PENETRATION This type of defect is found in any of three ways:

1) When the weld bead does not penetrate the entire thickness of the base plate.
2) When two opposing weld beads do not interpenetrate.
3) When the weld bead does not penetrate the toe of a fillet weld but only bridges across it.

Welding current has the greatest effect on penetration. Incomplete penetration is usually caused by the use
of too low a welding current and can be eliminated by simply increasing the amperage. Other causes can be
the use of too slow a travel speed and an incorrect torch angle. Both will allow the molten weld metal to roll
in front of the arc, acting as a cushion to prevent penetration. The arc must be kept on the leading edge of
the weld puddle. Figure 10-1 - Examples of Lack of Penetration

LACK OF FUSION Lack of fusion, also called cold lapping or cold shuts, occurs when there is no
fusion between the weld metal and the surfaces of the base plate. This defect can be seen in Figure 10-2.
The most common cause of lack of fusion is a poor welding technique. Either the weld puddle is too large
(travel speed too slow) and/or the weld metal has been permitted to roll in front of the arc. Again, the arc
must be kept on the leading edge of the puddle. When this is done, the weld puddle will not get too large and
cannot cushion the arc. Another cause is the use of a very wide weld joint. If the arc is directed down the
center of the joint, the molten weld metal will only flow and cast against the side walls of the base plate
without melting them. The heat of the arc must be used to melt the base plate. This is accomplished by
making the joint narrower or by directing the arc towards the side wall of the base plate. When multipass
welding thick material, a split bead technique should be used whenever possible after the root passes. Large
weld beads bridging the entire gap must be avoided. Lack of fusion can also occur in the form of a rolled
over bead crown. Again, it is generally caused by a very low travel speed and attempting to make too large a
weld in a single pass. However, it is also very often caused by too low a welding voltage. As a result, the
wetting of the bead will be poor. When welding aluminum, the common cause of this type of defect is the
presence of aluminum oxide. This oxide is a refractory with a melting point of approximately 3500 F 0

(1927 C). It is also insoluble in molten aluminum. If this oxide is present on the surfaces to be welded, fusion
0

with the weld metal will be hampered.

The best safeguard against this is to remove all oxide as soon before welding as possible. Although iron
oxide (rust, mill scale) can be welded over in mild steel, an excessive amount can cause lack of fusion

4 Figure 10-2 – Example of Lack of Fusion

UNDERCUTTING As shown in Figure 10-3, undercutting is a defect that appears as a groove in the
parent metal directly along the edges of the weld. It is most common in lap fillet welds, but can also be
encountered in fillet and butt joints. This type of defect is most commonly caused by improper welding
parameters; particularly the travel speed and arc voltage. When the travel speed is too high, the weld bead
will be very peaked because of its extremely fast solidification. The forces of surface tension have drawn the
molten metal along the edges of the weld bead and piled it up along the center. Melted portions of the base
plate are affected in the same way. The undercut groove is where melted base material has been drawn into
the weld and not allowed to wet back properly because of the rapid solidification. Decreasing the arc travel
speed will gradually reduce the size of the undercut and eventually eliminate it. When only small or
intermittent undercuts are present, raising the arc voltage or using a leading torch angle are also corrective
actions. In both cases, the weld bead will become flatter and wetting will improve. Continued on next page...
Figure 10-3 – Examples of Undercutting

However, as the arc voltage is raised to excessive levels, undercutting may again appear. This is
particularly true in spray arc welding. When the arc becomes very long, it also becomes too wide. This
results in an increased amount of base material being melted. However, the heat transfer of a long arc is
relatively poor, so actually the arc is supplying no more total heat to the weld zone. The outermost areas are
very quickly cooled and again proper wetting is prevented. The arc length should be kept short, not only to
avoid undercutting but to increase penetration and weld soundness. Excessive welding currents can also
cause undercutting. The arc force, arc heat and penetration are so great that the base plate under the arc is
actually ”blown” away. Again, the outermost areas of the base material are melted but solidify quickly. Puddle
turbulence and surface tension prevent the puddle from wetting properly. It is always advisable to remain
within the current ranges specified for each wire size.

POROSITY Porosity is gas pores found in the solidified weld bead. As seen in Figure 10-4, these
pores may vary in size and are generally distributed in a random manner. However, it is possible that
porosity can only be found at the weld center. Pores can occur either under or on the weld surface. The most
common causes of porosity are atmosphere contamination, excessively oxidized work piece surfaces,
inadequate deoxidizing alloys in the wire and the presence of foreign matter. Atmospheric contamination can
be caused by: 1) Inadequate shielding gas flow. 2) Excessive shielding gas flow. This can cause
aspiration of air into the gas stream. 3) Severely clogged gas nozzle or damaged gas supply system
(leaking hoses, fittings, etc.) 4) An excessive wind in the welding area. This can blow away the gas shield.

The atmospheric gases that are primarily responsible for porosity in steel are nitrogen and excessive
oxygen. However, considerable oxygen can be tolerated without porosity in the absence of nitrogen. Oxygen
in the atmosphere can cause severe problems with aluminum because of its rapid oxide formation. The gas
supply should be inspected at regular intervals to insure freedom from leakage. In addition, excessive
moisture in the atmosphere can cause porosity in steel and particularly aluminum. Care should be exercised
in humid climates. For example, a continuous coolant flow in water cooled torches can cause condensation
during periods of high humidity and consequent contamination of the shielding gas. Excessive oxidation of
the work pieces is an obvious source of oxygen as well as entrapped moisture. Again, this is particularly true
for aluminum where a hydrated oxide may exist. Anodized coatings on aluminum must be removed prior to
welding because they contain water as well as being an insulator. Porosity can be caused by inadequate
wire deoxidation when welding semi-killed or rimmed steels. The oxygen in the steel can cause CO porosity
if the proper deoxidizing elements are not present. Foreign matter can be a source of porosity. An example
is excessive lubricant on the welding wire. These hydrocarbons are sources of hydrogen which is particularly
harmful for aluminum. Other causes of porosity may be extremely fast weld solidification rates and erratic
arc characteristics. When solidification rates are extremely rapid, any gas that would normally escape is
trapped. Extremely high travel speeds and low welding current levels should be avoided. Erratic arc
characteristics can be caused by poor welding conditions

Erratic arc characteristics can be caused by poor welding conditions (voltage too low or high, poor metal
transfer) and fluctuation in the wire feed speed. All these occurrences cause severe weld puddle turbulence.
This turbulence will tend to break up the shielding gas envelope and cause the molten weld metal to be
contaminated by the atmosphere.
=

LONGITUDINAL CRACKING Longitudinal or centerline cracking, of the weld bead is not

often encountered in mig welding. However, that which does occur can be one of two types: hot cracks and
cold cracks. Typical hot cracks are shown in Figure 10-5. Hot cracks are those that occur while the weld
bead is between the liquidus (melting) and solidus (solidifying) temperatures. In this temperature range the
weld bead is ”mushy”. Hot cracks usually result from the use of an incorrect wire electrode (particularly in
aluminum and stainless steel alloys). The chemistry of the base plate can also promote this defect (an
example would be any high carbon stainless steel casting). Any combination of the joint design, welding
conditions and welding techniques that results in a weld bead with an excessively concave surface can
promote cracking. One form of this defect which may often be encountered, particularly with any 5000 series
aluminum, is called a crater crack. These are small cracks which appear at the end of the weld where the
arc has been broken. Although small, these cracks are troublesome since they can propagate into the weld
bead. A crater crack is shown in Figure 10-6. The major reason for this defect is the incorrect technique for
ending the weld. To properly end a weld, the crater should be filled. This is done by reversing the arc travel
direction before breaking the arc. This technique is depicted in Figure 10-7. In addition, if the welding control
is designed to supply gas for a short time after the arc is broken, the crater should be shielded until it is
completely solidified.
Figure 10-5 - Example of Longitudinal
Cracking
Figure 10-6 - Example of Crater Cracking
those cracks that occur after the weld bead has completely solidified are called cold cracks. These defects
occur only when the weld is too small to withstand the service stresses involved. For your convenience and
quick reference, Table 10-1 lists all possible defects, their cause and corrective action. Figure 10-7 – Crater
Filling Technique