ¢ is possible. Any number which when multiplied by zero produces zero, This means that there is, no number which when multiplied by zero produces a number other than zero. a/0 is no number when a #0 Also any number when multiplied by zero produces zero so that 0/0 may be any number. On account of this impossibility in one case and indefiniteness in the other, the operation of division by zero must be always avoided. This can be better understood by taking an example.4 Differential Calculus Let x =2 or x-2=0 = (1) = xw=4 => x-4=0 .Q) Equating (1) & (2), we have w-4=x-2 => (x+2)¥-2)=x-2 Dividing both sides by (x - 2), we get x+2=1 Putting the value of x = 2, in the above equation, we have 2+2=1 => 4=1 which is clearly absurd. Division by (x—2), which is zero, is responsible for this absurd conclusion. 1.5. REPRESENTATION OF RATIONAL NUMBERS BY POINTS ON A STRAIGHT LINE. Consider any straight line, Mark an arbitary point O, on the line and calling it the origin. The number zero will be represented by the point O. The point O divides the straight line into two parts. The right hand side of O is the positive part and the left hand side of O is the negative part. Take any point A on the positive part and call it the unit length. The number | is represented by the point A ° 1 oO A Figure 1,1 We are in a position to determine a point representing any given rational number as explained below: Positive Integers. To represent a positive integer, m, we take a point on the positive part of O such that its distance from O is m times the unit length OA. This point represents the positive integer, m. Negative Integers. To represent a negative integer, -m, we take a point on the negative part of O such that its distance from O is m time the unit length OA. This point represents the negative integer, —m. Real Numbers. Let x/y be any rational number; y being a positive integer. Let OA be divided into y equal parts; OB being one of them. We take a point onReal Numbers 5 the positive or negative side of O is x times (or, —x times if.x is negative) the distance OB, The point so obtained represents the rational number x/y. 1.6. IRRATIONAL NUMBERS Construct a square with onc of its sides as OA of unit length and take a point P on the line such that OP is equal in length to the diagonal of this square, It will now be shown that the length of OP cannot have a rational number as its measure. If possible, let its measure be a rational number x/y. c B oO A p Figure 1.2 By the Pythagora's theorm, we have Ghy=P+P=2 => r=?" om] We suppose that the natural numbers x and y have no common factor, for such factors, if any, can be cancelled to begin with. Firstly, we see that Qny=4r => (n+ lP=(4r'+4n)+1 so that the square of an even number is even and that of an odd number is odd. From eqn (/), we see, that p* is an even number. Therefore p must be even. Let, p = 2n, where nis an integer We have 41° =2¢ > g=2r => ~~ @iseven => qiseven Hence, p and g have a common factor 2. This conclusion contradicts the hypothesis that they have no common factor. Thus the measure V2 of OP is not a rational number. Again, we take a point £ on the line such that the length OL is any rational multiple say, x/y, of OP.6 Differential Calculus The length OL cannot have a rational measure. If possible, let m/n be the measure of QL so that, * pom ¥ n » am nx which states that /2 is a rational number, being equal to mg/np. Thus, we arrive at a contradiction. Hence, L cannot correspond to a rational number. Thus we conclude that there exist an unlimited number of points on the number line which do not correspond to any rational number. Real Number. A number, rational or irrational is called a real number. The set of real numbers is the set of rational and irrational numbers. This set is denoted by R. 1.6.1. Number and Point Ifany real number x is represented by a point p, then we say that the point p is x. Thus the terms, number and point, are generally used in an indistinguishable manner. 1.6.2. Intervals Let a, b be two given numbers such that a < 6. Then the set of numbers x such that asxsb is called a closed interval and denoted by [a,4]. In symbols, [a,b] = {x:a a b {a,b} Figure 1.3 The set of numbers x such that a a b kab] Figure 1.5 ——, — +o a b [ab Figure 1.6. 1.7. DECIMAL REPRESENTATION OF REAL NUMBERS Let P be any given point of the number line. Suppose that the point p lies on the positive side of O. Let the points corresponding to integers be marked on the number line so that the whole line is divided into intervals of length one each. Now if P coincides with some one of these points of divison, it corresponds to an integer and we need procced no further. In case P falls between two points of division, say, a, a + 1, we sub-divide the interval [a, a + 1] into 10 equal parts so that the length of each part is 1/10. the points of division, now, are 1 2 3 9 aa +—,at+—,at—,.........a+—,atl 10 10 10 10 If P coincides with any of these points of division, then it corresponds to arational number. In the alternative case, it falls between two points of division, say at 2 a4 ttt 10° 108 Differential Calculus Le, aa,,a.(a,+ 1), where, a,, is any of the integers 0, 1,2, 3, ..., 9. We again sub-divide the interval into 10 equal parts so that the length of each part is 1/10°. These points of divison, now, are a, a 1 a 9 a, +1 a4+— ,@4+——4+— 0.0, .a+—+—~ at 10° 10 10? 10 10? 10 The point? will either coincide with one of the above points of divison or will be between two points of divison, say 4 Og AMAL 10 10? 10° 10? ic. aa, ay, a.a, (a, +1), where a, is one of the integers 0, 1, 2, .....5 9. After a number of steps, say n, the point will either be found to coincide with some point of division or lie between two points of the form a a, 4 2 Fn Dt pt eccesereeene op Ot Heck, 10 0 “10 10” 10 10” LO, G.0,0,.......4,, 0.0).0,.0,.......(a,+1), the distance between which is 1/10°and which gets smaller and smaller as n increases. The successive intervals in which P lies go on shrinking in length and will clearly close up to the point P. This point P is then represented by the infinite decimal. @.0,.a,.a,. ceseanecees 1.8. MODULUS OR ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A REAL NUMBER Definition: [fx be any given real number, then its absolute value is defined by the rule xifx20 l= : -xifx<0Real Numbers 9 {t would be seen that for all x € R, we have kk} 2 0 Also, x,=x,=> |x| = Theorem 8.1: For every x & R, xj = Max.{—x, x} Proof: According to the law of Trichotomy, one and exactly one of the following is true: @x>0, (ii}x=0, (iii)x <0 Ifx 2 0, then [xj =x and x2 —~x Ifx <0, then [xj =-xand-x>x Thus in either case, |x| is greater of the two numbers x and —x, i.e., [x|= Max. {x, —x} Theorent 8.2: For every x € R, |x|? =x? = |xP Proof: From definition, xifx20 * { ifx<0 In either case, bR=e and [-xP = (-xP =x? Therefore, |x? =x? = |-xP Theorem 8.3: For every x € R, |x| = |-x| Proof: We know that, bel = Max. {-x, -~-x)} = Max.{-x, x} = bl Theorem 8.4: Forx,y € R, byl = b].ly| Proof: \xyP = (xyf =xy = xy = bP DP = (Lb? Since |x.y| amd |x|.|y| are both positive, therefore equating the positive square10 Differential Calculus roots of both sides, we have bey) = by Theorem. 8.5: (Triangle Inequality). The modulus of the sum of two numbers is less than or equal to the sum of their moduli. For all real numbers x and y, h+yi s bith Proof: Casel. x+y >0 In this case, k+ylaxty Sincex < [xjandy < |p, therefore, x+y < [xj + |p| => key 0 > Crx)+Cy)>0 Now, k+y=|-@+y)I =|)+ OI Syl +hy Since |-x| = |x| and 4 = |y|, therefore, |x + }|S [xj + by] Theorem. 8.6: For all x and y, |x —y| =| |x| -[p|| Proof: From the triangle inequatity, we have k= i) +y < k-W+ => bkl-blsb-¥ AD Again, = p= l(v-x) +x] S—a] + => b-hsb-a => -(l-)) -b-bi s k-y since ly—x]=[x-y/ i) Now, bel ~ bi = Max. {lx|— D1 — (| — D} 2 => 1<39 <2 The numbers considered are, IL, I2 ye. +1.9,2 These numbers divide the interval [1,2] into 10 equal parts and find two successive numbers such that the cube of the first is < 2 and that of the second is>2. Now, (1.2% =1.728<2 and (1.3P=2,197>2 => 12<39 <13 Again, we consider the numbers 1.2, 1.21, 1.22, .... 0.064. , 1.29, 1.3 which divide the interval, [1.2, 1.3] into 10 equal parts and find two successive numbers such that the cube of the first is < 2 and that of the second is > 2. Now, — (1.25)'=1.953125<2 and (1.26) = 2.000376 >2 => 125< 3/9 <1.26 Again, we consider the numbers 1.25, 1.251, 1.252, .........-..51-259, 1.26 which divide the interval (1.25, 1.26] into 10 equal parts. Now, — (1.259)'=1.99561979<2 and (1.26) =2.000376>2 => 1.259< 42 <1.26 Hence, 3/2 =1.259........ Thus, to three decimal places, we have 2 = 1,259, Ex.2: If. x,y be any real numbers, show that bet yP + pe—yP = 2x? + bP) Sol: be+yP + be—yP12 Differential Calculus = (xt yf to yP = 27 +y) = 2{(°)+07)} =2(eP + bP) Ex.3: If a, b, ¢ be real numbers, and ¢ > 0, show that ja-b|< cee b-c 0, then bk-yi 0 => »x-9<0 => &+3)(*-3)<0 > -3exe3 => xe [-3,3] Therefore, domain f(x) = [-3, 3] Range: Let f{x)=y = V9-x? =y > x=ty9-y? Clearly, x is defined when 9 ~ y? 20 Now, 9-y?20 => y-9<0 => (y+3)(y-3)s0 => -3sys3 But f(x) attains only non-negative values. Therefore, y € [0, 3] Hence, range fx) = [0, 3] Example 2: Find the range of the function f given by fx) + 1 + 3cos2x Solution: Recall that -1s cos2x< 1 => 35 3cos2xs3 = 1-3s1+3cos2x< 1+3 => -25 1+3cos2x<4 => -2s fx)s4 Therefore, the range of the given function is the interval [—2, 4] x Example 3: Find the domain and range of the function f(x) = a: x Solution: We have, f(x) = lex? Domain: clearly, (x) is defined for all real values of x. so, domain(/) =r18 Differential Calculus Range: Let f(x) =y —_. lex => xy-xt+y=0 - 11-4? 2y N 1+ l-4y? low, ——>———_ is areal number if 2y 1-4y* > 0 andy + 0 => 4y?-l< 0 andy#0 1 > y'-2 < Oandy #0 ¥ 1 1 . (»+3) (>-) s 0 andy #0 1 1 => “5s ys 3 andyz0 > ve[-79) » (%9] l I hence, range (/)= [- +0] u [2 3 Example 4: Find the domain of the following functions: cos”! x aml 0“ 0 Solution: sin” =] @) Let {x)= e(x)=sir'x and h(@)=xFunctions 19 (x) Then, fx) = Pay => Domain (/)= Domain(g) 7 Domain (h)- {x|h(x)= 0} Clearly, domain (g) = [—1, 1], domain (h) = R and {x| h(x)= 0} = {0} Domain ()=[-1, 1] 0 R-{0}=[-1,0] w {0,1} cos”! x (ii) Let f{x)= i? g(x)=cos™'x and h(x) = [x] Then, f(x) = fa = Domain (/) = Domain(g) ~ Domain (h)— {x | h(x) = 0} Clearly, domain (g) = [-1, 1), domain (h) = R and {x| h(x) =0} =x|{x]=0=[0, 1] Domain () = [-1, 1] | R-[0, 1] =[-1,0] vu {1} Example 5: Draw the graph of the function f given by ~1, ifx<0 fxy=4x, if Osxs2 4 ,ifx>2 Solution: The given function for x < 0 is a constant function given by Ax) = 1 forx > 2, it is again a constant function given by f(x) = 4. Y, Figure 2.220 =Differential Calculus However, forO < x < 2 the graph is parabola. Example 6; What are the domain and the range of the function f given by Aix) = e**, Also draw its graph. Solution: The given function is well defined for each real number. Therefore, the domain of the function is R. Also, for each real number, positive or negative, e* is positive. Hence the range of the given function is (0, ©) Figure 2.3Functions 21 Exercise -— 2.1 L Find the domain of each of the following functions: 1 fix) xx i) 2) Tea . x3 -5x43 . Gil) fx)- (iv) (Ax)= er sad () fa)= [a] +x (vi) foy= (vil) fx)= (:-;4) (viii) Ax)= Jf1+2sinx 1-|x| @) fX)= 2-\x| Find the differences between the domains of the Jollowing pairs of Junctions. @ y= Je(@en andy= xfee) @ y= ((-x andy= fix? Gi) y= Ja—x?) andy= JG? -1 (iv) y=x—Sandy= J(q—5)? . Find the range of each of the following functions given by 3 @ f=> @ S()= HF Gi) f(x) = }x-2 iy f@y= 2-4 x-4 1 ©) 09 =v16-x7 (vi) f8)= a x i22 Differential Calculus Find the domain and the range of the following functions given by @ f(x)=x! Gd) f= A (ii) f(x) =1-|x-3) (iv) f(x) = sin? (x3) +008? (x7) 1 [0° Saar Draw the graph of each of the following functions given by @ f(x)=x-[x] @ f(x)=3* ifx 1,ifxs0 Gi) = i 1) . 0 .f2=0 Se) 4x +1 if O B,A,B c R, is said to be a constant function if there exist a real number k such that f(x) =k, for allx ¢ A. Domain: A Range: {k} A function f: R —» Ris said to be an identity function if for each x in R, JAlx) = x and is usually denoted by I. Domain: R Range: R 2.6. MODULUS FUNCTION The function R —» R defined by x ,ifx>0 A) = l= -x, ifx<0 is called the Modulus function. It is also called Absolute value function. Damain: R Range: R, = {x:x is a non-negative numbeR}Functions 25 Figure 2.4 2.7. THE GREATEST AND THE SMALLEST INTEGER FUNCTION For any real number x, we denote [x], the greatest integer less than or equal to x. For example, [2.45] = 2, [-2.11]=-3, [0.32] = Oete. The function /: R — R defined by Sx) = [x] or Lx], xeR is called the greatest integer function or the floor function. It is also called a step function. Figure 2.5 For areal number x, we denote by [x], the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.26 Differentiat Calculus For example [5.2] =6,[-52] =-Setc. The function fi R -» R defined by Ax)= [x] xeR is called the smallest integer function or the calling function. Figure 2.6 Itis also called a step function. Domain: R Range: Z 2.8. SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION The function that associates every positive real number x to + fy is called the square root function, i.¢., (x)= + vx. y yoix Graph of y = \x Figure 2,7Functions 27 Since negative real numbers do not have real square roots. So, f(x) is not defined when.x is a negative real number. Therefore, domain of f is the set ofall non-negative numbers. Domain: {0,0} Range : [0, =] 2.9. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION The function y =a" where the base a is a constant and the index, x a variable is called an exponential function. To consider the graph of y = a*, we have to consider two cases. @) a> (i) O 1, sin “x does not exist. Thus, we cannot define the inverse function of sinx unless we modify the definition of sinx in such a way that it becomes a bisection. Consequently, sin'x exits and it is a function from [~1, 1] to [—1/2, 2/2). Similarly, the other inverse trigonometrical functions can be defined. The domain and range of the inverse trigonometrical functions are as stated below: Function Domain Range Definition of the Junction sin'x [-1, 1] [- 1 /2, 1/2] y=sin'x <> x=siny cos''x [-1,.4 [0, 1] y=cos"x <> x=cosy tant R Jn, rl yertan'x & x=tany cotlx R 19, x{ y=cot'x <> x=coty34 = “—Differential Calculus Function Domain Range Definition of the function sec'x R-]-1, 1 (0, m]-{x/2})° y= sec’x <> x=secy cosec'x R-F1, I[ [-1./2, w/2]-(0} yy =cosec'x ¢> x =cosecy 2.15. FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION: COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS Let f(x) and g(x) be two functions with domain D, and D, respectively. Ifrange(f) c domain(g), we define g of by the rule (gof) (x)= g(x) forallx € D, Also, ifrange (g) c domain(/), we define fog by the Rule (fog) (x) =/{g(x)} forall x € D, 2.16. INVERTIBLE FUNCTIONS Consider a one-one function with domain A and range B, Let y € B. The function f being one-one, the member y € B arises form one and only one member x € A such that f(x) =». Thus, we define a new function, say g, such that a) =x fx) =y ; Also the domain of the function g is the range of the given function fand vice- versa. The function g is said to be an inveRse of the function /; We also say that Jis an invertible function. Clearly if g is the inverse of f, then fis also the inverse of g. Figure 2.20Functions 35 Examples &xample 1: What is the sum and difference of the identity function and the modulus function. Solution: Let f(x) = x,x € R be the identity function and (x) = |x], x © R be the modulus function. Then F+ 8) @)= AX) + ge) =x + bl ifx>0 “Rees and (f— g) (©) =Ax)— g(x) =x —b] -{ sifx20 ~\2xifx<0 Example 2: Let fbe the sine function and let g be the function 2x, Find (i) fog, (ii) gof, (iii) fof and (iv) gog Solution: We have, Ax) =sinx and g(x)=2x @ Cog) )=f(g(x)) =A2x) = sindx Gi) (gof) &)=g (G(x) = g(sinx) = 2sinx Gil) (fof) (x) = (Ax) =Asinx) = sin(sinx) (iv) (gog) @) = g (g(x) = g(2x) = 22x) = 4x Example3: lf f R —» R is defined by f(x) = x7 and g: R — R is defined by g(x) = sin x then what is fog and gof. Solution: The function fog: R + R is given by (fog) (x) = f(e(x)) =Asinx) = sin*x, forallx e R the function gof(x) = g(x) = g(x?) = sin(x’), forallx eR Example 4; Let fbe the exponential function and g be the logarithm function, Find @ (+g)0) Gi) g)Q) Gi) GAC) (iv) Ge)Q) (v) (fog) (1) (vi) (gof) (1)36 Differential Calculus Solution: We have, Ax)=e and g(x) = In@) @ (+g) @ Fa Gi) GAC) (iv) Gg)(1} (v) (g)(Q1) (vi) (gof) (1) AN)*e) e'+In(1) € AQ). 80) e' .In(ly=0 3k) 3 xe'=3e Sa(1) 5 x In(1)=0 Ag(l)) Aln(1)) = (0) =e"= 1 2(A1)) g(e')=Ine= 1 Example 5: Find the inverse function of the function fgiven by A(x) = (x + 1), xeR. Solution. Let g be the inverse of f- Then, for each x € R, we have efx) =x => goxt+l) =x => gx)=x-1 Thus, g(x) =x — 1 is the inverse of the function f given by /(x) =x + 1.Functions 37 Exercise — 2.2 1. Show that the function f(x) = (2x + 3)/ (x - 3) is invertible. Find the inverse g, of fand verify that gof is the identity function. 2. If fx) be defined on [-2, 2] and is given by -1, -2sx<0 foy={ O 0. For example, consider the function f(x) = x’, x eR. Table 3.1: x -» —2 from left Table 3.2: x —» —2 from right x S@) x Se) -25 6.25 “LS 2.25 -2.4 3.76 -1.6 2.56 -2.3 5,29 -17 2.89 -2.2 4.84 -1.8 3.24 ~2.1 4.41 -1.9 3.61 -2.05 4.20 -1.93 3.80 -2.04 4.16 -1.96 3.84 -2.02 4.08 12345 199 3.96 -2.001 4.004 Figure 3.2 ~1.996 3.996 Here we observe that: (i) as x approaches ~2 form the left of -2, the graph of (x) =x? approaches the point (~2, 4) and the value of fx) approaches 4. In this case, we say that left hand limit of f at x = -2 exists and is equal to 4. We usc the notation 2-2) Se) =4 (ii) asx approaches —2 from the right of -2, the graph of (x) =.¢ approaches the point (-2, 4) and the value of f(x) approaches 4. In this case, we say