Solution Manual Elementary Classical Analysis Marsden Chap 1 To 4

Exercises for the Introduction 1
Exercises for the Introduction

0E-1. The following mappings are dened by stating f(x), the domain
S, and the target T. For A S and B T, as given, compute f(A) and
f
1
(B).
(a) f(x) = x
2
, S = 1, 0, 1, T = all real numbers,
A = 1, 1, B = 0, 1.
(b) f(x) =
_
x
2
, if x 0
x
2
, if x < 0
S = T = all real numbers,
A = x real numbers [ x > 0, B = 0.
(c) f(x) =
_
_
_
1, if x > 0
0, if x = 0
1, if x < 0
S = T = all real numbers,
A = B = x real numbers [ 2 < x < 1.
Answer. (a) f(A) = 1, f
1
(B) = S.
(b) f(A) = A, f
1
(B) = B.
(c) f(A) = 1, 0, 1, f
1
(B) = x [ x 0.
Solution. (a) f(A) = f(1), f(1) = 1, 1 = 1. Since f(1) =

f(1) = 1, and f(0) = 0, we have f
1
(0, 1) = 1, 0, 1.
(b) If x > 0, then x
2
> 0, and if y > 0, then

y > 0. Thus f takes A
onto A and f(A) = A. Since f(x) = 0 if and only if x = 0, we have
f
1
(B) = f
1
(0) = 0.
(c) Since the interval A =] 2, 1[ contains positive numbers, negative
numbers, and 0, we have f(A) = 1, 0, 1. The interval B =] 2, 1[
contains 1 and 0, but not 1. So f
1
(B) contains all of the negative
numbers and 0, but not the positive numbers. So f
1
(B) = x R [
x 0.
0E-2. Determine whether the functions listed in Exercise 0E-1 are one-
to-one or onto (or both) for the given domains and targets.
Answer. (a) Neither one-to-one nor onto.
(b) One-to-one and onto.
(c) Neither one-to-one nor onto.
2 Introduction: Sets and Functions

Solution. (a) Since f(1) = f(1) = 1, the function f is not one-to-
one. Since f(S) = 0, 1, the function f does not map S onto R.
(b) To see that f is one-to-one, suppose that f(s) = f(t) = y. If y > 0,
then y = s
2
= t
2
with s 0 and t 0. So 0 = s
2
t
2
= (st)(s+t).
Since s and t are nonnegative, the only way for s + t to be 0 is for
s = t = 0. If s = t is not 0, then s t must be 0, so again s = t. If
y < 0, then s
2
= y = t
2
with s < 0 and t < 0. Thus s + t < 0.
Again we have 0 = s
2
t
2
= (s +t)(s t), and, since s +t is not 0,
we have s t = 0. So again, f(s) = f(t) implies that s = t. To see
that f takes R onto R, let y R. If y 0, then y has a nonnegative
square root. Let x =

y 0. Then f(x) = (
y)
2
= y. If y < 0, then
y > 0 and has a positive square root. Let x =
y < 0. Then
f(x) = (
y)
2
= (y) = y. So for each y in R there is an x in
R with f(x) = y. That is, f maps R onto R.
(c) Since the range of f is the set 1, 0, 1, f certainly does not map
R onto R. In particular, there is no x in R with f(x) = 3. Since
f(2) = f(1) = 1, the function f is not one-to-one.
0E-3. Let f : S T be a function, C

1
, C
2
T, and D
1
, D
2
S. Prove
(a) f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
(b) f(D
1
D
2
) = f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
(c) f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
(d) f(D
1
D
2
) f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
Answer. In each case use the denitions: For example, for (a), x
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) i f(x) C
1
C
2
i (f(x) C
1
or f(x) C
2
) i x
f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
). One need not have equality in (d).
Solution. (a)
x f
1
(C
1
C
2
) f(x) C
1
C
2
f(x) C
1
or f(x) C
2
x f
1
(C
1
) or x f
1
(C
2
) x f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
)
The two sets have the same elements and must be equal.
(b) If y f(D
1
D
2
) then there is an x in D
1
D
2
with f(x) = y.
x must be in D
1
or in D
2
. If x D
1
, then f(x) f(D
1
) and
so f(x) f(D
1
) f(D
2
). If x D
2
, then f(x) f(D
2
) and so
y = f(x) f(D
1
) f(D
2
) Thus f(D
1
D
2
) f(D
1
) f(D
2
)
Conversely, if y f(D
1
)f(D
2
), then y f(D
1
) or y f(D
2
). In the
rst case there is an x in D
1
with f(x) = y and in the second there
is an x in D
2
with y = f(x). In either case we have an x in D
1
D
2
with y = f(x), so y f(D
1
D
2
). Thus f(D
1
)f(D
2
) f(D
1
D
2
).
We have inclusion in both directions so the sets are equal.
(c)
x f
1
(C
1
C
2
) f(x) C
1
C
2
f(x) C
1
and f(x) C
2
x f
1
(C
1
) and x f
1
(C
2
) x f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
)
The sets have the same elements, so they are equal.
(d) If y f(D
1
D
2
), then there is an x in D
1
D
2
with f(x) = y. x
is in D
1
, so y = f(x) f(D
1
), and x D
2
, so y = f(x) f(D
2
).
Thus y is in both f(D
1
) and f(D
2
)m so y f(D
1
) f(D
2
). Thus
f(D
1
D
2
) f(D
1
) f(D
2
) as claimed.
0E-4. Verify the relations (a) through (d) in Exercise 0E-3 for each of
the functions (a) through (c) in Exercise 0E-1 and the following sets; use
the sets in part (a) below for the function in Exercise 0E-1 (a), the sets in
part (b) for the function in Exercise 0E-1 (b), and the sets in part (c) for
the functions in Exercise 0E-1 (c):
(a) C
1
= all x > 0, D
1
= 1, 1, C
2
= all x 0, D
2
= 0, 1;
(b) C
1
= all x 0, D
1
= all x > 0, C
2
= all x 2, D
2
= all x 1;
(c) C
1
= all x 0, D
1
= all x, C
2
= all x > 1, D
2
= all x > 0.
Solution. (a) f(x) = x
2
; C
1
= x R [ x > 0; C
2
= x R [ x 0;
D
1
= 1, 1; and D
2
= 0, 1. So
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
(R) = R
= x R [ x ,= 0 0 = f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
f(D
1
D
2
) = f(1, 0, 1) = 0, 1
= 1 0, 1 = f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
() =
= x R [ x ,= 0 0 = f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
f(D
1
D
2
) = f(1) = 1 1 0, 1
= f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
(b)
f(x) =
_
x
2
, if x 0;
x
2
, if x < 0.
C
1
= x R [ x 0; C
2
= x R [ x 2
D
1
= x R [ x > 0; and D
2
= x R [ x 1.
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
(R) = R
= x R [ x 0 x R [ x
2
= f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
f(D
1
D
2
) = f(x R [ x 1) = x R [ x 1
= x R [ x 1 x R [ x 0
= f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
([0, 2]) = [0,
2]
= x R [ x 0 x R [ x
2
= f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
f(D
1
D
2
) = f(D
1
) = x R [ x > 0
= x R [ x > 0 x R [ x > 1
= f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
(c)
f(x) =
_
_
1, if x > 0;
0, if x = 0;
1; if x < 0.
C
1
= x R [ x 0; C
2
= x R [ x 1
D
1
= R; and D
2
= x R [ x > 0.
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
(x R [ x > 1) = x R [ x 0
= x R [ x 0 x R [ x 0
= f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
f(D
1
D
2
) = f(R) = 1, 0, 1 = 1, 0, 11 = f(D
1
) f(D
2
).
f
1
(C
1
C
2
) = f
1
(x R [ x 0) = x R [ x 0
= x R [ x 0 x R [ x 0
= f
1
(C
1
) f
1
(C
2
).
f(D
1
D
2
) = f(D
2
) = 1 = 1, 0, 1 1 = f(D
1
) f(D
2
).

0E-5. If f : S T is a function from S into T, show that the following
are equivalent. (Each implies the other two.)
(a) f is one-to-one.
(b) For every y in T, the set f
1
(y) contains at most one point.
(c) f(D
1
D
2
) = f(D
1
) f(D
2
) for all subsets D
1
and D
2
of S.
Develop similar criteria for ontoness.
Answer. For example, assume f(D
1
D
2
) = f(D
1
) f(D
2
). If x
1
,= x
2
and f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) = y, let D
1
= x
1
and D
2
= x
2
to deduce a
contradiction. So f is one-to-one. Some possible equivalents to onto are:
for all y T, f
1
(y) ,= , or, for all R T, R = f(f
1
(R)). Other
answers are possible.
Solution. (a) = (b): If s and t are in f
1
(y), then f(s) = f(t) = y.
Since f is one-to-one, we must have s = y. Thus the set f
1
(y) contains
at most one point.
(b) = (c): Suppose (b) holds and D
1
and D
2
are subsets of S. We know
from problem 0E-3 (d) that f(D
1
d
2
) f(D
1
) f(D
2
). Now suppose
y f(D
1
) f(D
2
). Then y f(D
1
) and y f(D
2
). So there are points
s in D
1
and t in D
2
such that f(s) = y and f(t) = y. So s and t are in
f
1
(y). Hypothesis (b) implies that s = t D
1
D
2
. So y f(D
1
D
2
).
Thus f(D
1
) f(D
2
) f(D
1
D
2
). We have inclusion in both directions,
so the sets are equal.
(c) = (a): Suppose x and s are in S and f(x) = f(s) = y T.
Let D
1
= x and D
2
= s. Using hypothesis (c), we compute y =
f(D
1
) f(D
2
) = f(D
1
D
2
). But D
1
D
2
= unless x = s. Since it is
not empty, we must have x = s.
0E-6. Show that the set of positive integers N = 1, 2, 3, . . . has as
many elements as there are integers, by setting up a one-to-one correspon-
dence between the set Z = . . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and the set N.
Conclude that Z is countable.
Solution. The pairing between N and Z may be established according to
the following pattern
N : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . . .
Z : 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 . . .
That is
N Z
1 0
2k k for k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2k + 1 k for k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
0E-7. Let A be a nite set with N elements, and let T(A) denote the
collection of all subsets of A, including the empty set. Prove that T(A) has
2
N
elements.
Sketch. A subset B of A is determined by choosing for each x A either
x B or x / B. Apply a standard argument for counting a sequence of
choices or use induction.
Solution. If N = 0, then A = . The power set is T() = . This has
1 = 2
0
elements.
If N = 1, put A = x. The power set is T(x) = , x. This has
2 = 2
1
elements.
Suppose inductively that we know that every set with exactly N = k
elements has exactly 2
k
subsets. Suppose A has N = k + 1 elements. Let
A = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
, x
k+1
and B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
. For each subset S of
B, we get two distinct subsets, S and S x
k+1
, of A. Furthermore, if
S and T are dierent subsets of B, then the resulting 4 subsets of A are
all dierent. Finally, all subsets of A are obtained in this way. Thus T(A)
has exactly twice as many elements as T(B). By the induction hypothesis,
T(B) has 2
k
elements, so T(A) has 2
k+1
elements. This is exactly the
desired conclusion for N = k+1, so our proposition follows by the principle
of mathematical induction.
0E-8. (a) Let N = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Dene : NN N by (i, j) =
j +
1
2
k(k + 1) where k = i + j. Show that is a bijection and that
it has something to do with Figure 0.9.
(b) Show that if A
1
, A
2
, . . . are countable sets, so is A
1
A
2
.
Solution. (a) One to one : Suppose (i, j) = (I, J). Put k = i+j
and K = I +J. Then 2j +k(k +1) = 2J +K(K +1), so 2(j J) =
(K+k +1)(Kk). If K = k, then we must have j J = 0, so j = J
and also i = I. Now we show that we must have K = k. If they were
not equal, then one would be larger. Say K > k. If K = k + 1, our
equation would become 2(j J) = 2K, so j = J + K. This would
Figure 0.9.
imply that i = k j = K 1 (J +K) = (J +1) < 0. This is not
possible since i N. If K k+2, we would also have a contradiction
since then
(K +k + 1)(K k) 2(K +k + 1) = 2(J +j +I +i + 1)
2(J +j + 1) > 2(j J)
So K > k is not possible. The alternative k > K may be eliminated
by a similar argument. The only possibility left is that K = k and
we have seen that this forces J = j and I = i. So the map is
one-to-one.
Onto : First note that (0, 0) = 0, (1, 0) = 1, and (0, 1) = 2.
Suppose m is an integer with m 3, and let k be the largest integer
such that k(k+1)/2 m. Notice that k 2. Then (k+1)(k+2)/2 >
m, so k
2
+ 3k + 2 > 2m, and 3k 2m + k
2
> 2. Thus if we put
j = mk(k + 1)/2 and i = k j, we have
i = k m+
k(k + 1)
2
=
3k 2m+k
2
2
> 1
Since i is an integer, we have i 0. Thus i and j are in N, and
(i, j) = m. Thus takes N N onto N. The diagram shows a
table of the values of with (i, j) in the square at row i column j.
(b) The idea is rst to observe that every subset of a countable set is
countable. (This is actually a bit tricky.) With this is hand, we might
as well assume that the sets A
k
are denumerably innite and pairwise
disjoint. Now establish pairings between each of the sets A
k
and a
copy of N. Their union is then naturally paired with N N. But
this may then be paired with N by the map established in part (a).
0E-9. Let / be a family of subsets of a set S. Write / for the union

of all members of / and similarly dene /. Suppose B /. Show that
/ B and B /.
Answer. If x
/, then x A for some A /. Since / B, A B,

and so x
B. Thus

/
B. The second part is similar.

Solution. If x
/, then x A for some A /. Since / B, A B,

and so x
B. Thus

/
B.
For the second assertion, suppose that x

B. Then x B for every
set B in the collection B. If A is one of the sets in /, then A B, so x A.
Since this holds for every such x, we have x
/. Thus

B
/.
0E-10. Let f : S T, g : T U, and h : U V be mappings. Prove
that h (g f) = (h g) f (that is, that composition is associative).
Solution. If x S, then
(h (g f))(x) = h((g f)(x)) = h(g(f(x)))
and
((h g) f)(x) = (h g)(f(x)) = h(g(f(x)))
So (h(gf))(x) = ((hg)f)(x) for every x in S. Thus h(gf) = (hg)f.
0E-11. Let f : S T, g : T U be given mappings. Show that for

C U, (g f)
1
(C) = f
1
(g
1
(C)).
Solution. x (g f)
1
(C) (g f)(x) C g(f(x)) C
f(x) g
1
(C) x f
1
(g
1
(C)).
0E-12. Let / be a collection of subsets of a set S and B the collection
of complementary sets; that is, B B i SB /. Prove de Morgans
laws:
(a) S / = B.
(b) S / = B.
Here / denotes the union of all sets in /.
For example, if / = A
1
, A
2
, then
(a) reads S(A
1
A
2
) = (SA
1
) (SA
2
) and
(b) reads S(A
1
A
2
) = (SA
1
) (SA
2
).
Solution. (a) Suppose x S (
/). Then x is not in

/, and so
it is not in any of the sets A in the collection /. It is thus in each
complementary set B = S A. That is, x
B. Thus S (
/)
B.
For the opposite inclusion, suppose x
B, then x is in each of the

sets B = S A. Thus x is in none of the sets A, so x is not in

/,
and x is in S (
/). Thus

B S (
/). We have inclusion in

both directions, so the sets are equal.
(b) Suppose x S (
/). Then x is not in
/, and so there is at least

one of the sets A with x not in A. So x B = S A for that A. Thus
x
B. Thus S (
/)
B.
For the opposite inclusion, suppose x
B, then x is in at least one

of the sets B = S A. Thus x is not in that A, so x is not in

/,
and x is in S (
/). Thus

B S (
/). We have inclusion in

both directions, so the sets are equal.
0E-13. Let A, B S. Show that

AB = A = or B = .
Solution. A, B ,= (a A and b B) (a, b) AB and
so AB ,= .
0E-14. Show that
(a) (AB) (A
B) = (A A
) B.
(b) (AB) (A
) = (A A
) (B B
).
Solution. (a)
(x, y) (AB) (A
B) (x, y) AB or (x, y) A
B
(x A and y B) or (x A
and y B)
(x A or x A
) and (y B)
(x A A
) and (y B)
(x, y) (A A
) B.
So (AB) (A
B) = (A A
) B.
(b)
(x, y) (AB) (A
) (x, y) AB and (x, y) A
(x A and y B) and (x A
and y B
)
(x A and x A
) and (y B and y B
)
(x A A
) and (y B B
)
(x, y) (A A
) (B B
).
So (AB) (A
) = (A A
) (B B
).
0E-15. Show that

(a) f : S T is one-to-one i there is a function g : T S such that
g f = I
S
; we call g a left inverse of f.
(b) f : S T is onto i there is a function h : T S such that
f h = I
T
; we call h a right inverse of f.
(c) A map f : S T is a bijection i there is a map g : T S such that
f g = I
T
and g f = I
S
. Show also that g = f
1
and is uniquely
determined.
Sketch. (a) If f is one-to-one, let g(y) = x if f(x) = y and let g(y) be
anything if there is no such x.
(b) If f is onto and y T, choose some x such that f(x) = y and let
h(y) = x. (Note the use of the Axiom of Choice.)
Solution. (a) Suppose f : S T is one-to-one and let s

0
S. To
dene the map g from T to S, let t T. If t is not in f(S), simply put
g(t) = s
0
. If t is in f(S), then there is exactly one s in S with f(s) = t
since f is one-to-one. Put g(t) = s. If s is in S, then(g f)(s) =
g(f(s)) = s. So g f = I
S
.
For the converse, suppose there is such a function g and that f(s
1
) =
f(s
2
). Then
s
1
= (g f)(s
1
) = g(f(s
1
)) = g(f(s
2
)) = (g f)(s
2
) = s
2
.
Thus f(s
1
) = f(s
2
) = s
1
= s
2
., so f is one-to-one.
(b) Suppose f : S T takes S onto T. For each t in T, then set
f
1
(t), is nonempty, so, by the Axiom of Choice, we can select
an element s
t
f
1
(t) from each. Put h(t) = s
t
. We then have
(f h)(t) = f(h(t)) = f(s
t
) = t. So f h = I
T
.
For the converse, suppose there is such a function h and that t T.
Put s = h(t). Then f(s) = f(h(t)) = (f h)(t) = t. For each t in T
there is at least one s in S with f(s) = t, so f maps S onto T.
(c) If there is such a map g, then by part (a) the function f is one-to-one,
and by part (b) it takes S onto T. So f is a bijection.
If f is a bijection, then it is one-to-one and onto, so both construc-
tions can be carried out as in (a) and (b). Since f takes S onto T,
the rst part of the construction in (a) is not needed. Since f is one-
to-one, there is actually no freedom of choice in the construction of
(b). Thus the map h constructed in (b) must actually be the same as
the map g constructed in part (a). So g satises the criteria required
for part (c).
0E-16. Let f : S T and g : T U be bijections. Show that g f is a

bijection and (g f)
1
= f
1
g
1
. [Hint: Use Exercise 0E-15 (c).]
Solution. Suppose u U. Since g takes T onto U, there is a t in T with
g(t) = u. Since f takes S onto T, there is an s in S with f(s) = t. Then
(g f)(s) = g(f(s)) = g(t) = u. Thus g f maps S onto U.
Suppose s
1
and s
2
are in S and that (g f)(s
1
) = (g f)(s
2
). Then
g(f(s
1
)) = g(f(s
2
)). Since g is one-to-one, we must have f(s
1
) = f(s
2
).
Since f is one-to-one, we must have s
1
= s
2
. Thus g f is one-to-one.
Since g f is a bijection, we have an inverse function (g f)
1
mapping
U one-to-one onto S as in exercise 0E-15(c). Furthermore, the method of
solution for that problem indicates that there is exactly one choice for that
inverse function. Computing directly with the function f
1
g
1
, we nd
(f
1
g
1
)(g f)(s) = (f
1
g
1
)(g(f(s)))
= f
1
(g
1
(g(f(s))))
= f
1
(f(s)) = s
So f
1
g
1
is a left inverse for g f.
(g f)(f
1
g
1
)(u) = (g f)(f
1
(g
1
(u)))
= g(f(f
1
(g
1
(u))))
= g(g
1
(u)) = u
So f
1
g
1
is a right inverse for gf. Since the constructions of exercise 0E-
15 indicate that the inverse function of a bijection is unique, we must have
f
1
g
1
= (g f)
1
.
0E-17. (For this problem you may wish to review some linear algebra.)
Let
A =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
be an m n matrix where the a
ij
are real numbers. Use Exercise 0E-15
to show that A has rank m if and only if there is a matrix B such that AB
is the mm identity matrix.
Sketch. Let T : R
n
R
m
be the linear transformation associated with
A. We learn in linear algebra that T is onto, i.e., Tx = y is solvable for
x R
n
for any y R
m
, if and only if T has rank m. If B exists, T is onto
by Exercise 0E-15(b). Conversely, if T is onto, choose a complementary
subspace W R
n
of dimension m to ker(T). Then T[W : W R
m
is
an isomorphism. Let U be its inverse. Then T U = identity . If B is the
matrix of U, we get AB = identity .
Solution. We know that the matrix A corresponds to a linear transfor-
mation T : R
n
R
m
given for a vector x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) R
n
by
Tx =
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
x
1
+a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
a
21
x
1
+a
22
x
2
+ +a
2n
x
n
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
_
_
_
_
_
.
If B is an n m matrix
B =
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
b
12
b
1m
b
21
b
22
b
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
n2
b
nm
_
_
_
_
_
,
then B corresponds to a linear transformation S : R
m
R
n
given for
y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
m
) R
m
by
Sy =
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
b
12
b
1m
b
21
b
22
b
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
n2
b
nm
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
.
.
.
y
m
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
y
1
+b
12
y
2
+ +b
1m
y
m
b
21
y
1
+b
22
y
2
+ +b
2m
y
m
.
.
.
b
n1
y
1
+b
n2
y
2
+ +b
nm
y
m
_
_
_
_
_
.
The product matrix
C = AB =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
k1
a
k2
a
kn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
b
1j
b
1m
b
21
b
2j
b
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
nj
b
nm
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
b
11
+a
12
b
21
+ +a
1n
b
n1

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
k1
b
11
+a
k2
b
21
+ +a
kn
b
n1
a
k1
b
1j
+a
k2
b
2j
+ +a
kn
b
nj

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
b
11
+a
m2
b
21
+ +a
mn
b
n1

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
with C
kj
=

n
i=1
a
ki
b
ij
, is the matrix corresponding to the composition
operator R = T S : R
m
R
m
.
Exercise 0E-15 tells us that a right inverse S exists, at least as a function,
if and only if the operator T maps R
n
onto R
m
.
If the right inverse matrix B exists, then the right inverse function S
exists. The operator T maps R
n
onto R
m
. Thus
rank(T) = dim(range(T)) = dim(R
m
) = m.
For the converse, suppose rank(T) = m. Then range(T) has full dimen-
sion in R
m
and so must be all of R
m
. A right inverse function S : R
m
R
n
exists by exercise 0E-15. The operator T cannot also be one-to-one unless
m = n, so the function S does not have to be linear. If y R
n
and Tx = y,
then x is a possible choice for S(y). But so is x+ x for every x with T x = 0.
The point is that the values of S can be selected in such a way as to make
S linear. Let W be the orthogonal complement of the kernel (or null space)
of T.
W = (ker(T))
.
The restriction, T[
W
, takes W one-to-one onto the range of T. (Why?).
Since in our case the range is all of R
m
, there is a two-sided inverse function
S : R
m
W R
n
.
S (T[
W
) = (T[
W
) S = (I[
W
).
This S must be linear. Suppose y
1
and y
2
are in R
m
and R. Then there
are unique x
1
and x
2
in W with Tx
1
= y
1
and Tx
2
= y
2
. Since T is linear
we have
S(y
1
+y
2
) = S(Tx
1
+Tx
2
) = S(T(x
1
+x
2
)) = x
1
+x
2
= Sy
1
+Sy
2
.
and
S(y
1
) = S(Tx
1
) = S(T(x
1
)) = x
1
= Sy
1
The matrix B for the transformation S is then a right inverse for the matrix
A.
Page 15
1
The Real Line and Euclidean Space
1.1 Ordered Fields and the Number
Systems
1.1-1. In an ordered eld prove that (a +b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab +b
2
.
Sketch. (a +b)
2
= (a +b)(a +b) = (a +b)a +(a +b)b = a
2
+ba +ab +b
2
(by the distributive law twice). Now use commutativity.
Solution. Here is a fairly complete proof from the basic properties of a
eld. This includes more details than we will probably ever want to put
down again.
(a +b)
2
= (a +b)(a +b) by denition of squaring
= (a +b)a + (a +b)b by the distributive law
= a(a +b) +b(a +b) by commutativity of mult.
= (aa +ab) + (ba +bb) by the distributive law
= (a
2
+ab) + (ba +b
2
) by denition of squaring
= (a
2
+ab) + (ab +b
2
) by commutativity of mult.
= [(a
2
+ab) +ab] +b
2
by associativity of addition
16 1. The Real Line and Euclidean Space
= [a
2
+ (ab +ab)] +b
2
by associativity of addition
= [a
2
+ (1 (ab) + 1 (ab))] +b
2
= [a
2
+ ((ab) 1 + (ab) 1)] +b
2
by commutativity of mult.
= [a
2
+ (ab(1 + 1))] +b
2
by the distributive law
= [a
2
+ (ab(2))] +b
2
= [a
2
+ 2ab] +b
2
by commutativity of mult.
= a
2
+ 2ab +b
2
1.1-2. In a eld, show that if b ,= 0 and d ,= 0, then

a
b
+
c
d
=
ad +bc
bd
.
Solution. Recall that division is dened by
x
y
= xy
1
. We compute:
a
b
+
c
d
=
_
a
b
+
c
d
_
_
(bd)(bd)
1
_
multiply by one
=
__
a
b
+
c
d
_
(bd)
_
(bd)
1
associative law
= ((ab
1
+cd
1
)(bd))(bd)
1
denition of division
= ((ab
1
)(bd) + (cd
1
)(bd))(bd)
1
distributive law
= ((ab
1
)b)d + (cd
1
)d)b)(bd)
1
assoc. and comm. laws
= ((a(b
1
b))d + (c(d
1
d))b)(bd)
1
associative law
= ((a(1))d + (c(1))b)(bd)
1
reciprocals
= (ad +cb)(bd)
1
= (ad +bc)(bd)
1
property of one
=
ad +bc
bd
denition of division
as claimed.
1.1-3. In an ordered eld, if a > b, show that a
2
b < ab
2
+ (a
3
b
3
)/3.
Sketch. Expand (a b)
3
> 0 and rearrange.
Solution. Here is a solution with many, but not all steps. Some expan-
sions and manipulations analogous to the expansion done in Exercise 1.1-1
1.1 Ordered Fields and the Number Systems 17
have been grouped. The reader should be able to ll these in if requested.
b a given
b + (b) a + (b) by order axiom 15
0 a + (b)
0 a b by denition of subtraction
0 (a b)
3
by order axiom 16 twice
0 a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3
similar to exercise 1
0(1/3) (a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3
)/3 by order axiom 16
0 (a
3
3a
2
b + 3ab
2
b
3
)/3 by 1.1.2 vi
0 (ab
2
+ (a
3
b
3
)/3) a
2
b why ?
0 +a
2
b ((ab
2
+ (a
3
b
3
)/3) a
2
b) +a
2
b by order axiom 15
0 +a
2
b (ab
2
+ (a
3
b
3
)/3) + (a
2
b +a
2
b) why ?
0 +a
2
b (ab
2
+ (a
3
b
3
)/3) + 0 why ?
a
2
b ab
2
+ (a
3
b
3
)/3 why ?
1.1-4. Prove that in an ordered eld, if

2 is a positive number whose
square is 2, then

2 < 3/2. (Do this without using a numerical approxi-
mation for

2.)
Solution. It is convenient to set up a lemma rst. This lemma corre-
sponds to the fact that the squaring and square root functions are mono-
tone increasing on the positive real numbers.
Lemma. If a > 0 and b > 0, then a
2
b
2
a b.
Proof: Suppose 0 a b . If we use Property 1.1.2 xi twice we nd
a
2
ab and ab b
2
. Transitivity of inequality gives a
2
b
2
.
In the other direction, if a
2
b
2
, then
0 b
2
a
2
= (b a)(b +a).
If b +a = 0, then a = b = 0 since both are non-negative. If it is not 0, then
it is positive and so is (b +a)
1
. So
0 (b +a)
1
((b a)(b +a))(b +a)
1
= (b a)((b +a)(b +a)
1
))
0 b a
a b
We have implication in both directions as claimed.
Using this we can get our result. If

2 3/2, we would have 2 9/4
and so 8 9. Subtracting 8 from both sides would give 0 1, but we know
this is false. Thus

2 3/2 has led to a contradiction and cannot be true.
We must have

2 < 3/2 as claimed.
1.1-5. Give an example of a eld with only three elements. Prove that it
cannot be made into an ordered eld.
Sketch. Let F = 0, 1, 2 with arithmetic mod 3. For example, 2 2 = 1
and 1 +2 = 0. To show it cannot be ordered, get a contradiction from (for
example) 1 > 0 so 1 + 1 = 2 > 0 so 1 + 2 = 0 > 0.
Solution. Let F = 0, 1, 2 with arithmetic mod 3. For example, 2 2 = 1
and 1 + 2 = 0. The commutative associative and distributive properties
work for modular arithmetic with any base. When the base is a prime, the
result is a eld. In particular in arithmetic modulo 3 we have
1 1 = 1 and 2 2 = 1.
Thus 1 and 2 are their own reciprocals. Since they are the only two nonzero
elements, we have a eld.
To show it cannot be ordered, get a contradiction from (for example)
1 > 0 so 1+1 = 2 > 0 so 1+2 = 0 > 0. We know that 0 1 in any ordered
eld. So 1 1 + 1 = 2 by order axiom 15. Transitivity gives 0 2. So
far there is no problem. But, if we add 1 to the inequality 1 2 obtained
above, we nd 2 = 1 +1 2 +1 = 0. So 2 0. Thus 0 = 2. If we multiply
by 2, we get 0 = 0 2 = 2 2 = 1. So 0 = 1. But we know this is false.
1.2 Completeness and the Real Number
System
1.2-1. In Example 1.2.10, let = lim
n
x
n
.
(a) Show that is a root of
2
2 = 0.
(b) Find lim
n
x
n
.
Sketch. (a) Take limits as n in x
2
n
= 2 +x
n1
.
(b) 2
1.2 Completeness and the Real Number System 19

Solution. (a) Letting k = n1, we see that k if and only if n .
So lim
k
x
n1
= lim
k
x
k
= . Since we know that the limit exists
as a nite real number, we can use the arithmetic of limits to compute
2
=
_
lim
n
x
n
_
2
= lim
n
(x
2
n
) = lim
n
(2+x
n1
) = 2+ lim
n
x
n1
= 2+
So
2
2 = 0 as claimed.
(b) We know that the limit is a solution to the equation
2
2 = 0.
This equation has solutions 2 and 1. Since all the terms of the sequence
are positive, the limit cannot be 1 and must be 2.
1.2-2. Show that 3

n
/n! converges to 0.
Solution. Let a
n
=
3
n
n!
If n 5 we can compute
0
3
n
n!
=
3 3 3 3 3
1 2 3 4 5

3
6

3
7

3
n

243
120

_
1
2
_
n5
=
324
5

1
2
n
Since 1/2
n
goes to 0, so does any constant multiple of it. Thus a
n
is trapped
between 0 and something known to tend to 0, so it must tend to 0 also as
claimed.
1.2-3. Let x
n
=

n
2
+ 1 n. Compute lim
n
x
n
.
Answer. 0.
Solution. Let x
n
=

n
2
+ 1 n, and notice that
(
_
n
2
+ 1 n) (
_
n
2
+ 1 +n) = (n
2
+ 1) n
2
= 1.
Thus we have
0 x
n
=
_
n
2
+ 1 n =
1
n
2
+ 1 +n
n
2
+n
=
1
2n

1
n
.
We know that 1/n 0, so x
n
0 by the Sandwich Lemma 1.2.2.
1.2-4. Let x
n
be a monotone increasing sequence such that x
n+1
x
n

1/n. Must x
n
converge?
Answer. No, not necessarily.
Solution. If we put x
1
= 1 and suppose that x
n+1
= x
n
+ (1/n), then
x
2
= 1 +
1
1
x
3
= x
2
+
1
2
= 1 +
1
1
+
1
2
x
4
= x
3
+
1
3
= 1 +
1
1
+
1
2
+
1
3
.
.
.
x
n+1
= x
n
+
1
n
= 1 +
1
1
+
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
n
Since we know that the harmonic series diverges to innity, we see that the
sequence x
n
)
1
cannot converge.
1.2-5. Let F be an ordered eld in which every strictly monotone increas-
ing sequence bounded above converges. Prove that F is complete.
Sketch. From a (nontrivial) monotone sequence x
n
)
1
, extract a subse-
quence which is strictly monotone.
Solution. We need to show that every increasing sequence which is bounded
above must converge to an element of F whether the increase is strict or
not. If the sequence is constant beyond some point, then it certainly con-
verges to that constant. If not, then we can inductively extract a strictly
increasing subsequence from it as follows. Let x
n
)
1
be the sequence, and
net n(1) = 1. Let n(2) be the rst integer larger than 1 with x
n(1)
< x
n(2)
.
There must be such an index since the sequence never again gets smaller
than x
n(1)
and it is not constantly equal to x
n(1)
beyond that point. Re-
peat this process. Having selected n(1) < n(2) < < n(k) < . . . with
x
n(1)
< x
n(2)
< < x
n(k)
. . . , let n(k + 1) be the rst index larger than
n(k) with x
n(k)
< x
n(k+1)
. Such an index exists since the sequence never
again is smaller than x
(n(k)
, and it is not constantly equal to x
n(k)
beyond
this point. This inductively produces indices n(1) < n(2) < n(3) < . . . with
x
n(1)
< x
n(2)
< x
n(3)
< . . . . By hypothesis, this strictly increasing sequence
must converge to some element of F since it is bounded above by the same
bound as the original sequence. We claim that the whole sequence must con-
verge to . If > 0, then there is a J such that

x
n(k)

< whenever
k J. Put N = n(J). If n N, there is a k > J with n(J) n n(k).
So x
n(J)
x
n
x
n(k)
. Thus [x
n
[ = x
n
x
n(J)
< . Thus
lim
n
x
n
= as claimed.
1.3 Least Upper Bounds 21
1.3 Least Upper Bounds
1.3-1. Let S = x [ x
3
< 1. Find sup S. Is S bounded below?
Answer. sup(S) = 1; S is not bounded below.
Solution. If x 0, then x
3
0 < 1, so x S. If 0 < x < 1, then
0 < x
3
< 1, so x S. If x 1, then x
3
1, so x / S. Thus S = x
R [ x < 1. The number 1 is an upper bound for S, but nothing smaller is,
so sup S = 1. Since all negative numbers are in S, the set is not bounded
below.
1.3-2. Consider an increasing sequence x
n
that is bounded above and
that converges to x. Let S = x
n
[ n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Give a plausibility
argument that x = sup S.
Sketch. Since the sequence is increasing, its limit, x, must be at least as
large as any of the terms of the sequence. So it is an upper bound. If t < x,
then the terms x
n
must eventually be above t since they come arbitrarily
close to x. So t cannot be an upper bound. Thus x must be the smallest
upper bound. We should have x = sup S.
Solution. Here is one way to make the arguments given above a bit more
precise. Let S = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . . We are assuming that
x
1
x
2
x
3
. . .
and that
lim
n
x
n
= x.
Suppose there were an index k with x
k
> x, then, since the sequence is
monotone increasing, we would have
x < x
k
x
k+1
x
k+2
. . . .
So that we would have x < x
k
x
n
for all n k. If we put = (x
k
x)/2,
we would have [x
n
= x[ > for every n with n > k. The sequence could
not converge to x. Thus it must be that x
k
x for every k. The number x
is thus an upper bound for the set S. So sup S x.
On the other hand, if > 0, then we must have [x
n
x[ < for large
enough n. That is,
< x
n
x < .
So
x < x
n
< x +
for large enough n. In particular, the number x is not an upper bound
for S. No number smaller than x can be an upper bound, so x sup S.
We have inequality in both directions, so supS = x as claimed.
1.3-3. If P Q R, P ,= , and P and Q are bounded above, show
that sup P sup Q.
Sketch. sup(Q) is an upper bound for P, so sup(Q) sup(P).
Solution. Let x P. Then x Q since P Q. So x sup Q since sup Q
is an upper bound for the set Q. Thus x sup Q for every x in P. Thus
sup Q is an upper bound for the set P. Since sup P is the least upper bond
for P, we must have sup P sup Q as claimed.
1.3-4. Let A R and B R be bounded below and dene A + B =
x +y [ x A and y B. Is it true that inf(A+B) = inf A+ inf B?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. First suppose z A + B, then there are points x A and
y B with z = x +y. Certainly inf A x and inf B y. So
inf A+ inf B x +y = z.
Thus inf A + inf B is a lower bound for the set A + B. So inf A + inf B
inf(A+B).
To get the opposite inequality, let 0. There must be points x A
and y B with
inf A x < inf A+

2
and inf B y < inf B +

2
.
Since x +y A+B we must have
inf(A+B) x +y inf A+

2
+ inf B +

2
= inf A+ inf B +.
Since this holds for every > 0, we must have inf(A+B) inf A+ inf B.
We have inequality in both directions, so inf(A+B) = inf A+inf B.
1.3-5. Let S [0, 1] consist of all innite decimal expansions
x = 0.a
1
a
2
a
3
where all but nitely many digits are 5 or 6. Find supS.
Answer. sup(S) = 1.
Solution. The numbers x
n
= 0.99999 . . . 9995555555 . . . consisting of n
9s followed by innitely many 5s are all in S. Since these come as close to
1 as we want, we must have sup S = 1.
1.4 Cauchy Sequences 23
1.4 Cauchy Sequences
1.4-1. Let x
n
satisfy [x
n
x
n+1
[ < 1/3
n
. Show that x
n
converges.
Sketch. [x
n
x
n+k
[
n+k1
in
[x
i
x
i+1
[
i=n
(1/3
i
) = 2/3
n1
. So,
for all > 0, we can choose N such that 2/3
n1
< . We get a Cauchy
sequence, so x
n
)
1
converges.
Solution. Lets simply expand the computation sketched above some-
what:
[x
n
x
n+k
[ = [x
n
x
n+1
+x
n+1
x
n+2
+x
n+2
+ +x
n+1
x
n+k
[
[x
n
x
n+1
[ +[x
n+1
x
n+2
[ + +[x
n+k1
x
n+k
[
1
3
n
+
1
3
n+1
+ +
1
3
n+k1
1
3
n
_
1 +
1
3
+
1
3
2
+ +
1
3
k1
_
1
3
n
_
1 +
1
3
+
1
3
2
+. . .
_
1
3
n
1
1 (1/3)
=
2
3
n1
We know this tends to 0, so if > 0, we can pick N so that 2/3
N1
< . If
n N and k > 0, we have
[x
n
x
n+k
[
2
3
n1

2
3
N1
< .
This shows that our sequence is a Cauchy sequence in R. So, by complete-
ness, there must be a R such that lim
n
x
n
= . The sequence
converges to .
1.4-2. Show that the sequence x
n
= e
sin(5n)
has a convergent subse-
quence.
Solution. We know that 1 sin(5n) 1, so 1/e x
n
e Thus
the sequence is bounded. By Theorem 1.4.3, it must have a convergent
subsequence.
Notice that we are able to conclude that there must be a convergent
subsequence, but we do not obtain a way actually to get our hands explicitly
on such a subsequence.
1.4-3. Find a bounded sequence with three subsequences converging to
three dierent numbers.
Sketch. A possibility is 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, . . . .
Discussion. We simply need to pick any three sequences converging to
dierent limits and then interleave these sequences as subsequences of one
big sequence. That is, a solution is produced by picking three dierent
numbers a, b, and c, and sequences a
n
)
1
, b
n
)
1
, and c
n
)
1
converging
to them.
a
n
a ; b
n
b ; and c
n
c .
Finally, interleave them to form one sequence.
a
1
, b
1
, c
1
, a
2
, b
2
, c
2
, a
3
, b
3
, c
3
, . . . .
Such a presentation is probably clear enough, but, if required, one could
write a specication of these terms.
x
n
=
_
_
a
k
, if n = 3k + 1
b
k
, if n = 3k + 2
c
k
, if n = 3k + 3
with k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The example given is about as simple as possible with each of the three
subsequences being a constant sequence.
1.4-4. Let x
n
be a Cauchy sequence. Suppose that for every > 0 there
is some n > 1/ such that [x
n
[ < . Prove that x
n
0.
Discussion. The assumption that x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence says that
far out in the sequence, all of the terms are close to each other. The second
assumption, that for every > 0 there is an n > 1/ such that [x
n
[ < ,
says, more or less, that no matter how far out we go in the sequence there
will be at least one term out beyond that point which is small. Combining
these two produces the proof. If some of the points far out in the sequence
are small and all of the points far out in the sequence are close together,
then all of the terms far out in the sequence must be small. The technical
tool used to merge the two assumptions is the triangle inequality.
Solution. Let > 0. Since the sequence is a Cauchy sequence, there is
an N
1
such that [x
n
x
k
[ < /2 whenever n N
1
and k N
1
.
Pick N
2
> N
1
large enough so that 1/N
2
< /2. By hypothesis there is
at least one index n > 1/(1/N
2
) = N
2
with [x
n
[ < 1/N
2
.
If k N
1
, then both k and n are at least as large as N
1
and we can
compute
[x
k
[ = [x
k
x
n
+x
n
[ [x
k
x
n
[ +[x
n
[ <

2
+
1
N
2
<
Thus x
k
0 as claimed.
1.5 Cluster Points; lim inf and lim sup 25
1.4-5. True or false: If x
n
is a Cauchy sequence, then for n and m large
enough, d(x
n+1
, x
m+1
) d(x
n
, x
m
).
Answer. False.
Solution. If this were true, it would hold in particular with m selected
as m = n + 1. That is, we should have d(x
n+1
, x
n+2
) d(x
n
, x
n+1
) for
large enough n. But this need not be true. Consider the sequence
1, 0, 0,
1
2
, 0, 0,
1
3
, 0, 0,
1
4
, 0, 0,
1
5
, . . . .
Then
d(x
1
, x
2
) = 1
d(x
2
, x
3
) = 0
d(x
3
, x
4
) =
1
2
d(x
4
, x
5
) =
1
2
d(x
5
, x
6
) = 0
d(x
6
, x
7
) =
1
3
d(x
7
, x
8
) =
1
3
d(x
8
, x
9
) = 0
.
.
.
This sequence converges to 0 and is certainly a Cauchy sequence. But the
dierences of succeeding terms keep dropping to 0 and then coming back
up a bit.
1.5 Cluster Points; lim inf and lim sup
1.5-1. Let x
n
= 3 + (1)
n
(1 + 1/n). Calculate liminf x
n
and limsup x
n
.
Answer. liminf(x
n
) = 2. limsup(x
n
) = 4.
Solution. If n is even, then x
n
= 3 + 1 +
1
n
= 4 +
1
n
. These converge to
4. That is, the subsequence x
2
, x
4
, x
6
, . . . converges to 4. If n is odd, then
x
n
= 3
_
1 +
1
n
_
= 2
1
n
. These converge to 2. That is, the subsequence
x
1
, x
3
, x
5
, . . . converges to 2. All terms of the sequence are involved in
these two subsequences, so there are none left over to form a subsequence
converging to anything else. The only two cluster points are 2 and 4. So
liminf x
n
= 2 and limsup x
n
= 4.
1.5-2. Find a sequence x
n
with limsup x
n
= 5 and liminf x
n
= 3.
Solution. We need a sequence with at least two cluster points. The small-
est is to be 3 and the largest is to be 5. So there must be a subsequence
converging to 3 and another converging to 5. The easiest way to accom-
plish this is to interweave two constant sequences and use the resulting
sequence
3, 5, 3, 5, 3, 5, 3, 5, . . . .
If you really want to write a formula for this, you could do something like
x
n
=
_
3, if n is odd
5, if n is even
.
1.5-3. Let x
n
be a sequence with limsup x
n
= b R and liminf x
n
=
a R. Show that x
n
has subsequences u
n
and l
n
with u
n
b and l
n
a.
Sketch. Use Proposition 1.5.5 to show that there are points x
N(n)
within
1/n of a (or b). Make sure you end up with a subsequence.
Solution. If b is a nite real number and b = limsup x
n
, then for each N
and for each > 0 there is an index n with n > N and b < x
n
b +.
Use this repeatedly to generate the desired subsequence.
Step One: There is an index n(1) such that

b x
n(1)
< 1.
Step Two: There is an index n(2) such that n(2) > n(1) and
b x
n(2)
<
1/2.
. . . and so forth.
Induction Step: Having selected indices
n(1) < n(2) < n(3) < < n(k)
with

b x
n(j)
< 1/j. for 1 j k, there is an index n(k + 1) with

n(k + 1) > n(k) and

b x
n(k+1)
< 1/(k + 1)
By induction, this gives a subsequence converging to b.
The inductive denition of a subsequence converging to the limit inferior
is similar. Notice that the tricky part is to make the selection of indices
dependent on the earlier ones so that the indices used are increasing. This
is what makes the selection of terms a subsequence. They remain in the
same order as they appeared in the original sequence.
1.6 Euclidean Space 27
1.5-4. Let limsup x
n
= 2. True or false: If n is large enough, then x
n
>
1.99.
Answer. False.
Solution. The largest cluster point is 2, but this need not be the only
cluster point. Consider for example the sequence
1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, . . . ,
where
x
n
=
_
1, if n is odd
2, if n is even
.
In this example we have x
n
< 1.99 for all odd n.
1.5-5. True or false: If limsup x
n
= b, then for n large enough, x
n
b.
Answer. False.
Solution. A counterexample is easy to give. For example, the sequence
1,
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
,
converges to a limit of 0. So the lim sup and the lim inf are both equal to
0. All terms of the sequence are larger than the lim sup.
1.6 Euclidean Space
1.6-1. If | x +y | = | x| + | y |, show that x and y lie on the same ray
from the origin.
Sketch. If equality holds in the Cauchy-Schwarz or triangle inequality,
then x and y are parallel. Expand | x +y |
2
= (| x| + | y |)
2
to obtain
| x| | y | = x, y ) = | x| | y | cos(). Use this directly or let u =
y/ | y | and z = x x, u) u. Check that z, u) = 0 and that | x|
2
=
| z |
2
+ [ x, u)[
2
= | x|
2
. Conclude that z = 0 and x = ( x, y ) / | y |
2
)y.
Solution. If either x or y is 0, then they are certainly on the same ray

through the origin. If y is not the zero vector, we can let u be the unit
vector u = (1/ | y |) y. The projection of x in the direction of y is then
v = x, u) u = ( x, y ) / | y |
2
) y. We claim that this is equal to x. Let
z = x v. So x = z +v. But z and v are orthogonal.
z, v ) = x v, v ) = x, v ) v, v )
= x, u)
2
x, u)
2
u, u) = 0
Since
| x +y |
2
= (| x| +| y |)
2
= | x|
2
+ 2 | x| | y | +| y |
2
,
we have
x, x) + 2 x, y ) + y, y ) = x, x) + 2 | x| | y | + y, y )
and
x, y ) = | x| | y | .
So x, u) = | x|.
| x|
2
= z +v, z +v ) = z, z ) + 2 z, v ) + v, v ) = | z |
2
+| v |
2
= | z |
2
+ x, u)
2
= | z |
2
+| x|
2
.
We must have | z | = 0. So z = 0 and x = v as claimed.
Notice that we have written the proof for a real inner product space.
Exercise: what happens with a complex inner product ?
1.6-2. What is the angle between (3, 2, 2) and (0, 1, 0)?
Solution. Let v = (3, 2, 2) and w = (0, 1, 0), Then | v | =

9 + 4 + 4 =
17 and | w| =

0 + 1 + 0 = 1. So
v w = | v | | w| cos =

17 cos
where is the angle between v and w. But we also know that v w =
(3)(0) + (2)(1) + (2)(0) = 2. So
2 =

17 cos .
Thus = arccos (2/
17) = arccos (0.48507) 1.06435 radians.

1.6-3. Find the orthogonal complement of the plane spanned by (3, 2, 2)
and (0, 1, 0) in R
3
.
Answer. (2, 0, 3) R
3
[ R.
1.6 Euclidean Space 29
Solution. If (x, y, z) is to be in the orthogonal complement, it must be
perpendicular to (3, 2, 2) and to (0, 1, 0). Setting both dot products equal
to 0 gives two equations.
3x + 2y + 2z = 0 and y = 0
So y = 0 and z = (3/2)x. Any scalar multiple of (2, 0, 3) will do. The
orthogonal complement is the straight line (one dimensional subspace)
(2, 0, 3) R
3
[ R.
1.6-4. Describe the sets B = x R

3
[ | x| 3 and Q = x R
3
[
| x| < 3.
Solution. The set B = x R
3
[ | x| 3 is a solid ball of radius 3
centered at the origin together with the sphere which forms its surface. The
set Q = x R
3
[ | x| < 3 is the same solid ball, but not including the
surface sphere. B is referred to as a closed ball, and Q is called an open
ball. The corresponding sets in R
2
are called closed disks and open disks
and are illustrated in the gure.
1.6-5. Find the equation of the line through (1, 1, 1) and (2, 3, 4). Is this
line a linear subspace?
Answer. x = (y +1)/2 = (z +2)/3. Or P(t) = (1 +t, 1 +2t, 1 +3t). This
line is not a linear subspace since (0, 0, 0) is not on it.
Solution. Let A = (1, 1, 1) and B = (2, 3, 4). The vector from A to B is
v = BA =< 1, 2, 3 >. For each real t, the point P(t) = A+tv = (1+t, 1+
2t, 1 +3t) will lie on the line through A and B. This is a parameterization
of that line. Note that P(0) = A and P(1) = B. If t is between 0 and 1,
then P(t) is on the straight line segment between A and B.
Relations among x, y, and z along the line can be derived from the
parameterization.
y = 1 + 2t = 1 +t +t = x + (x 1) = 2x 1.
z = 1 + 3t = 1 +t + 2t = x + 2(x 1) = 3x 2.
or
(y + 1)/2 = x = (z + 2)/3.

1.7 Norms, Inner Products, and Metrics
1.7-1. In (([0, 1]) nd d( f, g) where f(x) = 1 and g(x) = x for both the
sup norm and the norm given in Example 1.7.7.
Answer. The distance from the sup norm is 1. That from Example 1.7.7
is 1/
3.
Solution. The distance between f and g as dened by the sup norm is
d
(f, g) = | f g |
= sup[f(x) g(x)[ [ 0 x 1 = 1.
That dened by the inner product in Example 1.7.7 is
d
2
(f, g) = | f g |
2
=
_
f g, f g )
=
__
1
0
[f(x) g(x)[
2
dx
_1/2
=
__
1
0
[1 x[
2
dx
_1/2
=
1
3
.
1.7-2. Identify the space of polynomials of degree n1 in a real variable

with R
n
. In the corresponding Euclidean metric, calculate d( f, g) where
f(x) = 1 and g(x) = x.
Answer. d(f, g) =

2.
Solution. The sense of the word identify here is that we are to show
that the two spaces have essentially the same structure by establishing a
correspondence between the vectors in the spaces which is also a corre-
spondence between the operations. the technical word for this in abstract
algebra is isomorphism. We say that the spaces are isomorphic.
Let 1 be the space of all polynomials of degree no more than n 1. A
polynomial p in 1 can be represented uniquely in the form
p(x) = a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
+ +a
n1
x
n1
Looked at in the other direction we have a function : R
n
1 dened by
: (a
0
, a
1
, . . . , a
n1
) p(x) = a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
+ +a
n1
x
n1
Since two polynomials are equal if and only if they have the same coe-
cients, we see that the function takes R
n
one-to-one onto 1. Furthermore,
if v and w are in R
n
and is a number, we evidently have
(v +w) = (v) +(w) and (v) = (v).
1.7 Norms, Inner Products, and Metrics 31
The function f is the correspondence or identication requested. It is
said to be an isomorphism from R
n
onto 1.
Under that correspondence, the polynomial f(x) = 1 corresponds to the
vector v = (1, 0, 0, 0, . . . , 0) while g(x) = x corresponds to w = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . , 0).
So the corresponding Euclidean metric distance requested is
d(f, g) = d(v, w) =

1 + 1 + 0 + + 0 =

2.
1.7-3. Put the inner product f, g) =

_
1
0
f(x)g(x)dx on (([0, 1]). Verify
the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for f(x) = 1 and g(x) = x.
Sketch.
_
f, f ) = 1,
_
g, g ) = 1/
3, and f, g ) = 1/2. So [ f, g )[
_
f, f )
_
g, g ) is true.
Solution.
_
f, f ) =
_
_
1
0
(f(x))
2
dx
_
1/2
=
_
_
1
0
1 dx
_
1/2
= 1,
_
g, g ) =
_
_
1
0
(g(x))
2
dx
_
1/2
=
_
_
1
0
x
2
dx
_
1/2
= 1/
3,
and f, g ) =
_
1
0
f(x)g(x) dx =
_
1
0
xdx = 1/2.
So [ f, g )[
_
f, f )
_
g, g ) is true.
1.7-4. Using the inner product in Exercise 1.7-3, verify the triangle in-
equality for f(x) = x and g(x) = x
2
.
Solution. Direct computation gives
| f +g |
2
=
_
1
0
(x +x
2
)
2
dx =
_
1
0
(x
2
+ 2x
3
+x
4
) dx
=
1
3
+
1
2
+
1
5
=
10 + 15 + 6
30
=
31
30
.
So | f +g | =
_
31/30. Also
| f |
2
=
_
1
0
x
2
dx =
1
3
and | g |
2
=
_
1
0
x
4
dx =
1
5
.
So | f | +| g | = 1/
3 +1/
5 = (
5 +
3)/
15. The triangle inequality

becomes
_
31
30

5 +
15
=
10 +
30
This is equivalent to
31
10+
6 or, squaring, to 31 10+2
60+6 =
16 + 4
15. By subtracting 16, we see that this is equivalent to 15 4
15
which is equivalent to

15 4 or 15 16. This is certainly true, so the
triangle inequality does indeed hold for these two functions.
1.7-5. Show that | |
is not the norm dened by the inner product in

Example 1.7.7.
Sketch. For f(x) = x, | f |
= 1, but f, f )
1/2
= 1/
3. So these norms
are dierent.
Solution. All we have to do to show that the norms are dierent is to
display a function to which they assign dierent numbers. Let f(x) = x.
The norm dened by the inner product of Example 1.7.7 assigns to f the
number
| f |
2
=
__
1
0
[f[
2
dx
_1/2
=
__
1
0
x
2
dx
_1/2
=
1
3
But
| f |
= sup[f(x)[ [ x [0, 1] = supx [ x [0, 1] = 1.

Since 1/
3 is not equal to 1, these norms are dierent.

1.8 The Complex Numbers
1.8-1. Express the following complex numbers in the form a +ib:
(a) (2 + 3i) + (4 +i)
(b) (2 + 3i)/(4 +i)
(c) 1/i + 3/(1 +i)
Answer. (a) 6 + 4i
(b) (11/5) + 2i
(c) (3/2) (5/2)i
Solution. (a) (2 + 3i) + (4 +i) = (2 + 4) + (3 + 1)i = 6 + 4i.

(b)
2 + 3i
4 +i
=
2 + 3i
4 +i
4 i
4 i
=
8 + 12i 2i + 3
4 + 1
=
11 + 10i
5
(c)
1
i
+
3
1 +i
=
1
i
i
i
+
3
1 +i
1 i
1 i
=
i
1
+
3 3i
1 + 1
=
3
2

5
2
i
1.8-2. Find the real and imaginary parts of the following, where z =
x +iy:
(a) (z + 1)/(2z 5)
1.8 The Complex Numbers 33
(b) z
3
Answer. (a)
Re
_
z + 1
2z 5
_
=
(x + 1)(2x 5) + 2y
2
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
and
Im
_
z + 1
2z 5
_
=
y(2x 5) 2y(x + 1)
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
(b) Re
_
z
3
_
= x
3
3xy
2
and Im
_
z
3
_
= 3x
2
y y
3
.
Solution. (a)
z + 1
2z 5
=
x + 1 +yi
2x 5 + 2yi
=
x + 1 +yi
2x 5 + 2yi
2x 5 2yi
2x 5 2yi
=
(x + 1)(2x 5) + 2y
2
+ (y(2x 5) 2y(x + 1)) i
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
=
(x + 1)(2x 5) + 2y
2
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
+
y(2x 5) 2y(x + 1)
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
i
So
Re
_
z + 1
2z 5
_
=
(x + 1)(2x 5) + 2y
2
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
and
Im
_
z + 1
2z 5
_
=
y(2x 5) 2y(x + 1)
(2x 5)
2
+ 4y
2
(b) z
3
= (x+iy)
3
= x
3
+3x
2
yi +3x(yi)
2
+(yi)
3
= x
3
3xy
2
+(3x
2
y y
3
) i
So Re
_
z
3
_
= x
3
3xy
2
and Im
_
z
3
_
= 3x
2
y y
3
.
1.8-3. Is it true that Re(zw) = (Re z)(Re w)?

Answer. No, not always.
Solution. Consider the example z = w = i. Then Re (zw) = Re (1) =
1, but Re (z) Re (w) = 0 0 = 0. But 1 is not equal to 0.
1.8-4. What is the complex conjugate of (8 2i)
10
/(4 + 6i)
5
?
Answer. (8 + 2i)
10
/(4 6i)
5

Solution. Using Proposition 1.8.1 parts v, vi, and vii, we obtain (8 +
2i)
10
/(4 6i)
5
as the complex conjugate of (8 2i)
10
/(4 + 6i)
5
.
1.8-5. Does z
2
= [z[
2
? If so, prove this equality. If not, for what z is it
true?
Answer. No; true i z is real.
Solution. Let z = x+iy. Then z
2
= x
2
y
2
+2xyi while [z[
2
= x
2
+y
2
.
For these to be equal we must have x
2
y
2
+ 2xyi = x
2
+ y
2
. Since two
complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts
are equal, we must have
x
2
y
2
= x
2
+y
2
and 2xy = 0.
This is true if and only if y = 0. That is, if and only if z is real.
1.8-6. Assuming either [z[ = 1 or [w[ = 1 and zw ,= 1, prove that
z w
1 zw
= 1.
Solution. Notice that for complex numbers we have [[ = 1 if and
only if 1 = [[
2
= . We apply this to the complex number =
z w
1 zw
,
using the properties of complex conjugation listed in Proposition 1.8.1 to
compute .
z w
1 zw
2
=
_
z w
1 zw
_ _
z w
1 zw
_
=
_
z w
1 zw
_ _
z w
1 zw
_
=
zz wz zw +ww
1 zw zw +zxww
=
[z[
2
wz zw +[w[
2
1 wz zw +[z[
2
[w[
2
Since one of z or w has absolute value 1, the numerator and denominator
are identical, and the value of this fraction is 1 as desired.
1.8-7. Prove that
(a) e
z1
e
z2
= e
z1+z2
.
(b) e
z
,= 0 for any complex number z.
1.8 The Complex Numbers 35
(c) [e
i
[ = 1 for each real number .
(d) (cos +i sin )
n
= cos n +i sin n.
Sketch. (a) Use trig identities and the properties of real exponents.
(b) [e
z
[ = e
Re(z)
,= 0. So e
z
,= 0.
(c) cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1.
(d) Use induction.
Solution. (a) Let z

1
= x
1
+iy
1
and z
2
= x
2
+iy
2
. Then
e
z1
e
z2
= e
x1
(cos y
1
+i sin y
1
) e
x2
(cos y
2
+i sin y
2
)
= e
x1
e
x2
((cos y
1
cos y
2
sin y
1
sin y
2
) +i (sin y
1
cos y
2
+ cos y
1
sin y
2
))
= e
x1+x2
(cos(y
1
+y
2
) +i sin(y
1
+y
2
))
= e
x1+x2+i (y1+y2)
= e
z1+z2
.
(b) Using part (a), we nd that
e
z
e
z
= e
zz
= e
0
= 1.
So e
z
cannot be 0.
(c)

e
i
2
= [cos +i sin [
2
= cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1. So

e
i
= 1.
(d) Here is a method which uses part (a).
(cos +i sin )
n
=
_
e
i
_
n
= e
in
= cos n +i sin n
(The middle equality uses part (a) and mathematical induction.)
1.8-8. Show that

(a) e
z
= 1 i z = k2i for some integer k.
(b) e
z1
= e
z2
i z
1
z
2
= k2i for some integer k.
Solution. (a) Let z = x + iy with x and y real. Then e
z
= e
x
cos y +
ie
x
sin y. So [e
z
[
2
= e
2x
cos
2
y +e
2x
sin
2
y = e
2x
, and [e
z
[ = e
x
. If e
z
= 1,
this forces e
x
= 1, so x = 0, and 1 = cos y +i sin y. This means we must
have sin y = 0, so y = n. for some integer n. This leaves 1 = cos n =
(1)
n
. So n must be even. Thus z = x +iy = 2ki for some integer k.
Conversely, if z = x + iy = 2ki for some integer k, then x = 0 and
y = 2k. Direct computation gives e
z
= e
0
(cos 0 +i sin 2k) = 1.
(b) We can use part (a) and Exercise 1.8-7.
e
z1
= e
z2
e
z1
e
z2
= e
z2
e
z2
e
z1z2
= e
z2z2
= e
0
= 1
z
1
z
2
= 2ki for some integer k.
1.8-9. For what z does the sequence z

n
= nz
n
converge?
Sketch. [z[ < 1; then z
n
0 as n .
Solution. If [z[ 1, then [nz
n
[ = n[z[
n
as n . The sequence
cannot converge in these cases. If [z[ < 1, then n[z[
n
0 as n . (One
way to see this is to notice that the series

n=1
n[z[
n
converges by the
ratio test.) So in these cases, the sequence converges to 0.
Exercises for Chapter 1
1E-1. For each of the following sets S, nd sup(S) and inf(S) if they
exist:
(a) x R [ x
2
< 5
(b) x R [ x
2
> 7
(c) 1/n [ n, an integer, n > 0
(d) 1/n [ n an integer, n > 0
(e) .3, .33, .333, . . .
Answer. (a) sup(S) =

5; inf(S) =
5.
(b) Neither sup(S) nor inf(S) exist (except as ).
(c) sup(S) = 1; inf(S) = 0.
(d) sup(S) = 0; inf(S) = 1.
(e) sup(S) = 1/3; inf(S) = 0.3.
Solution. (a) A = x R [ x
2
< 5 =]
5,
5[ , so inf A =
5 and
sup A =

5.
(b) B = x R [ x
2
> 7 =] ,
7[ ]
7, [ . The set is bounded

neither above nor below, so sup B = , and inf B = .
Exercises for Chapter 1 37
(c) C = 1/n [ n Z, n > 0 = 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4. . . . . All elements are
positive, so inf C 0, and they come arbitrarily close to 0, so inf C = 0.
The number 1 is in the set and nothing larger is in the set, so supC = 1.
(d) D = 1/n [ n Z, n > 0 = 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4. . . . . All elements
are negative, so sup D 0, and they come arbitrarily close to 0, so
sup C = 0. The number 1 is in the set and nothing smaller is in the
set, so inf C = 1.
(e) E = 0.3, 0.33, 0.333, . . . . The number 0.3 is in the set and nothing
smaller is in the set, so inf E = 0.3. The elements of the set are all
smaller than 1/3, so sup E 1/3, and they come arbitrarily close to
1/3, so sup E = 1/3.
1E-2. Review the proof that

2 is irrational. Generalize this to

k for
k a positive integer that is not a perfect square.
Suggestion. Write k as mn where m is a perfect square and n has no
repeated prime factors. Show that n cannot have a square root which is a
fraction of integers in lowest terms (numerator and denominator having
no common factor).
Solution. Suppose k is a positive integer which is not a perfect square.
Then k = mn where m is a perfect square and n has no repeated prime
factors. n = p
1
p
2
p
3
p
J
where the p
j
are all prime and all dierent
from one another. Since

n =

k/
m, we see that

k is rational if and
only if

n is rational. We will obtain a contradiction from the supposition
that

n is rational. If

n were rational, then there would be integers a
and b having no factors in common such that a/b =

n. We would have
a
2
= p
1
p
2
p
J
b
2
. So p
1
would appear in the list of prime factors of
the integer a
2
. But this is simply the list of prime factors of a written
twice. So p
1
must be a factor of a and appear twice in the list of factors of
a
2
= p
1
p
2
p
J
b
2
. Since the primes p
j
are all dierent, p
1
must be a factor
of b
2
, and, since it is prime, of b. Thus a and b would both have a factor
of p
1
. This contradicts their selection as having no common factor. Thus
no such representation of

n as a fraction in lowest terms can exist.

n
must be irrational, and so

k must be also.
1E-3. (a) Let x 0 be a real number such that for any > 0, x .
Show that x = 0.
(b) Let S =]0, 1[ . Show that for each > 0 there exists an x S such
that x < .
Suggestion. (a) Suppose x > 0 and consider = x/2.
(b) Let x = min/2, 1/2.
Solution. (a) Suppose x 0 and that x for every > 0. If x > 0,

then we would have x/2 > 0 so that 0 < x x/2 by hypothesis.
Multiplication by the positive number 2 gives 0 2x x. Subtraction
of x gives x x 0. We are left with x 0 and x 0, so that x = 0
Thus the assumption that x is strictly greater than 0 fails, and we must
have x = 0.
Notice that the argument given for part (a) shows that if x 0, then
0 x/2 x and if x > 0, then 0 < x/2 < x.
(b) Suppose S =]0, 1[ , and > 0. If 1, let x = 1/2. Then x S, and
x < . If < 1, let x = > 2. Then 0 < x = /2 < < 1. So x S, and
x < . So in either case we have an x with x S, and x < .
1E-4. Show that d = inf(S) i d is a lower bound for S and for any
> 0 there is an x S such that d x .
Solution. Suppose d R and that d = inf S, then d is a lower bound for
S by denition, and d is a greatest lower bound. Let > 0. If there were no
x in S with d > x , then d x , so x d + for every x in S. Thus
d + would be a lower bound for S. Since d is a greatest lower bound, this
would mean that d + d, so 0. Since this is false, there must be an
x in S with d > x .
Conversely, suppose d is a lower bound for the set S and for each > 0
there is an x in S with d x. If c > d, then c = d+ where = cd > 0.
By hypothesis, there is an x in S with d x /2 = x (c d) + /2.
This gives c > c /2 x. So c is not a lower bound for S. Thus c d
for every lower bound c. That is, d is a greatest lower bound. So d = inf S.
1E-5. Let x
n
be a monotone increasing sequence bounded above and
consider the set S = x
1
, x
2
, . . . . Show that x
n
converges to sup(S). Make
a similar statement for decreasing sequences.
Sketch. If > 0, use Proposition 1.3.2 to get N with sup(S) < x
N

sup(S). If n N, then sup(S) < x
N
x
n
sup(S), so [x
n
sup(S)[ <
. If y
n
)
1
is monotone decreasing and R = y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, . . . , then y
n

inf(R).
Solution. Since S = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . and the sequence x
n
)
1
is bounded
above, the set S is nonempty and bounded above. If we assume Theorem
1.3.4(ii), then b = sup S exists as an element of R. Then b is an upper
bound for S, so x
n
b for every n. If > 0, then b < b, so b is not
an upper bound for S. There must be an N such that b < x
N
. If n N,
we have b < x
N
x
n
b since the sequence is monotone increasing.
Thus [b x
n
[ < for all such n. This shows that lim
n
= b as claimed.
If we do not wish to assume Theorem 1.3.4, we can proceed as follows.
Since the sequence x
n
)
1
is monotone increasing and bounded above in
R, there is a b in R to which the sequence converges by completeness. Let
> 0. Then there is an index N such that b < x
n
< b + whenever
n N. In particular, x
N
< b+. Since the sequence is monotone increasing,
we also have x
k
 0. If x S, then
x 0. We must have x b. So b is an upper bound for
S. On the other hand, if > 0, there is an n with b < x
N
b, so b
is not an upper bound for S. Thus b is the least upper bound for S. That
is, b = sup S.
1E-6. Let A and B be two nonempty sets of real numbers with the
property that x y for all x A, y B. Show that there exists a number
c R such that x c y for all x A, y B. Give a counterexample
to this statement for rational numbers (it is, in fact, equivalent to the
completeness axiom and is the basis for another way of formulating the
completeness axiom known as Dedekind cuts).
Solution. Let y
0
be in B. Then x y
0
for every x in A. So A is bounded
above. Since we are given that it is not empty, r = sup A exists in R. Since
r is an upper bound for A, we have x r for every x in A. If y B, then
y x for every x in A, so y is an upper bound for A, and r y. Thus we
have x r y for every x in A and every y in B.
In Q this fails. Let A = x Q [ x < 0 or x
2
< 2 and B = y Q [ y >
0 and y
2
> 0. The x y for every x in A and every y in B. But there is
no rational number r with r
2
= 2. So A B = , A B = Q, and there is
no r in Q with x r y for every x in A and y in B.
1E-7. For nonempty sets A, B R, let A+B = x +y [ x A and y
B. Show that sup(A+B) = sup(A) + sup(B).
Sketch. Since sup(A) + sup(B) is an upper bound for A + B (Why?),
sup(A + B) sup(A) + sup(B). Next show that elements of A + B get
arbitrarily close to sup(A) + sup(B).
Solution. Suppose w A + B. Then there are x in A and y in B with
w = x +y. So
w = x +y x + sup B sup A+ sup B.
The number sup A+sup B is an upper bound for the set A+B, so sup(A+
B) sup A+ sup B.
Now let > 0. Then there are x in A and y in B with
sup A/2 < x and sup B /2 < y.
Adding these inequalities gives
sup A+ sup B < x +y A+B.
So sup A + sup B is not an upper bound for the set A + B. Thus
sup(A+B) > sup A+sup B. This is true for all > 0, so sup(A+B)
sup A+ sup B.
We have inequality in both directions, so sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B
as claimed.
1E-8. For nonempty sets A, B R, determine which of the following
statements are true. Prove the true statements and give a counterexample
for those that are false:
(a) sup(A B) infsup(A), sup(B).
(b) sup(A B) = infsup(A), sup(B).
(c) sup(A B) supsup(A), sup(B).
(d) sup(A B) = supsup(A), sup(B).
Solution. (a) sup(A B) infsup A, sup B.
This is true if the intersection is not empty.
If x AB, then x A, so x sup A. Also, x B, so x sup B. Thus x
is no larger than the smaller of the two numbers sup A, and sup B. That
is, x infsup A, sup B for every x in A B. Thus infsup A, sup B
is an upper bound for A B. So sup(A B) infsup A, sup B.
Here is another argument using Proposition 1.3.3. We notice that sup(A
B) A, so by Proposition 1.3.3 we should have sup(A B) sup A.
Similarly, sup(A B) sup B. So sup(A B) is no larger than the
smaller of the two numbers sup A and sup B. That is
sup(A B) infsup A, sup B.
There is a problem if the intersection is empty. We have dened sup()
to be +, and this is likely to be larger than infsup A, sup B.
One can make a reasonable argument for dening sup() = . Since
any real number is an upper bound for the empty set, and the supremum
is to be smaller than any other upper bound, we should take sup() =
. (Also, since any real number is a lower bound for , and the inmum
is to be larger than any other lower bound, we could set inf() = +).
If we did this then the inequality would be true even if the intersection
were empty.
(b) sup(A B) = infsup A, sup B
This one need not be true even if the intersection is not empty. Consider
the two element sets A = 1, 2 and B = 1, 3, Then A B = 1. So
sup(AB) = 1. But sup A = 2 and sup B = 3. So infsup A, sup B = 2
We do have 1 2, but they are certainly not equal.
We know that sup(AB) infsup A, sup B. Can we get the opposite
inequality?
(c) sup(A B) supsup A, sup B
(d) sup(A B) = supsup A, sup B
Neither A nor B nor the union is empty, so we will not be troubled with
problems in the denition of the supremum of the empty set.
If x is in aB, then x A or x B. If x A, then x sup A. If x B,
then x sup B. In either case it is no larger than the larger of the two
numbers sup A and sup B. So x supsup A, sup B for every x in the
union. Thus supsup A, sup B is an upper bound for A. So
sup(A B) supsup A, sup B
In the opposite direction, we note that A A B, so by Proposition
1.3.3, we have sup A sup(A B). Similarly sup B sup(A B). So
sup(A B) is at least as large as the larger of the two numbers sup A
and sup B. That is
sup(A B) supsup A, sup B
We have inequality in both directions, so in fact equality must hold.
1E-9. Let x
n
be a bounded sequence of real numbers and y
n
= (1)
n
x
n
.
Show that limsup y
n
limsup [x
n
[. Need we have equality? Make up a
similar inequality for liminf.
Sketch. Use y
n
[x
n
[. Equality need not hold. For example, let x
n
=
(1)
n+1
. Then limsup y
n
= 1 and limsup [x
n
[ = 1. Similarly, liminf y
n

liminf([x
n
[).
Solution. Since y
n
= (1)
n
x
n
, we see that y
n
= [x
n
[, and y
n
[x
n
[
for every n. So y
n
)
1
is a bounded sequence in R. Let b = limsup y
n
. Then
there is a subsequence y
n
k
converging to b. If > 0, then b < y
n
k
[x
n
k
[
for large enough k. The sequence [a
n1
[ , [a
n2
[ , [a
n3
[ , . . . is bounded and
must have a cluster point, and they must all be as large as b . Since
> 0 is arbitrary, they must all be at least as large as b. So limsup y
n
=
b limsup [x
n
[.
Let x
n
= (1)
n+1
. Then y
n
= 1 for all n, and [x
n
[ = 1 for all n. So
limsup y
n
= 1, and limsup [x
n
[ = 1. Thus equality need not hold.
Since y
n
[x
n
[ for all n, a similar argument establishes the inequality
liminf y
n
liminf([x
n
[).
1E-10. Verify that the bounded metric in Example 1.7.2(d) is indeed a

metric.
Sketch. Use the basic properties of a metric for d(x, y) to establish those
properties for (x, y). For the triangle inequality, work backwards from
what you want to discover a proof.
Solution. Suppose d is a metric on a set M, and is dened by (x, y) =
d(x,y)
1+d(x,y)
. We are to show that this is a metric on M and that it is bounded
by 1.
(i) Positivity: Since d(x, y) 0, we have 0 d(x, y) < 1 +d(x, y). So
0
d(x, y)
1 +d(x, y)
< 1 for every x and y in M.
Notice that this also shows that is bounded by 1.
(ii) Nondegeneracy: If x = y, then d(x, y) = 0, so (x, y) = 0 also. In the
other direction, we know that 1 +d(x, y) is never 0, so
(x, y) = 0
d(x, y)
1 +d(x, y)
= 0
d(x, y) = 0
x = y
(iii) Symmetry: Since d(y, x) = d(x, y), we have
(y, x) =
d(y, x)
1 +d(y, x)
=
d(x, y)
1 +d(x, y)
= (x, y).
(iv) Triangle Inequality: Suppose x, y, and z are in M. Then
(x, y) (x, z) +(z, y)
d(x, y)
1 +d(x, y)

d(x, z)
1 +d(x, z)
+
d(z, y)
1 +d(z, y)
d(x, y)(1 +d(x, z))(1 +d(z, y)) d(x, z)(1 +d(x, y))(1 +d(z, y))
+d(z, y)(1 +d(x, y))(1 +d(x, z))
d(x, y) +d(x, y)d(x, z) +d(x, y)d(z, y) +d(x, y)d(x, z)d(z, y)
d(x, z) +d(x, z)d(x, y) +d(x, z)d(z, y) +d(x, y)d(x, z)d(z, y)
+d(z, y) +d(z, y)d(x, y) +d(z, y)d(x, z) +d(x, y)d(x, z)d(z, y)
d(x, y) d(x, z) +d(z, y) + 2(d(x, z)d(z, y) +d(x, y)d(x, z)d(z, y))
This last line is true since d(x, y) d(y, z) + d(z, y) by the triangle
inequality for d and the last term is non-negative.
The function satises all of the dening properties of a metric, so it is
a metric on the space M.
What makes this example particularly interesting is not merely the fact
that there are such things as bounded metrics, but that we can build one
starting from any metric, even the usual Euclidean metric on R
n
. Even
this would not be particularly exciting were it not for the fact that the new
metric makes the same convergent sequences and the same limits as the
original one. In chapter 2 we will study such things in more detail, but the
basic idea is essentially the same as for convergence in R. We simply replace
the distance between two real numbers, [x y[, by the metric, d(x, y), which
is supposed to capture the idea of how dierent the points x and y in the
metric space M are. The denition of convergence of a sequence is then a
straight translation.
Denition. A sequence x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . in a metric space M is said to
converge to the limit x in M (with respect to the metric d) if for every
> 0 there is an index N such that d(x
n
, x) < whenever n N.
In other words, x
n
x with respect to the metric d if and only if
the sequence of real numbers d(x
n
, x) converges to 0 as n . Since
0 (x
n
, x) d(x
n
, x), we certainly have d(x
n
, x) 0 = (x
n
, x) 0.
If we solve for d in terms of , we nd that d(x, y) = (x, y)/(1 (x, y)).
If (x
n
, x) 0, then for large enough n we have (x
n
, x) < 1/2, and
0 d(x
n
, x) < 2(x
n
, x). So (x
n
, x) 0 = d(x
n
, x) 0. So we have
implication in both directions as claimed.
Proposition. If d is a metric on a set M and (x, y) is dened for x
and y in M by
(x, y) =
d(x, y)
1 +d(x, y)
,
then is also a metric on M and (x, y) < 1 for every x and y in M.
Furthermore, if x
n
)
1
is a sequence in M, then x
n
converges to x in M
with respect to the metric d if and only if x
n
x with respect to the metric
.
1E-11. Show that (i) and (ii) of Theorem 1.3.4 both imply the com-
pleteness axiom for an ordered eld.
Sketch. (i) = completeness: Let x
n
)
1
be increasing and bounded
above. By (i), x
n
)
1
has a lub, say S. Check that x
n
S. See Exercise
1E-5. The proof that (ii) = completeness is done by showing that
x
n
infx
n
.
Solution. Part (i) says: If S is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded
above, then S has a least upper bound in R.
Suppose this is true and that x
n
)
1
is a monotonically increasing se-
quence in R which is bounded above by a number B. Let S = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . .
Then S is nonempty and bounded above by B, so S has a least upper bound
b in R by hypothesis. The sequence x
n
)
1
must converge to b. (See the so-
lution to Exercise 1E-5.)
Part (ii) says: If T is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded below,
then T has a greatest lower bound in R.
Suppose this is true and that S is a nonempty subset of R which is
bounded above by B. Let T = x R [ x S. If x T, then x S,
so s B and x B. Thus T is bounded below by B. It is not empty
since S is not empty. By hypothesis, T has a greatest lower bound a in R.
If x S, then x T, so a x, and x a. So a is an upper bound
for S. If > 0, then a + is not a lower bound for T. There is an x in T
with a x < a + . So a < x < a, and x S. So a is
not an upper bound for S. Thus a is a least upper bound for S. Every
nonempty subset of R which is bounded above has a least upper bound in
R. Thus (ii) implies (i).
Since we have (ii) implies (i) and (i) implies completeness, we conclude
that (ii) implies completeness.
Alternatively, one could proceed more directly. Let x
n
)
1
be a mono-
tonically increasing sequence in R bounded above by a number B. Then
x
n
)
1
is monotonically decreasing and bounded below by B. The set
T = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . is nonempty and bounded below. By hypothesis
it has a greatest lower bound a in R. So a x
n
for every n. Modify the
argument from Exercise 1E-5 to show that x
n
must converge to a. Then
x
n
must converge to a. (See Exercise 1E-18.)
1E-12. In an inner product space show that
(a) 2 | x|
2
+ 2 | y |
2
= | x +y |
2
+| x y |
2
( parallelogram law).
(b) | x +y | | x y | | x|
2
+| y |
2
.
(c) 4x, y) = | x +y |
2
| x y |
2
( polarization identity).
Interpret these results geometrically in terms of the parallelogram formed
by x and y.
Solution. In all of these, the key is to use the relationship between the
inner product and the norm derived from it: | f |
2
= f, f ).
(a) We compute
| x +y |
2
+| x y |
2
= x +y, x +y ) + x y, x y )
= x +y, x) + x +y, y ) + x y, x) + x y, y )
= x, x +y ) + y, x +y ) + x, x y ) + y, x y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
+ x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
+ x, x) + x, y ) y, x) y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
+ x, x) + y, x) y, x) y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
+ x, x) y, x) y, x) + y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
+ x, x) x, y ) y, x) + y, y )
= x, x) + y, y ) + x, x) + y, y )
= 2 | x|
2
+ 2 | y |
2
as desired.
(b) Using the result of part (a), we compute
0 (| x +y | | x y |)
2
| x +y |
2
2 | x +y | | x y | +| x y |
2
2 | x|
2
2 | x +y | | x y | + 2 | y |
2
So | x +y | | x y | | x|
2
+| y |
2
as desired.
(c) The computation is like that of part (a), but with some sign changes.
| x +y |
2
| x y |
2
= x +y, x +y ) x y, x y )
= x +y, x) + x +y, y ) x y, x) x y, y )
= x, x +y ) + y, x +y ) x, x y ) y, x y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
x, x) x, y ) y, x) y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
x, x) x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
x, x) y, x) + y, x) + y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + y, x) + y, y )
x, x) + y, x) + y, x) y, y )
= x, x) + x, y ) + x, y ) + y, y )
x, x) + x, y ) + x, y ) y, y )
= 4 x, y )
as desired.
Part (a) has the most immediate geometric interpretation. It says that the
sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum
of the squares of the four sides. If x and y are vectors forming two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, then the two diagonals are x + y and x y, and
the four sides are x, y, x, and y.
1E-13. What is the orthogonal complement in R
4
of the space spanned
by (1, 0, 1, 1) and (1, 2, 0, 0)?
Answer. One possible answer is the space spanned by (2, 1, 2, 0),
(2, 1, 0, 2). Here is a solution that produces a dierent form of the same
answer.
Solution. Suppose v = (x, y, z, t) is in the orthogonal complement, M
of the space M spanned by u = (1, 0, 1, 1) and v = (1, 2, 0, 0). Then

(x, y, z, t) (1, 0, 1, 1) = 0 and (x, y, z, t) (1, 2, 0, 0) = 0
x +z +t = 0 and x + 2y = 0
So y = x/2 and z +t = x. Thus
(x, y, z, t) = (x, x/2, z, x z) = x(1, 1/2, 0, 1) +z(0, 0, 1, 1)
= s(2, 1, 0, 2) +t(0, 0, 1, 1)
where s = x/2 and t = z.
In the other direction, if w = s(2, 1, 0, 2) + t(0, 0, 1, 1) for real s and
t, then a direct computation shows w u = 0 and w v = 0. (Do it.) So w
is orthogonal to both u and v and is in M
. We conclude
M
= s(2, 1, 0, 2) +t(0, 0, 1, 1) [ s R and t R

= the space spanned by (2, 1, 0, 2) and (0, 0, 1, 1).
Dierent ways of manipulating the algebra may produce dierent vec-
tors spanning the same space, for example, (2, 1, 2, 0) = (2, 1, 0, 2)
2(0, 0, 1, 1).
1E-14. (a) Prove Lagranges identity
_
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
_
2
=
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
__
n
i=1
y
2
i
_
1i<jn
(x
i
y
j
x
j
y
i
)
2
and use this to give another proof of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.
(b) Show that
_
n
i=1
(x
i
+y
i
)
2
_
1/2
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
1/2
+
_
n
i=1
y
2
i
_
1/2
.
Sketch. You can get a good idea of what is going on by looking at a
simplied version of the problem. Try it with only two terms.
(a) The Lagrange Identity
(x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
)
2
= (x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
)(x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
)
= x
1
y
1
x
1
y
1
+x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
+x
2
y
2
x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
x
2
y
2
= (x
2
1
y
2
1
+x
2
2
y
2
2
) + (x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
+x
2
y
2
x
1
y
1
)
= (x
2
1
y
2
1
+x
2
2
y
2
2
) + (x
2
1
y
2
2
+x
2
2
y
2
1
)
(x
2
1
y
2
2
+x
2
2
y
2
1
) + (x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
+x
2
y
2
x
1
y
1
)
= (x
2
1
+x
2
2
)(y
2
1
+y
2
2
) (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
.
This implies the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for the usual inner product
in R
2
.
((x
1
, x
2
) (y
1
, y
2
))
2
= (x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2
)
2
= (x
2
1
+x
2
2
)(y
2
1
+y
2
2
) (x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
)
2
(x
2
1
+x
2
2
)(y
2
1
+y
2
2
) = | (x
1
, x
2
) |
2
| (y
1
, y
2
) |
2
Taking square roots on both sides gives the Cauchy - Schwarz inequality.
(b) The Minkowski Inequality.
((x
1
+y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
+y
2
)
2
)
1/2
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
_
1/2
+
_
y
2
1
+y
2
2
_
1/2
(x
1
+y
1
)
2
+ (x
2
+y
2
)
2
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
_
+ 2
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
_
1/2
_
y
2
1
+y
2
2
_
1/2
+
_
y
2
1
+y
2
2
_
x
2
1
+ 2x
1
y
1
+y
2
1
+x
2
2
+ 2x
2
y
2
+y
2
2
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
_
+ 2
_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
_
1/2
_
y
2
1
+y
2
2
_
1/2
+
_
y
2
1
+y
2
2
_
x
1
y
1
+x
2
y
2

_
x
2
1
+x
2
2
_
1/2
_
y
2
1
+y
2
2
_
1/2
But this is exactly the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality.
Solution. To get solutions to the exercise as stated we just need to gure
out a reasonable notation for general n for the same computation done
above for n = 2.
(a) The Lagrange Identity:
_
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
_
2
=
_
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
x
j
y
j
_
_
=
n
i=1
n
j=1
x
i
y
i
x
j
y
j
=
n
i=1
x
2
i
y
2
i
+
i=j
x
i
y
i
x
j
y
j
=
n
i=1
x
2
i
y
2
i
+
i=j
x
2
i
y
2
j

i=j
x
2
i
y
2
j
+
i=j
x
i
y
i
x
j
y
j
=
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
y
2
j
_
_
+
i=j
_
x
i
y
i
x
j
y
j
x
2
i
y
2
j
_
=
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
y
2
j
_
_
i=j
_
x
2
i
y
2
j
x
i
y
i
x
j
y
j
_
=
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
y
2
j
_
_
i<j
_
x
2
i
y
2
j
x
i
y
i
x
j
y
j
x
j
y
j
x
i
y
i
+x
2
j
y
2
i
_
=
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
y
2
j
_
_
i<j
(x
i
y
j
x
j
y
i
)
2
Now we prove the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality for the usual inner product
in R
n
.
((x
1
, . . . , x
n
) (y
1
, . . . , y
n
))
2
=
_
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
_
2
=
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
y
2
j
_
_
i<j
(x
i
y
j
x
j
y
i
)
2
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
_
_
n
j=1
y
2
j
_
_
= | (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) |
2
| (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) |
2
Taking square roots on both sides gives the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality.
(b) The Minkowski Inequality:
_
n
i=1
(x
i
+y
i
)
2
_
1/2
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
1/2
+
_
n
i=1
y
2
i
_
1/2
i=1
(x
i
+y
i
)
2
i=1
x
2
i
+ 2
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
1/2
_
n
i=1
y
2
i
_
1/2
+
n
i=1
y
2
i
i=1
x
2
i
+ 2
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
+
n
i=1
y
2
i
i=1
x
2
i
+ 2
_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
1/2
_
n
i=1
y
2
i
_
1/2
+
n
i=1
y
2
i
i=1
x
i
y
i

_
n
i=1
x
2
i
_
1/2
_
n
i=1
y
2
i
_
1/2
But this is exactly the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality which we established
in part (a).
1E-15. Let x
n
be a sequence in R such that d(x
n
, x
n+1
) d(x
n1
, x
n
)/2.
Show that x
n
is a Cauchy sequence.
Sketch. First show that d(x
n
, x
n+1
) d(x
1
, x
2
)/2
n1
, then that
d(x
n
, x
n+k
)/2
n2
.
Solution. There is nothing particularly special about the number 1/2 in
this problem. Any constant c with 0 c < 1 will do as well. The key is the
convergence of the geometric series with ratio c.

k=0
c
k
= 1/(1 c).
Proposition. If x
n
)
1
is a sequence in R such that there is a constant
c with 0 c < 1 and d(x
n
, x
n+1
) cd(x
n1
, x
n
) for every index n, then
x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence.
Proof : First we show that d(x
m
, x
m+1
) c
m1
d(x
1
, x
2
) for each m =
1, 2, 3, . . . . by an informal induction
d(x
m
, x
m+1
) cd(x
m1
, x
m
)
c
2
d(x
m2
, x
m1
)
.
.
.
c
m1
d(x
1
, x
2
)
Now we use this to establish that x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in the form:
For each > 0 there is an N such that d(x
n
, x
n+p
) < whenever n N
and p > 0.
The rst step is a repeated use of the triangle inequality to get an ex-
pression in which we can use the inequality just established.
d(x
n
, x
n+p
) d(x
n
, x
n+1
) +d(x
n+1
, x
n+2
) + d(x
n+p1
, x
n+p
)
_
c
n1
+c
n
+c
n+1
+ c
n+p2
_
d(x
1
, x
2
)
c
n1
_
1 +c +c
2
+ +c
p1
_
d(x
1
, x
2
)
c
n1
1 c
d(x
1
, x
2
).
Since 0 c < 1, we know that c
n
0 as n . If > 0, we can
select N large enough so that
c
N1
1c
d(x
1
, x
2
) < . If n N and p > 0, we
conclude that
d(x
n
, x
n+p
)
c
n1
1 c
d(x
1
, x
2
)
c
N1
1 c
d(x
1
, x
2
) < .
Thus x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence as claimed.
This solution has been written in terms of the metric d(x, y) between
x and y instead of [x y[ to emphasize that it works perfectly well for a
sequence x
n
)
1
in any metric space provided there is a constant c satisfying
the hypothesized inequality. In this form the exercise forms the key part of
the proof of a very important theorem about complete metric spaces called
the Banach Fixed Point Theorem or the Contraction Mapping Principle.
We will study this theorem and some of its consequences in Chapter 5.
1E-16. Prove Theorem 1.6.4. In fact, for vector spaces 1
1
, . . . , 1
n
, show
that 1 = 1
1
1
n
is a vector space.
Sketch. If 1
1
, . . . , 1
n
are vector spaces, then the Cartesian product 1 =
1
1
1
n
is the set of ordered ntuples v = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . v
n
) where each
component v
j
is a vector in the vector space 1
j
just as R
n
= RR R
is the set of ordered ntuples v = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
n
) where each x
j
is a real
number. Operations in 1 are dened componentwise just as they are in
R
n
. Use the fact that you know each 1
j
is a vector space to check that the
dening properties of a vector space work in 1. (The dimension of R
n
is a
separate part of the question.)
Solution. If 1
1
, . . . , 1
n
are vector spaces, then the Cartesian product
1 = 1
1
1
n
is the set of ordered ntuples v = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . v
n
) where
each component v
j
is a vector in the vector space 1
j
. Operations are dened
componentwise in 1. If v = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . v
n
) and w = (w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
) are in
1 and R, then dene
v +w = (v
1
+w
1
, v
2
+w
2
, . . . v
n
+w
n
)
v = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
)
v = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
).
Each of the quantities v
j
+w
j
and v
j
makes sense as a vector in 1
j
since
1
j
is a vector space. If 0
j
is the zero vector for the vector space 1
j
, let
0
V
= (0
1
, 0
2
, . . . 0
n
) 1.
We claim that with these denitions, 1 is a vector space with 0
V
as the zero
vector. To establish this we need to check the dening properties of a vector
space ((i) through (viii) in Denition 1.6.2). To accomplish this we write
everything in components and use the fact that we know these properties
hold for the vectors and operations in each 1
j
. Suppose u = (u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
),
v = (v
1
, . . . , v
n
), and w = (w
1
, . . . , w
n
) are in 1 and and are in R.
(i) commutativity:
v +w = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . v
n
) + (w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
)
= (v
1
+w
1
, v
2
+w
2
, . . . v
n
+w
n
)
= (w
1
+v
1
, w
2
+v
2
, . . . w
n
+v
n
)
= w +v
(ii) associativity:
(v +u) +w = ((v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
) + (u
1
, u
2
, . . . u
n
)) + (w
1
, w
2
, . . . w
n
)
= (v
1
+u
1
, . . . , v
n
+u
n
) + (w
1
, . . . , w
n
)
= ((v
1
+u
1
) +w
1
, . . . (v
n
+u
n
) +w
n
)
= (v
1
+ (u
1
+w
1
), . . . v
n
+ (u
n
+w
n
))
= (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) + (u
1
+w
1
, . . . u
n
+w
n
)
= v + (u +w)
(iii) zero vector:
v + 0
V
= (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) + (0
1
, . . . 0
n
)
= (v
1
+ 0
1
, . . . v
n
+ 0
n
) = (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) = v
(iv) negatives:
v + (v) = (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) + (v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
= (v
1
+ (v
1
), . . . v
n
+ (v
n
))
= (0
1
, . . . , 0
n
) = 0
V
(v) distributivity:
(v +w) = ((v
1
, . . . , v
n
) + (w
1
, . . . , w
n
))
= (v
1
+w
1
, . . . , v
n
+w
n
)
= ((v
1
+w
1
), . . . , (v
n
+w
n
))
= (v
1
+w
1
, . . . , v
n
+w
n
)
= (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) + (w
1
, . . . , w
n
)
= (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) +(w
1
, . . . , w
n
)
= v +w
(vi) associativity:
(v) = ((v
1
, . . . , v
n
))
= (v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
= ((v
1
), . . . , (v
n
))
= (()v
1
, . . . , ()v
n
)
= () (v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
= ()v
(vii) distributivity:
( +)v = ( +) (v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
= (( +)v
1
, . . . , ( +)v
n
)
= (v
1
+v
1
, . . . , v
n
+v
n
)
= (v
1
, . . . v
n
) + (v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
= (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) +(v
1
, . . . , v
n
)
= v +v
(viii) multiplicative identity:
1v = 1 (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) = (1 v
1
, . . . , 1 v
n
) = (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) = v
The set 1 = 1
1
1
n
with the operations and special elements spec-
ied satises all the requirements of a vector space listed in the denition.
So it is a vector space. In the special case of R
n
, each of the spaces 1
j
is just
a copy of R, and the vector operations in it are just the usual operations
with real numbers.
DIMENSION: In R
n
, let e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
be the standard basis vectors:
e
1
= (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
e
2
= (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
.
.
.
e
n
= (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1).
If v = (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) is in R
n
, then v = v
1
e
1
+ v
2
e
2
+ + v
n
e
n
. So these
vectors span R
n
. On the other hand, if v
1
e
1
+ v
2
e
2
+ + v
n
e
n
=
0, then
(v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
) = (0, 0, . . . , 0), so v
j
= 0 for each j. Thus the vectors e
j
are linearly independent. Since they are linearly independent and span R
n
,
they are a basis for R
n
. Since there are exactly n of them, the dimension
of R
n
is n.
Challenge: With 1 = 1
1
1
n
as above, show that the dimension
of 1 is the sum of the dimensions of the spaces 1
j
.
1E-17. Let S R be bounded below and nonempty. Show that inf(S)
= sup x R [ x is a lower bound for S.
Sketch. If L is the set of lower bounds for S and y L, then y inf(S)
(why?). So sup(L) inf(S). But inf(S) L. So inf(S) sup(L).
Solution. Let L = x R [ x is a lower bound for S. Since S is bounded
below, there is at least one lower bound a for S. So a L and L is not
empty. Since S is not empty, there is at least one point b in S. Then if
y L, we must have y b < b + 1. So b + 1 is an upper bound for L.
Thus L is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded above. The least upper
bound b
0
= sup L thus exists as a nite real number. Also, if y L, then
y is a lower bound for S, so y inf S because inf S is the greatest lower
bound. Thus inf S is an upper bound for L. So sup L inf S since sup L
is the least upper bound. On the other hand, inf S is a lower bound for S,
so inf S L. Thus we also have inf S sup L. We have inequality in both
directions, so inf S = sup L as claimed.
1E-18. Show that in R, x
n
x i x
n
x. Hence, prove that the
completeness axiom is equivalent to the statement that every decreasing
sequence x
1
x
2
x
3
bounded below converges. Prove that the limit
of the sequence is inf x
1
, x
2
, . . . .
Sketch. For the rst part observe that [(x
n
) (x)[ = [x
n
x[ and use
the denition of convergence. For the second part observe that the sequence
x
n
)
1
is decreasing and bounded below if and only if the sequence x
n
)
1
is increasing and bounded above. Then use the result of part one to go back
and forth between the two assertions:
A. If x
n
)
1
is an increasing sequence which is bounded above in R, then
there is an x in R such that x
n
x.
B. If y
n
)
1
is a decreasing sequence which is bounded below in R, then
there is a y in R such that y
n
y.
The last part of the exercise can be interpreted in two ways:
I. Suppose that we know that the following is true:
C. If S is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded below in R, then S
must have a greatest lower bound in R.
Use this to show that our S has a greatest lower bound inf S in R and
then show that x
n
inf S.
II. Show directly that the limit a guaranteed by part (ii) must be a greatest
lower bound for S.
Solution. (i) Suppose x
n
x and let > 0. Then there is an N such that
[x
n
x[ < whenever n N. Thus if n N we have [(x
n
) (x)[ =
[(1)(x
n
x)[ = [1[ [x
n
x[ = [x
n
x[ < . For each > 0 there is
an N such that n N = [(x
n
) (x)[ < . Thus x
n
x as
claimed.
(ii.) Now consider the two statements:
A. If x
n
)
1
is an increasing sequence which is bounded above in R, then
there is an x in R such that x
n
x.
B. If y
n
)
1
is a decreasing sequence which is bounded below in R, then
there is a y in R such that y
n
y.
Our problem is to show that starting from either of these we can prove
the other. First suppose that statement A holds and that y
n
)
1
is a
decreasing sequence bounded below in R.
y
1
y
2
y
3
and y
k
a for every k.
Then
y
1
y
2
y
3
and y
k
a for every k.
So y
n
)
1
is an increasing sequence bounded above in R. Since state-
ment A is assumed to be true, there must be an x in R with y
n
x.
Let y = x. By part (i) we have
y
n
= (y
n
) x = (y) = y.
On the assumption of statement A we have shown that every decreasing
sequence bounded below in R must converge to a number in R. That is,
statement A implies statement B.
The proof that statement B implies statement A is essentially the same.
Assume that statement B is true and suppose x
n
)
1
is an increasing
sequence bounded above in R.
x
1
x
2
x
3
and x
k
b for every k.
Then
x
1
x
2
x
3
and x
k
b for every k.
So x
n
)
1
is a decreasing sequence bounded below in R. Since state-
ment B has been assumed to be true, there must be a number y such
that x
n
y. By part (i) we have
x
n
= (x
n
) y = (x) = x.
On the assumption of statement B we have shown that every increasing
sequence bounded above in R must converge to a number in R. That is,
statement B implies statement A.
(iii) Suppose x
n
)
1
is a decreasing sequence bounded below in R.
x
1
x
2
x
3
and x
k
c for every k.
Then from part (ii) there must be a real number a with x
n
a. Let
S = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . . Then x c for every x in S.
This part of the exercise can be interpreted in two ways:
I. Suppose that we know that the following is true:
C. If S is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded below in R, then S
must have a greatest lower bound in R.
Use this to show that our S has a greatest lower bound inf S in R and
then show that x
n
inf S.
II. Show directly that the limit a guaranteed by part (ii) must be a greatest
lower bound for S.
Solution I: The set S is not empty since x
1
S. and it is bounded below
since c x for every x S. The assumption of statement C implies that S
has a greatest lower bound inf S in R. Let > 0. Since inf S is a greatest
lower bound for S, the number inf S + is not a lower bound. There must
be an index N with inf S x
N
< inf S +. The sequence is decreasing, so
if n N we can conclude
inf S x
n
x
N
< inf S +.
So [x
n
inf S[ < whenever n N. Thus x
n
inf S as claimed.
Solution II: With this interpretation of the problem, we do not know
already that S has a greatest lower bound. rather we are going to prove
that the limit a which is guaranteed by part (ii) must be a greatest lower
bound for S.
Claim One: a is a lower bound for S:
Suppose there were an index n with x
n
< a. Let = (a x
n
)/2. For
every k larger than n we would have x
k
x
n
< a. So [x
k
a[ = a x
k

a x
n
> .. The sequence could not converge to a, but it does. Thus no
such index n can exist and we must have x
n
a for every n. So a is a lower
bound for the set S.
Claim Two: If c is a lower bound for S, then c a:
Let c be a lower bound for S. Then x
n
c for every n. If c > a, let
= (c a)/2. For each index n we would have x
n
c > a, so that
[x
n
a[ = x
n
a c a > . The sequence could not converge to a. But
it does. We conclude that c > a is impossible, so c a as claimed.
The assertions of the two claims together say that the number a is a
greatest lower bound for S. So inf S exists and is equal to the limit a of
the sequence as claimed.
1E-19. Let x = (1, 1, 1) R
3
be written x = y
1
f
1
+ y
2
f
2
+ y
3
f
3
, where
f
1
= (1, 0, 1), f
2
= (0, 1, 1), and f
3
= (1, 1, 0). Compute the components y
i
.
Answer. y
1
= y
2
= y
3
= 1/2.
Solution. If x = (1, 1, 1) = y
1
f
1
+ y
2
f
2
+ y
3
f
3
where f
1
= (1, 0, 1),f
2
=
(0, 1, 1), and f
3
= (1, 1, 0), then
(1, 1, 1) = y
1
(1, 0, 1) +y
2
(0, 1, 1) +y
3
(1, 1, 0)
= (y
1
, 0, y
1
) + (0, y
2
, y
2
) + (y
3
, y
3
, 0)
= (y
1
+y
3
, y
2
+y
3
, y
1
+y
2
).
This is the vector form of a system of three equations:
y
1
+y
3
= 1
y
2
+y
3
= 1
y
1
+y
2
= 1.
Subtracting the second from the rst gives y
1
y
2
= 0, so that y
2
= y
1
.
Subtracting the second from the third gives y
1
y
3
= 0, so that y
3
= y
1
.
Thus y
1
= y
2
= y
3
. All three are equal. Putting this fact into any one of
the three equations gives y
1
= y
2
= y
3
= 1/2.
1E-20. Let S and T be nonzero orthogonal subspaces of R
n
. Prove that if
S and T are orthogonal complements (that is, S and T span all of R
n
), then
S T = 0 and dim(S) + dim(T) = n, where dim(S) denotes dimension
of S. Give examples in R
3
of nonzero orthogonal subspaces for which the
condition dim(S) + dim(T) = n holds and examples where it fails. Can it
fail in R
2
?
Suggestion. First show that S T = 0 by observing that anything
in the intersection is orthogonal to itself and computing what that means.
Having done that, check that a basis for R
n
can be formed as the union of
a basis for S and a basis for T.
Solution. To say that S and T are nonzero subspaces is to say that there
is at least one nonzero vector v in S and at least one nonzero vector w in
T. The statement S and T are orthogonal subspaces means that they are
orthogonal to each other. That is, v w whenever v S and w T. This
as abbreviated as S T. To say that they are complementary subspaces
means that they span the whole space in the sense that if u is any vector,
then there are vectors v in S and w in T with v+w = u. This is abbreviated
by S +T = R
n
. The solution can be broken up into useful smaller pieces.
Proposition (1). If S and T are subspaces, then dim(S +T) dimS +
dimT.
Proof: Suppose dimS = s and dimT = t. Let B
T
= v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
s
be a
basis for S and B
T
= w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
t
be a basis for T. Let B = B
S
B
T
.
If u S+T, then there are vectors v in S and w in T with u = v+w. There
are numbers
k
and
j
, 1 k s and 1 j t such that v =

k

k
v
k
and w =
j

j
w
j
. So u =
k

k
v
k
+
j

j
w
j
. Thus the set B spans the
space S +T. We must have dim(S +T) s +t = dimS + dimT.
Proposition (2). If S T = 0, then dim(S +T) = dimS + dimT.
Proof: Let B
S
, B
T
, and B be as above. Now suppose
k

k
v
k
+
j

j
w
j
=
0. Put v =
k

k
v
k
and w =
j

j
w
j
. Then v S and w T. But also,
v + w = 0, so v = w T and w = v S. Thus v and w are in S T.
So both must be 0. So

k

k
v
k
= 0 and

j

j
w
j
= 0. Since B
S
and B
T
are both linearly independent sets, this means that v
k
= 0 for every k and
w
j
= 0 for every j. Thus B is a linearly independent set. Since it has s +t
vectors in it, we have dim(S+T) s+t = dimS+dimT. With Proposition
1 we have inequality in both directions, so we have equality as claimed.
Proposition (3). If S T, then S T = 0.
Proof: Since S and T are both subspaces, the zero vector is in both and
we have 0 ST. On the other hand, if v ST, then v S and v T,
so v v. But we know that v w v, w) = 0. So | v |
2
= v, v ) = 0.
This forces | v | = 0 so that v = 0. Thus S T 0. We have inclusion
in both directions, so the sets are equal as claimed.
Now suppose S and T are subspaces which are orthogonal complements of
each other. Then S T, so ST = 0 by Proposition 3. Since S+T = R
n
,
we then use proposition 2 to conclude that
n = dimR
n
= dim(S +T) = dimS + dimT
as claimed.
If S and T are nonzero subspaces of R
3
, then each has dimension either
1, 2, or 3. For example, let v
0
= (1, 0, 0) and w
0
= (0, 1, 0). Let S = v
0
[
R and T = w
0
[ R. Then S and T are subspaces of R
3
with
dimS = dimT = 1. If v S and w T, then there are numbers and
such that v, w) = v
0
, w
0
) = v
0
, w
0
) = (1 0 +0 1 +0 0) = 0.
Thus S T. But dimS + dimT = 2 not 3.
If S and T are nonzero subspaces of R
2
, then each has dimension either
1 or 2. If they are mutually orthogonal, then neither can be all of R
2
.
(The other would then have to be just the zero vector.) So we must have
dimS = dimT = 1. So dimS + dimT = 2 = dimR
2
.
1E-21. Show that the sequence in Worked Example 1WE-2 can be cho-
sen to be increasing.
Sketch. If x S, let x
k
= x. Otherwise, x
k
< x for all k. Let y
1
= x
1
,
y
2
be the rst of x
2
, x
3
, . . . with y
1
y
2
, etc.
Solution. We need to show that if S is a nonempty subset of R which
is bounded above, then there is an increasing sequence x
n
)
1
in S which
converges to sup S. If S is such a set, then we know that S has a least
upper bound x = sup S R. If x S, we may simply take x
n
= x for all
n. We certainly would have x
n
x, and since they are all the same, we
also have
x
1
x
2
x
3
.
If x is not in S, we have to do a bit more work. Since we know S is
not empty, we can select any point x
1
in S to begin the sequence. Then
x
1
< x. Set y
1
= (x
1
+ x)/2. Since y
1
is strictly less than x and x is the
least upper bound for S, y
1
is not an upper bound. We can select a point
x
2
in S with x
1
< y
1
< x
2
< x. The last inequality is strict since x is not
in S. Note also that [x x
2
[ [x x
1
[ /2. We can now repeat this process
inductively to generate the desired sequence. Suppose points x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
have been selected in S in such a way that
x
1
< x
2
< x
3
< < x
k
< x and [x x
k
[ [x x
1
[ /2
k1
.
Set y
k
= (x
k
+x)/2 so that x
k
< y
k
< x. Since x is the least upper bound
of S, the number y
k
is not an upper bound and we can select a point x
k+1
in S with x
k
< y
k
x
k+1
< x. The last inequality is strict since x is not
in S. We then have
x
1
< x
2
< x
3
< < x
k
< x
k+1
< x
and
[x x
k+1
[ = x x
k+1
(x x
k
)/2 [x x
1
[ /2
k
.
The sequence thus generated is strictly increasing. Since [x x
1
[ /2
k
0
as k , it converges to x.
1E-22. (a) If x
n
and y
n
are bounded sequences in R, prove that
limsup(x
n
+y
n
) limsup x
n
+ limsup y
n
.
(b) Is the product rule true for lim sups?
Suggestion. Show that if > 0, then x
n
+y
n
< limsup x
n
+limsup y
n
+
for large enough n.
Solution. (a) Let A = limsup x
n
and B = limsup y
n
. Then A and B are
both nite real numbers since x
n
)
1
and y
n
)
1
are bounded sequences.
Suppose > 0. There are indices N
1
and N
2
such that x
n
< A + /2
whenever n N
1
and y
n
 0, we conclude that x
n
+y
n
can have
no cluster points larger than A+B. Thus
limsup(x
n
+y
n
) A+B = limsup x
n
+ limsup y
n
as claimed.
We cannot guarantee equality. The inequality just established could be
strict. For example, consider the sequence dened by x
n
= (1)
n
and
y
n
= (1)
n+1
. Then limsup x
n
= limsup y
n
= 1, but x
n
+ y
n
= 0 for
each n, so limsup(x
n
+y
n
) = 0.
(b) There does not seem to be any reasonable relationship which can be
guaranteed between the two quantities limsup(x
n
y
n
) and (limsup x
n
)
(limsup y
n
). Each of the possibilities <, =, and > can occur:
Example 1. Let x
n
)
1
be the sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, . . . ) and y
n
)
1
be
the sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . ). Then limsup x
n
= limsup y
n
= 1. But
x
n
y
n
= 0 for all n. We have
limsup(x
n
y
n
) = 0 < 1 = (limsup x
n
) (limsup y
n
).
Example 2. Let x
n
= y
n
= 1 for each n. Then limsup x
n
= limsup y
n
=
1. But x
n
y
n
= 1 for all n. We have
limsup(x
n
y
n
) = 1 = (limsup x
n
) (limsup y
n
).
Example 3. Let x
n
)
1
be the sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, . . . ) and
y
n
)
1
be the sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . ). Then limsup x
n
=
limsup y
n
= 0. But x
n
y
n
= 0 is the sequence 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . ). We
have
limsup(x
n
y
n
) = 1 > 0 = (limsup x
n
) (limsup y
n
).
1E-23. Let P R be a set such that x 0 for all x P and for each
integer k there is an x
k
P such that kx
k
1. Prove that 0 = inf(P).
Sketch. Since 0 is a lower bound for P, 0 inf(P). Use the given condi-
tion to rule out 0 < inf(P).
Solution. With k = 1 the hypothesis gives an element x
1
of the set P
with x
1
1. In particular, P is not empty. We have assumed that x 0
for every x in P. So 0 is a lower bound for P. We conclude that inf P exists
as a nite real number and that 0 inf P.
Now let > 0. By the Archimedean Principle there is an integer k with
0 < 1/k < . By hypothesis, there is an element x
k
of P with kx
k
1. So
0 x
k
1/k < . So is not an lower bound for P and inf P . This
holds for every > 0, so inf P 0. We have inequality in both directions,
so inf P = 0 as claimed.
1E-24. If sup(P) = sup(Q) and inf(P) = inf(Q), does P = Q?
Solution. No, P and Q need not be the same. More or less, they have
the same top and bottom ends, but in between anything can happen. For
example, let P be the two point set 0, 1, and let Q be the closed interval
[0, 1]. Then inf P = inf Q = 0 and sup P = sup Q = 1, but the two sets are
certainly not the same.
1E-25. We say that P Q if for each x P, there is a y Q with
x y.
(a) If P Q, then show that sup(P) sup(Q).
(b) Is it true that inf(P) inf(Q)?
(c) If P Q and Q P, does P = Q?
Solution. (a) If x P, then there is a y Q with x y sup Q. So
sup Q is an upper bound for P. Thus sup P sup Q as claimed.
(b) Not necessarily. It is possible that inf P > inf Q. Consider P = [0, 1] and
Q = [1, 1]. Then P Q but inf P > inf Q.
(c) Again, not necessarily. It is possible that P and Q are dierent sets even
if P Q and Q P. Consider, for example, P = R Q, and Q = Q.
Here is another: P = 1 and Q = 0, 1. Then P Q and Q P, but
P ,= Q.
1E-26. Assume that A = a

m,n
[ m = 1, 2, 3, . . . and n = 1, 2, 3, . . . is
a bounded set and that a
m,n
a
p,q
whenever m p and n q. Show that
lim
n
a
n,n
= sup A.
Solution. Since A is a bounded, nonempty subset of R, we know that
c = sup A exists as a nite real number and that a
j,k
c for all j and k. For
convenience, let b
n
= a
n,n
. If n k, we have b
n
= a
n,n
a
k,k
= b
k
. So the
sequence b
n
)
1
is increasing and bounded above by c. So b = lim
n
b
n
exists and b c. Let d < c, then there is a a
k,j
in A with d < a
k,j
c. If
n max(k, j), then
d < a
k,j
a
n,n
= b
n
b
n+1
. . . .
So b = limb
n
> d. This is true for every d < c, so b c. We have inequality
in both directions, so
lim
n
a
n,n
= lim
n
b
n
= b = c = sup A
as claimed.
1E-27. Let S = (x, y) R
2
[ xy > 1 and B = d((x, y), (0, 0)) [
(x, y) S. Find inf(B).
Answer. inf(B) =

2.
Solution. The set S is the region outside the unit hyperbola illustrated
in Figure 1.1. The number D is the minimum distance from that hyperbola
to the origin. It is reasonably geometrically clear from the gure that this
distance is

2 and that it is attained at the points (1, 1) and (1, 1).
Figure 1.1. The distance from a hyperbola to the origin.
There are several ways to check this analytically. Here is one. Note that
if > 0, then the point P = (1 + , 1 + ) is in S, and that d(P, (0, 0)) =
(1 + )
2 =

2 +
2. So D
2 +
2. This holds for every > 0, so

D
2.
On the other hand, if (x, y) S, then xy > 1, so d((x, y), (0, 0))
2
=
x
2
+ y
2
2xy > 2, so d((x, y), (0, 0)) >
2. (We use here the fact that

x
2
+y
2
2xy which is established by expanding the inequality (xy)
2
0.)
Since this holds for all points in S, we have D
2.
We have inequality in both directions, so D =

2.
1E-28. Let x
n
be a convergent sequence in R and dene A
n
= supx
n
,
x
n+1
, . . . and B
n
= infx
n
, x
n+1
, . . . . Prove that A
n
converges to the
same limit as B
n
, which in turn is the same as the limit of x
n
.
Solution. Suppose x
n
a R. Let > 0. There is an index N such that
a < x
k
< a+ whenever k N. Thus if n N we have a < x < a+
for all x in the set S
n
= x
n
, x
n+1
, x
n+2
, . . . . That is, a is a lower bound
for S
n
, and a + is an upper bound. Hence
a B
n
= inf S
n
sup S
n
= A
n
a +.
So
[A
n
a[ and [B
n
a[
whenever n N. We conclude that
lim
n
A
n
= a = lim
n
B
n
as claimed.
1E-29. For each x R satisfying x 0, prove the existence of y R
such that y
2
= x.
Sketch. Let y = supu R [ u
2
x. Obtain contradictions from y
2
< x
and from y
2
> x.
Solution. There are several ways to establish the existence of a real
square root for every nonnegative real number. Whatever method is se-
lected must use the completeness of the real line or something very much
like it, since we know that it simply is not true if we only have rational
numbers. We seek a proof of the following.
Theorem. If c R and c 0, then there is exactly one b in R with b 0
and b
2
= c. Each positive real number has a unique positive real square root.
It is convenient to establish the following elementary lemma.
Lemma. If x and y are nonnegative real numbers, then x
2
y
2
if and
only if x y.
Proof: First suppose 0 x y. Then multiplication by either x or y
preserves the order of inequalities. We can compute
x
2
xy and xy y
2
.
We conclude that x
2
y
2
as desired. For the converse implication, assume
that x 0, y 0, and that x
2
y
2
. Then
0 y
2
x
2
= (y x)(y +x).
If y and x are both 0, then we certainly have x y. If they are not both 0,
then x + y > 0 since they are both nonnegative. Multiplication of the last
inequality by the positive number (x + y)
1
gives 0 y x. So x y as
claimed.
Proof of the Theorem: Let S = x R [ x
2
c. The intuition is that
S = x R [
c x

c and that sup S =

c is the number we
want. However, since the point of the exercise is to show that there is such
a thing as

c, we cant just write this down. The plan is to show rst that
S is bounded and not empty so that it has a least upper bound, and then
to show that this least upper bound is a square root for c. Since 0
2
= 0 c,
we see that 0 S so that S is not empty. Now suppose x > c + 1. Using
the lemma we can compute
x
2
(c + 1)
2
= c
2
+ 2c + 1 > c.
So x is not in S. Thus c+1 is an upper bound for S. The set S is a nonempty
subset of R which is bounded above. Since R is complete, b = sup S exists
as a nite real number. We want to show that b
2
= c. To do this we obtain
contradictions from the other two possibilities.
Suppose b
2
< c. In this case we will see that we can get a slightly larger
number whose square is also less than c. This number would then be in S
contradicting the choice of b as an upper bound for S. To do this, simply
select a number d small enough so that 2bd +d
2
< c b
2
. Then
(b +d)
2
= b
2
+ 2bd +d
2
 c. In this case we will be able to nd a number
slightly smaller than b whose square is also larger than c. By the lemma,
this number would be an upper bound for S. But that would contradict
the selection of b as the least upper bound. So this inequality must also
be false. To accomplish this, select d small enough so that 0 < d b
2
(b
2
c) = c.
We have b d > 0 and (b d)
2
> c. By the lemma, if x > b d, then
x
2
(b d)
2
> c, so x is not in S. Thus b d would be an upper bound
for S contradicting the selection of b as the least upper bound for S.
Both inequalities have led to contradiction, so we must have b
2
= c.
We have shown that c has one positive square root. Now we want to
show that it has only one. If we also had B
2
= c, then we would have
0 = c c = B
2
b
2
= (B b)(B +b).
So either Bb = 0 or B+b = 0. Thus B = b. So b is the only nonnegative
square root for c. The only other real number whose square is c is b. We
conclude that each nonnegative real number has a unique nonnegative real
square root.
1E-30. Let 1 be the vector space (([0, 1]) with the norm [[ f[[
=
sup[f(x)[ [ x [0, 1]. Show that the parallelogram law fails and con-
clude that this norm does not come from any inner product. (Refer to
Exercise 1E-12.)
Solution. Let f(x) = x and g(x) = 1 x. Both of these functions are
in (([0, 1]), and | f |
= supx [ x [0, 1] = 1 and | g |
= sup1 x [
x [0, 1] = 1. For the sum and dierence we have, (f + g)(x) = 1 and
(f g)(x) = 2x 1. So
| f +g |
+| f g |
= 1 + 1 = 2
while
2 | f |
2
+ 2 | g |
2
= 2 1
2
+ 2 1
2
= 4.
Since 2 and 4 are not the same, we see that this norm does not satisfy the
parallelogram law. If there were any way to dene an inner product , )
on (([0, 1]) in such a way that | h|
2
= h, h) for each h in the space, then

the parallelogram law would have to hold by the work of Exercise 1E-12(a).
Since it does not, there can be no such inner product.
Another example which is useful for other problems also is shown in the
gure. We let f and g be tent functions based on intervals which do not
overlap. For example we can use the subintervals [0, 1/2] and [1/2, 1] of the
unit interval as illustrated in the gure.
Figure 1.2. Tent functions on disjoint intervals.
For these choices of f and g, we have
| f |
= | g |
= | f +g |
= | f g |
= 1.
So
| f +g |
2
+| f g |
2
= 2,
while
2| f |
2
+ 2| g |
2
= 4.
Since 2 is not equal to 4, the parallelogram law fails for these functions
also.
1E-31. Let A, B R and f : AB R be bounded. Is it true that
sup f(x, y) [ (x, y) AB = supsup f(x, y) [ x A [ y B
or, the same thing in dierent notation,
sup
(x,y)AB
f(x, y) = sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
?
Answer. True.
Solution. First suppose (s, t) is a point in AB. Then s A and t B,
so
f(s, t) sup
xA
f(x, t)
sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
Since this is true for every point (s, t) in AB, we can conclude that
sup
(x,y)AB
f(x, y) sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
.
For the opposite inequality, let > 0. There is a t B such that
sup
xA
f(x, t) > sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
/2.
So there must be an s A with
f(s, t) > sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
/2 /2.
So
sup
(x,y)AB
f(x, y) sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
.
Since this holds for every > 0, we must have
sup
(x,y)AB
f(x, y) sup
yB
_
sup
xA
f(x, y)
_
.
We have inequality in both directions, and thus equality as claimed.
1E-32. (a) Give a reasonable denition for what lim
n
x
n
=
should mean.
(b) Let x
1
= 1 and dene inductively x
n+1
= (x
1
+ + x
n
)/2. Prove
that x
n
.
Solution. (a) Denition. We say the sequence x
n
)
1
tends to innity
and write lim
n
x
n
= if for each B > 0 there is an N such that
x
n
> B whenever n N.
(b) Computation of the rst few terms of the sequence shows that
x
1
= 1 x
2
= 1/2 x
3
= 3/4 x
4
= 9/8 . . .
If x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
n
are all positive, then x
n+1
= (x
1
+ + x
n
)/2
must be positive also. Since the rst few terms are positive, it follows by
induction that all terms of the sequence are positive. With this in hand
we can get a lower estimate for the terms. If n 4, then
x
n+1
=
x
1
+x
2
+ +x
n
2
>
x
1
+x
4
2
> 1.
If we feed this information back into the formula we nd
x
n+1
=
x
1
+x
2
+ +x
n
2
>
1 + 1/2 + 3/4 +
n3 terms
..
1 + 1 + 1 + + 1
2
>
n 1
2
.
Thus x
n
> (n/2) 1 for n = 5, 6, 7, . . . . If B > 0 and n > 2B +2, then
x
n
> B. Thus lim
n
= as claimed.
Method Two: Observation of the rst few terms might lead to the con-
jecture that x
n
= 3
n2
/2
n1
= (1/2)(3/2)
n2
for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . . We
can conrm this by induction. It is true by direct computation for n =
2, 3, and 4. If it is true for 1 k n, then
x
n+1
=
x
1
+x
2
+ +x
n
2
=
1
2
_
1 +
1
2
+
1
2
_
3
2
_
+
1
2
_
3
2
_
2
+ +
1
2
_
3
2
_
n2
_
=
1
2
_
1 +
1
2

1 (3/2)
n1
1 (3/2)
_
=
1
2
_
1 +
1 (3/2)
n1
2 3
_
=
1
2
_
3
2
_
n1
This is exactly the desired form for the (n + 1)
st
term. Since x
n
=
(1/2)(3/2)
n2
, a straightforward computation shows that x
n
> B when-
ever n >
log(2B)
log(3/2)
+ 2. Again we can conclude that lim
n
x
n
= .
Method Three: A bit of clever manipulation with the formula rst along
with a much easier induction produces the same formula for the n
t
h
term.
x
n+1
=
x
1
+ +x
n
2
=
x
1
+ +x
n1
2
+
x
n
2
= x
n
+
x
n
2
=
3
2
x
n
for n = 2, 3, . . .
With this and the rst two terms, a much simpler induction produces
the same general formula for x
n
as in Method Two.
1E-33. (a) Show that (log x)/x 0 as x . (You may consult

your calculus text and use, for example, lH opitals rule.)
(b) Show that n
1/n
1 as n .
Sketch. (a) Use the / form of LH opitals rule.
(b) Take logarithms and use (a).
Solution. (a) Since both x and log x tend to innity with x, the expres-
sion (log x)/x has the indeterminate form / there. We may try
LH opitals Rule. We examine the limit of the ratio of derivatives
lim
x
1/x
1
= lim
x
1
x
= 0.
By LH opitals Rule, lim
x
log x
x
also exists and is 0.
(b) Let a
n
= n
1/n
for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Set b
n
= log a
n
= (1/n) log(n). From
part (a) we know that (1/x) log(x) is near 0 for large x. So it certainly
is near 0 if x happens to be a large positive integer. Thus
lim
n
log a
n
= lim
n
b
n
= lim
n
log n
n
= 0.
Since log a
n
0, we can conclude by the continuity of the exponential
function, that
n
1/n
= a
n
= e
log an
e
0
= 1.
(We will study continuity and its relationship to sequences more fully in
Chapters 3 and 4, and the exponential function in particular in Chapter
5.)
1E-34. Express the following complex numbers in the form a +bi:

(a) (2 + 3i)(4 +i)
(b) (8 + 6i)
2
(c) (1 + 3/(1 +i))
2
Answer. (a) (2 + 3i)(4 +i) = 5 + 14i
(b) (8 + 6i)
2
= 28 + 96i
(c) (1 + 3/(1 +i))
2
= 6 (5/2)i
Solution. (a) (2 + 3i)(4 +i) = 2(4 +i) + 3i(4 +i) = 8 + 2i + 12i + 3i

2
=
8 + 14i 3 = 5 + 14i
(b) (8 + 6i)
2
= 64 + 96i + 36i
2
= 64 36 + 96i = 28 + 96i
(c)
_
1 +
3
1 +i
_
2
=
_
1 +
3
1 +i
1 i
1 i
_
2
=
_
1 +
3 3i
1 + 1
_
2
=
_
5
2

1
2
i
_
2
=
1
4
(5 i)
2
=
1
4
(25 10i +i
2
) =
24 10i
4
= 6
5
2
i
1E-35. What is the complex conjugate of (3 + 8i)

4
/(1 +i)
10
?
Answer. (3 8i)
4
/(1 i)
10
.
Solution. Use properties (v), (vi), and (vii) from Proposition 1.8.1.
_
(3 + 8i)
4
(1 +i)
10
_
=
(3 + 8i)
4
(1 +i)
10
=
_
(3 + 8i)
_
4
_
(1 +i)
_
10
=
(3 8i)
4
(1 i)
10
1E-36. Find the solutions to:

(a) (z + 1)
2
= 3 + 4i.
(b) z
4
i = 0.
Answer. (a) Our solutions are z = x+iy = 3i and z = x+iy = 1+i.
(b) z = e
i/8+ki/2
, for k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
Solution. (a) Let z = x +iy with x and y real. We want

3 + 4i = (z + 1)
2
= (x + 1 +iy)
2
= (x + 1)
2
y
2
+ 2(x + 1)y i.
For convenience change variables to s = x + 1. Comparing real and
imaginary parts, we require
s
2
y
2
= 3 and 2sy = 4.
This gives s
2
(2/s)
2
= 3 so s
4
3s
2
4 = 0. This is a quadratic in
s
2
with solutions s
2
= 4 and s
2
= 1. Since s is real, the second is
impossible and the rst gives s = 2. The corresponding values of x
and y are x = s 1 = 1 2 and y = 2/s = 1. Our solutions are
z = x +iy = 3 i and z = x +iy = 1 +i.
(b) This problem is much more easily expressed and solved in polar coordi-
nates. We want z
4
= i = e
i/2
= e
i/2+2ki
where k can be any integer.
So solutions are given by z = e
i/8+ki/2
. The parameter k can be any
integer, but due to the periodicity of the exponential, only four dierent
values of z are produced corresponding to k = 0, 1, 2, 3. These are four
points evenly spaced around the unit circle as indicated in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3. Solutions of z
4
= i.

1E-37. Find the solutions to z
2
= 3 4i.
Answer. z = (2 i).
Solution. Let z = x +iy with x and y real. We want
3 4i = z
2
= (x +iy)
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2xy i.
Comparing real and imaginary parts, we require
x
2
y
2
= 3 and 2xy = 4.
This gives x
2
(2/x)
2
= 3 or x
4
3x
2
4 = 0. This is a quadratic in
x
2
with solutions x
2
= 4 and x
2
= 1. Since x is to be real, the second is
impossible and the rst gives x = 2. The corresponding values of y are
y = 1. Our solutions are z = 2 i and z = 2 +i. That is, z = (2 i).
1E-38. If a is real and z is complex, prove that Re(az) = a Re z and

that Im(az) = a Im z. Generally, show that Re : C R is a real linear
map; that is, that Re (az + bw) = a Re z + b Re w for a, b real and z, w
complex.
Solution. Let a be a real number and z = x+iy a complex number with
x and y real. Then since ax and ay are real, we have
Re (az) = Re (a(x +iy)) = Re (ax +iay) = ax = a Re (z)
and
Im(az) = Im(a(x +iy)) = Im(ax +iay) = ay = a Im(z) .
Now let b be another real number and w = u+iv another complex number
with u and v real. Then
Re (az +bw) = Re (a(x +iy) +b(u +iv)) = Re ((ax +bu) +i(ay +bv))
= az +bu = a Re (z) +b Re (w) .
1E-39. Find the real and imaginary parts of the following, where z =
x +iy:
(a) 1/z
2
(b) 1/(3z + 2)
Answer. (a) Re
_
1/z
2
_
= (x
2
y
2
)/(x
2
+y
2
)
2
Im
_
1/z
2
_
= 2xy/(x
2
+y
2
)
2
.
(b) Re (1/(3z + 2)) = (3x + 2)/((3x + 2)
2
+ 9y
2
)
Im(1/(3z + 2)) = 3y/((3x + 2)
2
+ 9y
2
).
Solution. (a) Let z = x +iy with x and y real. Then

1
z
2
=
1
x
2
y
2
+ 2xyi
=
1
x
2
y
2
+ 2xyi

x
2
y
2
2xyi
x
2
y
2
2xyi
=
x
2
y
2
2xyi
(x
2
y
2
)
2
+ 4x
2
y
2
=
x
2
y
2
2xyi
(x
2
+y
2
)
2
.
So
Re
_
1
z
2
_
=
x
2
y
2
(x
2
+y
2
)
2
and Im
_
1
z
2
_
=
2xy
(x
2
+y
2
)
2
.
(b)
1
3z + 2
=
1
(3x + 2) + 3yi

(3x + 2) 3yi
(3x + 2) 3yi
=
(3x + 2) 3yi
(3x + 2)
2
+ 9y
2
.
Thus
Re
_
1
3z + 2
_
=
3x + 2
(3x + 2)
2
+ 9y
2
and (1.8.1)
Im
_
1
3z + 2
_
=
3y
(3x + 2)
2
+ 9y
2
.
1E-40. (a) Fix a complex number z = x +iy and consider the linear
mapping
z
: R
2
R
2
(that is, of C C) dened by
z
(w) = z w
(that is, multiplication by z). Prove that the matrix of
z
in the
standard basis (1, 0), (0, 1) of R
2
is given by
_
x y
y x
_
.
(b) Show that
z1z2
=
z1

z2
.
Solution. (a) Recall a bit of linear algebra. If T is a linear transformation
fromR
2
to R
2
and e
1
=
_
1
0
_
, and e
2
=
_
0
1
_
, then there are real numbers
a, b, c, and d such that
Te
1
=
_
a
c
_
and Te
2
=
_
b
d
_
.
Then T is represented by the matrix Mat(T) =
_
a b
c d
_
in the sense
that if v =
_
x
y
_
is any vector in R
2
, then
Tv = T(xe
1
+ye
2
) = xTe
1
+yTe
2
=
_
ax
cx
_
+
_
by
dy
_
=
_
ax +by
cx +dy
_
=
_
a b
c d
_ _
x
y
_
= Mat(T) v.
A direct computation shows that this assignment of a matrix to a linear
transformation preserves algebra. If S and T are linear transformations
and and are numbers, then
Mat(S +T) = Mat(S) + Mat(T)
Mat(S T) = Mat(S) Mat(T).
Notice that the columns of Mat(T) are the images Te
1
and Te
2
of the
basis vectors.
A complex number z can be identied with a vector in R
2
by asso-
ciating z = x + iy with the vector
_
x
y
_
. With this identication, the
complex number 1 is associated with the vector e
1
, and the complex
number i is associated with e
2
. If z C, then the operation
z
of multi-
plication by z takes C to C by
z
(w) = zw. This corresponds to a linear
transformation of R
2
to R
2
since if and are real and w and are
complex, then
z
(w +) = z(w +) = zw +z =
z
(w) +
z
().
The images of the basis vectors are
Mat(
z
)(e
1
)
z
(1) = z = x +iy
_
x
y
_
Mat(
z
)(e
2
)
z
(i) = zi = y +ix
_
y
x
_
.
Thus
Mat(
z
) =
_
x y
y x
_
as claimed.
(b) The assertion about compositions can be handled either in terms of the
complex numbers or the matrices. Suppose z
1
, z
2
, and w are in C. Then
z1z2
(w) = (z
1
z
2
)w = z
1
(z
2
w) =
z1
(z
2
w)
=
z1
(
z2
(w)) = (
z1

z2
)(w)
This holds for all w in C. So
z1z2
=
z1

z2
as claimed.
In terms of matrices, we would rst note that
z
1
z
2
= (x
1
+iy
1
)(x
2
+iy
2
) = (x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
) + (x
1
y
2
+y
1
x
2
)i
and then compute
Mat(
z1z2
) =
_
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
x
1
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
y
2
+y
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
_
=
_
x
1
y
1
y
1
x
1
_

_
x
2
y
2
y
2
x
2
_
= Mat(
z1
) Mat(
z2
)
= Mat(
z1

z2
).
The transformations
z1z2
and
z1

z2
have the same matrices with
respect to the standard basis vectors, so they must be equal as claimed.
Discussion: A Matrix Representation of the Complex Numbers.
The work done in the solution of Exercise 1E-40 goes a long way toward
supplying a dierent way of thinking about the complex numbers. The
identication of the complex numbers with R
2
shows a way to think of
them as a two-dimensional vector space over R. But there are other ways.
The complex numbers, C, are a two dimensional space in which we also
know how to multiply. Such a structure is called a (real) algebra. More
precisely:
Denition. An algebra / over R is a vector space over R in which there
is a multiplication dened satisfying
1. (ab)c = a(bc) for all a, b, and c in /,
2. (ab) = (a)b for all a and b in / and all in R,
3. (a) = ()a for all a in / and and in R.
If ab = ba for all a and b in /, then / is called a commutative algebra. If
there is an element e in / such that ae = ea = a for every a in /, then /
is an algebra with identity. If for each a in / except 0 there is an element
a
1
such that aa
1
= a
1
a = e, then / is called a division algebra.
Notice in particular that a commutative division algebra is a eld. There
are many examples of algebras:
1. The set of all nn matrices with real entries using the usual addition
and multiplication of matrices is an algebra over R with dimension n
2
.
2. The set of all polynomials with real coecients with the usual addition
and multiplication of polynomials is an algebra over R. Its dimension is
innite.
3. The set of all continuous real-valued functions on the unit interval is
an algebra over R. Here addition and multiplication are dened pointwise.
That is, (f +g)(x) = f(x) +g(x) and (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) for all x in [0, 1].
4. The complex numbers are a commutative division algebra over R with
dimension 2.
The work of Exercise 1E-40 shows a way to think of a complex number
as a 2 2 matrix. The set of all 2 2 matrices has dimension 4 and is
certainly not a division algebra. There are many non-invertible matrices.
Nor is it commutative. However, we do not want to use all 2 2 matrices.
To represent the complex number z, we basically want to use the matrix
Mat(
z
) studied above. These all have the form a =
_
x y
y x
_
where x
and y are real. So we let / be the collection of all such matrices. Since we
already know that addition and multiplication of 2 2 matrices satisfy all
the required associative, commutative, and distributive laws, all that we
need to do to show that / is an algebra is to show the following:
1. a +b / whenever a and b are in /,
2. ab / whenever a and b are in /,
3. a / whenever a / and R.
These computations are straightforward. Having done them we note that
_
x y
y x
_
= x
_
1 0
0 1
_
+y
_
0 1
1 0
_
,
so that / has dimension 2 over R with the matrices e =
_
1 0
0 1
_
and
i =
_
0 1
1 0
_
as basis. The matrix e is certainly a multiplicative identity.
There is a copy of R embedded in / by e. Furthermore, a direct
computation shows that i
2
= e 1, so that in this sense, i is a square
root for 1. Finally we need to check that / is a division algebra. If a =
_
x y
y x
_
/, then det a = x
2
+ y
2
. So unless a is the zero matrix, it is
invertible. Since a
1
=
1
x
2
+y
2
_
x y
y x
_
, it is also in /
In summary, / is a two-dimensional division algebra over R in which the
negative of the identity has a square root. It supplies a representation of
the complex numbers C.
1E-41. Show that Re(iz) = Im(z) and that Im(iz) = Re(z) for all
complex numbers z.
Sketch. If z = x + iy, then Re (iz) = Re (ix y) = y = Im(z), and
Im(iz) = Im(ix y) = x = Re (z).
Solution. Suppose z C and let z = x +iy with x and y in R. Then
Re (iz) = Re (i(x +iy)) = Re (y +ix) = y = Im(z)
and
Im(iz) = Im(i(x +iy)) = Im(y +ix) = x = Re (z)
as claimed.
1E-42. Letting z = x +iy, prove that [x[ +[y[
2[z[.
Solution. Here is a solution written in such a way as to indicate how it
might have been discovered by reasonable experimentation with the com-
putation. One should be able to supply reasons at each line.
[x[ +[y[
2 [z[ [x[
2
+ 2 [x[ [y[ +[y[
2
2 [z[
2
[x[
2
+ 2 [x[ [y[ +[y[
2
2 [x[
2
+ 2 [y[
2
2 [x[ [y[ [x[
2
+[y[
2
[x[
2
2 [x[ [y[ +[y[
2
0
([x[ [y[)
2
0
The last line is true since the square of any real number is nonnegative.
Working our way back up along the line of equivalences, we get a proof of
our assertion.
1E-43. If a, b C, prove the parallelogram identity:
[a b[
2
+[a +b[
2
= 2([a[
2
+[b[
2
).
Sketch. Use [z[
2
= z z and z +w = z + w to expand [a b[
2
+[a +b[
2
.
Solution. If a and b are complex numbers, we can use the properties

listed in Proposition 1.8.1 to compute
[a b[
2
+[a +b[
2
= (a b) (a b) + (a +b) (a +b)
= (a b) (a b) + (a +b) (a +b)
= aa ba ab +bb +aa +ba +ab +bb
= 2aa + 2bb
= [a[
2
+[b[
2
as claimed.
Compare this to the work and discussion of Exercise 1E-12(a).
1E-44. Prove Lagranges identity for complex numbers:
k=1
z
k
w
k
2
=
_
n
k=1
[z
k
[
2
__
n
k=1
[w
k
[
2
_
_
_
k<j
[z
k
w
j
z
j
w
k
[
2
_
_
.
Deduce the Cauchy inequality from your proof.
Sketch. This is very similar to the computation for the real Lagrange
Identity carried out in Exercise 1E-14(a). The x
k
become z
k
, the y
k
become
w
k
, and we need to introduce some complex conjugations. Change the rst
line to
k=1
z
k
w
k
2
=
_
n
k=1
z
k
w
k
_
_
_
n
j=1
z
j
w
j
_
_
=
_
n
k=1
z
k
w
k
_
_
_
n
j=1
z
j
w
j
_
_
and continue accordingly.
1E-45. Show that if [z[ > 1 then lim
n
z
n
/n = .
Sketch. [z[
n
/n > R log [z[ > (log n + log R)/n. The left side is
positive and the right side tends to 0 by LH opitals rule.
Solution. Suppose [z[ > 1 and R > 1 and n is a positive integer. Then
z
n
n
R
[z[
n
n
R [z[
n
nR
nlog [z[ log n + log R
log n + log R
n
log z
The right side of the last inequality is larger than zero since [z[ > 1. Use of
LH opitals Rule (see Exercise 1E-33) shows that the left side tends to 0
as n . Thus there is an N such that the last inequality holds whenever
n N. For such n we have [z
n
/n[ R. Since this can be done for any
R > 1, we conclude that lim
n
z
n
/n = as claimed.
1E-46. Prove that each nonempty set S of R that is bounded above has
a least upper bound as follows: Choose x
0
S and M
0
an upper bound.
Let a
0
= (x
0
+ M
0
)/2. If a
0
is an upper bound, let M
1
= a
0
and x
1
= x
0
;
otherwise let M
1
= M
0
and x
1
> a
0
, x
1
S. Repeat, generating sequences
x
n
and M
n
. Prove that they both converge to sup(S).
Solution. (Thanks to Maria Korolov) Since S is bounded, there is an
M
0
with x M
0
for all x in S. Since S is not empty, we can select x
0
in
S and let a
0
= (x
0
+ M
0
)/2. If this is an upper bound, let M
1
= a
0
and
x
1
= M
0
. If not, then there is an x in S with x > a
0
. Let x
1
= x and
M
1
= M
0
. Repeat with a
1
= (x
1
+ M
1
)/2 and a
2
= (x
2
+ M
2
)/2, and
so forth. Each M
k+1
is either M
k
or (x
k
+ M
k
)/2. Since M
k
is an upper
bound and x
k
S, we have x
k
M
k
, and M
k+1
M
k
. The M
k
form a
monotone decreasing sequence and since every term is greater than some
x in S, it is bounded below and must converge to some number M in R by
completeness.
Similarly, the x
k
form a monotone increasing sequence bounded above
by any of the Ms. So they must converge to something. We claim that
they converge to M and that M is a least upper bound for S.
Let d
0
= M
0
x
0
= d(M
0
, x
0
). For each k we have that M
k
x
k
=
d(M
k
, x
k
) is equal either to x
k1
+ M
k1
)/2 x
k1
or M
k1
(x
k1
+
M
k1
)/2. Both of these are equal to (M
k1
x
k1
)/2 = d(M
k1
, x
k1
)/2.
Inductively we obtain d(M
n
, x
n
) = d
0
/2
n
for each n. This tends to 0 as
n , so the limits of the two convergent sequences must be the same.
To show that M is an upper bound for S, suppose that there were a
point x in S with x > M. Select k with M
k
M < x M. This would
force M
k
< x contradicting the fact that M
k
is an upper bound for S. To
show that M is a least upper bound for S, suppose that b were an upper
bound with b < M. Since the points x
k
converge to M, there is a k with
[M x
k
[ < M b. This forces b < x
k
contradicting the supposition that
it was an upper bound.
Page 79
2
The Topology of Euclidean Space
2.1 Open Sets
2.1-1. Show that R
2
(0, 0) is open in R
2
.
Sketch. If v = (a, b) ,= (0, 0), then v U = D(v, | v |) R
2
(0, 0).
(Give detail.)
Solution. Suppose v = (a, b) R
2
(0, 0). Then v is not (0, 0), so
| v | ,= 0. Let r = | v |. We will show that D(v, r) R
2
(0, 0). Suppose
w D(v, r), then | w v | < r = | v |. If w were equal to (0, 0), we would
wave | v | = r > | 0 v | = | v | which is nonsense. So w ,= (0, 0). Since
this is true for every w in D(v, r), we conclude that D(v, t) R
2
(0, 0)
as claimed. Since R
2
(0, 0) contains a ball around each of its points, it
is open. See Figure 2-1.
2.1-2. Let S = (x, y) R
2
[ xy > 1. Show that S is open.
Solution. The set in question is the set of points outside the hyperbola
xy = 1. We need to show that each point in S is surrounded by some small
disk completely contained in S. This seems reasonably clear from Figure
2-2. Any radius shorter than the distance from our point to the closest
point on the curve will do.
80 2. The Topology of Euclidean Space
Figure 2-1. The punctured plane is open.
Figure 2-2. The region outside a hyperbola.
One could actually try to nd the closest point on the hyperbola to
the origin and its distance using the methods of beginning calculus. This
would give the largest radius which will do. Any smaller radius will also
work. Here is a geometric argument which shows that such a radius exists.
It assumes that the branch of the hyperbola in the rst quadrant is the
graph of a decreasing function and is concave up. This is easily checked for
f(x) = 1/x. The argument is based on the gures sketched in Figure 2-3.
Suppose P = (a, b) S. Draw the horizontal from P to the yaxis.
It intersects the curve at the point A = (1/b, b). Draw the vertical from
P to the xaxis. It intersects the curve at the point B = (a, 1/a). The
hypotenuse of the right triangle APB lies inside S since the curve xy = 1
(in the rst quadrant) is concave up. Draw the perpendicular from P to
this hypotenuse. It meets the hypotenuse at a point Q. The circle through
Q with center at P has the hypotenuse AB as tangent at Q. This circle
2.1 Open Sets 81
Figure 2-3. Geometric construction for Exercise 2.1-2.
intersects the legs AP and BP at right angles at points D and C. The
circle and its interior lie entirely inside the region above and to the right
of the vertical through A, the hypotenuse AB, and the horizontal through
B. But this region lies inside S since the boundary curve is the graph of
a decreasing function of x. Thus this supplies an open disk centered at P
and contained within S. The argument for a point in the portion of S in
the third quadrant is symmetrical. Since this can be done for every point
in S, the set S is open.
It is interesting to note that we can actually compute the length of the
radius PQ. If we let that radius be r, then since the triangle AQP is similar
to triangle APB, we have
r
AP
=
BP
AB
so r =
AP BP
AB
But
AP = [a (1/b)[ and BP = [b (1/a)[
and AB =
_
(a (1/b)
2
+ (b (1/a)
2
.
So
r =
[a (1/b)[ [b (1/a)[
_
(a (1/b)
2
+ (b (1/a)
2
=
ab 1
a
2
+b
2
.
(Do some algebra and remember that ab > 1.)
2.1-3. Let A R be open and B R
2
be dened by B = (x, y) R
2
[
x A. Show that B is open.
Sketch. If v
0
= (x
0
, y
0
) B, there is an r > 0 with [x x
0
[ < r =
x A. (Why ?) Show | v v
0
| < r = v B.
Solution. Let v
0
= (x
0
, y
0
) B. Then x
0
A. Since A is an open subset
of R, there is a > 0 such that the open interval; J = [x
0
, x
0
+ [ is
contained in A. Let r = and B = D(v
0
, r) = v R
2
[ | v v
0
| < r. If
v = (x, y) B, then
(x x
0
)
2
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
= | v v
0
|
2
< r
2
.
So [x x
0
[ < r = . This implies that x is in J and so in A. In turn, this
implies that v = (x, y) B. For each v in B, there is an r > 0 such that
D(v, r) B. Therefore B is an open subset of R
2
as claimed. See Figure
2-4.
Figure 2-4. An open set in R pulls back to an open set in R
2
.
2.1-4. Let B R
n
be any set. Dene C = x R
n
[ d(x, y) < 1 for some
y B. Show that C is open.
Suggestion. The set C is a union of open balls.
Solution. Let A =

yB
D(y, 1).Since each of the disks D(y, 1) is an
open subset of R
n
and A is their union, we know that A is an open set
by Proposition 2.1.3(ii). We will show that C is open by showing that
C = A. If y B and x is any point in R
n
with | x y | < 1, then x C
by the denition of the set C. So D(y, 1) C for every y in B. Thus
2.1 Open Sets 83
A =

yB
D(y, 1) C. In the other direction, if x C, then there is a
point y in B with d(x, y) = | x y | < 1. So x D(y, 1) A. Thus C A.
We have containment in both directions, so C = A. Thus C is an open set
as claimed.
2.1-5. Let A R be open and B R. Dene AB = xy R [ x A
and y B. Is AB necessarily open?
Answer. No in general; yes if B is open or 0 / B.
Solution. If A is any open subset of R and B = 0, then AB = 0 and
is not open. So the answer is No in general.
To nd conditions under which AB will be open, we dene for each y R
the set
yA = yA = Ay = xy R [ x A.
Then AB =
yB
yA.
Lemma. If A is open and y ,= 0, then yA is an open subset of R.
Proof: Suppose z
0
yA. Then there is an x
0
A with z = yx
0
. . Since
A is open there is a > 0 with J =]x
0
, x
0
+[ A.
First suppose that y > 0. If z
0
y < z < z
0
+y, then let x = z/y. We
have
x
0
= (z
0
y)/y < z/y = x < (z
0
+y)/y = x
0
+.
This implies that x is in J and so in A and hence that z = xy yA. For
each z
0
in yA there is an open interval around z
0
contained in yA, so A is
open.
The argument for negative y is similar and should be supplied by the
reader. (By the way, where is the hole in the argument if y = 0 ?)
If 0 is not in B, then, from the lemma, each of the sets yA for y in B is
open. Since AB =
yB
yA, we see that A is open by Proposition 2.1.3(ii).
Now suppose B is an open subset of R. If 0 / B, then we already know
that AB is open. So suppose 0 B. Let B
0
= B 0. Then B
0
is open
(B
0
= B (R 0), and
AB = A(B
0
0) = AB
0
A0 = AB
0
0.
If z AB and z ,= 0, then z AB
0
. We know from above that AB
0
is
an open set, so there is an open interval J
z
with z J
z
AB
0
AB.
To show that AB is open, it remains to show that it contains an interval
around 0. Since A is open, it contains a nonzero element a. Since B is
open and contains 0, there is a > 0 such that B contains the interval
J = y [ [y[ < . If [z[ < [a[ , then [z/a[ < . This implies that z/a
are in J and so in B. Since a A, this puts z and z in AB. Thus AB
contains the interval z [ [z[ < [a[ around zero. Since AB contains an
interval around each of its points, it is an open subset of R as claimed.
2.1-6. Show that R
2
with the taxicab metric has the same open sets as
it does with the standard metric.
Sketch. The key idea is that each taxicab disk centered at a point P
contains a Euclidean disk centered at P and also the reverse.
Solution. Recall that the taxicab metric on R
2
is dened for points
P = (a, b) and Q = (x, y) by d
1
(Q, P) = [x a[ + [y b[. The Euclidean
metric is dened by d
2
(Q, P) =
_
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
. Euclidean disks look
like the interior of a usual Euclidean circle, while a taxicab disk looks like
the inside of a diamond. The key idea is that each taxicab disk centered
at P contains a Euclidean disk centered at P and each Euclidean disk
centered at P contains a taxicab disk centered at P. See the gure.
Figure 2-5. The taxicab and Euclidean distances make the same sets open.
d
1
(Q, P)
2
= ([x a[ +[y b[)
2
= (x a)
2
+ 2 [x a[ [y b[ + (y b)
2
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= d
2
(Q, P)
2
On the other hand, we know that for any real s and t that 2st s
2
+ t
2
since 0 (s t)
2
= s
2
2st + t
2
. With s = [x a[ and t = [y b[, this
gives
d
1
(Q, P)
2
= ([x a[ +[y b[)
2
= (x a)
2
+ 2 [x a[ [y b[ + (y b)
2
2((x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
) = 2 d
2
(Q, P)
2
2.2 Interior of a Set 85
Taking square roots gives
d
2
(Q, P) d
1
(Q, P)
2 d(Q, P) ()
for every pair of points P and Q in R
2
. Denote the Euclidean and taxicab
disks around P of radius by
D
2
(P, ) = P R
2
[ d
2
(P, Q) <
D
1
(P, ) = P R
2
[ d
1
(P, Q) < .
If d
1
(P, Q) < , then by the rst part of (), we also have d
2
(P, Q) < .
So D
1
(P, ) D
2
(P, ). If d
2
(P, Q) < r, then by the second part of (),
we also have d
1
(P, Q) <
2 r. So D
2
(P, r) D
1
(P,
2 r). Equivalently
D
2
(P, /
2) D
1
(P, ) for each > 0.
Now Let S R
2
and suppose that S is open with respect to the usual
Euclidean distance. Let P S. Then there is an > 0 such that D
2
(P, )
S. But then P D
1
(P, ) D
2
(P, ) S. So S contains a taxicab disk
around each of its points and must be taxicab open. On the other hand,
if we assume that S is open with respect to the taxicab distance and P
S, then there is an r > 0 such that P D
1
(P, r) S. The argument
above then shows that P D
2
(P, r/
2) D
1
(P, r) S. So S contains a
Euclidean disk around each of its points and is open in the usual sense. We
have shown
S Euclidean open = S taxicab open,
and that
S taxicab open = S Euclidean open.
So the open sets are the same no matter which of the two metrics we
choose to use for measuring distance between points in the plane.
2.2 Interior of a Set
2.2-1. Let S = (x, y) R
2
[ xy 1. Find int(S).
Answer. int (S) = (x, y) R
2
[ xy > 1.
Sketch. If we replace by >, we have the set studied in Exercise 2.1-
2. This is open, so all its points are interior points of S. Points on the
boundary hyperbola are not interior since any disk around such a point
sticks outside of S. Sketch and give a bit more detail.
Solution. We saw in Exercise 2.1-2 that the set U = (x, y) R
2
[ xy >
1 is open. Since it is a subset of S, all of its points are interior points of
S, and we have U int (S). If (x
0
, y
0
) S U, then it is a point on the
boundary hyperbola where x
0
y
0
= 1. Such a point is not in int (S). If r > 0,
there are points in D((x
0
, y
0
), r) which are not in S. If x
0
and y
0
are greater
than 0, then (x
0
(r/2), y
0
) is such a point. If they are less than 0, then
(x
0
+(r/2), y
0
) is such a point. See Figure 2-6. Thus (S U) int (S) = .
So int (S) = U.
Figure 2-6. The hyperbola again.
2.2-2. Let S = (x, y, z) R
3
[ 0 < x < 1, y
2
+z
2
1. Find int(S).
Solution. The region S is the inside and part of the surface of the cylin-
drical solid of radius 1 with axis along the xaxis. It is that part of the
cylinder between the planes x = 0 and x = 1. It includes the curved cylin-
drical part of the surface but not the circular disk end plates. See Figure
2-7. The interior is essentially the same cylindrical solid, but now without
the curved sides or the end plates included. This is obtained by changing
to a strict inequality.
int (S) = U = (x, y, z) R
3
[ 0 < x < 1, y
2
+z
2
< 1.
To see this, note that we know already that the half spaces H
1
=
(x, y, z) [ x > 0 and H
2
= (x, y, z) [ x < 1 are open subsets of
R
3
, and the the disk D = (y, z) [ y
2
+ z
2
< 1 is an open subset
of R
2
. An argument like that for Exercise 2.1-3 shows that the cylinder
C = (x, y, z) R
3
[ y
2
+ z
2
< 1 is an open subset of R
3
. Thus the
set U = (x, y, z) R
3
[ 0 < x < 1, y
2
+ z
2
1 is open in R
3
since
2.2 Interior of a Set 87
Figure 2-7. A cylinder.
U = H
1
H
2
C. Since U S and U is open, all of its points are interior
points of S, and U int (S). If P = (x
0
y
0
z
0
) is any point on the bound-
aries of S, the end plates D
0
= (x, y, z) [ x = 0 and y
2
+ z
2
1 and
D
1
= (x, y, z) [ x = 1 and y
2
+z
2
1, or the curved part B = (x, y, z) [
0 x 1 and y
2
+z
2
= 1, then any ball around P will extend outside S.
(Why? See the solution to Exercise 2.2-1.) So these points are not in the
interior of S. Thus int (S) = U.
2.2-3. If A B, is int(A) int(B)?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. To establish the inclusion, let x int (A). Then there is an
open set U such that x U A. But we know that A B. So we have
x U A B and hence x U B. Thus x int (B). Since x was an
arbitrary point in int (A), this shows that int (A) int (B).
2.2-4. Is it true that int(A) int(B) = int(A B)?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. First suppose x int (A B). Then there is an r > 0 such
that x D(x, r) A B. Since A B A, we have x D(x, r) A.
So x int (A). Also A B B, so x D(x, r) B and x int (B).
Thus x int (A) int (B). Since x was an arbitrary point in int (A B),
this shows that int (A B) int (A) int (B). (Notice that we could also
employ the result of Exercise 2.2-3 to obtain this inclusion.)
Now suppose that y int (A) int (B). Then y int (A), so there is an
r
1
> 0 such that x D(x, r
1
) A. Also y int (B). So there is an r
2
> 0
such that y D(y, r
2
) B. Let r be the smaller of r
1
and r
2
so that r r
1
and r r
2
. Then D(y, r) D(y, r
1
) A, and D(x, r) D(y, r
2
) B. So
y D(y, r) A B. Thus y int (A B). Since y was an arbitrary point
in int (A) int (B), this shows that int (A) int (B) int (A B).
We have inclusion in both directions, so int (A B) = int (A) int (B)
as claimed.
2.2-5. Let (M, d) be a metric space, and let x
0
M and r > 0. Show
that
D(x
0
, r) inty M [ d( y, x
0
) r.
Suggestion. Show more generally that if U is open and U A, then
U int (A). (See Exercise 2E-3 at the end of the chapter.)
Solution. Let A = y M [ d(y, x
0
) r and U = D(x
0
, r) = y M [
d(y, x
0
) < r. Then we certainly have U A, and we know that U is open
from Proposition 2.1.2. So the desired conclusion follows immediately from
this observation.
Proposition. If U is an open set and U A, then U int (A).
Proof: If x in U, then U is open and x U A. So x satises the
denition of an interior point of A and x int (A). Since x was an arbitrary
point in U, this shows that U int (A) as claimed.
2.3 Closed Sets
2.3-1. Let S = (x, y) R
2
[ x 1 and y 1. Is S closed?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. Let U = (x, y) R
2
[ x < 1 and V = (x, y) R
2
[ y < 1.
Then R
2
S = U V . If we knew that U and V were open, then we would
also know that this union is an open set. So the set S would be closed since
its complement is open. Lets give some detail for the proof that such half
planes are open.
2.3 Closed Sets 89
Proposition. Suppose a, b, c and d are real constants and let
S = (x, y) R
2
[ x > a
U = (x, y) R
2
[ x c
W = (x, y) R
2
[ y < d.
Then S, U, V , and W are open subsets of R
2
.
Proof: The four arguments are quite similar. We give that for S. Suppose
v
0
= (x
0
, y
0
) S. Then x
0
> a so x
0
a > 0. Let r = x
0
a. We claim
that the disk around v
0
of radius r is contained in S. See Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8. An open half plane.
Let v = (x, y) D(v
0
, r). Then
[x x
0
[ =
_
(x x
0
)
2
_
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
= | v v
0
| < r = x
0
a.
So
a x
0
= (x
0
a) < x x
0
< x
0
a.
Adding x
0
to the rst inequality gives x > a, so v = (x, y) S. Since v
was an arbitrary point in D(v
0
, r), we conclude that D(v
0
, r) S. The set
S contains a disk around each of its points, so it is an open subset of R
2
as
claimed. The proofs for U, V , and W are analogous.
2.3-2. Let S = (x, y) R
2
[ x = 0, 0 < y < 1. Is S closed?
Answer. No.
Solution. The set S is not closed since its complement is not open. The
point P = (0, 0) is in R
2
S. But if r > 0, then the point (0, r/2) is in
D((0, 0), r) S. Thus R
2
S contains no nontrivial disk around the origin
(0, 0) even though that point is in the set. R
2
S is not open, so S is not
closed. See Figure 2-9.
Figure 2-9. A line segment in R
2
.
2.3-3. Redo Example 2.3.5 directly, this time showing that the comple-
ment is open.
Sketch. Suppose S = x
1
, . . . , x
k
and v
0
R
n
S. Show that if we let
r = (1/2) mind(v
0
, x
1
), . . . , d(v
0
, x
k
), then | v v
0
| < r = v R
n
S.
Solution. Recall that Example 2.3.5 asserts that if S is a nite set in

R
n
, then S is closed. So let S = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
be any nite set in R
n
.
Let v
0
be any point in R
n
S. Then none of the nitely many nonnegative
numbers d(v
0
, x
1
), d(v
0
, x
2
), . . . , d(v
0
, x
k
) are 0. Some one of them must
be smallest. The number r = (1/2) mind(v
0
, x
1
), . . . , d(v
0
, x
k
) is positive.
We have r > 0 and r < d(v
0
, x
j
) for j = 1, 2, . . . , k. Suppose | v v
0
| < r.
Then
| x
j
v | = | (x
j
v
0
) (v v
0
) | | x
j
v
0
| | v v
0
|
2r | v v
0
| > 2r r = r.
In particular, v is not equal to x
j
. This works for each j = 1, 2, . . . , k. So
none of the points x
j
are in D(v
0
, r). This disk is contained in R
n
S. Since
R
n
S contains a nontrivial disk around each of its points, it is open and
S is closed.
2.3 Closed Sets 91
2.3-4. Let A R
n
be arbitrary. Show that R
n
int (A) is closed.
Suggestion. Show that the interior of every set is open.
Solution. Since a set is closed if and only if its complement is open, and
R
n
(R
n
int (A)) = int (A), the assertion that R
n
int (A) is closed will
follow from the observation.
Proposition. If A is any set, then int (A) is open.
Proof: Suppose x int (A). Then there is an open set U such that x
U A. If y is any other point in U, then y U A, so y int (A).
Thus U int (A). Since U is open and x U, there is an r > 0 such that
D(x, r) U. Thus
x D(x, r) U int (A) .
If x int (A), then there is a nontrivial disk around x which is contained
in int (A). So int (A) is open.
2.3-5. Let S = x R [ x is irrational. Is S closed?
Answer. No.
Solution. The point 0 is in the complement of S, but is r > 0, then the
open interval ] r, r[ around 0 must contain irrational points such as

2 /n
for large integer n. Thus R S = Q is not open. So S is not closed.
More generally, it is not too dicult to show using the irrationality of
2 and the Archimedean Principle, that both the rationals and irrationals
are scattered densely along the real line in the following sense.
Proposition. If a and b are real numbers with a < b, then there are a
rational number r and an irrational number z such that
a < r 0. By the
Archimedean principle there is an integer n such that 0 < 1/n < b a. By
another version of the Archimedean principle there are positive integers k
such that a < k/n. By the well-ordering of the positive integers, we may
assume that k is the smallest such. Then
a <
k
n
=
k 1
n
+
1
n
a +
1
n
< a + (b a) = b.
So r = k/n is a rational number meeting our requirements.
Now use the argument just given twice to obtain a pair of rational num-
bers r and s with a < r < s < b. Since

2 > 1, we have
a < r < r +
s r
2
< r + (s r) = s
The number z = r + (s r)/
2 cannot be rational, for if it were, then
2 = (s r)/(z r) would also be rational. But it is not. The number z

is an irrational number which meets our requirements.
2.3-6. Give an alternative solution of Example 2.3.6 by showing that B
is a union of nitely many closed sets.
Solution. Example 2.3.6 asserts that if d is a metric on a set M, and A is
a nite subset of M, then the set B = x M [ d(x, y) 1 for some y A
is closed. For each xed y in M, let C
y
= x M [ d(x, y) 1. Then
B =

yA
C
y
. Since A is a nite set, this expresses B as the union of a
nite number of sets of type C
y
. If we knew that all of these were closed
we would have B closed since it would be a nite union of closed sets.
We proceed to show that for each xed y the set C
y
is closed. The argu-
ment is essentially the same as that given for Example 2.3.4 as illustrated
in Figure 2.3-3 of the text. We simply need to write it down for a general
metric space instead of R
2
.
Suppose z M C
y
. then d(z, y) > 1. Set r = d(z, y) 1 > 0. If w M
and d(w, z) < r, then
d(z, y) d(z, w) +d(w, y) < r +d(w, y) = d(z, y) 1 +d(w, y),
so 1 < d(w, y) and w M C
y
. Thus D(z, r) M C
y
. The set M C
y
contains a disk around each of its points and so is open. Thus C
y
is closed
as we needed.
2.4 Accumulation Points
If S is a subset of a metric space M, we let S
denote the set of accumulation

points of S, so that x S
if and only if every open set U containing x

contains points of S not equal to x. Equivalently, for each > 0 the set
D(x, ) (S x) is not empty. Theorem 2.4.2 becomes
A is closed A
A.
2.4-1. Find the accumulation points of A = (x, y) R
2
[ y = 0 and
0 < x < 1.
Answer. A
= (x, y) R
2
[ y = 0 and 0 x 1.
2.4 Accumulation Points 93
Solution. If 0 < x 1 and > 0, then for large enough integer n,
the point (x (1/n), 0) is in A and in D((x, 0), ). Since it is not equal
to (x, 0) (which is in A), this shows that (x, 0) is an accumulation point
of A. Since (1/n, 0) is in D((0, 0), ) (A (0, 0)) for large enough n, the
origin, (0, 0), is also in A
. Thus the set of accumulation points A
satises
(x, y) R
2
[ y = 0 and 0 x 1 A
.
To get the opposite conclusion, rst suppose that y is not ). Then no
point of A can be closer than [y[ to (x, y). So these points are not in A
.
If x < 0, then no point of A can be closer than [x[ to (x, y), and if x > 0,
then no point of A can be closer than x 1 to (x, y). So these points are
not in A
either. Thus A
(x, y) R
2
[ y = 0 and 0 x 1.
We have inclusion in both directions, so A
= (x, y) R
2
[ y =
0 and 0 x 1.
2.4-2. If A B and x is an accumulation point of A, is x an accumulation
point of B as well?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. Suppose A B and x is an accumulation point of A. x A
.
Let U be any open set with x U. Then there is a point y in A with y not
equal to x and y A U. But A B, so y B. Thus y B U and y is
not equal to x. Since this can be done for every open set U containing x,
we see that x is an accumulation point of B.
More succinctly, we have the following:
Proposition. If A B, then A
.
2.4-3. Find the accumulation points of the following sets in R
2
:
(a) (m, n) [ m, n integers
(b) ( p, q) [ p, q rational
(c) (m/n, 1/n) [ m, n integers, n ,= 0
(d) (1/n + 1/m, 0) [ n, m integers, n ,= 0, m ,= 0
Answer. (a) A
= .
(b) B
= R
2
.
(c) C
= the x axis.
(d) D
= (1/n, 0) R
2
[ n is a nonzero integer 0.
Solution. (a) All points are isolated. If (m, n) A, then D((m, n), 1/2)
A = (m, n). There can be no accumulation points. A
= .
(b) As we have seen before, there are rational numbers in every short interval
of the real line. So if (x, y) is any point in R
2
and > 0, there are
rational points closer than to (x, y) which are not equal to (x, y). We
need only select rational numbers s and t with 0 < [s x[ < /
2 and
0 < [t y[ < /
2.
(c) As m and n run over the integers (with n not 0), the fraction m/n
runs over all of Q. As n increases, we get more and more points along
horizontals coming close to the x axis. The result is that all points
on the x axis are accumulation points. No others are. Consider Figure
2-10. So C
= (x, 0) [ x R.
Figure 2-10. Rational points which accumulate on the horizontal axis.
(d) If we let m = n, we see that all of the points 1/2n for integer n are
in D. Since these converge to 0, this must be an accumulation point.
If we hold n xed and let m , we nd that 1/n + 1/m 1/n.
So 1/n is an accumulation point. For m and n large, 1/n + 1/m moves
away from all other points, so there are no other accumulation points.
D
= 1/n [ n is a nonzero integer 0.

2.4-4. Let A R be nonempty and bounded above and let x = sup(A).
Must x be an accumulation point of A?
Answer. Not necessarily.
Solution. The point sup(A) might not be an accumulation point of A. It
could be what is called an isolated point of A. That is, a point x which is
in A but which is not an accumulation point of A. Consider, for example,
A = [0, 1] 2 R. Then sup A = 2. The interval ]3/2, 5/2[ around 2
contains no points of A other than 2. So 2 is not an accumulation point of
A.
2.4 Accumulation Points 95
2.4-5. Verify Theorem 2.4.2 for the set A = (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+y + 2x =
3.
Sketch. The set A is the parabola y = 4 (x + 1)
2
. We need to show
that A is closed and then independently that A
A to conrm Theorem
2.4.2. Each is accomplished by taking a point not on A and getting a disk
around that point which misses A.
Solution. Theorem 2.4.2 says that A is closed if and only if A
A. The
set A here is the parabolic curve in R
2
dened by the equation x
2
+y+2x =
3. That is, y = 4 (x + 1)
2
. The exercise is asking us to conrm Theorem
2.4.2, so we are being asked to do two things. First, check that A is closed.
Second, check that A
A. These are accomplished in essentially the same

way.
If (a, b) is not on the parabola A, then it lies at a positive distance
r > 0 from that parabola. There is at least one point (perhaps two) on
the parabola at which the distance to (a, b) is minimized, at that minimum
is not 0. No point in the disk D((a, b), r) can lies on A. So this disk is
contained in the complement of A. This shows that the complement of A
is open and hence that A is closed. But it also shows that (a, b) cannot be
an accumulation point of A so that A
A. One can use calculus methods

(including solving a cubic equation) to try to nd this exact distance, or one
can use some geometrical methods to nd a shorter distance which will also
work. Ideas for these methods are sketched in the gure. The rst sketch
shows the disk around (a, b) with the largest possible radius r. However,
any radius with 0 < < r will also serve to make a disk around (a, b)
missing A. The peak of the parabola is at (1, 4), so if b > 4, we can simply
take = b 4. The second sketch illustrates an argument for the case in
which b < 4 and (a, b) is outside the parabola. We can draw the horizontal
and vertical lines from (a, b) to the parabola and then the tangent to the
parabola at one of the intersection points. The result is a right triangle
lying outside the parabola (why?). The hypotenuse is part of the tangent
line. If we take for radius of a disk centered at (a, b) the perpendicular from
(a, b) to the hypotenuse, we get a disk lying completely outside A. The third
sketch illustrates the case in which (a, b) is inside the parabola. Again draw
the vertical and horizontal from (a, b) to A. The segment connecting the
intersection points lies under the parabola since the parabola is concave
down. So we get a right triangle lying inside A. If we take for radius of a
disk centered at (a, b) the perpendicular from (a, b) to the hypotenuse, we
get a disk lying completely inside A.
Here is another way to show that A
A which uses a bit of knowl-

edge about continuous function and convergent sequences. If (a, b) is an
accumulation point of A, then there must be points (x
k
, y
k
) on it with
| (x k, y
k
) (a, b) | < 1/k. In particular, [x
k
a[ < 1/k and [y
k
b[ <
Figure 2-11.
1/k. Thus x
k
a and y + k b. For each k we have y
k
= 4 (x
k
+ 1)
2
,
so by continuity we have b = 4 (a + 1)
2
. That is (a, b) must be on the
parabola A. This shows that A
A.
It is also interesting to note, though not required for this exercise, that
each point in A is an accumulation point of A. If (x, y) satises the equation,
we can select any sequence of distinct x
k
tending to x, put y
k
= 4(x
k
+1)
2
,
and obtain a sequence of distinct points (x
k
, y
k
) on the curve A which tend
to (x, y). Thus (x, y) A
.
2.4-6. Let M be a set with the discrete metric and A M be any subset.
Find the set of accumulation points of A.
Answer. A
= .
Solution. If x
0
M then the ball of radius 1/2 around x
0
contains
no points other than x
0
since all distances between unequal points are 1.
D(x
0
, 1/2) = x
0
. Nonetheless, this ball is an open set. Thus no set
in M can have any accumulation points.
2.5 Closure of a Set
2.5-1. Find the closure of A = (x, y) R
2
[ x > y
2
.
Answer. cl(A) = (x, y) R
2
[ x y
2
.
Solution. The set in question is the region to the right of the parabola
x = y
2
but not including the curve itself. See Figure 2-11.
The points on the curve are accumulation points of this set since if P =
(x, y) satises x = y
2
, then the points P
n
= (x + (1/n), y) are in A. Since
| P P
n
| = 1/n, some of these points are to be found in any disk D(P, )
around P. There are no accumulation points to the left of the parabola.
(See Exercise 2.4-5.) So cl(A) = A A
= (x, y) R
2
[ x y
2
.
2.5 Closure of a Set 97
Figure 2-11.
2.5-2. Find the closure of 1/n [ n = 1, 2, 3, . . . in R.
Answer. cl(A) = 0, 1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . = A 0.
Solution. The point 0 is an accumulation point of A by the Archimedean
principle. There are no other accumulation points since the convergent
sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . . ) has only one cluster point. So
cl(A) = A A
= A 0 = 0, 1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . .
2.5-3. Let A = (x, y) R
2
[ x is rational. Find cl(A).
Answer. R
2
.
Solution. As we have seen before, the rational numbers are scattered
densely in the real line in the sense that if a and b are real numbers with
a < b, then there is a rational number r with a < r < b. Now suppose
P = (x, y) is any point in R
2
and let > 0. Find a rational number r with
x < r < x +. Let Q = (r, y). Then | P Q| = r x < . So Q D(P, )
and Q is not equal to P and Q A. Since this can be done for every
> 0, we see that P is an accumulation point of A. All points of R
2
are
accumulation points of A, so cl(A) = R
2
.
2.5-4. (a) For A R
n
, show that cl(A) A consists entirely of accu-
mulation points of A.
(b) Need it be all of them?
Suggestion. Establish rst the following general observation: If A and
B are sets then (AB) A B. Apply this with B = A
. For part (b) the

answer is No. What might happen if A is a closed set?
Solution. (a) From Proposition 2.5.2 we know that cl(A) = A A
. So
cl(A) A = (A A
) A.
We establish the following general observation:
Lemma. If A and B are sets then (A B) A B.
Proof: Suppose x (AB) A. Then x must either be in A or B since
it is in AB. But it is not in A since the points of A have been deleted.
Thus x must be in B.
Apply this with B = A
to obtain
cl(A) A = (A A
) A A
as desired.
(b) The answer is No. Some or all of the accumulation points might be
in the set A. If A is closed they all are. For example, if A = [0, 1] R,
then A
= A = cl(A) = [0, 1], but cl(A) A = .

Challenge: For what sets is it true that cl(A) A = A
?
2.5-5. In a general metric space M, let A D(x, r) for some x M and
r > 0. Show that cl(A) B(x, r) = y M [ d(x, y) r.
Sketch. The set B(x, r) = My [ d(y, x) > r is closed and A B(x, r).
So cl(A) B(x, r).
Solution. We know that the set U = y [ d(y, x) > r is open so that
B = y [ d(y, x) r is closed. (See the solution to Exercise 2.3-6 or
Example 2.3.4 and Figure 2.3-3 of the text for essentially the same thing
in R
2
.) We certainly have A D(x, r) = y [ d(y, x) < r B(x, r) since
d(y, x) < r = d(y, x) r. So A B. We have that B is a closed set
with A B, so cl(A) B as claimed.
2.6 Boundary of a Set
2.6-1. Find bd(A) where A = 1/n R [ n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Answer. bd(A) = 0 A.
Solution. cl(A) = A 0, 1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . (see Exercise 2.5-2). On the
other hand, every disk D(1/n, ) contains points not in A. So 1/n cl(RA)
Since this can be done for every n > 0, we nd that A cl(R A). Since
R A is also contained in cl(R A), we nd that cl(R A) = R. So
bd(A) = cl(A) cl(R A) = cl(A) R = cl(A) = 0, 1, 1/2.1/3, . . . .
2.6 Boundary of a Set 99
2.6-2. If x cl(A) A, then show that x bd(A). Is the converse true?
Suggestion. If x is not in A, then it is in the complement of A.
Solution. Let the enclosing metric space be M. Suppose x cl(A) A.
Then x cl(A), but x is not in A. So x M A. Since M A cl(M A),
we have x cl(M A). Thus x cl(A) cl(M A) = bd(A) as desired.
The converse is not true. If A is any nonempty closed set with nonempty
boundary, then A = cl(A), so cl(A) A = . For example, take A to be a
single point. A = x. Then bd(A) = A = x. But cl(A)A = xx =
.
2.6-3. Find bd(A) where A = (x, y) R
2
[ x y.
Answer. bd(A) = (x, y) R
2
[ x = y.
Solution. The set A is a closed half plane consisting of those points on
or above the main diagonal. So cl(A) = A. (The reader should by now be
able to supply detail if required.) The complement, R
2
A, is the open half
plane (x, y) R
2
[ x > y consisting of those points below the diagonal.
Its closure is (x, y) R
2
[ x y. The boundary of A is thus
bd(A) = cl(A) cl(R
2
A)
= (x, y) R
2
[ x y (x, y) R
2
[ x y
= (x, y) R
2
[ x = y.
2.6-4. Is it always true that bd(A) = bd(int A)?
Solution. Any isolated points of A will be in bd(A) but will disappear
when we take the interior. For example, let A = [0, 1] 2 R. Then
bd(A) = 0, 1, 2. But int(A) =]0, 1[, and bd(int(A)) = 0, 1. Certainly
0, 1, 2 is not the same as 0, 1.
2.6-5. Let A R be bounded and nonempty and let x = sup(A). Is
x bd(A)?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. Let > 0. Since x = sup A, there must be an element y in A
with x < x x. Every short interval around x contains points of A, so
x cl(A). On the other hand, the upper half of such an interval, ]x, x +[
consists entirely of points in R A since x is an upper bound for A. Thus
x cl(R A). Thus x cl(A) cl(R A) = bd(A) as desired.
2.6-6. Prove that the boundary of a set in R
2
with the standard metric
is the same as it would be with the taxicab metric.
Suggestion. Review Exercise 2.1-6.
Solution. From Exercise 2.1-6, we know that the open sets are the same
for these metrics. Since the closed sets are just the complements of the
open sets, the closed sets are also the same in the two metrics. The closure
of a set is just the intersection of all the closed sets which contain it, so
the closure of a set is the same whichever metric we use. The boundary
of a set is the intersection of the closure of the set with the closure of its
complement. Since the closures are the same, the boundaries are the same.
2.7 Sequences
2.7-1. Find the limit of the sequence
_
(sin n)
n
/n, 1/n
2
_
in R
2
.
Answer. (0, 0).
Solution. Since [sin x[ 1 for every x, we have [(sin n)
n
/n[ 1/n for all
positive integers n. Since 1/n 0, so does (sin n)
n
/n. Also, 0 < 1/n
2
1/n
for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , so 1/n
2
0 also. Both coordinate sequences tend to
0 in R. So the vectors ((sin n)
n
/n, 1/n
2
) converge to (0, 0) in R
2
.
2.7-2. Let x
n
x in R
m
. Show that A = x
n
[ n = 1, 2, . . . x is
closed.
Sketch. Let B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , and show that A = cl(B).
Solution. Let B = x
1
, x
2
, . . . . We are given that x
n
x, so for each
> 0, x
n
D(x, ) for large enough n. Thus x cl(B). On the other
hand, if y cl(B), then either x B or there is a subsequence which
converges to y. To see this suppose y is not in B. There is an index n
1
2.7 Sequences 101
with | y x
n1
| < 1. Since y is not among the x
n
, there is an index n
2
,
necessarily larger than n
1
, such that
| y x
n2
| < min(| y x
1
| , . . . , | y x
n1
|)/2.
Continuing inductively, we get indices
n
1
< n
2
< n
3
< . . .
such that
| y x
n
k
| < min
_
| y x
1
| , . . . ,
_
_
y x
n
k1
_
_
_
/k | y x
1
| /k 0.
So this subsequence converges to y. But it is a subsequence of a sequence
which converges to x, so we must have y = x. Thus the only points which
can be in cl(B) are the points x
n
and x. So cl(B) = B x = x
n
[
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . x. Thus this set is closed since the closure of any set is
closed.
2.7-3. Let A R
m
, x
n
A, and x
n
x. Show that x cl(A).
Sketch. Use Proposition 2.7.6(ii).
Solution. This is exactly one direction of the equivalence in Proposition
2.7.6(ii) with M = R
m
.
2.7-4. Verify Proposition 2.7.6(ii) for the set B = (x, y) R
2
[ x < y.
Solution. Proposition 2.7.6(ii) says that v cl(B) if and only if there is
a sequence v
n
)
1
in B which converges to v. The closure of the open half
plane B = (x, y) R
2
[ x < y is the closed half plane cl(B) = (x, y)
R
2
[ x y. (Why?) If v B, we can just take v
n
= v for each n to get
a sequence converging to v. If v = (x, x) is on the boundary line, we can
take v
n
= (x (1/n), x). These are in B, and | v v
n
| = 1/n, so v
n
v.
If v = (x, y) with y < x, then v lies at a positive distance away from the
boundary line, and no sequence from B can converge to it.
2.7-5. Let S = x R [ x is rational and x
2
< 2. Compute cl(S).
Answer. cl(S) = x R [ x
2
2 = [
2,
2].
Solution. Rational numbers x with x
2
2 are dense in the open interval
]
2,
2[ as we have seen several times before. We can nd rationals as

close as we wish to any real number in that interval. Their closure is thus
the closed interval [
2,
2] of the real line.

2.8 Completeness
2.8-1. Suppose that N is a complete subset of a metric space (M, d).
Show that N is closed.
Sketch. If x
n
N and x
n
x, then x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence. Since
N is complete, it has a limit in N M. Since limits in M are unique, this
limit must be x. So x N. This shows that N is closed. (Why?)
Solution. To show that N is a closed subset of M, it suces by Propo-
sition 2.7.6(i) to show that if x
n
)
1
is a sequence of points in N which
converges to a limit x in M, then x must be in N. So suppose x
n
)
1
is a
sequence in N and that x
n
x M. Since x
n
)
1
is a convergent sequence
in the metric space M, it must be a Cauchy sequence. The metric in N is,
of course, the same as that of M, and all of the x
n
are in N. So x
n
)
1
is a
Cauchy sequence in N. As a metric space in its own right we have assumed
that N is complete. So the sequence x
n
)
1
must converge to some point
y N. But N M, so we have x
n
x M and x
n
y M. We
know that limits in a metric space are unique, so y = x. Thus x N as we
needed to establish that N is closed.
2.8-2. Let (M, d) be a metric space with the property that every bounded
sequence has a convergent subsequence. Prove that M is complete.
Sketch. Use parts (ii) and (iii) of Proposition 2.8.4.
Solution. To show that M is complete we need to show that every
Cauchy sequence in M converges to a limit in M. So let x
n
)
1
be a Cauchy
sequence in M. By Proposition 2.8.4(ii), the sequence is bounded. By hy-
pothesis, this means that it must have a subsequence converging to some
point x M. But then by 2.8.4(iii), the whole sequence converges to x.
Thus every Cauchy sequence in M converges to a point in M, so M is
complete.
2.8-3. Let M be a set with the discrete metric. Is M complete?
Sketch. Yes, every Cauchy sequence is eventually constant.
Solution. Suppose M is a set and d is the discrete metric on M. That
is, d(x, y) = 0 if x = y , and d(x, y) = 1 if x and y are dierent. Suppose
x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in M. Then there is an index N such that
d(x
n
, x
k
) < 1/2 whenever n N and k N. In particular, d(x
N
, x
k
) 1/2
for all k N. But this forces x
k
= x
N
for all k N. That is, the sequence
2.9 Series of Real Numbers and Vectors 103
is constantly equal to x
N
past the N
th
term. Thus d(x
k
, x
N
) = 0 for k N,
and the sequence converges to x
N
. Every Cauchy sequence in M converges
to a point in M, so M is complete.
2.8-4. Show that a Cauchy sequence can have at most one cluster point.
Sketch. Use 2.8.7(ii) and 2.8.4(iii) and the uniqueness of limits in a metric
space (and possibly 2.8.7(iii)).
Solution. Let x
n
)
1
be a Cauchy sequence in a metric space (M, d), and
suppose that x and y are cluster points of the sequence. We want to show
that x = y. By Proposition 2.8.7(ii), there is a subsequence x
n
k
converging
to x and a subsequence x
nj
converging to y. By Proposition 2.8.4(iii), the
whole sequence converges to x and also to y. But we know that limits in a
metric space are unique, so x = y as claimed.
Instead of using the uniqueness of limits directly at the last step, we
could also argue as follows after observing that the sequence converges to
x. By Proposition 2.8.7(iii) every subsequence converges to x. In particular
x
nj
should converge to x. But it converges to y. Now apply the uniqueness
of limits to conclude that x = y.
2.8-5. Suppose that a metric space M has the property that every bound-
ed sequence has at least one cluster point. Show that M is complete.
Sketch. If x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence it is bounded. It has a cluster
points and hence a convergent subsequence. So the whole sequence con-
verges. (Why?)
Solution. To show that M is complete we need to show that every cauchy
sequence in M converges to a limit in M. So let x
n
)
1
be a Cauchy sequence
in M. By Proposition 2.8.4(ii), the sequence is bounded. By hypothesis it
must have at least one cluster point x. By 2.8.7(ii) there is a subsequence
which converges to x. Finally, by Proposition 2.8.4(iii), the whole sequence
converges to x. Every Cauchy sequence in M converges to a point in M,
so M is complete.
2.9 Series of Real Numbers and Vectors
2.9-1. Determine whether
n=1
_
(sin n)
n
n
2
,
1
n
2
_
converges.
Answer. Converges.
Solution. An innite series converges if and only if the sequence of its
partial sums converges. From Proposition 2.7.4 we know that a sequence
of vectors in R
n
converges to a limit w in R
n
if and only if each of the
coordinate sequences converges to the corresponding coordinate of w. The
coordinates of the partial sums of an innite series of vectors are precisely
the partial sums of the coordinate series:
k
j=1
(v
1
j
, . . . , v
n
j
) =
_
_
k
j=1
v
1
j
, . . . ,
k
j=1
v
n
j
_
_
We conclude,
Proposition. An innite series of vectors in R
n
converges to a sum w in
R
n
if and only if each of the coordinate series converges to the corresponding
coordinate of w.
In our current problem, the coordinate series are
n=1
(sin n)
n
n
2
and
n=1
1
n
2
.
The second of these converges by the p-series test, Proposition 2.9.4(iii).
Also, since [sin x[ 1 for every real x, we have 0
(sin n)
n
/n
2
1/n
2
for every n. So the series
n=1
(sin n)
n
n
2
converges by the comparison test,

2.9.4(ii). Thus
n=1
(sin n)
n
n
2
is absolutely convergent and so convergent by
Theorem 2.9.3. Both of our coordinate series are convergent, so the series
of vectors converges in R
2
.
2.9-2. Show that the series in Example 2.9.6 converges absolutely.
Sketch. Use comparison to a geometric series.
Solution. In Example 2.9.6, we are given that | x
n
| 1/2
n
for each n.
But we know that the geometric series
n=1
(1/2
n
) converges as a geomet-
ric series with ratio 1/2 < 1 (Theorem 2.9.4(i)). Since 0 | x
n
| 1/2
n
for each n, we conclude that

n=1
| x
n
| converges in R by comparison
(2.9.4(ii)). This is exactly the denition of absolute convergence of the se-
ries

n=1
x
n
. (It implies convergence of the series by Theorem 2.9.3, but
this was not actually part of the problem.)
2.9-3. Let

x
k
converge in R
n
. Show that x
k
0 = (0, . . . , 0) R
n
.
Sketch. Let > 0. By 2.9.2, there is an N such that | x
k
| < for every
k N. So x
k
0.
2.9 Series of Real Numbers and Vectors 105
Solution. Taking 1 = R
n
and p = 0 in Theorem 2.9.2 (the Cauchy
criterion for convergence of an innite series), we see that for every > 0,
there is an N such that k N implies | x
k
| < . This means that x
k

0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0) R
n
as claimed.
2.9-4. Test for convergence
n=3
2
n
+n
3
n
n
.
Suggestion. Try the ratio comparison test.
Solution. The idea of the solution is that for large n, the exponentials
2
n
and 3
n
dominate the n terms and the series should behave much like
the series

(2
n
/3
n
) =
(2/3)
n
. We know this last series converges since
it is a geometric series with ratio less than 1. So we conjecture that our
original series converges. To establish this we will use the ratio comparison
test. The dominance mentioned is embodied in the following observation.
Lemma. If r > 1, then lim
n
n
r
n
= 0.
Proof: Let > 0. Then
n
r
n
< n < r
n
log n < log +nlog r
log r >
log n log
n
.
The left side of the last inequality is positive since r > 1, and the right
side tends to 0 as n by LH opitals Rule. So the inequality is valid
for large n, and we have our limit as claimed.
Now to solve the problem, let a
n
=
2
n
+n
3
n
n
and b
n
=
2
n
3
n
. Then
a
n
b
n
=
2
n
+n
3
n
n
3
n
2
n
=
1 + (n/2
n
)
1 (n/3
n
)

1 + 0
1 0
= 1
By the ratio comparison test, the series
n=3
2
n
+n
3
n
n
and
n=3
2
n
3
n
=
n=3
_
2
3
_
n
either both converge or both diverge. We know the latter converges since
it is a geometric series with ratio less than 1. So our series converges also.
2.9-5. Test for convergence
n=0
n!
3
n
.
Answer. Does not converge.
Solution. We know that 3
n
/n! converges to 0 as n (Exercise 1.2-2).
So n!/3
n
. In particular, the terms do not converge to 0. According
to Exercise 2.9-3, the series cannot converge.
To avoid reference to 1.2, one can simply note that if n 3, then
n!/3
n
2/9. The terms remain larger than 2/9 and the partial sums must
become arbitrarily large. The sum diverges to +.
2E-1. Discuss whether the following sets are open or closed:
(a) ]1, 2[ in R
1
= R
(b) [2, 3] in R
(c)
n=1
[1, 1/n[ inR
(d) R
n
in R
n
(e) A hyperplane in R
n
(f) r ]0, 1[[ r is rational inR
(g) (x, y) R
2
[ 0 < x 1 inR
2
(h) x R
n
[ [[x[[ = 1 in R
n
Answer. (a) Open.
(b) Closed.
(c) [1, 0] is closed.
(d) Open and closed.
(e) Closed.
(f) Neither open nor closed.
(g) Neither open nor closed.
(h) Closed.
Solution. (a) Any open interval such as ]1, 2[ is an open subset of R
1
=
R. This follows from Proposition 2.1.2 since an open interval is a one
dimensional disk in R
1
. In this case the center is at x
0
= 1.5 and the
radius is r = 0.5. ]1, 2[= x R [ [x 1.5[ < 0.5.
A direct argument can be given by letting x ]1, 2[, and setting =
min(2 x, x 1). If y ]x , x +[, then
1 = x (x 1) x < y < x + x + (2 x) = 2.
So ]x, x+[= D(x, ) ]1, 2[. The set ]1, 2[ contains an open interval
centered around each of its points, so it is an open set.
(b) If a b R, then the closed interval [a, b] = x R [ a x b is a
closed subset of R. One way to see this is to note that its complement
is the union of the two open half-lines U = x R [ x < a and
V = x R [ x > b. Each of these is open by a argument like that of
part (a), so their union is open. The complement of that union, [a, b], is
thus closed.
(c)

n=1
[1, 1/n[= [1, 0] since if 1 x 0, then x [1, 1/n[ for
each positive n, and so is in the intersection. If x > 0, then by the
Archimedean principle there is an integer n > 0 such that 0 < 1/n < x.
So x is not in ]1, 1/n[ for that (or larger) n and is not in the intersection.
The interval [1, 0] is closed by part (b).
(d) As with any metric space, the entire space R
n
is both open and closed
as a subset of itself. Propositions 2.1.3(iii) and 2.3.2(iii).
(e) A hyperplane in R
n
is an (n 1)dimensional linear subspace. (Some-
times the word is also used to include what we have called ane hy-
perplanes, that is, translations of such subspaces.) In R
2
these would
be straight lines. In R
3
they would be ordinary planes, and so forth. In
the jargon of the trade they have co-dimension one. Such a set is a
closed subset since its complement is open. One way to see this is to use
a bit of knowledge about the ability to choose bases for vector spaces.
If H is a hyperplane in R
n
, then we can select an orthonormal basis
e
1
, e
2
, . . . e
n1
for H. We can then extend this to an orthonormal
basis e
1
, e
2
, . . . e
n
for R
n
by selecting a nal unit vector e
n
orthogonal
to the rst n1. If v is not in H, then v =
n
k=1
v, e
k
) e
k
, and v, e
n
)
is not 0. The vector Pv =

n1
k=1
v, e
k
) e
k
is in H and is called the
projection of v onto H. Furthermore, if w H, then Pv w H, so
Pvw is perpendicular to e
n
and thus to vPv = v, e
n
) e
n
. In general
we have the Pythagorean theorem:
Lemma. If f, g ) = 0, then | f +g |
2
= | f |
2
+| g |
2
.
Proof: Using the assumed orthogonality, we compute
| f +g |
2
= f +g, f +g ) = f, f ) + f, g ) + g, f ) + g, g )
= | f |
2
+ 0 + 0 +| g |
2
= | f |
2
+| g |
2
as desired.
Applying this in our current setting, we nd
| v w|
2
= | (v Pv) + (Pv w) |
2
= | v Pv |
2
+| Pv w|
2
= [ v, e
n
)[
2
+| Pv w|
2
[ v, e
n
)[
2
.
So, if we set r = [ v, e
n
)[, we nd that r > 0 and | v w| r for every
w in H. Thus D(v, r/2) R
n
H. So R
n
H is open and H is closed in
R
n
. See Figure 2-13.
Figure 2-13. A hyperplane is closed.
(f) The set F = r ]0, 1[ [ r Q is not open in R since, for example, every
open interval centered at 1/2 contains irrational numbers. It is not closed
since the complement is not open. Every open interval around 0 contains
the rational numbers 1/n for large enough positive integers n, and these
are in F. Thus F is neither open nor closed.
(g) The set G = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 < x 1 is neither open nor closed in R
2
.
As in Example 2.1.5 it is not open since (1, 0) G, but each disk around
(1, 0) contains points (x, 0) not in G. Just take x slightly larger than 1.
But, similarly, the complement is not open either. The point (0, 0) is in
the complement, but each small disk around (0, 0) contains points (x, 0)
which are in G. Just take x slightly larger than 0. The complement is
not open, so G is not closed.
(h) The set H = x R
n
[ | x| = 1 is a closed subset of R
n
. One way to see
this is to note that its complement is the union of the two sets U = x
R
n
[ | x| < 1 and V = x R
n
[ | x| > 1. The disk U is open by
Proposition 2.1.2. The set V is also open. The argument is basically that
given in R
2
in the solution to Example 2.3.4 and illustrated in Figure
2.3-3 of the text. Their union is thus also open and the complement of
that union, which is H, is closed.
2E-2. Determine the interiors, closures, and boundaries of the sets in
Exercise 2E-1.
Answer. (a) If A =]1, 2[ in R
1
= R, then int(A) = A =]1, 2[, cl(A) =
[1, 2], and bd(A) = 1, 2.
(b) If B = [2, 3] in R, then int(B) =]2, 3[, cl(B) = B = [2, 3], and bd(B) =
2, 3.
(c) If C =
n=1
[1, 1/n[ in R, then int(C) =] 1, 0[, cl(C) = [1, 0], and
bd(C) = 1, 0.
(d) If D = R
n
in R
n
, then int(D) = cl(D) = D and bd(D) = .
(e) If E is a hyperplane in R
n
, then int(E) = and cl(E) = bd(E) = E.
(f) If F = r ]0, 1[ [ r Q in R, then int(F) = and cl(F) = bd(F) =
[0, 1].
(g) If G = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 < x 1 in R
2
, then int(G) = (x, y) R
2
[
0 < x < 1, cl(G) = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1, and bd(G) = (x, y)
R
2
[ x = 0 or x = 1.
(h) If H = x R
n
[ | x| = 1 in R
n
, then int(H) = and cl(H) =
bd(H) = H.
Solution. (a) If A =]1, 2[ in R
1
= R, then we know from Exercise 2E-
1(a) that A is open, so int(A) = A. The endpoints 1 and 2 are certainly
accumulation points, so they are in the closure. From Exercise 2E-1(b),
we know that closed intervals are closed sets, so [1, 2] is closed. Thus
cl(A) = [1, 2]. Similarly cl(R A) = x [ x 1 x [ x 2, so
bd(A) = cl(A) cl(R A) = 1, 2.
(b) If B = [2, 3] in R, then we know from Exercise 2E-1(b) that B is closed,
so cl(B) = B. The situation is just like that of part (a). We have a nite
interval in R. The interior is the open interval, the closure is the closed
interval, and the boundary is the set consisting of the two endpoints. So
int(B) =]2, 3[, cl(B) = B = [2, 3], and bd(B) = 2, 3.
(c) If C =

n=1
[1, 1/n[ in R, then as we saw in Exercise 2E-1(c), C =
[1, 0]. Again we have an interval in R and, as discussed above, we must
have int(C) =] 1, 0[, cl(C) = [1, 0], and bd(C) = 1, 0.
(d) If D = R
n
in R
n
, then we know that D is both open and closed, so
int(D) = cl(D) = D. Since the complement of D is empty, the closure
of the complement is empty, and we must have bd(D) = .
(e) Suppose E is a hyperplane in R
n
. As in Exercise 2E-1(e), E is closed,
so cl(E) = E. Let e
n
be a unit vector orthogonal to E, then if w E,
the points v
k
= w + (1/k)e
n
are in the complement of E and converge
to w. So w is in the closure of the complement and is not in the interior
of E. This is true for every w E, so int(E) = and bd(E) = cl(E)
cl(R
n
E) = E R
n
= E.
(f) Let F = r ]0, 1[ [ r Q in R. If r F and > 0, then we have seen
that the interval ]r, r+[ contains irrational numbers. So r cannot be
an interior point. So int(F) = . On the other hand, if 0 x
0
1, then
there are rational numbers between x
0
and x
0
and between x
0
and
x
0
+. So x
0
is an accumulation point of F. We must have cl(F) = [0, 1].
But for similar reasons, cl(R F) = R, so bd(F) = cl(F) cl(R F) =
[0, 1] R = [0, 1].
(g) Consider the sets
G = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 < x 1
S = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 < x < 1
T = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1
U = (x, y) R
2
[ x < 0
V = (x, y) R
2
[ x > 1
W = (x, y) R
2
[ x 1
P = (x, y) R
2
[ x 0.
We certainly have S G T. As in Example 2.1.4 of the text, the
set S is open. So S int(G). As in Example 2.1.5, none of the points
(x, y) with int(H) = S = (x, y) R
2
[ 0, x < 1. The half planes U
and V are open by an argument similar to that of Example 2.1.5 which
we have seen before. For example, suppose (a, b) U. Then a < 0. If
| (x, y) (a, b) | < [a[, then
[x a[
_
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
< [a[ .
So
a = [a[ < x a < [a[ = a.
Adding a to both sides of the second inequality gives x < 0. Thus
(x, y) U. Thus D((a, b), [a[) U. The set U contains an open disk
around each of its points and so is open. The argument for the half plane
V is similar. Since U and V are open, so is their union. But that union is
the complement of T. So T is closed. Thus cl(G) T. On the other hand,
the points (1/n, y) are in G for each n = 1, 2, . . . and converge to (0, y).
So (0, y) cl(G). We must have cl(G) = T = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1.
Finally, W and P are closed since they are the complements of V and
U. So their union is closed and must be the closure of the complement
of G. So bd(G) = T (W P) = (x, y) R
2
[ x = 0 or x = 1.
(h) Let H = x R
n
[ | x| = 1 in R
n
. Thus H is closed (Exercise 2E-
1(h)). So cl(H) = H. If x H, then the points w
n
= (1 + (1/n)x are
not in H but do converge to x. So x cannot be an interior point and
int(H) = . This also shows that x cl(R
n
H). So H cl(R
n
H),
and bd(H) = cl(H) cl(R
n
H) = H cl(R
n
H) = H.
2E-3. Let U be open in M and U A. Show that U int(A). What is
the corresponding statement for closed sets?
Suggestion. Each x in U satises the denition of an interior point of
A. For closed sets: If A C and C is closed, then cl(A) C.
Solution. Suppose U is open and U A. Let x U, then U itself is an
open set such that x U A. So x int(A). Thus U int(A) as claimed.
Here is a similar sort of assertion about closed sets and closures:
Proposition. If A C and C is closed, then cl(A) C.
Proof: The closure of a set A was dened as the intersection of all closed
sets which contain A. Since C is one of the sets being intersected, we
certainly have
cl(A) = D M [ A D and D is closed C
as claimed.
2E-4. (a) Show that if x
n
x in a metric space M, then x
clx
1
, x
2
, . . . . When is x an accumulation point?
(b) Can a sequence have more than one accumulation point?
(c) If x is an accumulation point of a set A, prove that there is a sequence
of distinct points of A converging to x.
Sketch. (a) Use 2.7.6(ii).
(b) Yes.
(c) Choose the sequence inductively with d(x, x
n+1
) < d(x, x
n
)/2.
Solution. (a) Let S = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . . The set whose elements appear
as entries in the sequence. Then we certainly have x
n
)
1
is a sequence
in S which converges to x. By Proposition 2.7.6(ii), we conclude that
x cl(S) as requested. For x to be an accumulation point of S, we need
every open set containing x to contain points of the sequence which are
not equal to x. This will happen if the sequence contains innitely many
terms which are not equal to each other. In that case we will have: For
each > 0 and each N there is an index n > N with d(x, x
n
) < .
(b) A sequence can have more than one accumulation point. For example,
if x
n
= (1)
n
+ (1/n), then 1 and 1 are accumulation points of the
sequence x
n
)
1
.
(c) Suppose x is an accumulation point of a set A. A sequence of distinct
(that is, all dierent) points can be selected from A converging to x by
choosing the sequence inductively. That is, the choice of each term in
the sequence is made depending on knowledge of the earlier terms.
STEP 0: Since x is an accumulation point of A, there is a point x
0
A
with d(x
0
, x) < 1 and x
0
not equal to x.
STEP 1: Since x
0
is not x, we have d(x
0
, x) > 0. Since x is an accu-
mulation point of A, there is a point x
1
not equal to x in A such that
d(x
1
, x) < d(x
0
, x)/2. Note that this forces x
1
to be dierent from x
0
.
STEP 2: Since x
1
is not x, we have d(x
1
, x) > 0. Since x is an accu-
mulation point of A, there is a point x
2
not equal to x in A such that
d(x
2
, x) < d(x
1
, x)/2. We have x, x
0
, x
1
, and x
2
are all dierent and
d(x
2
, x) < d(x
1
, x)/2 < d(x
0
, x)/4 < 1/4.
.
.
.
STEP n + 1: Having selected x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, . . . , and x
n
in A, all dierent
from x and from each other with
0 < d(x
n
, x) < d(x
n1
, x)/2 < < d(x
1
, x)/2
n1
< d(x
0
, x)/2
n
< 1/2
n
we can select a point x
n+1
in A not equal to x such that d(x
n+1
, x) <
d(x
n
, x)/2. We then have x
n+1
dierent from all preceding terms in the
sequence and
0 < d(x
n+1
, x) <d(x
n
, x)/2 < d(x
n1
, x)/4 < < d(x
2
, x)/2
n1
< d(x
1
, x)/2
n
< d(x
0
, x)/2
n+1
< 1/2
n+1
.
.
.
.
This process inductively selects a sequence x
n
)
1
of points in A which
are all dierent, none of which are equal to x, and such that d(x
n
, x) <
1/2
n
for each n. So x
n
x, and they meet the requirements of the
problem.
2E-5. Show that x int(A) i there is an > 0 such that D(x, ) A.
Suggestion. There is an open set U with x U A. Use the denition
of openness of U.
Solution. First suppose that x int(A). Then there is an open set U
such that x U A. Since U is open and x U, there is an > 0 such that
x D(x, ) U. Putting these together we obtain x D(x, ) U A
as desired.
For the opposite implication, suppose there is an > 0 such that D(x, )
A. Let U = D(x, ). Since d(x, x) = 0, we certainly have x U A,
and by Proposition 2.1.2, we know that U is open. So x int(A).
We have proved the implications in both directions, so x int(A) i
there is an > 0 such that D(x, ) A as claimed.
2E-6. Find the limits, if they exist, of these sequences in R
2
:
(a)
_
(1)
n
,
1
n
_
(b)
_
1,
1
n
_
(c)
__
1
n
_
(cos n),
_
1
n
_
_
sin
_
n +

2
__
_
(d)
_
1
n
, n
n
_
Answer. (a) Does not converge.
(b) (1, 0).
(c) (0, 0).
(d) (0, 0).
Solution. (a) The limit lim
n
((1)
n
, 1/n)) does not exist since the
rst coordinate sequence, 1, 1, 1, . . . does not converge and we know
from Proposition 2.7.4 that a sequence of vectors in R
2
converges to a
limit vector w if and only if both coordinate sequences converge to the
corresponding coordinate of w. We use this same proposition in parts
(b), (c), and (d).
(b) In the sequence of vectors given by v
n
= (1, 1/n), the rst coordinate
sequence is the constant sequence x
n
= 1 for every n. This certainly
converge to 1. The second coordinate sequence is given by y
n
= 1/n for
each n. We know by the Archimedean Principle that this converges to
0. So, by Proposition 2.7.4, lim
n
v
n
= (1, 0).
(c) Now put v
n
=
__
1
n
_
(cos n),
_
1
n
_
_
sin
_
n +

2
__
_
. For the coordi-
nate sequences we have
[x
n
[ =
1
n
cos n
1
n
and [y
n
[ =
1
n
sin
_
n +

2
_
1
n
.
Since 1/n 0, we conclude that x
n
0 and y
n
0 (Sandwich). By
Proposition 2.7.4, lim
n
v
n
= (0, 0).
(d) Now put v
n
=
_
1
n
, n
n
_
. For the coordinate sequences we have
[x
n
[ =
1
n
=
1
n
and [y
n
[ =
1
n
n
1
n
.
The latter is because 0 < n < n
n
for n 1. Since 1/n 0, we con-
clude that x
n
0 and y
n
0. (Sandwich). By Proposition 2.7.4,
lim
n
v
n
= (0, 0).
2E-7. Let U be open in a metric space M. Show that U = cl(U)bd(U).
Is this true for every set in M?
Answer. It is not true for every subset of M. Try U = [0, 1] R.
Solution. Let U be an open subset of a metric space M and suppose that
x U. Since U is open, MU is closed. So cl(MU) = MU. In particular,
x is not in cl(M U), so it is not in bd(U) = cl(M U) cl(U). On the
other hand, since U cl(A), we do have x cl(U). Thus x cl(U)bd(U).
This shows that U cl(U) bd(U).
Now suppose x cl(U) bd(U). We want to show that x must be in U.
Since it is in the closure of U but not in the boundary of U, it must not be
in the closure of the complement of U. But U is open, so the complement
of U is closed and so equal to its closure. Thus x is not in the complement
of U and so it must be in U.
We have proved inclusion in both directions, so the sets are equal as
claimed.
The equality is not true for every set. Consider for example, M = R and
U = [0, 1]. Since U is closed, cl(U) = U = [0, 1]. But the boundary of U is
the two point set 0, 1. So cl(U) bd(U) is the open interval ]0, 1[.
A good discussion question: Does this characterize open sets? Is it pos-
sible that U is open if and only if U = cl(U) bd(U)?
2E-8. Let S R be nonempty, bounded below, and closed. Show that
inf(S) S.
Suggestion. Show there is a sequence in S converging to inf S.
Solution. Since S is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded below, it
has a greatest lower bound = inf S R by Theorem 1.3.4. Since is the
greatest lower bound, we know that for each n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , that +(1/n)
is not a lower bound. So there must be points x
n
in S with
x
n
< +
1
n
.
So [x
n
[ < 1/n. Since 1/n 0, we conclude that x
n
= inf S. Since
x
n
)
1
is a sequence in S converging to inf S, we know from Proposition
2.7.6 that inf S must be in cl(S).
2E-9. Show that
(a) intB = B bdB, and
(b) cl(A) = M int(M A).
Answer. Use Proposition 2.6.2 to get (a). Then use (a) to get (b).
Solution. (a) Let B be a subset of a metric space M, and suppose that
x int(B). Then there is an > 0 such that x D(x, ) B. (See
Exercise 2E-5.) This disk is contained in B and so cannot intersect
M B. By Proposition 2.6.2, x cannot be in bd(B). On the other hand,
since int(B) B, x is certainly in B. Thus x B bd(B). This shows
that int(B) B bd(B).
Now suppose that x B bd(B). We want to show that x must be an
interior point of B. Since x B, every disk centered at x intersects B
(at least at x if nowhere else). If all such disks also intersected M B,
then x would be in bd(B) by 2.6.2. But we have assumed that x is not
in bd(B). So there must be an > 0 such that D(x, ) (M B) = .
This forces x D(x, ) B. So x int(B). (See Exercise 2E-5.) This
holds for every such x, so B bd(B) int(B).
We have proved inclusion in both directions, so int(B) = B bd(B) as
claimed.
(b) Let A be a subset of a metric space M and set B = MA. So A = MB.
Using the result of part (a) we can compute:
M int(M A) = M int(B) = M (B bd(B))
= M
_
B (M bd(B))
= [M B] [M (M bd(B))]
= A bd(B) = A bd(M A) = A bd(A).
Since bd(M A) = cl(M A) cl(A) = cl(A) cl(M A) = bd(A). We
are done as soon as we establish the following:
Proposition. If A is a subset of a metric space M, then cl(A) =
A bd(A).
Proof: First of all, bd(A) = cl(A)cl(MA) cl(A), and A cl(A). So
A bd(A) cl(A). For the opposite inclusion, suppose that x cl(A).
If x A, then it is certainly in A bd(A). If x is not in A, then it
is in M A and so in cl(M A). Since we have assumed that it is in
cl(A), we have x cl(A) cl(M A) = bd(A) A bd(A). In either
case, x A bd(A). So cl(A) A bd(A). We have inclusion in both
directions, so the sets are equal as claimed.
2E-10. Determine which of the following statements are true.
(a) int(cl(A)) = int(A).
(b) cl(A) A = A.
(c) cl(int(A)) = A.
(d) bd(cl(A)) = bd(A).
(e) If A is open, then bd(A) M A.
Answer. (a) May be false.
(b) True.
(c) May be false.
(d) May be false.
(e) True.
Solution. (a) The equality int(cl(A)) = int(A) is not always true. Con-
sider the example A = [1, 1]0 R. Then cl(A) is the closed interval
[1, 1], and int(cl(A)) is the open interval ]1, 1[. But int(A) is the open
interval with zero deleted. int(A) =] 1, 1[0.
(b) True: Since A cl(A), we always have cl(A) A = A.
(c) The proposed equality, cl(int(A)) = A, is not always true. Consider the
example of a one point set with the usual metric on R. Take A = 0
R. Then
_
A = . So cl(int(A)) = . But A is not empty.
(d) The proposed equality, bd(cl(A)) = bd(A), is not always true. Consider
the same example as in part (a). A = [1, 1] 0 R. Then cl(A) is
the closed interval [1, 1] and bd(cl(A)) is the two point set 1, 1.
But bd(A) is the three point set 1, 0, 1.
(e) The proposed inclusion, bd(A) M A, is true if A is an open subset
of the metric space M. The set A is open, so its complement, M A, is
closed. Thus
bd(A) = cl(A) cl(M A) = cl(A) (M A) M A
as claimed.
2E-11. Show that in a metric space, x
m
x i for every > 0, there is
an N such that m N implies d(x
m
, x) (this diers from Proposition
2.7.2 in that here < is replaced by ).
Suggestion. Consider d(x
m
, x) /2 < .
Solution. One direction is trivial. If x
m
x, then for each > 0, there
is an N such that m N implies d(x
m
, x) < .
For the other direction, suppose that for each > 0 there is an N such
that m N implies d(x
m
, x) . Let
0
> 0. Then also,
0
/2 > 0. By
hypothesis there is an N such that m N implies d(x
m
, x)
0
/2 <
0
.
This can be done for each
0
> 0, so x
m
x.
We have established the implications in both directions, so x
m
x i
for every > 0, there is an N such that m N implies d(x
m
, x) as
claimed.
2E-12. Prove the following properties for subsets A and B of a metric
space:
(a) int(int(A)) = int(A).
(b) int(A B) int(A) int(B).
(c) int(A B) = int(A) int(B).
Solution. (a) For any set C we know that int(C) C, so, in particular,
int(int(A)) int(A). For the other direction, suppose x int(A). Then
there is an open set U such that x U A. If y U, then y U A,
so y int(A). Thus U int(A). We have x U int(A), so x
int(int(A)). This shows that int(A) int(int(A)). We have inclusion in
both directions, so int(A) = int(int(A)) as claimed.
Notice that in the middle of the argument just given, we established:
Proposition. If U is open and U A, then U int(A).
This was Exercise 2E-3.
(b) Suppose x int(A) int(B). Then x int(A) or x int(B).
CASE 1: If x int(A), then there is an open set U with x U A
A B. So x int(A B).
CASE 2: If x int(B), then there is an open set U with x U B
A B. So x int(A B).
Since at least one of cases (1) or (2) must hold, we know that x
int(AB). This holds for every x in int(A)int(B), so int(A)int(B)
int(A B) as claimed.
The inclusion just established could be proper. Take as subsets of the
metric space R the punctured open interval A =] 1, 1[0, and the
one point set B = 0. Then A is open, so int(A) = A, and int(B) = .
So int(A)int(B) = A. But AB is the unbroken open interval ] 1, 1[.
So int(A B) =] 1, 1[. We see that 0 int(A B) (int(A) int(B)).
(c) This is the same as Exercise 2.2-4.
2E-13. Show that cl(A) = A bd(A).
Suggestion. Compare with Exercise 2E-9.
Solution. First of all, bd(A) = cl(A)cl(MA) cl(A), and A cl(A).
So A bd(A) cl(A). For the opposite inclusion, suppose that x cl(A).
If x A, then it is certainly in A bd(A). If x is not in A, then it is
in M A and so in cl(M A). Since we have assumed that it is in cl(A),
we have x cl(A) cl(M A) = bd(A) A bd(A). In either case,
x Abd(A). So cl(A) Abd(A). We have inclusion in both directions,
so cl(A) = A bd(A) as claimed.
2E-14. Prove the following for subsets of a metric space M:
(a) cl(cl(A)) = cl(A).
(b) cl(A B) = cl(A) cl(B).
(c) cl(A B) cl(A) cl(B).
Solution. Lets make explicit a few lemmas about closure.
Lemma. Suppose A, B, and C are subsets of a metric space M.
(1) cl(A) is a closed set.
(2) A cl(A).
(3) If C is closed and A C, then cl(A) C.
(4) If A B, then cl(A) cl(B).
(5) A is closed if and only if A = cl(A).
Proof: Since cl(A) is dened as the intersection of all closed subsets of
M which contain A and the intersection of any family of closed sets is
closed, (Proposition 2.3.2(ii)), we see that cl(A) must be a closed set. Since
A is contained in each of the sets being intersected, it is contained in the
intersection which is cl(A). For part (3), if C is closed and A C, then C
is one of the sets being intersected to obtain cl(A). So cl(A) C.
For part (4), if A B, then we know from part (2) that A B cl(B),
and from part (1) that cl(B) is a closed set. So cl(B) is a closed set which
contains A. By part (3) we conclude that cl(A) cl(B) as desired.
Finally, if A = cl(A), then it is closed by part (1). We always have
A cl(A) by part (2). Of course, A A, so if A is closed, then we also
have cl(A) A by part (3). With inclusion in both directions, we conclude
that A = cl(A) as claimed.
(a) If A is any subset of a metric space M, then cl(A) is a closed set by part
(1) of the lemma. So cl(cl(A)) = cl(A) by part (5).
(b) If A and B are subsets of a metric space M, then A A B and
B A B. So, by part (4) of the lemma, cl(A) cl(A B) and
cl(B) cl(AB). So cl(A)cl(B) cl(AB). On the other hand, using
part (2) gives A cl(A) cl(A)cl(B). and B cl(B) cl(A)cl(B).
So A B cl(A) cl(B). Each of the sets cl(A) and cl(B) is closed, so
their union is also. Thus cl(A) cl(B) is a closed set containing A B.
By part (3), we have cl(A B) cl(A) cl(B). We have inclusion in
both directions, so cl(A B) = cl(A) cl(B) as claimed.
(c) If A and B are subsets of a metric space M, then A B A and
A B B. By part (3) of the lemma we have cl(A B) cl(A) and
cl(A B) cl(B). So cl(A B) cl(A) cl(B) as claimed.
Note: The inclusion established in part (b) might be proper. Consider,
for example, the open intervals A =]0, 1[ and B =]1, 2[ as subsets of R.
Then cl(A B) = cl() = . But cl(A) cl(B) = [0, 1] [1, 2] = 1.
2E-15. Prove the following for subsets of a metric space M:
(a) bd(A) = bd(M A).
(b) bd(bd(A)) bd(A).
(c) bd(A B) bd(A) bd(B) bd(A B) A B.
(d) bd(bd(bd(A))) = bd(bd(A)).
Sketch. (a) Use M (M A) = A and the denition of boundary.
(b) Use the fact that bd(A) is closed. (Why?)
(c) The facts cl(AB) = cl(A) cl(B) and cl(AB) cl(A) cl(B) from
Exercise 2E-14 are useful.
(d) One approach is to show that cl(M bd(bd(A))) = M or, equivalently,
that int(bd(bd(A))) = , and use that to compute bd(bd(bd(A))).
Solution. (a) If A is a subset of a metric space M, we can compute
bd(M A) = cl(M A) cl(M (M A)) = cl(M A) cl(A)
= cl(A) cl(M A) = bd(A)
as claimed.
(b) Since bd(A) is the intersection of cl(A) and cl(M A), both of which
are closed, it is closed. In particular, cl(bd(A)) = bd(A), and we have
bd(bd(A)) = cl(bd(A)) cl(M bd(A)) = bd(A) cl(M bd(A)).
Since bd(bd(A)) is the intersection of bd(A) with something else, we
have bd(bd(A)) bd(A) as claimed.
(c) A key to part (c) are the observations that cl(A B) = cl(A) cl(B)
and cl(AB) cl(A) cl(B) for any subsets A and B of a metric space
M. (See Exercise 2E-14.) Using them we can compute
bd(A B) = cl(A B) cl(M (A B))
= cl(A B) cl((M A) (M B))
cl(A B) cl(M A) cl(M B)
=
_
cl(A) cl(B)
cl(M A) cl(M B)
=
_
cl(A) cl(M A) cl(M B)
_
cl(B) cl(M A) cl(M B)
_
cl(A) cl(M A)
_
cl(B) cl(M B)
= bd(A) bd(B).
This is the rst inclusion claimed. Now suppose x bd(A)bd(B). Then
x cl(A) or x cl(B). So x cl(A)cl(B) = cl(AB). If x is in neither
A nor B, then x (MA) (MB) = M(AB) cl((M(AB)).
Since we also have x cl(A B), this puts x in bd(A B). So x
must be in at least one of the three sets A, B, or bd(A B). That is,
bd(A) bd(B) bd(A B) A B as claimed.
(d) From part (a) we know that bd(bd(C)) bd(C) for every set C. So, in
particular, bd(bd(bd(A))) bd(bd(A)). But now we want equality:
bd(bd(bd(A))) = cl(bd(bd(A))) cl(M bd(bd(A)))
= bd(bd(A)) cl(M bd(bd(A))).
But
cl(M bd(bd(A))) = cl(M (cl(bd(A)) cl(M bd(A))))
= cl(M (bd(A) cl(M bd(A))))
= cl((M bd(A)) (M cl(M bd(A))))
= cl(M bd(A)) cl(M cl(M bd(A)))
cl(M bd(A)) cl(M (M bd(A)))
(M bd(A)) (M (M bd(A))) = M.
Combining the last two displays gives
bd(bd(bd(A))) = bd(bd(A)) M = bd(bd(A))
as claimed.
Remark: The identity in the next to last display is equivalent to the
assertion that
int(bd(bd(A))) = .
2E-16. Let a
1
=

2, a
2
= (
2 )
a1
, . . . , a
n+1
= (
2 )
an
. Show that
a
n
2 as n . (You may use any relevant facts from calculus.)
Suggestion. Show the sequence is increasing and bounded above by 2.
Conclude that the limit exists and is a solution to the equation =
_
2
_
. Show = 2 and = 4 are the only solutions of this equation.

Conclude that the limit is 2.
Solution. First: a
1
> 1, and if a
k
> 1, then a
k+1
=
_
2
_
a
k
>
2 > 1
also. By induction we have
a
n
> 1 for every n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Second: The sequence is increasing: a
1
=

2 and a
2
=
_
2
_
2
>
2 =
a
1
. If a
k1
< a
k
, we can compute
a
k+1
a
k
=
_
2
_
a
k
_
2
_
a
k1
=
_
2
_
a
k
a
k1
> 1.
So a
k+1
> a
k
. By induction we nd that a
n+1
> a
n
for each n so the
sequence is increasing.
Third: The sequence is bounded above by 2: a
1
=

2 < 2. If a
k
< 2,
then a
k+1
=
_
2
_
a
k
<
_
2
_
2
= 2 also. By induction we conclude that
a
n
< 2 for every n.
Fourth: Since the sequence a
n
)
1
is increasing and bounded above by 2,
the completeness of R implies that it must converge to some R.
Fifth: a
n+1
. But also a
n+1
=
_
2
_
an
_
2
_
. Since limits in R
are unique we must have
=
_
2
_
or equivalently log =
log 2
2
.
These equations have the two solutions = 2 and = 4 as may be checked
directly. There can be no other solutions since the solutions occur at the
intersection of a straight line with an exponential curve (or a logarithm
curve in the second equation). The exponential curve is always concave up
and the logarithm curve is always concave down. Either can cross a straight
line at most twice. Thus the limit must be either 2 or 4. But all terms of
the sequence are smaller than 2, so the limit cannot be 4. It must be 2.
lim
n
a
n
= 2.
2E-17. If
x
m
converges absolutely in R
n
, show that
x
m
sin m con-
verges.
Sketch. The series
m
| (sin m)x
m
| converges by comparison to the se-
ries

m
| x
m
|. (Why?) So

m
(sin m) x
m
converges by Theorem 2.9.3.

Solution. We know that [sin t[ 1 for every real number t. So
0 | (sin m)x
m
| = [(sin m)[ | x
m
| | x
m
|
for m = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
We have assumed that
x
m
is absolutely convergent in R
n
which simply
means that
| x
m
| converges in R. The inequality above then implies by
comparison (Proposition 2.9.4(ii)) that

m
| (sin m)x
m
| also converges
in R. That is,

m
(sin m)x
m
is absolutely convergent in R
n
. But R
n
is
complete (Theorem 2.8.5). So

m
(sin m)x
m
converges in R
n
by Theorem
2.9.3.
2E-18. If x, y M and x ,= y, then prove that there exist open sets U
and V such that x U, y V , and U V = .
Suggestion. Use disks of radius no larger than half the distance between
x and y.
Solution. Since x and y are not equal, we know that d(x, y) > 0. Let
r = d(x, y)/3, and set U = D(x, r) and V = D(y, r). Then U and V are
open by Proposition 2.1.2, and we certainly have x U and y V . If z
were in D(x, r) D(y, r), we would have
0 < r = d(x, y) d(x, z) +d(z, y) <
r
3
+
r
3
=
2
3
r.
But this is impossible. A positive number cannot be smaller than 2/3 of
itself. Thus there can be no such z, and we must have U V = D(x, r)
D(y, r) = as desired.
The property proved here is called the Hausdor separation property.
2E-19. Dene a limit point of a set A in a metric space M to be a

point x M such that U A ,= for every neighborhood U of x.
(a) What is the dierence between limit points and accumulation points?
Give examples.
(b) If x is a limit point of A, then show that there is a sequence x
n
A
with x
n
x.
(c) If x is an accumulation point of A, then show that x is a limit point
of A. Is the converse true?
(d) If x is a limit point of A and x , A, then show that x is an accumu-
lation point.
(e) Prove: A set is closed i it contains all of its limit points.
Sketch. A limit point either belongs to A or is an accumulation point of
A. It might be an isolated point of A; an accumulation point is not.
Solution. (a) The dierence in denitions is at the very end. For x to be
a limit point of A, every neighborhood U of x must intersect A. There
must be at least one point in the intersection, but that point is allowed
to be x. For an accumulation point, there must be something in the
intersection which is not equal to x. Thus if x itself is actually in A it
is automatically a limit point since x U A. However, x might not be
an accumulation point even if it is in A since it might be the only point
in the intersection. This may be the situation if x is what is called an
isolated point of A, that is, a point x A such that there is an open
set U with U A = x. Consider for example A = [0, 1[ 2 R.
2 is in A, so it is a limit point, but it is not an accumulation point.
U =]1.5, 2.5[ is an open set containing 2 but no other points of A. It is
an isolated point of A.
(b) If x is a limit point of the subset A of a metric space M, then for each
integer n > 0, the disk D(x, 1/n) is an open set containing x, so it
must have nonempty intersection with A. There is a point x
n
in A with
d(x
n
, x) < 1/n. The sequence x
n
)
1
is thus a sequence in A converging
to x.
(c) An accumulation point must certainly be a limit point since U (A
x) U A. If x is an accumulation point of A, and U is an open set
containing x, then the rst must be nonempty, so the second, larger set
must be also. This says that x is a limit point. The converse is not true.
A limit point need not be an accumulation point since it might be the
only point in the larger intersection. This was the case in the example
given in part a.
(d) Suppose x is an limit point of A and x is not in A. Let U be an open set
containing x. Since x is a limit point of A, the intersection U A is not
empty. There is a y U A. But, since x is not in A, y cannot be equal
to x. Thus y U (A x). This can be done for every neighborhood
U of x, so x is an accumulation point of A.
(e) If A is a closed set in M, we know from Proposition 2.7.6(i) that A
contains the limit of every convergent sequence in A. More precisely,
x
n
A for every n and x
n
x M implies that x M. We know from
part (b) that if x is a limit point of A, then there is such a sequence
in A converging to x. So we must have x A. Thus if A is closed
then it must contain all of its limit points. Conversely, suppose A is
a subset of M which contains all of its limit points. We know that
a set is closed if it contains all its accumulation points. This follows
from Proposition 2.5.2. If A contains all its accumulation points, then
cl(A) = A accumulation points of A = A, so A is equal to its closure
and is closed. But by part (c) every accumulation point is a limit point.
If A contains all its limit points, then it certainly contains all of its
accumulation points and so is closed.
2E-20. For a set A in a metric space M and x M, let
d(x, A) = infd(x, y) [ y A,
and for > 0, let D(A, ) = x [ d(x, A) < .
(a) Show that D(A, ) is open.
(b) Let A M and N
= x M [ d(x, A) , where > 0. Show

that N
is closed and that A is closed i A = N
[ > 0.
Suggestion. For (a), show that D(A, ) is a union of open disks. For the
rst part of (b), consider convergent sequences in N(A, ) and their limits
in M.
Solution. (a) First suppose x D(A, ). Then d(x, A) = infd(x, y) [ y
A = r < . So there is a point y A with r d(x, y) < . Thus
x D(y, ). This can be done for each x D(A, ). We conclude that
D(A, )
_
yA
D(y, ).
Conversely, if there is a y in A with x D(y, ), then d(x, y) < .
So d(x, A) = infd(x, y) [ y A < , and x D(A, ). This proves
inclusion in the other direction. We conclude that
D(A, ) =
_
yA
D(y, ).
Each of the disks D(y, ) is open by Proposition 2.1.2, so their union,
D(A, ) is also open by Proposition 2.1.3(ii).
(b) To show that N(A, ) is closed we will show that it contains the limits of
all convergent sequences in it. Suppose x
k
)
1
is a sequence in N(A, )
and that x
k
x M. Since each x
k
N(A, ), we have d(x
k
, A) <
+ (1/k). So there are points y
k
in A with d(x
k
, y
k
) < + (1/k). Since
x
k
x, we know that d(x, x
k
) 0, and can compute
d(x, y
k
) d(x, x
k
) +d(x
k
, y
k
) < d(x, x
k
) + +
1
k
as k .
Thus
d(x, A) = infd(x, y) [ y A .
So x N(A, ). We have shown that if x
k
)
1
is a sequence in N(A, )
and x
k
x M, then x N(A, ). So N(A, ) is a closed subset of M
by Proposition 2.7.6(i).
We have just shown that each of the sets N(A, ) is closed, and we know
that the intersection of any family of closed subsets of M is closed. So
if A =
>0
N(A, ), then A is closed.
Conversely, if A is closed and y M A, then there is an r > 0 such
that D(y, r) M A since the latter set is open. Thus y is not in
N(A, r/2). So y is not in

>0
N(A, ). This establishes the opposite
inclusion

>0
N(A, ) A.
If A is closed, we have inclusion in both directions, so A =
>0
N(A, )
as claimed.
2E-21. Prove that a sequence x
k
in a normed space is a Cauchy sequence
i for every neighborhood U of 0, there is an N such that k, l N implies
x
k
x
l
U.
Suggestion. Each open neighborhood U of 0 contains a disk D(0, ).
Solution. Let x
n
)
1
be a sequence in a normed space 1.
If x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence and U is a neighborhood of 0 in 1, then
there is an > 0 such that D(0, ) U. Since the sequence is a Cauchy
sequence, there is an index N such that | x
k
x
j
| < whenever k N
and j N. Thus for such k and j we have x
k
x
j
D(0, ) U.
For the converse, suppose that for every neighborhood U of 0, there is an
N such that k, j N implies x
k
x
j
U, and let > 0. Take U = D(0, ).
We know that U is open by Proposition 2.1.2, so by hypothesis there is an
N such that k, j N implies x
k
x
j
U = D(0, ). For such k and j we
have | x
k
x
j
| < . So the sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
2E-22. Prove Proposition 2.3.2. (Hint: Use Exercise 0E-12 of the Intro-
duction.)
Suggestion. Take complements in Proposition 2.1.3. Use De Morgans
Laws and the fact that a set is closed if and only if its complement is open.
Solution. Proposition 2.3.2 is the basic theorem about closed sets:

Proposition. In a metric space (M, d),
(1) The union of a nite number of closed sets is closed.
(2) The intersection of an arbitrary family of closed sets is closed.
(3) The sets M and are closed.
Each piece of this theorem corresponds to a piece of the similar theorem
about open sets, Proposition 2.1.3, and is proved from it by taking comple-
ments and using the fact that a set is closed if and only if its complement
is open.
Proposition. In a metric space (M, d),
(1) The intersection of a nite number of open sets is open.
(2) The union of an arbitrary family of open sets is open.
(3) The sets M and are open.
For (1), suppose F
1
, F
2
, . . . , F
n
are closed subsets of M. For each k, let
U
k
= M F
k
. Then each U
k
is an open subset of M, and
M
n
_
k=1
F
k
=
n
k=1
(M F
k
) =
n
k=1
U
k
.
This set is open by part (1) of Proposition 2.1.2. Since its complement is
open, the union

n
k=1
F
k
is closed as claimed.
For (2), suppose F
[ A is any family of closed subsets of M. Then

M
A
F =
_
A
(M F
) =
_
A
U
.
This set is open by part (2) of 2.1.2. Since its complement is open, the
intersection

A
F
is closed as claimed.
For part (3), note that M M = and M = M are open by part (3)
of 2.1.3. So their complements, M and , are closed as claimed.
2E-23. Prove that the interior of a set A M is the union of all the
subsets of A that are open. Deduce that A is open i A = int(A). Also,
give a direct proof of the latter statement using the denitions.
Sketch. If V is the union of all open subsets of A, then V is open and
contained in A. So V int(A). (See Exercise 2E-3.) If x int(A), there is
an open U with x U A. So x V .
Solution. Let V be the union of all open sets U with U A. Then V
is open since it is a union of open sets (Proposition 2.1.3(ii)), and V A
since each U A. If x V , then there is an open U with x U A, so
x int(A). Thus V int(A). On the other hand, if x int(A), then there
is an open U with x U A. The set U is one of those whose union is V .
So x U V , and x V . Thus int(A) V . We have inclusion in both
directions, so int(A) = V as claimed.
If A = int(A), then A is open since we have just shown that the interior
of A is a union of open sets and so is open. If A is open, then it is one
of the sets whose union was shown to be equal to int(A). So A int(A).
On the other hand, we always have int(A) A. We have inclusion in both
directions, so A = int(A). Thus A is open if and only if A = int(A) as
claimed.
Proof: Suppose A is open. If x , let U = A. Then U is an open set
with x U A. So x is an interior point of A and x int(A). Thus
A int(A). We always have int(A) A, so int(A) = A. For the converse,
suppose A = int(A) and that x A. Then there is an open set U with
x U A. Since U is open, there is an r > 0 with x D(x, r) U A.
Thus A contains a disk around each of its points so A is open. We have
proved both implications, so A is open if and only if A = int(A) as claimed.
2E-24. Identify R
n+m
with R
n
R
m
. Show that A R
n+m
is open i
for each (x, y) A, with x R
n
, y R
m
, there exist open sets U R
n
,
V R
m
with x U, y V such that U V A. Deduce that the product
of open sets is open.
Suggestion. Try drawing the picture in R
2
and writing the norms out
in coordinates in R
n+m
, R
n
, and R
m
.
Solution. The spaces R
n+m
and R
n
R
m
are identied as sets by iden-
tifying the element (x, y) = ((x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
), (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
m
)) of R
n
R
m
with the point
(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
m
) of R
n+m
. With this identication, we have
| (x, y) |
2
= x
2
1
+ +x
2
n
+y
2
1
+ +y
2
m
= | x|
2
+| y |
2
. (1)
Using this we see that if x and s are in R
n
and y and t are in R
m
, then
| (s, t) (x, y) |
2
= | s x|
2
+| t y |
2
(2)
and this certainly implies that
| s x|
2
| (s, t) (x, y) |
2
and | t y |
2
| (s, t) (x, y) |
2
so that
| s x| | (s, t) (x, y) | and | t y | | (s, t) (x, y) | . (3)
Now Let A R
n+m
, and let (x, y) A with x R
n
and y R
m
. See
Figure 2-14.
Figure 2-14. An open set in R
n+m
.
First suppose that A is open. Then there is an r > 0 such that D((x, y), r)
A. Let =
_
r/2, and set U = D(x, ) R
n
and V = D(y, ) R
m
. We
want to show that U V D((x, y), r) A. Since x D(x, ) = U, and
y D(y, ) = V , we certainly have (x, y) U V . If (s, t) U V , then
using (2) we have | (s, t) (x, y) |
2
= | s x|
2
+ | t y |
2
< 2
2
= r. So
(s, t) D((x, y), r) A. Thus U V D((x, y), r) A as we wanted.
For the converse, suppose that there are open sets U R
n
and V R
m
with (x, y) UV A. Since U and V are open in R
n
and R
m
respectively,
there are radii
1
> 0 and
2
> 0 such that D(x,
1
) U and D(y,
2
) V .
So
(x, y) D(x,
1
) D(y,
2
) U V A.
Let r = min(
1
,
2
), and suppose that (s, t) D((x, y), r), then by (3)
we have | s x| | (s, t) (x, y) | < r
1
. So s D(x,
1
) U.
Also | t y | | (s, t) (x, y) | < r
2
. So t D(y,
2
) V . Thus
(s, t) D(x,
1
) D(y,
2
) U V . This is true for every such (s, t). So
(x, y) D((x, y), r) D(x,
1
) D(y,
2
) U V A.
The set A contains an open disk around each of its points, so A is open.
We have proved both implications as required.
This argument is a bit like that in Exercise 2.1-6 in which we showed that
the taxicab metric and the Euclidean metric produce the same open sets
in R
2
. The reason is partially that a taxicab disk is an open rectangle in
R
2
which is the product of two open intervals which are open disks in
R
1
.
2E-25. Prove that a set A M is open i we can write A as the union
of some family of -disks.
Sketch. Since disks are open, so is any union of them. Conversely, if
A is open and x A, there is an
x
> 0 with x D(x,
x
) A. So
A =
xA
D(x,
x
).
Solution. To say that A is a union of disks is to say that there is a set of
points x
[ B A and a set of positive radii r
[ B such that
A =

B
D(x
, r
). (B is just any convenient index set for listing these

things.) We know from Proposition 2.1.2 that each of the disks D(x
, r
)
is open. By 2.1.3(ii), the union of any family of open subsets of M is open.
So A must be open.
For the converse, suppose A is an open subset of A. Then for each x in
A, there is a radius r
x
> 0 such that D(x, r
x
) A. Since x D(x, r
x
) A,
we have
A =
_
xA
x
_
xA
D(x, r
x
) A.
So we must have A =

xA
D(x, r
x
), a union of open disks, as required.
2E-26. Dene the sequence of numbers a

n
by
a
0
= 1, a
1
= 1 +
1
1 +a
0
, . . . , a
n
= 1 +
1
1 +a
n1
.
Show that a
n
is a convergent sequence. Find the limit.
Suggestion. Compute the rst few terms to see what is going on. The
sequence is not monotone, but the subsequence consisting of the even index
terms is, and so is the one consisting of the odd index terms.
Solution. It helps to compute the rst few terms to see what is going on.
a
0
= 1
a
1
= 1 +
1
1 + 1
=
3
2
= 1.5
a
2
= 1 +
1
1 + (3/2)
=
7
5
= 1.4
a
3
= 1 +
1
1 + (7/5)
=
17
12
1.4167
a
4
= 1 +
1
1 + (17/12)
=
41
29
1.4137931
.
.
.
It appears that the even index terms are increasing while the odd index
terms are decreasing. They also appear to be converging to the square root
of 2. We show that this is in fact the case.
FIRST: 1 a
n
< 2 for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
This is an easy induction. a
0
= 1, and if 1 a
k
< 2, then a
k+1
= 1+
1
1+a
k
is also.
SECOND: We compute a
n+2
in terms of n.
a
n+2
= 1 +
1
1 +a
n+1
= 1 +
1
1 + 1 +
1
1+an
=
4 + 3a
n
3 + 2a
n
.
THIRD: We use this to show that the even index terms stay on one side of
2, as do the odd index terms:

a
2
n+2
2 =
_
4 + 3a
n
3 + 2a
n
_
2
2 =
a
2
n
2
(3 + 2a
n
)
2
.
So the sign of a
2
n+2
2 is the same as that of a
2
n
2. Combining this with
our rst observation and the fact that a
0
= 1 <
2 and a
1
= 1.5 >
2, we
conclude
1 a
n

2 for every even n

and
2 a
n
< 2 for every odd n.
FOURTH: We establish the monotonicity of the subsequences:
a
n+2
a
n
=
4 + 3a
n
3 + 2a
n
a
n
=
2(2 a
2
n
)
3 + 2a
n
.
So a
n+2
> a
n
if a
2
n
< 2, and a
n+2
< a
n
if a
2
n
> 2. Combined with observa-
tion THREE, this gives
1 = a
0
< a
2
< a
4
< a
6
< < a
2k
< <
2
1.5 = a
1
> a
3
> a
5
> a
7
> > a
2k+1
>
2.
From this and from the completeness of R, we know that the limits =
lim
k
a
2k
and = lim
k
a
2k+1
exist in R. Now that we know they
exist, we can compute them:
a
2(k+1)
but a
2(k+1)
= a
2k+2)
=
4 + 3a
2k
3 + 2a
2k
4 + 3
3 + 2
and
a
2(k+1)+1
but a
2(k+1)+1
= a
(2k+1)+2)
=
4 + 3a
2k+1
3 + 2a
2k+1
4 + 3
3 + 2
.
So both and satisfy the equation
x =
4 + 3x
3 + 2x
3x + 2x
2
= 4 + 3x
x
2
= 2
x =
2.
Since all of the a
n
are positive, both and must be

2. Since both
these subsequences converge to

2, the only possible cluster point of the
sequence is

2. The sequence must converge, and its limit is

2.
Remark: What we have studied here is called the continued fraction ex-
pansion of

2. To see why, write the terms of the sequence in a somewhat
dierent way.
a
0
= 1 a
1
= 1 +
1
1 + 1
a
2
= 1 +
1
1 +a
1
= 1 +
1
1 + 1 +
1
1+1
= 1 +
1
2 +
1
2
a
3
= 1 +
1
1 +a
2
= 1 +
1
1 + 1 +
1
2+
1
2
= 1 +
1
2 +
1
2+
1
2
a
4
= 1 +
1
1 +a
3
= 1 +
1
1 + 1 +
1
2+
1
2+
1
2
= 1 +
1
2 +
1
2+
1
2+
1
2
This process continues, and the convergence to

2 can be written, more or
less, as
2 = 1 +
1
2 +
1
2+
1
2+
1
2+
1
2+
1
2+
1
.
.
.
.
This sort of thing is called a continued fraction. They have a lot of inter-
esting properties and uses in analysis and number theory some of which
can be found in the book Continued Fractions by C. D. Olds published
as volume 9 in the New Mathematical Library series by the Mathematical
Association of America.
2E-27. Suppose a
n
0 and a
n
0 as n . Given any > 0, show
that there is a subsequence b
n
of a
n
such that

n=1
b
n
< .
Suggestion. Pick b
n
with b
n
= [b
n
[ < /2
n
. (Why can you do this?)
Solution. Select the subsequence inductively.
STEP ONE: Since a
n
0 and a
n
0, there is an index n(1) such that
0 a
n(1)
< /2.
STEP TWO: Since a
n
0 and a
n
n(2) > n(1) and 0 a
n(2)
< /4.
STEP THREE: Since a
n
0 and a
n
n(3) > n(2) and 0 a
n(3)
< /8.
.
.
.
STEP k+1: Having selected indices n(1) < n(2) < < n(k) such that
0 a
n(j)
< /2
j
for j = 1, 2, . . . , k, we observe that since a
n
0 and
a
n
0, there is an index n(k + 1) such that n(k + 1) > n(k) and 0
a
n(k+1)
< /2
k+1
.
.
.
.
This process inductively generates a subsequence with indices n(1) < n(2)
< n(3) < such that 0 a
n(k)
< /2
k
for each k. So 0
k=1
a
n(k)
<
k=1
/2
k
=
k=1
(1/2
k
) = , as we wanted.
2E-28. Give examples of:
(a) An innite set in R with no accumulation points
(b) A nonempty subset of R that is contained in its set of accumulation
points
(c) A subset of R that has innitely many accumulation points but con-
tains none of them
(d) A set A such that bd(A) = cl(A).
Solution. Here are some possible examples.
(a) We need an innite set all of whose points are isolated. Z is a typical
example of an innite subset of R with no accumulation points.
(b) The closure of a set is equal to the union of the set with its accumulation
points. So if the set is to be contained in its set of accumulation points,
the closure must be equal to the set of accumulation points. Here are
some examples:
If A = R, then A
= R, so A = A
.
If A = Q, then A
= R, so A A
.
If A = R Q, then A
= R, so A A
.
If A = [0, 1] Q, then A
= [0, 1], so A A
.
(c) Idea: 0 is the only accumulation point of the set 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . . , and
is not in this set. Put together innitely many copies of this eect. If
A = n + (1/m) [ n Z, m = 2, 3, 4, . . . , then A
= Z and A Z = .
(d) Consider A = [0, 1]Q R again. Then cl(A) = [0, 1]. But cl(RA) = R.
So bd(A) = cl(A) cl(R A) = cl(A) = [0, 1].
2E-29. Let A, B R
n
and x be an accumulation point of A B. Must
x be an accumulation point of either A or B?
Sketch. Yes. If x is not an accumulation point of A or of B, then there
are small disks centered at x which intersect A and B respectively in at
most the point x. The smaller of these two disks intersects AB in at most
the point x, so x is not an accumulation point of A B.
Solution. Let x be an accumulation point of AB. Suppose x were not
an accumulation point of either A or B. Since it is not an accumulation
point of A, there is a radius r
1
1
) (A x) = .
(Equivalently: D(x, r
1
)A x.) Since it is not an accumulation point of
B, there is a radius r
2
2
)(Bx) = . (Equivalently:
D(x, r
2
) B x.) Let r = min(r
1
, r
2
). Then D(x, r) D(x, r
1
) and
D(x, r) D(x, r
2
). So
D(x, r) ((A B)x) [D(x, r) (A x)] [D(x, r) (B x)]
= = .
Thus x would not be an accumulation point of A as it was assumed to be.
So x must be an accumulation point of at least one of the sets A or B.
2E-30. Show that each open set in R is a union of disjoint open intervals.
Is this sort of result true in R
n
for n > 1, where we dene an open interval
as the Cartesian product of n open intervals, ]a
1
, b
1
[ ]a
n
, b
n
[?
Suggestion. If two open intervals overlap, then their union is an open
interval.
Solution. We need to allow innite intervals, ] , b[ = x R [ x <
b, ]a, [ = x R [ a < x, and ] , [ = R.
Let U be an open set in R. For x U, let a(x) = infy R [ ]y, x] U
and b(x) = supy R [ [a, y[ U, and let J(x) be the open interval
]a(x), b(x)[. Either or both of the ends a(x) or b(x) could be innite, and
we know that a(x) < b(x) so that the interval J(x) really exists as a
nontrivial interval containing x since the set U is open and does contain
some small interval around x. There is an r > 0 such that ]xr, x+r[ U.
So a(x) x r < x +r b(x). So
J(x) is an open interval and x J(x). (1)
The next fact we need is that this interval is contained in U:
J(x) U (2)
To prove this, let y J(x). That is, a(x) < y < b(x). From the denitions of
a(x) and b(x), there are numbers y
1
and y
2
such that a(x) < y
1
< y < y
2
<
b(x) with ]y
1
, x] U and [x, y
2
[ U. So y ]y
1
, y
2
[ =]y
1
, x[ [x, y
2
[ U.
This works for every y in J(x), so J(x) U as claimed.
Since we have for each x in U that x J(x) U, we certainly have
U =
_
xU
J(x). (3)
This expresses U as a union of open intervals. It remains to show that this
is actually a union of disjoint intervals. It is not true that the intervals J(x)
are all disjoint from each other. It is true that if x and y are in U, then
J(x) and J(y) are either disjoint or equal so that the union in (3) really
is a union of a family of disjoint intervals with some of them listed many
times. This follows from the next two observations.
If I is an open interval with x I U, then I J(x). (4)
J(x) (y) ,= = J(x) = J(y). (5)
The rst is clear from the denition of J(x), and the second follows from
it and the observation that the union of two open intervals which overlap
is an open interval.
We cannot get a straightforward generalization of this to R
n
with inter-
val replaced by rectangles of the form ]a
1
, b
1
[ ]a
n
, b
n
[. Consider
the example in R
2
of the open set U = (x, y) R
2
[ x > 0 and 1/x <
y < 1/x. Suppose U were a disjoint union of a family of open rectangles
and for each (x, y) U, let R(x, y) denote the rectangle in that family
which contains (x, y). For the family to be a collection of pairwise disjoint
rectangles we would require that for points (x, y) and (a, b) in U the rect-
angles R(x, y) and R(a, b) be either disjoint or identical. But this gets us
into trouble.
Let A = (x, 0) [ x 1 be the positive horizontal axis to the right of 1.
Then A U and (1, 0) A.
CLAIM: We would need to have A R((1, 0)).
Proof: Let a = supx > 1 [ [1, a[ R((1, 0)). We want to show that
a = +. If it were a nite real number, we would have trouble. If it
were in R((1, 0)), then it would be in that open set but nothing larger
would be. This cannot happen in an open set. On the other hand, if it were
not in R((1, 0)), then it would be on the boundary of that rectangle. The
open rectangle R((a, 1)) would be a dierent rectangle but would intersect
R((1, 0)) since it is open and so extends below A. This was not to happen.
So we must have a = +, and A R((0, 1)) as claimed.
So far things sound all right. But they are not. If R((0, 1)) is a rectangle,
it has to have a nonzero vertical width. There would be numbers c and d
with c < 0 < d such that the vertical segment I
x
= (x, y) [ c < y < d
has I
x
R((0, 1)) U for all x > 1. But this cannot be true. The set U
is very narrow in the vertical direction for large x. The rectangle R((0, 1))
would have to stick outside of U. See the gure.
Figure 2-15.
For some related ideas see Exercise 2E-35 and the remarks following it.
2E-31. Let A
denote the set of accumulation points of a set A. Prove

that A
is closed. Is (A
= A
for all A?
Sketch. What needs to be done is to show that an accumulation point
of A
must be an accumulation point of A. (A
need not be equal to A
.
Consider A = 1/2, 1/3, . . . .
Solution. To show that A
is closed, we show that it contains all of its

accumulation points. That is, (A
. Suppose x is an accumulation
point of A
, and let U be an open set containing x. Then U contains a

point y in A
with y not equal to x. Let V = U x. Then V is an open

set containing y. Since y A
, there is a point z in V A with z not equal

to y. Since x is not in V , we also know that z is not equal to x. Since
V U, we know that z U. Every neighborhood U of x contains a point
z of A which is not equal to x. So x is an accumulation point of A. This
works for every x in A
. So (A
. Since the set A
contains all of its

accumulation points, it is closed as claimed.
Although we now know that (A
for all subsets of a metric space

M, the inclusion might be proper. Consider A = 1, 1/2, 1/3 . . . R.
Then A
= 0. and (A
= .
2E-32. Let A R
n
be closed and x
n
A be a Cauchy sequence. Prove
that x
n
converges to a point in A.
Suggestion. Use completeness to get the limit to exist and closure to get
it in A.
Solution. The sequence x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in R
n
. So it con-
verges to some point v R
n
by the completeness of R
n
. (Theorem 2.8.5.)
The limit must be in A since A is closed. (Proposition 2.7.6(i).)
2E-33. Let s
n
be a bounded sequence of real numbers. Assume that
2s
n
s
n1
+s
n+1
. Show that lim
n
(s
n+1
s
n
) = 0.
Sketch. Show that
n
= s
n+1
s
n
are increasing and bounded above.
Use the telescoping series s
n
= s
0
+
n1
k=1

k
to show that the limit must
be 0.
Solution. Subtract (s
n
+ s
n+1
) from both sides of the inequality 2s
n

s
n1
+s
n+1
to obtain s
n
s
n+1
s
n1
s
n
, or equivalently, s
n+1
s
n
s
n
s
n1
. Let
n
= s
n+1
s
n
. We have just shown that
n
)
1
is an increasing
sequence. Also, we know that the numbers s
n
are bounded. There is a B
such that [s
n
[ B for every n. So [
n
[ = [s
n+1
s
n
[ [s
n+1
[ +[s
n
[ 2B.
The sequence
n
)
1
is a sequence in R which is increasing and bounded
above. So it must converge to some R. We want to show that = 0. If
not, then either > 0 or < 0. We eliminate the rst and leave the second
to the reader.
If > 0, then there is an index N such that
n
> /2 > 0 whenever
n N. But then we would have, for n > N,
s
n
= s
0
+ (s
1
s
0
) + (s
2
s
1
) + + (s
n
s
n1
)
= s
0
+
n1
k=1
k
= s
0
+
N1
k=1
k
+
n1
k=N
k
s
0
+
N1
k=1
k
+ (n N)/2 + as n .
This contradicts the hypothesis that the sequence s
n
)
1
is bounded above.
The contradiction obtained from < 0 is similar.
2E-34. Let x
n
R
k
and d(x
n+1
, x
n
) rd(x
n
, x
n1
), where 0 r < 1.
Show that x
n
converges.
Sketch. First use the inequality repeatedly to obtain d(x
j+1
, x
j
) r
j
d(x
1
, x
0
) for each j. Then use this and the triangle inequality to show
d(x
n+p
, x
n
) r
n
d(x
1
, x
0
)/(1 r). Now use completeness.
Solution. We will show that the points x
n
form a Cauchy sequence in
R
k
. From this the convergence of the sequence to some point x R
k
follows
by the completeness of R
k
. (Theorem 2.8.5.)
CLAIM: d(x
j+1
, x
j
) r
j
d(x
1
, x
0
) for each j.
This is done by an induction which we present informally:
d(x
j+1
, x
j
) rd(x
j
, x
j1
) r
2
d(x
j1
, x
j2
) r
j
d(x
1
, x
0
).
Now we use this in a repeated triangle inequality to estimate d(x
n+p
, x
n
):
d(x
n+p
, x
n
) d(x
n+p
, x
n+p1
) +d(x
n+p1
, x
n+p2
) + +d(x
n+1
, x
n
)
(r
n+p1
+r
n+p2
+ +r
n
) d(x
1
, x
0
)
r
n
(1 +r +r
2
+ +r
p1
) d(x
1
, x
0
)
r
n
(1 +r +r
2
+. . . ) d(x
1
, x
0
) =
r
n
1 r
d(x
1
, x
0
)
0 since 0 r < 1.
Thus the points x
n
form a Cauchy sequence in R
k
and must converge to a
point in R
k
as claimed.
The proof as written uses only the properties of a metric and the com-
pleteness of the space. It therefore serves to establish the following some-
what more general fact.
Proposition. If x
n
, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . are points in a metric space M
and there is a constant r R with 0 r < 1 such that d(x
n+1
, x
n
) <
rd(x
n
, x
n1
) for each n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , then the points form a Cauchy se-
quence in M. If M is complete with respect to the metric d, then the se-
quence must converge to some point in M.
In this form the proposition forms the heart of the proof of one of the very
important theorems about complete metric spaces. This is a result called
the Contraction Mapping Principle or the Banach Fixed Point Theorem.
Theorem. If M is a complete metric space and T : M M is a function
for which there is a real constant r with 0 r < 1 and d(Tx, Ty) rd(x, y)
for all x and y in M, then there is a unique point z M such that Tz = z.
Furthermore, if x
0
is any point in M, then the sequence x
0
, x
1
= Tx
0
,
x
2
= Tx
1
, x
3
= Tx
2
, . . . converges to z.
We will study this theorem in 5.7 and see how it can be used, among
other things, to prove the existence of solutions to a large class of dierential
equations, while simultaneously giving a method of generating a sequence
of approximate solutions. In this context the repetition of the function T
in the theorem is exactly the Picard iteration process for approximating
the solution to a dierential equation. It is often studied in courses on
dierential equations, numerical analysis, or integral equations.
2E-35. Show that any family of disjoint nonempty open sets of real
numbers is countable.
Suggestion. Each of the sets must contain a rational number.
Solution. Let U
[ A be any family of disjoint open subsets of R.

That is, each U
is open, and U
= if and are dierent. Since

each U
is open, there are open intervals ]a
, b
[ U
. We know that the

rational numbers are scattered densely in R in the sense that if a
< b
is
any such pair of reals there is a rational number r
with r
]a
, b
[ U
.
Since dierent and have U
= , we must have r
and r
dierent.
But there are only countably many dierent rational numbers. So there are
only countably many dierent sets U
in the collection.
Remarks: (1) Without too much eort we can see that points (r
1
, r
2
, . . . , r
n
)
with rational coordinates are dense in R
n
in the sense that any open ball
D(v, ) must contain such points. Furthermore, Q Q = Q
n
R
n
is
a countable set of points in R
n
. With these facts in hand we can conclude
in exactly the same way that every family of disjoint open subsets in R
n
must be countable.
(2) If we combine the results of Exercises 2E-30 and 2E-34, we obtain
Proposition. Each open set in R is the union of countably many disjoint
open intervals.
(3) This also has a generalization to R
n
. We saw that in Exercise 2E-
30 that the appropriate sets to look at are not the direct generalization of
intervals to rectangles. We need to loosen this to connected sets. These
are those sets which are all in one piece. We will nd the right way to
formulate this in Chapter 3.
Proposition. Each open subset of R
n
is the union of a countable number
of disjoint connected subsets.
The connection is that a subset of R is connected (all one piece) if and
only if it is an interval. Here the term interval is intended to include half
lines and the whole line.
2E-36. Let A, B R
n
be closed sets. Does A+B = x +y [ x A and
y B have to be closed?
Answer. No.
Solution. Here is a counterexample. Let A = (x, 0) R
2
[ x R
be the horizontal axis and B = (t, 1/t) R
2
[ t > 0 be one branch
of a hyperbola. If k is a positive integer, then u
k
= (k, 0) A, and
v
k
= (k, 1/k) B. So w
k
= (0, 1/k) A + B. Since | w
k
| = 1/k 0, we
have w
k
(0, 0) and (0, 0) cl(A+B). But (0, 0) itself is not in A+B since
there is no single vector v with v = (a, b) A and v = (a, b) B.
The second coordinate, b, of v would have to be 0, and 1/0 is not a real
number.
2E-37. For A M, a metric space, prove that
bd(A) = [A cl(M A)] [cl(A) A].
Sketch. [A cl(M A)] [cl(A) A] = [A (cl(A) A)] [cl(M A)
(cl(A) A)] = cl(A) [cl(M A) (cl(A) A)]. Why is this bd(A)?
Solution. If x cl(A) A, then it is not in A and must be in M A. So
it is certainly in cl(M A). Thus cl(A) A cl(M A), and
cl(M A) (cl(A) A) = cl(M A).
We compute
[A cl(M A)] [cl(A) A] = [A (cl(A) A)] [cl(M A) (cl(A) A)]
= cl(A) [cl(M A) (cl(A) A)]
= cl(A) cl(M A)
= bd(A)
as claimed.
2E-38. Let x
k
R
n
satisfy [[x
k
x
l
[[ 1/k + 1/l. Prove that x
k
con-
verges.
Suggestion. Show we have a Cauchy sequence by taking k and l larger
than N where 1/N < /2.
Solution. Let > 0. Select N large enough so that 0 < 1/N < /2. If
k N and l N, then
| x
k
x
l
|
1
k
+
1
l
<

2
+

2
= .
Thus x
k
)
1
n
. Since R
n
is complete, the sequence
must converge to some point in R
n
(Theorem 2.8.5).
2E-39. Let S R be bounded above and below. Prove that sup(S)
inf(S) = supx y [ x S and y S.
Suggestion. First show that sup(S)inf(S) is an upper bound for xy [
x S and y S. Then consider x and y in S very close to sup(S) and
inf(S).
Solution. Let T = x y [ x S and y S. If x and y are in S, we
know that x sup S and inf S y. So y inf S, and
x y x inf S sup S inf S.
Thus sup S inf S is an upper bound for T. If > 0, there are x and y is
S with sup S (/2) < x sup S, and inf S y < inf S + (/2). So
(sup S inf S) = sup S (/2) (inf S +(/2)) < xy sup S inf S.
Thus (sup S inf S) is not an upper bound for T. This holds for every
> 0, so sup S inf S is the least upper bound for T as claimed.
2E-40. Suppose in R that for all n, a
n
b
n
, a
n
a
n+1
, and b
n+1
b
n
.
Prove that a
n
converges.
Sketch. The sequence is increasing and bounded above by b
1
in R, so it
must converge.
Solution. We are given that a
n
a
n+1
for all n. So a
1
a
2
a
3
. . . .
The sequence is monotonically increasing. We also know that b
k+1
b
k
for
each k and a
n
b
n
for each n. So
a
n
b
n
b
n1
b
n2
b
2
b
1
.
This is true for each n. So the sequence a
n
)
1
is bounded above by b
1

R. Our sequence is a monotonically increasing sequence of real numbers
bounded above in R. So it must converge to some R by completeness.
2E-41. Let A
n
be subsets of a metric space M, A
n+1
A
n
, and A
n
,= ,
but assume that
n=1
A
n
= . Suppose x
n=1
cl(A
n
). Show that x is an
accumulation point of A
1
.
Sketch. Let U be a neighborhood of x. There is an n with x cl(A
n
)A
n
.
(Why?) So U (A
n
x) is not empty.
Solution. Let U be an open set containing x. We must show that U
contains some point of A
1
not equal to x. Since

n=1
A
n
= , there is an
n
0
such that x is not in A
n0
. But x
n=1
cl(A
n
). So x cl(A
n0
) Since x
is in the closure of A
n0
but not in A
n0
, it must be an accumulation point
of A
n0
. So there is a y in U (A
n0
x). But A
n0
A
n01
A
1
.
So y U (A
1
x). This can be done for every open set containing x.
So x is an accumulation point of A
1
as claimed.
2E-42. Let A R
n
and x R
n
. Dene d(x, A) = infd(x, y) [ y A.
Must there be a z A such that d(x, A) = d(x, z)?
Solution. The number d(x, A) = infd(x, y) [ y A is the greatest
lower bound of the distances between x and points of A. If A is not empty,
then this is a nite real number. It is 0 if and only if there are points of A
either equal to x or arbitrarily close to x. For each n > 0, there is a point
x
n
A with d(x, x
n
) < 1/n. Thus x
n
x and x must be in cl(A).
d(x, A) = 0 x cl(A).
If A is open and x bd(A), then d(x, A) = 0, but there will be no point
y in A with d(x, y) = 0. (That would say x = y.) For example, in R
2
, let
A = D((0, 0), 1) = (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+ y
2
< 1, and let w = (1, 0). Then
d(w, A) = 0 since v
k
= (1 (1/k), 0) A and d(v
k
, w) = 1/k 0. But w
is not in A. So there is no v in A with d(v, w) = d(w, A) = 0.
2E-43. Let x
1
=

3, . . . , x
n
=
_
3 +x
n1
. Compute lim
n
x
n
.
Answer. (1 +
13)/2.
Solution. First we show that the limit exists by showing that the se-
quence is increasing and bounded above. Once we know that it exists we
can assign it a symbol and use the properties of limits to compute its value.
FIRST: The sequence is increasing.
The rst two values are x
1
=

3 and x
2
=
_
3 +
3 >
3 = x
1
. For an
induction, assume that x
k
x
k1
> 0. Then
x
k+1
x
k
=

3 +x
k

_
3 +x
k1
=
(3 +x
k
) (3 +x
k1
)
3 +x
k
+
3 +x
k1
=
x
k
x
k1
3 +x
k
+
3 +x
k1
.
So x
k+1
x
k
> 0 also. By induction we have x
n+1
x
n
> 0 for all n =
1, 2, 3, . . . . The sequence is increasing.
SECOND: The sequence is bounded above.
We have x
1
=

3 < 3. If x
k
< 3, then x
k+1
=

3 +x
k
<
6 < 3 also.
By induction we conclude that x
n
< 3 for all n.
Our sequence is a monotonically increasing sequence in R which is bounded
above. By completeness there is a R such that x
n
. Consider what
happens to x
n+1
.
x
n+1
but x
n+1
=

3 +x
n

3 +.
But limits in R are unique. So =

3 +. With a bit of algebra we get
0 =
2
3. This has solutions = (1
13)/2. But the sequence is

increasing away from x
1
=

3. So >
3. We must have
lim
n
x
n
= =
1 +
13
2
.
2E-44. A set A R
n
is said to be dense in B R
n
if B cl(A). If A
is dense in R
n
and U is open, prove that A U is dense in U. Is this true
if U is not open?
Sketch. It need not be true for sets which are not open.
Solution. Let A be dense in R
n
and U is an open subset of R
n
. We
want to prove that U cl(A U). If x U, we need to show that every
neighborhood of x intersects AU. So, suppose V is an open set containing
x. Then x V U which is an open set. So there is an r > 0 such that
x D(x, r) U V . Since A is dense in R
n
, there is a
y A D(x, r) A (V U) = V (A U).
Since this can be done for every neighborhood V of x, we have x cl(AU).
Since this is true for every x U, we have U cl(A U). Thus A U is
dense in U as claimed.
If the set U is not open, this can fail. Consider U = Q R and A =
R Q R. Each of the sets U and A is dense in R, but A U = and is
dense nowhere.
2E-45. Show that x
log x
= o(e
x
) as x (see Worked Example 2WE-
5).
Suggestion. We need x
log x
/e
x
0. Do some manipulation and use
LH opitals rule.
Solution. We need to show that x
log x
/e
x
0 as x +. Let y =
x
log x
/e
x
. So log y = log
_
x
log x
_
log(e
x
) = (log x)
2
x.
CLAIM: lim
x
(log x)
2
/x = 0.
Proof: The limit is of the indeterminate form /, so we may try LH o-
pitals Rule. The ratio of derivatives is
2(log x)(1/x)
1
=
2 log x
x
which is again of the form /. So we try LH opitals Rule again. The
ratio of derivatives is
2/x
1
=
2
x
0.
Since this goes to 0 as x , we have lim
x
(2 log x)/x = 0 and
lim
x
(log x)
2
/x = 0 by LH opitals Rule.
From the lemma, there must be a B > 0 such that
x > B =
(log x)
2
x
<
1
2
= (log x)
2
< x/2
= log y = (log x)
2
x < x/2
= 0 < y(x) < e
x/2
= 1/e
x/2
.
As x +, 1/e
x/2
0. So y(x) 0. That is
lim
x
y(x) = lim
x
x
log x
e
x
= 0.
This is exactly what we wanted. x
log x
= o(e
x
) as x as desired.
2E-46. (a) If If f = o(g) and if g(x) as x , then show that
e
f(x)
= o(e
g(x)
) as x .
(b) Show that lim
n
(xlog x)/e
x
= 0 by showing that x = o(e
x/2
) and
that log x = o(e
x/2
).
Solution. (a) Since f(x) = o(g(x)) as x , there is a B > 0 such that
[f(x)[ < g(x)/2 for x > B. (We can assume g(x) > 0 since g(x) +.)
In particular,
f(x) g(x) <
1
2
g(x) g(x) =
g(x)
2
for x > B.
So f(x) g(x) as x +. Thus
e
f(x)
e
g
(x)
= e
f(x)g(x)
0 as x +.
That is, e
f(x)
= o(e
g(x)
) as claimed.
(b) The method of proof suggested is based on the last part of this lemma.
Lemma. Let f(x), g(x), F(x), and G(x) be real valued functions de-
ned for large real x. Then
(1) If f(x) = o(g(x)) and g(x) = O(h(x)) as x , then f(x) =
o(h(x)) as x .
(2) If f(x) = O(g(x)) and g(x) = o(h(x)) as x , then f(x) =
o(h(x)) as x .
(3) If f(x) = o(g(x)) and g(x) = o(h(x)) as x , then f(x) =
o(h(x)) as x .
(4) If f(x) = o(g(x)) and F(x) = o(G(x)) as x , then f(x)F(x) =
o(g(x)G(x)) as x .
Proof: For (1) we note that since g(x) = O(h(x)) as x , there is a
bound M > 0 and a number B
1
such that [g(x)[ < Mh(x) whenever x >
B
1
. Since f(x) = o(g(x)), there is a B
2
such that [f(x)[ < (/M) [g(x)[
whenever x > B
2
. If x > max (B
1
, B
2
), we have
[f(x)[ < (/M) [g(x)[ < (/M)Mh(x) = h(x).
So f(x) = o(h(x)) as x as claimed.
The proof of (2) is similar to that of (1) with the roles of f and g
reversed.
Assertion (3) follows from (1) since g(x) = o(h(x)) implies that g(x) =
O(h(x)).
To prove part (4), let > 0. Since f(x) = o(g(x)) and F(x) = o(G(x))
as x , there are B
1
> 0 and B
2
> 0 such that [f(x)[ <

[g(x)[
whenever x > B
1
and [F(x)[ <

[G(x)[ whenever x > B
2
If x >
max (B
1
, B
2
), then
[f(x)F(x)[ <
[g(x)[
[G(x)[ = [g(x)G(x)[ .
So f(x)F(x) = o(g(x)G(x)) as x as claimed.
To complete the proof of part (b), we apply part (4) of the lemma with
f(x) = x, g(x) = e
x/2
, F(x) = log x, and G(x) = e
x/2
. We thus will be
done as soon as we have two facts.
CLAIM ONE: x = o(e
x/2
) as x +.
CLAIM TWO: log x = o(e
x/2
) as x +.
For the rst assertion we need the limit lim
x+
x
e
x/2
= 0. This is a limit
of the indeterminate form /, so we may try LH opitals Rule. The
ratio of derivatives is
1
(1/2)e
x/2
=
1
2e
x/2
0.
Since this limit is 0, we have lim
x+
x
e
x/2
= 0 also by LH opitals Rule.
For the second claim we can either use LHopitals Rule again or we can
use part (1) of the lemma. We have just shown that x = o(e
x/2
). We also
have log x = O(x) since 0 < log x < x for x > 1. Thus log x = o(e
x/2
)
by part (1).
With both of our claims established, the relation xlog x = o(e
x
) follows
from part (4) of the lemma. So lim
n
(xlog x)/e
x
= 0 as claimed.
2E-47. Show that = lim
n
(1 +
1
2
+ +
1
n
log n) exists by using
the proof of the integral test ( is called Eulers constant).
Suggestion. Compare the graph of 1/x to inscribed and circumscribed
rectangles to show that the sequence
n
= 1 + (1/2) + + (1/n) log n
is decreasing and bounded below by 0.
Solution. A clue as to how to proceed comes from the proof of the inte-
gral test for the convergence of innite series. It is exactly this test which
allows us to obtain the divergence of the harmonic series from that of the
logarithm integral. A comparison of Riemann sums using inscribed and
circumscribed rectangles with the exact value of the integral leads to in-
equalities
1
2
+
1
3
+ + +
1
n
< log n < 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+ +
1
n 1
This is sketched for n = 8 in the gure.
Figure 2-16. The proof of the integral test gives the method for proving the
existence of Eulers constant.
If we let a
n
= 1 +
1
2
+ +
1
n
log n, then this certainly implies that
a
n
> 0 for each n = 2, 3, 4, . . . . Furthermore, contemplation of the column
between x = n and x = n + 1 gives
1
n + 1
< log(n + 1) log n <
1
n
.
Since a
n+1
a
n
=
1
n+1
log(n +1) +log n, this shows that a
n+1
a
n
< 0
for each n, and the sequence is decreasing. Since the sequence a
n
)
1
is
monotonically decreasing and bounded below by 0 in R, there must be a
real number such that a
n
by completeness. That is,
limn
_
1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+ +
1
n
log n
_
= exists in R
as claimed.
2E-48. Prove the following generalizations of the ratio and root tests:
(a) If a
n
> 0 and limsup
n
a
n+1
/a
n
< 1, then
a
n
converges, and if
liminf
n
a
n+1
/a
n
> 1, then

a
n
diverges.
(b) If a
n
0 and if limsup
n
n
a
n
< 1 (respectively, > 1), then
a
n
converges (respectively, diverges).
(c) In the ratio comparison test, can the limits be replaced by lim sups?
Suggestion. (a) For large n, the series is comparable to an appropriately
selected geometric series.
(b) For large n, the series is comparable to an appropriately selected geo-
metric series.
(c) Not quite, but we can replace the limit in the convergence statement by
lim sup and the one in the divergence statement by lim inf.
Solution. (a) Suppose each a
n
> 0 and that limsup
n
a
n+1
/a
n
< 1.
Select a number r such that limsup
n
a
n+1
/a
n
< r < 1. Then there is
an integer N such that a
n+1
/a
n
< r whenever n N. Since the numbers
are nonnegative, this gives 0 a
n+1
ra
n
for n = N, N +1, N +2, . . . .
Apply this repeatedly.
0 a
N+1
ra
N
0 a
N+2
ra
N+1
r
2
a
N
0 a
N+3
ra
N+2
r
3
a
N
.
.
.
0 a
N+p
ra
N+p1
r
p
a
N
.
.
.
Since 0 r < 1, we know that the geometric series

p=0
r
p
a
N
con-
verges. By comparison, we conclude that

k=N
a
k
=

p=0
a
N+p
also
converges. Reintroducing the nitely many terms a
1
+ +a
N1
does not
change the fact of convergence. We conclude that

n=1
a
n
converges.
Now suppose each a
n
> 0 and that liminf
n
a
n+1
/a
n
> 1. Select
a number r such that 1 < r < liminf
n
a
n+1
/a
n
Then there is an
integer N such that a
n+1
/a
n
> r > 1 whenever n N. Since the
numbers are nonnegative, this gives a
n+1
ra
n
a
n
> 0 for n =
N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . . Apply this repeatedly.
a
N+1
ra
N
a
N
> 0
a
N+2
ra
N+1
a
N
> 0
a
N+3
ra
N+2
a
N
> 0
.
.
.
a
N+p
ra
N+p1
a
N
> 0
.
.
.
Since a
N
> 0, we know that the constant series

p=0
a
N
diverges to
+. By comparison, we conclude that

k=N
a
k
=

p=0
a
N+p
also
diverges. Reintroducing the nitely many terms a
1
+ + a
N1
does
not change the fact of divergence. We conclude that

n=1
a
n
diverges.
(b) Suppose each a
n
0 and that limsup
n
n
a
n
< 1. Select a number
r such that limsup
n
n
a
n
< r < 1 Then there is an integer N such
that 0
n
a
n
< r < 1 whenever n N. Taking n
th
powers gives
0 a
n
r
n
for n = N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . . That is, 0 a
N+p

r
N+p
for p = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Since 0 r < 1, we know that the geometric
series

p=0
r
N+p
= r
N
p=0
r
p
converges. By comparison, the series
n=N
a
n
=
p=0
a
N+p
also converges. Reintroducing the nitely many
terms a
1
+ + a
N1
does not change the fact of convergence. We
conclude that

n=1
a
n
converges.
Now suppose each a
n
0 and that limsup
n
n
a
n
> 1. Select a num-
ber r such that 1 < r < limsup
n
n
a
n
. Then there is an integer
N such that 1 < r <
n
a
n
whenever n N. Taking n
th
powers gives
1 < r
n
< a
n
for n = N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . . That is, 1 < a
N+p
for
p = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The constant series

p=0
1 certainly diverges. By com-
parison, the series
n=N
a
n
=
p=0
a
N+p
also diverges. Reintroducing
the nitely many terms a
1
+ + a
N1
does not change the fact of
divergence. We conclude that

n=1
a
n
diverges.
(c) Following the pattern in the ratio test of part (a), we can replace the
limits by lim sup in the convergence part of the result and by lim inf in
the divergence part.
Proposition. Let

n=1
a
n
and

n=1
b
n
be series with b
n
> 0 for
each n.
(1) If [a
n
[ b
n
for each n or limsup
n
[a
n
[ /b
n
< , and if
n=1
b
n
converges, then

n=1
a
n
also converges (in fact absolutely).
(2) If a
n
b
n
for each n or liminf
n
a
n
/b
n
> 0, and if

n=1
b
n
diverges, then

n=1
a
n
also diverges.
Proof: Suppose each 0 [a
n
[ b
n
and that

n=1
b
n
converges. Then
n=1
[a
n
[ also converges by comparison. Since R is complete, absolute
convergence implies convergence, and

n=1
a
n
also converges.
Now suppose limsup
n
[a
n
[ /b
n
< and

n=1
b
n
converges. Select
a number r > 0 such that limsup
n
[a
n
[ /b
n
< r < . Then there
is an integer N such that [a
n
[ /b
n
< r whenever n N. Since the
numbers b
n
are positive, this gives 0 [a
n
[ rb
n
for n = N, N +
1, N +2, . . . . Since the series
n=N
b
n
converges, it still does after each
term is multiplied by the constant r. By comparison, we conclude that
n=N
[a
n
[ also converges. Reintroducing the nitely many terms [a
1
[ +
+[a
N1
[ does not change the fact of convergence. We conclude that
n=1
[a
n
[ converges. We use again the fact that absolute convergence
implies convergence to conclude that

n=1
a
n
also converges.
Suppose each a
n
b
n
for each n and that

n=1
b
n
converges. Then
n=1
a
n
also diverges by comparison.
Now suppose liminf
n
a
n
/b
n
> 0 and
n=1
b
n
diverges. Select a num-
ber r > 0 such that 0 < r < liminf
n infty
a
n
/b
n
. Then there is an
integer N such that a
n
/b
n
> r whenever n N. Since the numbers b
n
are positive, this gives a
n
rb
n
> 0 for n = N, N + 1, N + 2, . . . . Since
the series

n=N
b
n
diverges, it still does after each term is multiplied
by the constant r. By comparison, we conclude that

n=N
a
n
also di-
verges. Reintroducing the nitely many terms a
1
+ +a
N1
does not
change the fact of divergence. We conclude that

n=1
a
n
diverges.
2E-49. Prove Raabes test: If a
n
> 0 and if a
n+1
/a
n
1 A/n for
some xed constant A > 1 and n suciently large, then

a
n
converges.
Similarly, show that if a
n+1
/a
n
1 (1/n), then

a
n
diverges.
Use Raabes test to prove convergence of the hypergeometric se-
ries whose general term is
a
n
=
( + 1) ( +n 1)( + 1) ( +n 1)
1 2 n ( + 1) ( +n 1)
where , , and are nonnegative integers, > +. Show that the series
diverges if < +.
Sketch. Show that a
n
= O(n
A
) by considering P
n
=

n
k=1
(1 A/k)
and use Exercise 2E-47 to establish that log P
n
= Alog n +O(1).
Solution. If a
n
> 0 and if a
n+1
/a
n
1 A/n for some xed constant
A > 1 and n suciently large, then we can select an integer N > 2A such
that the inequality holds for n N. Repeatedly applying the inequality
a
n+1
(1 (A/n))a
n
, we nd
a
N+1

_
1
A
N
_
a
N
a
N+2

_
1
A
N + 1
_
a
N+1

_
1
A
N + 1
__
1
A
N
_
a
N
.
.
.
a
N+k

_
1
A
N +k
_

_
1
A
N + 1
__
1
A
N
_
a
N
.
.
.
So 0 < a
N+k
P
k
a
N
where P
k
=
k
j=0
_
1
A
N+j
_
, and
log P
k
=
k
j=0
log
_
1
A
N +j
_
.
For 0 x 1/2, we have (2 log 2)x log(1 x) x. So
log
_
1
A
N +j
_

A
N +j
.
Adding we get
log P
k
A
_
1
N
+
1
N + 1
+ +
1
N +k
_
. (1)
We know that
1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+ +
1
N 1
+
1
N
+ +
1
n
log n = Eulers Constant
(Exercise 2E-47). So
1
N
+ +
1
N +k
log(N +k)
_
1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+ +
1
N 1
_
:=
N
.
So we can select an integer M large enough so that
N
1 <
1
N
+ +
1
N +k
log(N +k) <
N
+ 1
whenever k M. For such k we have
log(N +k) +
N
1 <
1
N
+ +
1
N +k
< log(N +k) +
N
+ 1.
Using this in (1) we obtain
log P
k
< A(log(N +k) +
N
1) .
Exponentiating gives
0 1, the series
k=M
a
N
C
N
(N +k)
A
= a
N
C
N
k=M
1
(N +k)
A
= a
N
C
N
j=N+M
1
j
A
converges. So

k=M
a
N+k
=

j=N+M
a
j
also converges by comparison.
Reintroducing the rst N +M 1 terms does not change the fact of con-
vergence.
The divergence part of the test is much easier. If a
n
> 0 and a
n+1
/a
n
>
(1 (1/n)) for each n, then we nd
a
3

1
2
a
2
a
4

2
3
a
3

2
3
1
2
a
2
=
1
3
a
2
a
5

3
4
a
4

3
4
1
3
a
2
=
1
4
a
2
.
.
.
a
n+1

n 1
n
a
n

n 1
n
1
n 1
a
2
=
1
n
a
2
.
.
.
So the series

k=3
a
k
=

n=2
a
n+1
diverges by comparison to the diver-
gent harmonic series
n=2
a
2
n
. Reintroducing the rst two terms does not
change the fact of divergence.
If
a
n
=
( + 1) ( +n 1)( + 1) ( +n 1)
1 2 n ( + 1) ( +n 1)
,
then
a
n+1
a
n
=
( + 1) . . . ( +n 1)( +n)( + 1) . . . ( +n 1)( +n)
1 2 . . . n (n + 1) ( + 1) . . . ( +n 1)( +n)
1 2 . . . n ( + 1) . . . ( +n 1)
( + 1) . . . ( +n 1)( + 1) . . . ( +n 1)
=
( +n)( +n)
(n + 1)( +n)
= 1
(1 + [ ( +)])n
(n + 1)(n +)
+

(n + 1)( +n)
.
If > +, then 1 + [ ( +)] 2 since , , and are integers. So
a
n+1
a
n
1
2n
(n + 1)( +n)
+

(n + 1)( +n)
1
(1.5)n
(n + 1)( +n)

n 2( )
2(n + 1)( +n)
1
1.5
n

n 2( )
2(n + 1)( +n)
1
1.5
n
with the last inequality valid for n > 2( ). So the series

n=1
a
n
converges by Raabes test.
If < +, then we rewrite the expression above as
a
n+1
a
n
= 1 +
[( +) ( + 1)]n + ( )
(n + 1)(n +)
.
We distinguish two cases:
FIRST: If + > +1, then the fraction in the last expression is certainly
positive for large n, and a
n+1
/a
n
> 1 > 1(1/n). The series must diverge.
SECOND: If + = + 1, the situation is a bit more delicate.
a
n+1
a
n
= 1 +

(n + 1)(n +)
= 1
1
n
+
1
n
+

(n + 1)(n +)
= 1
1
n
+
(n + 1)(n +) + ( )n
n(n + 1)(n +)
= 1
1
n
+
n
2
+ ( + 1)n +
n(n + 1)(n +)
1
1
n
.
The series must diverge.
2E-50. Show that for x suciently large, f(x) = (xcos
2
x + sin
2
x)e
x
2
is monotonic and tends to +, but that neither the ratio f(x)/(x
1/2
e
x
2
)
nor its reciprocal is bounded.
Sketch. First show that f
(x) 0 for x > 1 so that f(x) is increasing

past that point. Then compute f(n). For the ratios, look at the values at
even and odd multiples of /2.
Solution. Our function is f(x) = (xcos
2
x + sin
2
x)e
x
2
. So
f
(x) = (2xcos xsin x + cos

2
x + 2 sin xcos x)e
x
2
+ 2xe
x
2
(xcos
2
x + sin
2
x)
= e
x
2
(cos
2
x xsin(2x) + sin(2x) + 2x
2
cos
2
x + 2xsin
2
x).
If x > 1, we have x
2
> x. So
f
(x) e
x
2
(cos
2
x xsin(2x) + sin(2x) + 2xcos
2
x + 2xsin
2
x)
e
x
2
(cos
2
x xsin(2x) + sin(2x) + 2x)
e
x
2
(cos
2
x +x(1 sin(2x)) + (x + sin(2x))).
But 1 sin(2x) 0, and with x > 1, we have x+sin(2x) > 0. So f
(x) 0
for x > 1. Thus the function is monotonically increasing beyond that point.
At selected points along the way it is easy to compute, f(n) = ne
n
2
2
.
These values certainly tend to , and f(x) is monotonically increasing, so
f(x) + as x +.
Let
R(x) = f(x)/(x
1/2
e
x
2
) = x
1/2
cos
2
x +x
1/2
sin
2
x.
If n is a positive integer, then R(n) =

n + as n . On the
other hand, R((2n + 1)/2) = ((2n + 1)/2)
1/2
=

2/
_
(2n + 1) 0.
So R((2n + 1)/2)
1
+ as n .
2E-51. (a) If u
n
> 0, n = 1, 2, . . . , show that
liminf
u
n+1
u
n
liminf
n
u
n
limsup
n
u
n
limsup
u
n+1
u
n
.
(b) Deduce that if lim(u
n+1
/u
n
) = A, then limsup
n
u
n
= A.
(c) Show that the converse of part (b) is false by use of the sequence
u
2n
= u
2n+1
= 2
n
.
(d) Calculate limsup
n
n!/n.
Answer. (d) 1/e.
Solution. (a) There are three inequalities to prove:
liminf
n
u
n+1
u
n
liminf
n
n
u
n
(1)
liminf
n
n
u
n
limsup
n
n
u
n
(2)
limsup
n
n
u
n
limsup
n
u
n+1
u
n
. (3)
Of these the second is true for every sequence, so we need only work on
the rst and third.
Proof of (1): We know that u
n
> 0 for each n. So u
n+1
/u
n
> 0 and
n
u
n
> 0. Therefore liminf(u
n+1
/u
n
) 0 and liminf
n
u
n
0. If
liminf(u
n+1
/u
n
) = 0, then inequality (1) is certainly true. So we may
assume that liminf(u
n+1
/u
n
) > 0. If a < liminf(u
n+1
/u
n
), we can
select a number r with a < r < liminf(u
n+1
/u
n
). Then there is an
integer N such that u
n+1
/u
n
> r whenever n N. Since u
n
> 0, we
have u
n+1
> ru
n
for n N. Applying this repeatedly we nd
u
N+1
ru
N
u
N+2
r
N+1
r
2
u
N
u
N+3
r
N+2
r
3
u
N
.
.
.
u
N+k
r
N+k1
r
k
u
N
.
.
.
So
N+k
u
N+k
>
N+k
_
r
k
u
N
= r
k/(N+k)
u
1/(N+k)
N
.
Now we need two facts about exponential functions: r
x
r as x 1
and c
x
1 as x 0 for positive constants r and c. Applying this to
the rightmost expression in the last display, we nd
N+k
u
N+k
> r
k/(N+k)
u
1/(N+k)
N
r > a as k .
So
N+k
u
N+k
> a for suciently large k. That is,
n
u
n
> a for su-
ciently large n. Thus liminf
n
u
n
a. This is true for every a smaller
than liminf u
n+1
/u
n
. So
liminf u
n+1
/u
n
liminf
n
u
n
as claimed.
Proof of (3): The argument for the third inequality is similar to that
for the rst but with the inequalities reversed. If limsup(u
n+1
/u
n
) =
+, then inequality (3) is certainly true. Therefore we may assume
that limsup(u
n+1
/u
n
) < +. If b > limsup(u
n+1
/u
n
), we can select
a number r with b > r > limsup(u
n+1
/u
n
). Then there is an integer
N such that u
n+1
/u
n
< r whenever n N. Since u
n
> 0, we have
u
n+1
< ru
n
for n N. Applying this repeatedly we nd
u
N+1
ru
N
u
N+2
r
N+1
r
2
u
N
u
N+3
r
N+2
r
3
u
N
.
.
.
u
N+k
r
N+k1
r
k
u
N
.
.
.
So
N+k
u
N+k

N+k
_
r
k
u
N
= r
k/(N+k)
u
1/(N+k)
N
r < b
as k . So
N+k
u
N+k
< b for suciently large k. That is,
n
u
n
< b
for suciently large n. Thus limsup
n
u
n
b. This is true for every b
larger than limsup u
n+1
/u
n
. So
limsup
n
u
n
limsup u
n+1
/u
n
as claimed.
(b) We know from Proposition 1.5.7(ix), that the limit of a sequence exists
if and only if the limit inferior and the limit superior are the same and
equal to that limit. Since lim
n
(u
n+1
/u
n
) has been assumed to exist
and be equal to A, we know that
A = liminf
u
n+1
u
n
liminf
n
u
n
limsup
n
u
n
limsup
u
n+1
u
n
= A.
So we must have
liminf
n
u
n
= limsup
n
u
n
= A.
So lim
n
n
u
n
exists and is equal to A by 1.5.7(ix).
(c) If the sequence u
n
is dened by u
2n
= u
2n+1
= 2
n
for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
then the rst few terms are
1, 1,
1
2
,
1
2
,
1
4
,
1
4
,
1
8
,
1
8
, . . . ,
1
2
n
,
1
2
n
, . . . .
The ratios of succeeding terms, u
n+1
/u
n
, are
1,
1
2
, 1,
1
2
, 1,
1
2
, . . . .
So liminf u
n+1
/u
n
= 1/2 while limsup u
n+1
/u
n
= 1. But if k = 2n,
then
k
u
k
=
2n
2
n
= 2
n/2n
= 2
1/2
= 1/
2.
While if k = 2n + 1, then
k
u
k
=
2n+1
2
n
= 2
n/(2n+1)
2
1/2
= 1/
2
So
liminf
k
k
u
k
= limsup
k
k
u
k
= lim
k
k
u
k
= 1/
2.
So liminf
k
u
k
and limsup
k
u
k
are the same while liminf(u
k+1
/u
k
) and
limsup(u
k+1
/u
k
) are dierent. The converse of the result of part (b) is
false.
(d) Let a
n
=
n
n! /n and u
n
= n!/n
n
. Then
n
u
n
= a
n
. We compute
u
n+1
u
n
=
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)
n+1
n
n
n!
=
n + 1
n + 1
_
n
n + 1
_
n
=
1
_
1 +
1
n
_
n

1
e
.
(To get the last limit, take logarithms and use LH opitals Rule to show
that (1 + (1/n))
n
e.) Since this limit exists, we conclude from part
(b) that lim
n
u
n
also exists and is 1/e. Thus lim
n
n
n! /n exists and
is equal to 1/e.
2E-52. Test the following series for convergence.
(a)
k=0
e
k
k + 1
(b)
k=0
k
k
2
+ 1
(c)
n=0
n + 1
n
2
3n + 1
(d)
k=1
log(k + 1) log k
tan
1
(2/k)
(e)
n=1
sin(n
), real, > 0
(f)
n=1
n
3
3
n
Answer. (a) Converges.
(b) Diverges.
(c) Converges.
(d) Diverges.
(e) Converges if > 1, diverges if 1.
(f) Converges.
Solution. (a) Notice that for k 0 we have
0 <
e
k
k + 1

e
k
1
=
_
1
e
_
k
.
We know that the series

k=0
(1/e)
k
converges since it is a geometric
series with ratio 1/e < 1. So
k=0
e
k
k + 1
also converges by comparison.
(b) For k 1, we have
0 <
1
2k
=
k
k
2
+k
2

k
k
2
+ 1
.
We know that the harmonic series (1/2)
k=1
(1/k) diverges, so, by
comparison,
k=0
k
k
2
+ 1
also diverges. Reintroducing the k = 0 term
does not change the fact of divergence.
(c) Let a
n
= (
n + 1)/(n
2
3n + 1) and b
n
= (n + 1)
3/2
. Then
a
n
b
n
=
(n + 1)
3/2
(n + 1)
1/2
n
2
3n + 1
=
n
2
+ 2n + 1
n
2
3n + 1
1 as n .
We know that
n=0
b
n
=
n=0
1
(n + 1)
3/2
=
k=1
1
k
3/2
converges since it is a p-series with p = 3/2 > 1. So
n=0
n + 1
n
2
3n + 1
also converges by the ratio comparison test.
(d) Use methods of rst year calculus to show that 0 < (tan
1
2)x
tan
1
x x for 0 < x 2 and that 0 < (log 2)x log(1 + x) x
for 0 < x 1. So, if k 1 we have
0 <
log 2
2
=
(log 2)(1/k)
(2/k)

log (1 + (1/k))
tan
1
(2/k)
=
log(k + 1) log k
tan
1
(2/k)
.
Thus the terms of the series
k=1
log(k + 1) log k
tan
1
(2/k)
cannot converge to 0
and the series must diverge.
(e) Use methods of rst year calculus to show that 0 (2/)x sin x x
for 0 x /2. So, for n 1 and > 0, we have
0 <
2
1
n
sin
_
n
1
n
.
The series

n=1
(1/n
) converges if > 1 and diverges if 1. Since

we have comparison in both directions (at least to a constant multiple
of this series), the same is true for the series

n=1
sin (n
).
(f) Let u
n
= n
3
/3
n
. Then u
n
> 0 for each n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and
u
n+1
u
n
=
(n + 1)
3
3
n+1
3
n
n
3
=
1
3
_
1 +
1
n
_
3
1
3
< 1.
So the series
n=1
n
3
3
n
converges by the ratio test.
2E-53. Given a set A in a metric space, what is the maximum number
of distinct subsets that can be produced by successively applying the op-
erations closure, interior, and complement to A (in any order)? Give an
example of a set achieving your maximum.
Answer. 14.
Solution. It is convenient to set up some shorthand. Let I, C, N, and E
stand for the operations of taking the interior, closure, or complement of a
set S in a metric space M, or of leaving it alone.
E(S) = S, I(S) = int(S), C(S) = cl(S), and , N(S) = M S
We know rather a lot about these operations. For example, if S is any
subset of M, then
int(int(S)) = int(S), cl(cl(S)) = cl(S), and M (M S) = S.
In our new shorthand these become
II(S) = I(S), CC(S) = C(S), and NN(S) = E(S).
So, as operators on the subsets of M, we have
II = I, CC = C, and NN = E.
What we want to know is how many dierent operators we can get by
compositions of these four, in eect, by forming words from the four letters
E, N, C, and I. There are innitely many dierent words, but dierent
words may give the same operator. We have just seen, for example, that
the words CC and C represent the same operator on sets. Four more such
facts are in the next lemma.
Lemma. If S is a subset of a metric space M, then
(1) CN(S) = NI(S).
(2) NC(S) = IN(S).
(3) CICI(S) = CI(S).
(4) ICIC(S) = IC(A).
Proof: For (1)
x / CN(S) x / cl(M S)
D(X, r) (M S) = for some r > 0
D(x, r) S for some r > 0
x int(S)
x I(S).
So x CN(S) x / I(S) x NI(S).
For (2), one can give a proof like that for (1), or apply (1) to the set N(S).
Since NN(S) = S, this gives
C(S) = CNN(S) = CN(N(S)) = NI(N(S)).
So
NC(S) = NNI(N(S)) = I(N(S)) = IN(S).
For (3) we start with the fact that any set is contained in its closure ap-
plied to the interior of S. This becomes I(S) CI(S). If A B, then
int(A) int(B), and cl(A) cl(B). So I(S) = I(I(S)) ICI(S), and
CI(S) CICI(S). But also the interior of any set is contained in the set,
so, ICI(S) CI(S), and CICI(S) CCI(S) = CI(S). We have inclu-
sion in both directions, so CICI(S) = CI(S) as claimed.
The proof of (4) is similar to that of (3). Start with the fact that the
interior of a set is contained in the set. I(C(S)) C(S). Now take clo-
sures: C(I(C(S))) C(C(S)) = C(S), and then interiors: ICIC(S) =
I(C(I(C(S)))) I(C(S)) = IC(S). In the other direction, start with the
fact that any set is contained in its closure: IC(S) CIC(S). Then take
interiors: IC(S) = I(IC(S)) I(CIC(S)) = ICIC(S). We have inclusion
in both directions, so the sets are equal as claimed.
Using these facts we can look at compositions of the operators as words in
the letters E, N, C, and I, noting possibly new ones and grouping ones
which we know produce the same operator (that is, which are the same for
all sets). If we look at the sixteen possible two letter words, we see that
ten of them collapse to one letter words, while the remaining six group
themselves into at most four new operators.
EE = E NE = E CE = C IE = I
EN = E NN = E CN = NI IN = NC
EC = C NC = IN CC = C IC
EI = I NI = CN CI II = I
In addition to the four operators with which we started,
o
1
= E, o
2
= N, o
3
= C, and o
4
= I,
we have at most four new ones,
o
5
= NC = IN, o
6
= CN = NI, o
7
= CI, o
8
= IC.
To nd three letter words, we append a letter to each of the noncollapsing
two letter words. Of the twenty-four resulting words, three collapse to one
letter and thirteen collapse to two letters leaving eight noncollapsing three
letter words.
ENC = NC
EIN = IN
ECN = CN
ENI = NI
ECI = CI
EIC = IC
NNC = C
NIN = NNC = NC
NCN = NNI = I
NNI = I
NCI
NIC
CNC = NIN
CIN = CNC
CCN = CN
CNI = NII = NI
CCI = CI
CIC
INC = IIN = IN
IIN = IN
ICN = INI
INI = NCI
ICI
IIC = IC
Again we have at most four new operators:
o
9
= NCI = ICN = INI , o
10
= NIC = CIN = CNC,
o
11
= CIC , o
12
= ICI.
To seek four letter words which might give new operators, we append a
letter to one representative from each of the sets of equal three letter words.
This will mean that we do not list all four letter words, but those we do not
list will be equal as operators to something among those we do list. Also,
we do not bother with the column appending E since it always disappears
as before.
NNCI = CI CNCI = NICI INCI = NCCI = NCI
NNIC = IC CNIC = NIIC = NIC INIC = NCIC
NCIC CCIC = CIC ICIC = IC
NICI CICI = CI IICI = ICI
Notice where we have used parts (4) and (5) of the lemma. We nd at most
two new operators.
o
13
= NCIC = INIC and o
14
= NICI = CNCI
To see if we get any new operators with ve letters, it is enough to try
adding N, C, or I to one of the four letter words giving each of o
13
and
o
14
.
NNCIC = CIC NNICI = ICI
CNCIC = NICIC = NIC CNICI = NIICI = NICI
INCIC = NCCIC = NCIC INICI = NCICI = NCI
Since these collapse, all ve letter words can be collapsed to four or fewer
letters. We get no new operators.
The argument above shows that composition of the operations of com-
plementation, closure, and interior, together with the identity operator,
generate at most fourteen dierent operators on the powerset of a metric
space. Some of these might be equal in some metric spaces. If the met-
ric space has only three points, then there cannot be very many dierent
operators generated. In any set with the discrete metric all sets are both
open and closed, so the closure operator and the interior operators are the
same as the identity operator, and we get only two operators. But in most
reasonable spaces they are dierent. In fact, even in R we can get one set
S such that the fourteen sets o
k
(S) for 1 k 14 are all dierent. The
set must be fairly complicated to keep generating new sets up through the
four letter words above. But it need not be completely outrageous. One
example which works is
S =
1
n
[ n N [0, 1[
_
]1, 2[1 +
1
n
[ n N
_
(]2, 3[Q) .
Possibly the easiest way to see that this works is to sketch the fourteen sets
on the line. See Figure 2-17.
Figure 2-17. The 14 sets resulting from the example S in Exercise 2E-53
Page 163
3
Compact and Connected Sets
3.1 Compactness
3.1-1. Show that A M is sequentially compact i every innite subset
of A has an accumulation point in A.
Sketch. Let x
n
)
1
be a sequence in A. If x
n
is a nite set, some entry
must be repeated innitely often. Use it to get a convergent subsequence.
If it is an innite set, then an accumulation point must be the limit of a
subsequence. (Careful, this is trickier than it looks. We need the limit of a
subsequence, not just any sequence.)
Solution. First suppose A is sequentially compact and that B is an in-
nite subset of A.
CLAIM ONE: We can pick a sequence x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . of points in B all of
which are dierent.
This is basically what it means for the set B to be innite. To be more
precise, no nite subset can be all of B. So, pick any point x
1
B. Since B
is innite, B x
1
is not empty, and we can pick x
2
B x
1
. Thus x
1
and x
2
are in B and x
1
is not equal to x
2
. Continue in this way inductively.
Having selected x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
in B all dierent, the set B x
1
, . . . , x
k
is not empty since B is innite. So we can pick a point x

k+1
B dif-
ferent from all of x
1
, . . . , x
k
. Continuing this process generates a sequence
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . of points in B which are all dierent.
164 3. Compact and Connected Sets
From the sequence of distinct points in B obtained in CLAIM ONE,
we can select a subsequence converging to a point in B since B has been
assumed to be sequentially compact. That is, there are indices n(1) <
n(2) < n(3) < . . . and a point x B with lim
k
x
n(k)
= x. The fact
that x is an accumulation point of B now follows from this lemma:
Lemma. If B is a subset of a metric space M, then a point x M is an
accumulation point of B if and only if there is a sequence of distinct points
in B which converges to x.
See Exercise 2E-4.
Now for the reverse implication: we want to assume that every innite
subset of A has an accumulation point in A and show that A must be
sequentially compact. To this end, let x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . be a sequence of points
inA. Let B = x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . . If B is actually a nite set, then at least one
point must be repeated innitely often in the sequence. There would be a
point x in B and innitely many indices n(1) < n(2) < . . . with x
n(k)
= x
for all k. Then we trivially have x
n(k)
x as k . If B is an innite
set, then it has an accumulation point x in A by hypothesis.
CLAIM TWO: The sequence x
n
)
1
has a subsequence converging to x.
(Caution: This does not quite follow from the lemma given above. B is the
set of points listed in the sequence, but we need not just a sequence from
B converging to x. The sequence must appear as a subsequence of x
n
)
1
.
That is, we need to make sure that the entries appear in the correct order.)
To obtain a subsequence converging to x, rst select an index n(1) with
x
n(1)
B and 0 < d(x, x
n(1)
) < 1/2. Then, since there are innitely
many points in B with distance to x less than 1/4, we can select an index
n(2) > n(1) with x
n(2)
B and 0 < d(x, x
n(2)
) < 1/4. We continue in
this way inductively. Having selected indices n(1) < n(2) < < n(k)
with x
n(j)
B and 0 < d(x, x
n(j)
) < 1/2
j
for 1 j k, we note that
there are innitely many points left in B with distance to x less than
1/2
j+1
. So we can select an index n(k + 1) > n(k) with x
n(k+1)
B and
0 < d(x, x
n(k+1)
) < 1/2
k+1
. This process generates indices n(1) < n(2) <
n(3) . . . with 0 < d(x, x
n(k+1)
) < 1/2
k+1
. So this gives a subsequence
converging to x. Each sequence in A has a subsequence converging to a
point in A. So A is sequentially compact.
3.1-2. Prove that (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x < 1, 0 y 1 is not compact.
Sketch. The set is not closed.
Solution. From the remark following Theorem 3.1.5 we know that for a
set to be compact it must be closed. However, the set A = (x, y) R
2
[
0 x < 1, 0 y 1 is not closed. It is a square in R
2
. The vertical edge
3.1 Compactness 165
(1, y) [ 0 y 1 is in the boundary of S but not in S. So S is not closed
and cannot be compact.
3.1-3. Let M be complete and A M be totally bounded. Show that
cl(A) is compact.
Sketch. The set cl(A) is closed. To show that it is totally bounded, let
> 0 and cover A by nitely many /2-balls. Show that cl(A) is covered
by the corresponding -balls.
Solution. We know that a subset K of a complete metric space M is
compact if and only if it is closed and totally bounded. Let K = cl(A).
Since the closure of a set is always closed, we know that K is closed. It
remains only to show that it is totally bounded. Let > 0, then /2 > 0,
and the totally bounded set A can be covered with nitely many /2-
balls centered in A. There is a nite set a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
A such that
A

n
k=1
D(a
k
, /2). If y cl(A), then there is a point x in A with
d(x, y) < /2). There is at least one k with 1 k n and x D(a
k
, /2).
So d(y, a
k
) d(y, x) +d(x, a
k
) < /2 +/2 = . So y D(a
k
, ). Since this
can be done for every y in cl(A), we nd that K = cl(A)
n
k=1
D(a
k
, ).
Thus K is totally bounded. Since we already know that it is a closed subset
of the complete metric space M, it must be compact.
3.1-4. Let x
k
x be a convergent sequence in a metric space and let
A = x
1
, x
2
, . . . x.
(a) Show that A is compact.
(b) Verify that every open cover of A has a nite subcover.
Suggestion. Parts (a) and (b) might as well be done together since (b)
is the denition of compactness.
Solution. (a) Since the assertion in part (b) is actually the denition of
compactness, we could do both parts of the problem together by doing
(b). For interest, we present an argument for part (a) using Theorem
3.1.5. When we are all done, the reader may agree that checking the
abstract denition seems easier.
We know that the set A is closed from previous work. It is also totally
bounded. If > 0, then There is an N such that d(x
k
, x) < whenever
k N. So x
k
D(x, ) for such n. Since x is also in D(x, ), and
x
j
D(xj, ), we have A D(x, )
N1
j=1
D(x
j
, ). Thus A is totally
bounded. So A is a closed, totally bounded subset of the metric space
M. If we knew that M was complete, this would show that A is compact.
But unfortunately we do not know that. Thus to pursue this method we
need to show that A is complete even though M might not be.
Let y
n
)
1
be a Cauchy sequence in A. So each of the points y
n
is either
equal to x or to one of the x
k
. We need to show that this sequence
converges to some point in A. Let > 0. Then there are indices K and
N such that d(y
n+p
, y
n
) < /2 and d(x
k
, x) < /2 whenever n N,
k K, and p > 0. We distinguish three cases.
CASE ONE: If y
n
is eventually equal to x
k0
for some index k
0
, then the
sequence y
n
)
1
certainly converges to x
k0
.
CASE TWO: If all but nitely many of the y
n
are among the nitely
many points x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
K
, then there are only nitely many dierent
distances involved among them. If they are all 0, then we are in CASE
ONE. If all but nitely many are 0, we are still in CASE ONE. If not,
then one of the nitely many nonzero distances must occur innitely
often and the sequence could not have been a Cauchy sequence.
CASE THREE: If we are not in CASE ONE or CASE TWO, then there
are innitely many indices n for which y
n
is not in the set x
1
, x
2
, . . . x
K
.
We can pick an index n
1
> N such that y
n1
= x
k1
for an index k
1
> K.
If n n
1
, we have
d(y
n
, x) d(y
n
, y
n1
) +d(y
n1
, x) = d(y
n
, y
n1
) +d(x
k1
, x)
/2 +/2 = .
So, in this case, y
n
x. Every Cauchy sequence in A converges to a
point in A. So A is complete. The set A is a complete, totally bounded
subset of the metric space M, so it is a complete, totally bounded metric
space in its own right and is compact by Theorem 3.1.5.
(b) This assertion is the denition of compactness. Suppose U
B
is any
collection of open subsets of M with A

B
U
. (The set B is just

any convenient set of indices for labeling the sets.) Then there is at least
one index
0
such that x U
0
. Since U
0
is open and x
k
x, there is
an index K such that x
k
U
0
whenever k K. For the nitely many
points x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
K1
, there are indices U
1
, U
2
, . . . , U
K1
such that
x
k
U
k
. So
A = x
1
, x
2
, . . . x U
0
U
1
U
2
U
K1
.
Thus every open cover of A has a nite subcover, so A is compact.
3.1-5. Let M be a set with the discrete metric. Show that any innite
subset of M is noncompact. Why does this not contradict the statement in
Exercise 3.1-4?
3.2 The Heine-Borel Theorem 167
Sketch. A sequence converges if and only if it is eventually constant. This
does not contradict Exercise 3.1-4 since the entries in such a convergent
sequence form a nite set.
Solution. Let Abe an innite subset of M. Since we are using the discrete
metric, single point sets are open. In fact, x = D(x, 1/2) We certainly
have A =
xA
x =
xA
D(x, 1/2). This is an open cover of the set A
which uses innitely many sets, and, since they are pairwise disjoint, we
cannot omit any of them. There can be no nite subcover. Thus A is not
compact.
If x
k
)
1
is a sequence in A converging to x, then there must be an index
K such that d(x, x
k
) < 1/2 whenever k K. But since we are using the
discrete metric which only has the values 0 and 1, this forces d(x, x
k
) = 0
and so x
k
= x. Thus x
k
= x for all k K and there are only nitely many
points in the set x
1
, x
2
. . . x. Such a nite set of points is compact,
and the statement of Exercise 3.1-4 is not contradicted.
3.2 The Heine-Borel Theorem
3.2-1. Which of the following sets are compact?
(a) x R [ 0 x 1 and x is irrational
(b) (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1
(c) (x, y) R
2
[ xy 1 (x, y) [ x
2
+y
2
< 5
Answer. None of them.
Solution. (a) No. The point 1/2 is not in the set A = x R [ 0 x
1 and x is irrational , but every interval around it contains irrational
numbers which are in A. The complement of A is not open. The set A
is not closed. It cannot be compact.
(b) No. The set B = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1 is not bounded. It is an
innite vertical strip containing the points (1/2, y) for arbitrarily large
y. Since B is not bounded, it cannot be compact.
(c) No. The set C = (x, y) R
2
[ xy 1 (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+ y
2
< 5
is bounded, but it is not closed. The point (
_
5/2,
_
5/2) is on the
boundary of C but not in C. Since C is not closed it cannot be compact.
3.2-2. Let r
1
, r
2
, r
3
, . . . be an enumeration of the rational numbers in [0,
1]. Show that there is a convergent subsequence.
Suggestion. Use the Heine-Borel Theorem or the Bolzano-Weierstrass
Property directly.
Solution. The rationals in the set [0, 1] arranged as a sequence r
k
)
1
are a sequence in the closed bounded subset [0, 1] of R = R
1
. Since it is
closed and bounded, this set is compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem. It
is thus sequentially compact by the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem. Thus
the sequence must have a convergent subsequence and the limit of that
subsequence must be in [0, 1].
Alternatively, the sequence is a bounded sequence in R since it is con-
tained in the interval [0, 1]. It must have a convergent subsequence by the
Bolzano-Weierstrass Property (Theorem 1.4.3). The limit of this subse-
quence must be in [0, 1] since that set is closed.
3.2-3. Let M = (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+ y
2
1 with the standard metric.
Show that A M is compact i A is closed.
Sketch. All subsets of M are bounded, so A compact (A closed
and bounded) A closed.
Solution. Suppose A is a closed subset of M. If (x, y) A, then
| (x, y) | =
_
x
2
+y
2
1,
so A is bounded. Since it is a closed and bounded subset of R
2
, it is compact
by the Heine-Borel Theorem.
Suppose A is compact. Then A must be closed and bounded by the
Heine-Borel Theorem, so in particular it must be closed.
Thus a subset A of M is compact if and only if it is closed.
Notice that the only thing we have used here about M is that it is a
bounded subset of R
n
for some nite n.
Proposition. If M is a bounded subset of R
n
, then a subset A of M is
compact if and only if it is closed.
3.2-4. Let A be a bounded set in R
n
. Prove that cl(A) is compact.
Suggestion. Show that if | v | r for every v A, then | w| r + 1
for every w cl(A).
Solution. Suppose that A is a bounded set in R
n
. Since cl(A) is a closed
set in R
n
, it will be compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem as soon as we
show that it is bounded. Let r be a number large enough so that | v | r
3.3 Nested Set Property 169
for every v in A. Suppose w cl(A). Then there is a point v in D(w, 1)A.
Since v A, we have | v | r, and
| w| = | w v +v | | w v | +| v | | w v | + 1 < r + 1.
Since this holds for every w in cl(A), we see that cl(A) is a bounded subset
of R
n
. Since it is also closed, it is compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem.
3.2-5. Let A be an innite set in R with a single accumulation point in

A. Must A be compact?
Answer. No.
Solution. The set might not be bounded. Consider the example
A = 0, 1, 2, 1/2, 3, 1/3, 4, 1/4, 5, . . . .
There is one accumulation point, 0, which is in A. But A is not bounded,
so it is not compact.
The wording of the question is a bit ambiguous. It could be taken to
allow the possibility that there was another accumulation point which was
not in A. That would also prevent the set from being compact. That route
to noncompactness would have been eliminated by a wording something
like: Let A be an innite set in R
n
with a single accumulation point which
is in A. Must A be compact?
3.3 Nested Set Property
3.3-1. Verify the nested set property for F
k
= x R [ x 0, 2 x
2
2 + 1/k.
Sketch.

k
F
k
=
2 is not empty.
Solution. The sets in question are
F
k
= x R [ x 0, 2 x
2
2 + (1/k) = [
2,
_
2 + (1/k)]
for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . These closed bounded intervals in R are all compact by
the Heine-Borel Theorem, and, since
_
2 + (1/(k + 1)) <
_
2 + (1/k), we
have
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
F
k
F
k+1
. . . .
According to the nested set property, Theorem 3.3.1, there should be at
least one point in their intersection. There is:

2 is in all of them.
3.3-2. Is the nested set property true if compact nonempty is replaced
by open bounded nonempty?
Answer. No.
Solution. The words compact nonempty may not be replaced by open
bounded nonempty in the nested set property and still retain a valid
assertion. The modied statement would be:
Conjecture. Let F
k
be a sequence of nonempty open bounded subsets of
a metric space M such that F
k+1
F
k
for each k. Then there is at least
one point in

k=1
F
k
.
This assertion is false. For example, we could use the sequence of open
intervals F
k
=]0, 1/k[ = x R [ 0 < x < 1/k for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Each of
these is a nonempty open interval, and
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
k
F
k+1
. . . .
But there is no real number which is in all of these intervals (Archimedean
Property). So the intersection is empty.
3.3-3. Let x
k
x be a convergent sequence in a metric space. Verify
the validity of the nested set property for F
k
= x
l
[ l k x. What
happens if F
k
= x
l
[ l k?
Sketch. If F
k
= x
l
[ l k, then

k
F
k
= . None of the sets F
k
are
compact.
Solution. Since x
l
x as l , each of the sets F
k
= x
l
[ l
k x is compact by Exercise 3.1-1. (Alternatively, they are bounded
since convergent sequences are bounded and closed since they contain the
limit point x. So they are compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem.) Since
each of the sets is obtained from the previous one by deleting the initial
remaining term of the sequence, they are nested. According to the nested
set property there ought to be at least one point in the intersection, and
indeed there is. The limit x is in all of them.
If instead we use the sets F
k
= x
l
[ l k , then they are still nested, but
they might not be compact since the limit x is not guaranteed to be in them.
(It might be if it happens to be equal to x
l
for innitely many indices l, but
it need not be. Consider the sequence given by x
k
= 1/k for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Then the revised F
k
would be F
k
= 1/k, 1/(k + 1), 1/(k + 2), . . . . The
intersection of these is empty.
3.4 Path-Connected Sets 171
3.3-4. Let x
k
x be a convergent sequence in a metric space. Let / be
a family of closed sets with the property that for each A /, there is an
N such that k N implies x
k
A. Prove that x /.
Solution. Let A be one of the sets in the collection /. Then there is
an N such that x
N
, x
N+1
, x
N+2
, x
N+3
, . . . are all in A. Since x
k
x as
k , this sequence of points in A converge to x. Since A is closed, we
have x A. Since this is true for every set A in the collection /, we have
x
/ as claimed.
3.4 Path-Connected Sets
3.4-1. Determine which of the following sets are path-connected:
(a) x [0, 1] [ x is rational
(b) (x, y) R
2
[ xy 1 and x > 1 (x, y) R
2
[ xy 1 and x 1
(c) (x, y, z) R
3
[ x
2
+y
2
z (x, y, z) [ x
2
+y
2
+z
2
> 3
(d) (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x < 1 (x, 0) [ 1 < x < 2
Sketch. (a) Not path-connected. Any path between two rationals must
contain an irrational.
(b) Path-connected.
(c) Path-connected.
(d) Not path-connected. If the point (0, 1) were added, it would be path-
connected.
Solution. (a) The set A = x [0, 1] [ x Q is not path-connected.
This is probably intuitively clear since any path from 0 to 1 would have
to cross through irrational points such as 1/
2 which are not in A.

Actually proving this is somewhat delicate. See Exercise 3.4-2.
(b) The set B = (x, y) R
2
[ xy 1 and x > 1 (x, y) R
2
[ xy
1 and x 1 is path-connected. It consists of two solid regions linked
at the point (1, 1). Sketch it.
(c) The set C = (x, y, z) R
3
[ x
2
+ y
2
z (x, y, z) R
3
[ x
2
+ y
2
+
z
2
> 3 is path-connected. It is the set of points inside the paraboloid
of revolution (x, y, z) R
3
[ x
2
+ y
2
z lying outside the sphere
(x, y, z) R
3
[ x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 3. Since the paraboloid extends only
above the xy-plane, z 0, this solid set has only one piece and is path-
connected.
(d) The set D = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x < 1 (x, 0) R
2
[ 1 < x < 2
is not path-connected. The rst term of the union is a vertical strip
not containing any of its right boundary line, (x, y) [ x = 1. The
second term is the line segment along the xaxis from (1, 0) to (2, 0)
but not including either end. The point (1, 0) is not in the union, but
any plausible continuous path from a point in the strip to a point in the
segment would have to go through it.
3.4-2. Let A R be path-connected. Give plausible arguments that A
must be an interval (closed, open, or half-open). Are things as simple in
R
2
?
Sketch. Suppose c and d are in A and that : [a, b] A is a continuous
path with (a) = c and (b) = d. Try to give a convincing argument that
([a, b]) must contain every point between c and d. This is basically the
Intermediate Value Theorem. Our proof of this will be given with a bit more
generality after more work on connected sets at the end of this chapter and
continuous functions in the next.
Solution. Suppose that c and d are in A and that c < d. Since A is path-
connected, there should be a continuous path : [a, b] A from some
interval to A with (a) = c and (b) = d. It seems plausible that such a
continuous path cannot get from c to d without crossing over every point
between. Since these points must be in A, we would have: c < w < d and
c and d in A implies w in A. This would force A to be an interval, a half
line, or the whole line. The assertion we need is basically the Intermediate
Value Theorem, probably familiar from a study of calculus.
Theorem. If is a continuous, real valued function on the interval [a, b],
and w is between (a) and (b), then there is at least one point z in [a, b]
with (z) = w.
Geometrically it says that a continuous curve cannot get from one side
of a horizontal line to the other without crossing the line. Our proof of this
will be given with somewhat greater generality in 4.5 after more study of
connected sets in the next section and of continuous functions in Chapter 4.
Plausible as it sounds, there is something at least moderately subtle going
on. Any proof must involve the completeness of the real line somewhere.
If the line were not complete, then the curve could sneak through at a
missing point such as

2. Where does the curve y = x
2
2 cross the
horizontal line y = 0?
3.4-3. Let : [a, b] R
3
be a continuous path and a < c < d < b. Let
C = (t) [ c t d. Must
1
(C) be path-connected?
3.5 Connected Sets 173
Answer. No.
Solution. No, the inverse image
1
(C) need not be path-connected. For
example, let : [0, 4] R
3
be a path which wraps twice around the unit
circle in the xy-plane:
(t) = (cos t, sin t, 0) 0 t 4.
Then the intervals [0, 1] and [2, 3] map to the upper half circle while [1, 2]
and [3, 4] map to the lower half circle. Take c = 2 and d = 3. Then C is the
upper half circle. But
1
(C) = [0, 1] [2, 3] which is not connected.
3.5 Connected Sets
3.5-1. Is [0, 1] ]2, 3] connected? Prove or disprove.
Answer. No.
Solution. Let A = [0, 1] ]2, 3]. Put U =] 1/2, 3/2[ and V =]2, 7/2[.
Then U and V are open sets, A U V , and U V = . But 1/2 AU,
and 5/2 AV , so neither of these sets is empty. So this pair of open sets
disconnects A. A is not connected.
3.5-2. Is (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1 (x, 0) [ 1 < x < 2 connected?
Prove or disprove.
Answer. Connected.
Solution. Let A = (x, y) R
2
[ 0 x 1 and B = (x, 0) [ 1 < x <
2. Set C = AB. The set B is certainly path-connected, hence connected.
If U and V were any pair of open sets which proposed to disconnect C,
then B would have to be entirely contained within one of them or they
would disconnect B. Say B V . Now the set A is also path-connected.
We can get from any point (x, y) in A to any other point (c, d) in A by
proceeding horizontally from (x, y) to (x, d) and then vertically from (x, d)
to (c, d). So A is also connected and must be completely contained within
one of the sets U or V . If A V , then we would have C = A B V ,
so the pair U, V would not disconnect C. On the other hand, if A U,
then the point (1, 0) would be in U since it is in A. But then (x, 0) would
be in U for x slightly larger than 1 since U is open. But these points are
in B, so they are also in V . That is, for x slightly larger than 1 we would
have (x, 0) U V C. Once again, the sets U and V fail to disconnect
C. We conclude that C must be connected.
3.5-3. Let A R
2
be path-connected. Regarding A as a subset of the
xy-plane in R
3
, show that A is still path-connected. Can you make a similar
argument for A connected?
Sketch. If A R
2
, let A
= (x, y, 0) R
3
[ (x, y) A. If (t) =
(x(t), y(t)) is a path in A, then
(t) = (x(t), y(t), 0) is a path in A
. If
U
and V
disconnect A
, then U = (x, y) R
2
[ (x, y, 0) U
and
V = (x, y) R
2
[ (x, y, 0) V
would disconnect A.
Solution. If A R
2
, let A
= (x, y, 0) R
3
[ (x, y) A. If (t) =
(x(t), y(t)) is a path in A, then
(t) = (x(t), y(t), 0) is a path in A
.
Furthermore, (t
k
) = (x(t
k
), y(t
k
)) (a, b) A if and only if
(t
k
) =
(x(t
k
), y(t
k
), 0) (a, b, 0) A
. So
is continuous if and only if is

continuous. If P
= (a, b, 0) and Q
= (c, d, 0) are in A
, then P = (a, b)
and Q = (c, d) are in A. Since A is path-connected, there is a continuous
path in A from P to Q. The corresponding
is a continuous path in A
from P
to Q
. So A
is path-connected.
A similar argument can be made for a connected set A. Suppose U
and
V
were open sets in R

3
which disconnected A
. Put U = (x, y) R
2
[
(x, y, 0) U
and V = (x, y) R
2
[ (x, y, 0) V
. Then U and V are

open subsets of R
2
. (Why?)
If (x, y) U V A, then (x, y, 0) would be in U
. But that
set was to be empty. So U V A = .
Since A
is not empty, there is a point (x, y, 0) in it. So (x, y) AU,

and A U is not empty.
Since A
is not empty, there is a point (x, y, 0) in it. So (x, y) AV ,

and A V is not empty.
If (x, y) A, then (x, y, 0) A
, so (x, y, 0) U
, and (x, y) UV .
Thus A U V .
The last four observations taken together say that the sets U and V
disconnect A. But A was assumed to be connected, so this is not possible.
Thus no such sets U
and V
can exist and A
must be connected.
3.5-4. Discuss the components of
(a) [0, 1] [2, 3] R.
(b) Z = . . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . R.
(c) x [0, 1] [ x is rational R.
Answer. (a) The connected components are the sets [0, 1] and [2, 3].
(b) The connected components are the single point sets n such that n Z.
(c) The connected components are the single point sets r such that r
Q [0, 1].
Solution. (a) Let A = [0, 1] [2, 3]. Each of the intervals [0, 1] and [2, 3] is
connected. But any larger subset of A cannot be connected. For example,
if [0, 1] D A, and there is a point x D [2, 3], then the open sets
U = x R [ x < 3/2 and V = x R [ x > 3/2 would disconnect
D. Thus [0, 1] is a maximal connected subset of A and is one of its
connected components. Similarly, if [2, 3] D A and there is a point
x D [0, 1], then the same two sets would disconnect D. So [2, 3] is
a maximal connected subset of A and is a connected component of A.
Thus the connected components of A are the intervals [0, 1] and [2, 3].
(b) Let B = Z R. The single point sets n with n Z are certainly
connected. But, if D B has two dierent integers n < m in it, then the
open sets U = x R [ x < n+(1/2) and V = x R [ x > n+(1/2)
would disconnect D. So no connected subset of B can contain more than
one point. The connected components are the single point sets n such
that n Z.
(c) Let C = x [0, 1] [ x Q R. The single point sets r with r
Q[0, 1] are certainly connected. But, if D C has two dierent rational
numbers r < s in it, then there is an irrational number z with r < z < s.
(z = r + (s r)/
2 will do.) The open sets U = x R [ x < z and

V = x R [ x > z would disconnect D. So no connected subset of
C can contain more than one point. The connected components are the
single point sets r such that r Q.
3E-1. Which of the following sets are compact? Which are connected?
(a) (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
[ [x
1
[ 1
(b) x R
n
[ [[x[[ 10
(c) x R
n
[ 1 [[x[[ 2
(d) Z = integers in R
(e) A nite set in R
(f) x R
n
[ [[x[[ = 1 (distinguish between the cases n = 1 and n 2)
(g) Perimeter of the unit square in R
2
(h) The boundary of a bounded set in R
(i) The rationals in [0, 1]
(j) A closed set in [0, 1]
Answer. (a) Connected, not compact.
(b) Compact and connected.
(c) n = 1: compact and not connected. n 2: compact and connected.
(d) Neither compact nor connected.
(e) Compact, but not connected if it contains more than one point.
(f) n = 1: compact and not connected. n 2: compact and connected.
(g) Compact and connected.
(h) Compact. Not necessarily connected.
(i) Neither compact nor connected.
(j) Compact. Not necessarily connected.
Solution. (a) The set A = (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
[ [x
1
[ 1 is an innitely
long vertical strip. It is closed since it contains its boundary lines, the
verticals x
1
= 1 and x
1
= 1. It is not compact since it is not bounded.
It contains the entire vertical x
2
-axis, all points (0, x
2
) and the norm of
such a point is [x
2
[. This can be arbitrarily large.
(b) The set B = x R
n
[ | x| 10 is connected since it is path-
connected. An easy way to establish this is to go from one point to
another rst by going in to the origin along a radius and then out to the
second point along another radial path. It is bounded since its points
have norm no larger than 10, and it is closed since it includes the bound-
ary sphere where | x| = 10. It is a closed and bounded subset of R
n
, so
it is compact by the Heine-Borel theorem.
(c) The set C = x R
n
[ 1 | x| 2 is closed since it contains both
boundary spheres, the points where | x| = 1 and those where | x| = 2.
It is bounded since all of its points have norm no more than 2. It is
a closed bounded subset of R
n
and so is compact by the Heine-Borel
Theorem. If n 2, then it is path-connected. This is fairly obvious but
not quite so easily implemented as in part (b). We cannot go all the way
in to the origin. If x and y are in C, we can proceed from x in to the
sphere of radius 1.5 along a radial line. Then we can go along a great
circle on that sphere cut by the plane containing x, y, and the origin to
the point on the same ray as y, then along that radial path to y. Thus C
is path-connected and so connected if n 2. If n = 1 it is not connected
since it is the union of two intervals, [2, 1] [1, 2].
(d) The set D = Z = integers in R is not bounded (Archimedean Princi-
ple) so it is not compact. It is certainly not connected. The open sets
U = x R [ x < 1/2 and V = x R [ x > 1/2 disconnect it.
(e) Suppose E is a nite set in R. Say E = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
. If U
A
is any open cover of E, then for each k there is an index
k
such that
x
k
U
k
. So E
n
k=1
U
k
. Every open cover of E has a nite subcover.
So E is compact. If E has only one point then it is certainly connected. If
it has more than one, then the open sets U = x R [ x < (x
1
+x
2
)/2
and V = x R [ x > (x
1
+x
2
)/2 disconnect it.
(f) The set F = x R
n
[ | x| = 1 is closed and bounded in R
n
and so
compact by the Heine-Borel theorem. If n = 1, then F = 1, 1 and
is not connected. If n 2, then we can proceed from any point x in F
to any other point y in F along the great circle cut in F by the plane
containing x, y and the origin. So, if n 2, then F is path-connected
and so connected.
(g) Let G be the perimeter of the unit square in R
2
. Then G is a closed and
bounded subset of R
2
and so is compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem.
It is certainly path-connected. It is built as the union of four continuous
straight line paths which intersect at the corners. So it is connected.
(h) Let S be a bounded set in R and let H = bd(S). Then H is a closed
set since it is the intersection of the closure of S with the closure of its
complement. Since S is bounded, its closure is also bounded. (There is a
constant r such that [x[ r for all x in S. If y cl(S), then there is an x
in S with [x y[ < 1. Then [y[ [y x[ +[x[ < 1 +r. So [y[ r +1 for
all y in cl(S).) Since H cl(S), it is also bounded. Since H is a closed
bounded subset of R
1
, it is compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem. The
set H = bd(S) is most likely not connected. For example, if S = [0, 1],
then H is the two point set 0, 1, which is not connected. (Can you
gure out for which sets S we do have bd(S) connected?)
(i) Let I = Q [0, 1]. Then I is not closed. Its closure is [0, 1]. So it is not
compact. It is not connected since the open sets U = x R [ x < 1/
2
and V = x R [ x > 1/
2 disconnect it.
(j) Let J be a closed set in [0, 1]. Then J is given as closed, and it is certainly
bounded since [x[ 1 for every x in J. Since it is a closed bounded set
in R
1
, J is compact by the Heine-Borel Theorem. It will be connected
if and only if it is a closed interval. If x and y are in J and there is a
point z with x < z < y, then the open sets U = x R [ x < z and
V = x R [ x > z disconnect J.
3E-2. Prove that a set A R
n
is not connected i we can write A
F
1
F
2
, where F
1
, F
2
are closed, AF
1
F
2
= , F
1
A ,= , F
2
A ,= .
Suggestion. Suppose U
1
and U
2
disconnect A and consider the sets F
1
=
M U
1
and F
2
= M U
2
.
Solution. By denition, A is not connected if and only if there are open
sets U
1
and U
2
such that
1. U
1
U
2
A =
2. U
1
A is not empty
3. U
2
A is not empty
4. A U
1
U
2
.
But U
1
and U
2
are open if and only if their complements F
1
= M U
1
and
F
2
= U
2
are closed. Using DeMorgans Laws, our four conditions translate
to
1. F
1
F
2
(M A) = M
2. F
1
A is not all of M
3. F
2
A is not all of M
4. M A F
1
F
2
.
Since none of the points in A are in M A, condition 1 is equivalent to
A F
1
F
2
. Condition 4 is equivalent to A F
1
F
2
= . So, with a bit
more manipulations, our conditions become
1. A F
1
F
2
2. F
1
A = (MU
1
) A = (MU
1
) (M(MA)) = M(U
1
(MA)).
This is not empty since there are points in U
2
A and these cannot be
in U
1
.
3. F
2
A = (MU
2
) A = (MU
2
) (M(MA)) = M(U
2
(MA)).
This is not empty since there are points in U
1
A and these cannot be
in U
2
.
4. A F
1
F
2
= .
These are exactly the conditions required of the closed sets F
1
and F
2
in
the problem.
In the converse direction, if we have closed sets F
1
and F
2
satisfying
1. A F
1
F
2
2. F
1
A not empty
3. F
2
A not empty
4. A F
1
F
2
= ,
we can consider the open sets U
1
= M F
1
and U
2
= M F
2
and work
backwards through these manipulations to obtain
1. U
1
U
2
A =
2. U
1
A is not empty
3. U
2
A is not empty
4. A U
1
U
2
,
so that A is not connected.
3E-3. Prove that in R
n
, a bounded innite set A has an accumulation
point.
Sketch. cl(A) is bounded since A is (why?), and it is closed. So it is
compact. Every innite subset, such as A, must have an accumulation point.
(See Exercise 3.1-1.)
Solution. Let A be a bounded innite subset of R
n
. Then cl(A) is closed
since closures always are. Furthermore, it is bounded. To see this note that
there is an r > 0 such that | x| r for every x in A. If y cl(A), there
is an x A with | x y | < 1. So | y | | y x| + | x| < 1 + r. So
| y | < r + 1 for every y cl(A). Thus cl(A) is a closed bounded set in
R
n
and is compact by the Heine-Borel theorem. By Exercise 3.1-1, every
innite subset of it, such as A, must have an accumulation point. The
accumulation point must be in cl(A) but not necessarily in A.
3E-4. Show that a set A is bounded i there is a constant M such that
d(x, y) M for all x, y A. Give a plausible denition of the diameter of
a set and reformulate your result.
Solution. A subset A of a metric space A is bounded by denition if
there is a point x
0
A and a number r such that d(x, x
0
) < r for every x
in A. That is, if A D(x
0
, r) for some x
0
A and r > 0.
Suppose A is a bounded subset of A. We want to show that there is a
constant M such that d(x, y) < M for all x and y in A. If A is empty
then we can just set M = 1 and the condition is vacuously satised. If A
is not empty, then there is a point x
0
A and a number r > 0 such that
d(z, x
0
) < r for every z A. If x and y are in A, the triangle inequality
gives
d(x, y) d(x, x
0
) +d(x
0
, y) < r +r = 2r.
If we set M = 2r, we have d(x, y) < M for all x and Y in A as desired.
Now suppose there is such a constant M. We want to show that there is
an x
0
A and an r > 0 such that d(x, x
0
) < r for every x in A. If A = ,
we can select any x
0
A and any r > 0. The condition d(x, x
0
) < r for
every x A = is vacuously true. If A is not empty, select x
0
A. If
x A, then d(x, x
0
) < M. So we can take r = M.
The diameter of a disk is the least upper bound of the distance between
points in the disk. It seems reasonable to use that as the denition of the
diameter of any subset of a metric space:
diameter(A) =
_
supd(x, y) [ x A and y A if A is not empty
0 if A = .
Then A is bounded if and only if diameter(A) is nite.
3E-5. Show that the following sets are not compact, by exhibiting an
open cover with no nite subcover.
(a) x R
n
[ [[x[[ < 1
(b) Z, the integers in R
Solution. (a) Suppose A = x R
n
[ | x| < 1. This set is not closed,
so it should not be compact. For each integer k > 0, let U
k
= x R
2
[
| x| < k/(k +1). Then the sets U
k
are open balls and are contained in
A. Furthermore, U
1
U
2
U
3
U
k
U
k+1
. . . . If x A, then
there is an integer k such that 0 | x| < k/(k + 1) < 1. So x U
k
.
Thus A =

k=1
U
k
. However, the union of any nite subcollection of
this open cover is contained in

N
k=1
U
k
= U
N
for some N. If we put
r = (N/(N + 1)) + (1 (N/(N + 1))/2, then N/(N + 1) < r < 1. The
point x = (r, 0, . . . , 0) A U
N
. So no nite subcollection can cover A.
This open cover has no nite subcover. The set A is not compact.
(b) Let B = Z, the integers in R. For each integer k, let U
k
be the open
interval = ]k (1/3), k + (1/3)[. Then each U
k
is an open subset of R,
and BU
k
= k. So the innite collection U
k
kZ
is an open cover of
B = Z R. There can be no nite subcover since if U
n
is deleted from
the collection, then the integer n is no longer included in the union.
3E-6. Suppose that F
k
is a sequence of compact nonempty sets satisfying
the nested set property such that diameter(F
k
) 0 as k . Show
that there is exactly one point in F
k
. (By denition, diameter (F
k
) =
supd(x, y) [ x, y F
k
).
Sketch. Select one point x
0
in the intersection by the nested set prop-
erty. If y
0
is any other point, then it cannot be in F
k
if diameter(F
k
) <
d(x
0
, y
0
)/2.
Solution. We know from the Nested Set Property (3.3.1) that there is
at least one point in the intersection. Suppose x
0
is in

k=1
F
k
, so that
x F
k
for all k. If y
0
is a point in M not equal to x
0
, then d(x
0
, y
0
) > 0,
and there is a K such that diameter(F
k
) < d(x
0
, y
0
)/2 whenever k K.
Select any k
0
with k
0
> K. Then x
0
F
k0
, and
d(x
0
, y
0
) > diameter(F
k0
) = supd(x, y) [ x F
k0
and y F
k0
.
Since x
0
is in F
k0
, this means that y
0
cannot be in F
k0
. So it is not in the
intersection. Since this is true for every y
0
not equal to x
0
, we conclude
that

k=1
F
k
= x
0
. It consists of exactly one point as claimed.
3E-7. Let x
k
be a sequence in R
n
that converges to x and let A
k
= x
k
,
x
k+1
, . . . . Show that x =
k=1
cl(A
k
). Is this true in any metric space?
Sketch. Start with cl(A
k
) = x x
k
, x
k+1
, . . . . Remember to show
that if y and x are dierent, then y / cl(A
k
) for large k. (No such x
k
can
be close to y since they are close to x.) Give detail.
Solution. One can proceed directly as in the sketch or one can employ
the ideas of Exercise 3E-6. The basic idea is essentially the same. Let
F
k
= cl(A
k
). From Proposition 2.7.6(ii), we know that x cl(A
k
). From
Exercise 2.7-2 we know that xA
k
is closed. So F
k
= cl(A
k
) = xA
k
.
From Exercise 3.1-4 (or directly) we know that F
k
= x A
k
is compact.
Since F
k+1
= xx
k+1
, x
k+2
, . . . xx
k
, x
k+1
, x
k+2
, . . . = F
k
,
they are nested. From the nested set property, there must be at least one
point in their intersection. But we already know that since x is certainly
in the intersection.
Let > 0. Then there is a K such that d(x, x
k
) < /2 whenever k K.
So, if z and w are in F
k
for such a k, each of them must be equal either
to x or do some x
j
with j K. So d(z, w) d(z, x) + d(x, w) < . So
diameter(F
k
) 0 as k . As in Exercise 3E-6, this implies that there
can be no more than one point in the intersection. (The distance between
two points in the intersection would have to be 0.) So x =

k=1
cl(A
k
)
as claimed. All the steps work in any metric space. So the assertion is true
in every metric space.
3E-8. Let A R
n
be compact and let x
k
be a Cauchy sequence in R
n
with x
k
A. Show that x
k
converges to a point in A.
Sketch. A Cauchy sequence in R
n
must converge to some point in R
n
since R
n
is complete. If the sequence lies in A, then its limit must be in
cl(A). If A is compact, then it is closed, so A = cl(A), and the limit is in
A.
Solution. Let A be a compact subset of R
n
and let x
k
)
1
be a Cauchy
sequence in A. Then x
k
)
1
n
, so it must converge
to some point x R
n
by completeness (2.8.5). Since each of the points x
k
is
in A, their limit x must be in cl(A) by Proposition 2.7.6. But A is compact,
so it is closed and cl(A) = A. Thus the limit x is in A as claimed.
3E-9. Determine (by proof or counterexample) the truth or falsity of
the following statements:
(a) (A is compact in R
n
) (R
n
A is connected).
(b) (A is connected in R
n
) (R
n
A is connected).
(c) (A is connected in R
n
) (A is open or closed).
(d) (A = x R
n
[ [[x[[ 1) (R
n
A is connected). [Hint: Check the
cases n = 1 and n 2.]
Answer. (a) False; [0, 1] is compact, but R[0, 1] is not connected. In R
n
,
A = x R
n
[ 1 | x| 2 is compact, but R
n
A is not connected.
(b) False; same examples as in (a).
(c) False; ]a, b] is connected but is neither open nor closed.
(d) False for n = 1, true for n 2. (R
n
A is path-connected if n 2.)
Solution. (a) Given above.
(b) Given above.
(c) Given above.
(d) If n = 1, then A is the closed interval [1, 1], and its complement RA,
is the union of two disjoint open sets, ] , 1[ ]1, [ and is not
connected. In more than one dimension, A is the exterior of the unit ball
and is path-connected. Connect each point to the point on the same ray
from the origin on the sphere of radius 1. Then connect any two points
on this sphere by following a great circle route (a circle containing those
two points and the origin).
3E-10. A metric space M is said to be locally path-connected if each
point in M has a neighborhood U such that U is path-connected. (This
terminology diers somewhat from that of some topology books.) Show that
(M is connected and locally path-connected) (M is path-connected).
Suggestion. Look at the proof in Worked Example 3WE-4 that an open
connected subset of R
n
is path-connected.
Solution. If M is path-connected and x
0
M, then M is connected
and M itself is a neighborhood of x
0
which is path-connected. So (by this
denition) M is locally path-connected.
For the converse, suppose M is connected and locally path-connected.
The proof from here is the same as the proof that an open connected set
in R
n
is path-connected. The hypothesized path-connected neighborhoods
of points take the place of balls centered at the points. Let x
0
A. Dene
sets A and B by
A = x M [ there is a path in M from x
0
to x
B = x M [ there is no path in M from x
0
to x.
The sets A and B are certainly disjoint and their union is M. They are
both open.
A is open: Suppose x A, then there is path-connected neighborhood
U of x. If y U, then we get a path from x
0
to y by proceeding rst to x
and then from x to y through U. Thus y A. This is true for every y U,
so U A. For each point x in A there is a neighborhood of x contained in
A. So A is open.
B is open: Suppose x B, then there is path-connected neighborhood U
of x. Let y U. If there were a path from x
0
to y, then we could continue
it by a path through U to x, but that is impossible if x B. So y is not in
A and it must be in B. This is true for every y B, so U B. For each
point in B there is a neighborhood of x contained in B. So B is open.
The sets A and B are both open and their disjoint union is M. Since M
is connected, one of them must be empty. Since x
0
A, B must be empty
and A = M. Thus every point in M can be connected by a path to x
0
. If
x
1
and x
2
are in M then we can connect x
1
to x
2
by going through x
0
. So
M is path-connected.
3E-11. (a) Prove that if A is connected in a metric space M and
A B cl(A), then B is connected.
(b) Deduce from (a) that the components of a set A are relatively closed.
Give an example in which they are not relatively open. (C A is
called relatively closed in A if C is the intersection of some closed
set in M with A, i.e., if C is closed in the metric space A.)
(c) Show that if a family B
i
of connected sets is such that B
i
B
j
,=
for all i, j, then
i
B
i
is connected.
(d) Deduce from (c) that every point of a set lies in a unique component.
(e) Use (c) to show that R
n
is connected, starting with the fact that
lines in R
n
are connected.
Sketch. (a) If U and V disconnect B and x B U, then A U ,= .
(Why?) Similarly A V ,= . So A would be disconnected.
(c) Establish a lemma: If B is connected, B C, and C is disconnected by
U and V , then either B U or B V .
Solution. (a) Suppose U and V were open sets which disconnect B. Then
B U would not be empty. Select x B U, then x cl(A) since
B cl(A). Since U is an open set containing x, there would be a point
y in U A. So A U would not be empty. Similarly, there would be a
point x in B V and hence a corresponding y in A V . With A U
and AV both nonempty, the open sets U and V would disconnect A.
Since A was assumed to be connected, this is not possible. So B must
be connected as claimed.
(b) Recall that a connected component of a set A is a maximal connected
subset of A. That is, a subset A
0
of A such that A
0
B A and B
connected imply that A
0
= B. To show that such a subset is relatively
closed in A, we need to show that there is a closed set F such that
A
0
= F A. The obvious candidate is cl(A
0
).
Proposition. If A
0
is a connected component of a set A, then A
0
=
A cl(A
0
).
Proof: We always have A
0
cl(A
0
). Since A
0
A, we have A
0

A cl(A
0
) cl(A
0
). Since A
0
is a connected component of A, it is
connected, and part (a) implies that Acl(A
0
) is connected. Since A
0

A cl(A
0
) A, and A cl(A
0
) is connected, and A
0
is a maximal
connected subset of A, we must have A
0
= Acl(A
0
). Since cl(A
0
) is a
closed set, we conclude that A
0
is closed relative to A as claimed.
(c) Suppose B
j
jJ
is a family of connected subsets of a metric space M,
and let C =

jJ
B
j
. We want to show that C is connected. To this
end, we may as well assume that all of the sets B
j
are nonempty. We
establish a lemma:
Lemma. If B is connected, B C, and C is disconnected by U and
V , then either B U, or B V .
Proof: The sets U and V are open sets such that
(1) B C U V .
(2) (B U) (C U) which is not empty
(3) (B V ) (C V ) which is not empty
(4) (B U V ) (C U V ) = .
If (B U) and (B V ) were both nonempty, then U and V would
disconnect B. Since B is connected, this is not possible. One of the sets
(B U) and (B V ) must be empty. From (1) we have B (B U)
(B V ) and the other must be all of B. This establishes the lemma.
Suppose U and V were open sets which disconnected C, and let i and
j be in J. Applying the lemma to B
i
, we nd that B
i
W
i
where W
i
is either U or V and the intersection of B
i
with the other is empty.
Similarly B
j
W
j
. By hypothesis B
i
B
j
is not empty, so W
i
= W
j
.
This works for every pair i, j. So either all of the B
j
are contained in
U or all are contained in V and the intersections with the other are all
empty. If all are contained in U, then C U and C V = . So U and
V did not really disconnect C after all. The set C must be connected.
(d) Suppose A is a subset of a metric space M and let x
0
A. Let
A
0
=
_
B A [ x
0
B and B is connected .
From part (c) we see that A
0
is a connected subset of A. It certainly
contains x
0
. If B is any connected subset of A which contains x
0
, then
we have x
0
B A
0
A. In particular, if B is a connected component
of A containing x
0
, we would have B A
0
. We would also have A
0
B
since B is a maximal connected subset. Thus B = A
0
. Thus A
0
is a
connected component of A containing the point x
0
and it is the only
such component.
(e) Every line through the origin in R
n
is parameterized as (t) = tv for
some xed vector v in R
n
. This parameterization supplies a contin-
uous path between any two points on that line. So each such line is
path-connected and hence connected. They all contain the origin, so the
lemma developed in part (c) shows that their union is connected. But
that union is all of R
n
. Thus the space R
n
is connected.
3E-12. Let S be a set of real numbers that is nonempty and bounded
above. Let S = x R [ x S. Prove that
(a) S is bounded below.
(b) sup S = inf(S).
Solution. (a) The set S is bounded above, so there is a constant B such
that y B for every y in S. If x S, then x S, so x B and
x B. This is true for every x in S, so B is a lower bound for the
set S.
(b) Since sup(S) is an upper bound for the set S, the computation of part (a)
shows that sup S is a lower bound for S. So sup S inf(S) and
sup S inf(S). On the other hand, there is a sequence x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . .
of points in S with x
n
sup S. So x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . are in S, and
x
n
sup S. Thus inf(S) sup S, and sup S inf(S). We
have inequality in both directions and so equality as claimed.
3E-13. Let M be a complete metric space and F
n
a collection of closed
nonempty subsets (not necessarily compact) of M such that F
n+1
F
n
and
diameter (F
n
) 0. Prove that
n=1
F
n
consists of a single point; compare
to Exercise 3E-6.
Sketch. Pick x
n
F
n
. Show x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence. Its limit must
be in cl(F
n
) for all n. (Why?) There cannot be two such points since
diam(F
n
) 0.
Solution. In Exercise 3E-6 we were given that the sets were compact so
we could use the Nested Set Property to obtain a point in the intersection.
Here the sets are not known to be compact. Since the diameters tend to 0,
they are certainly nite for large n, so those sets are closed and bounded. If
we were in R
n
, we would know that they were compact and could proceed
as in Exercise 3E-6. In other metric spaces closed bounded sets might not
be compact, and must work directly with the hypotheses we have.
The sets F
n
are all nonempty, so for each n we can select a point x
n
F
n
.
Since F
1
F
2
F
3
. . . , we have x
n+p
F
n
for all n and all p 0.
Let > 0. There is an N such that diam(F
n
) < whenever n N. So,
if n N and p 0, we have d(x
n+p
, x
n
) diam(F
n
) < . The sequence
x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in M. Since M is complete, it must converge
to some point x M. Since x
k
F
n
for all k n, and F
n
is closed, x F
n
.
Since this is true for every n, x
n=1
F
n
. There can be no other points
in the intersection. If y and x are dierent, we need only pick an n large
enough so that diam(F
n
) < (1/2)d(x, y). Then x F
n
, so y cannot be in
F
n
, and y is not in the intersection.
3E-14. (a) A point x A M is said to be isolated in the set A if
there is a neighborhood U of x such that U A = x. Show that
this is equivalent to saying that there is an > 0 such that for all
y A, y ,= x, we have d(x, y) > .
(b) A set is called discrete if all its points are isolated. Give some ex-
amples. Show that a discrete set is compact i it is nite.
Solution. (a) If x is an isolated point of A, then there is a neighborhood
U of x such that U A = x. Since U is a neighborhood of x, there is
an > 0 such that D(x, ) U. If y A and y is not x, then y is not
in U, so it is not in D(x, ). Thus d(x, y) > .
For the converse, suppose x A and that there is an > 0 such that for
all y A dierent from x, we have d(x, y) > . Let U = D(x, ). Then
U is a neighborhood of x and U A = x, so x is an isolated point of
A.
(b) Suppose A is a discrete set. For each x A there is a
x
> 0 such that
D(x,
x
) A = x. Since x D(x,
x
), we have A

xA
D(x,
x
).
If any of the disks in this open cover of A are deleted, we would no
longer have a cover of A since each intersects A in exactly one point. So
this open cover cannot have a nite subcover unless A is a nite set. If
A = x
1
, . . . x
n
is a nite set, then any open cover U
has a nite
subcover since we need only pick
1
, . . .
n
with x
k
U
k
.
3E-15. Let K
1
M
1
and K
2
M
2
be path-connected (respectively,
connected, compact). Show that K
1
K
2
is path-connected (respectively,
connected, compact) in M
1
M
2
.
Sketch. If (t) and (t) are paths from x to a in K
1
and from y to b in
K
2
, then (t) = ((t), (t)) is a path from (x, y) to (a, b) in K
1
K
2
.
Solution. This is actually a collection of three exercises:
(a) If K
1
and K
2
are path-connected, then K
1
K
2
is path-connected.
(b) If K
1
and K
2
are connected, then K
1
K
2
is connected.
(c) If K
1
and K
2
are compact, then K
1
K
2
is compact.
Let M be the cross product space M
1
M
2
. Before the exercise can even
make sense, we need to specify what convergence and open sets mean in
M by specifying a metric on M. There are several equivalent ways to do
this. One is to consider a set in M to be open if it contains a taxicab
disk around each of its points.
Denition. A set S M = M
1
M
2
is open if for each v = (v
1
, v
2
)
in S, there is an r > 0 such that d
1
(w
1
, v
1
) + d
2
(w
2
, v
2
) < r implies w =
(w
1
, w
2
) S.
This is the same as putting the taxicab metric on M.
d(v, w) = d((v
1
, v
2
), (w
1
, w
2
)) = d
1
(v
1
, w
1
) +d
2
(v
2
, w
2
).
This is a metric on the cross product. (Proof ?) We could also use a formula
like that for the Euclidean metric in R
2
:
(v, w) = ((v
1
, v
2
), (w
1
, w
2
)) =
_
d
1
(v
1
, w
1
)
2
+d
2
(v
2
, w
2
)
2
.
The same sorts of inequalities that we used in R
2
show that these two
metrics produce the same open sets in the cross product and that if v
(j)
=
(v
(j)
1
, v
(j)
2
) for j = 1, 2, 3, . . . is a sequence in M = M
1
M
2
, and w =
(w
1
, w
2
) M, then
d(v
(j)
, w) 0 (v
(j)
, w) 0
d
1
(v
(j)
1
, w
1
) 0 and d
2
(v
(j)
2
, w
2
) 0.
(a) Suppose K
1
and K
2
are path-connected and that v = (v
1
, v
2
) and w =
(w
1
, w
2
) are in K
1
K
2
. Then v
1
and v
2
are in the path-connected
set K
1
and w
1
and w
2
are in the path-connected set K
2
. If (t) and
(t) are paths from v
1
to v
2
in K
1
and from w
1
to w
2
in K
2
, then
(t) = ((t), (t)) is a path from v to w in K
1
K
2
. The path (t) is
continuous since each of the coordinate paths are continuous. (Why?)
(b) Suppose K
1
and K
2
are connected and let C = K
1
K
2
M = M
1
M
2
.
We want to show that C is connected. The idea is that each cross
section x K
2
of C is basically a copy of K
2
and is connected. C
is the union of these over all x in K
1
. We can see that this union is
connected by tying them together with a cross section K
1
y
0
taken
in the other direction.
We will use three lemmas.
Lemma. If B
A
is a family of connected sets such that none of
the intersections B
are empty, then

A
B
is connected.
This is Exercise 3E-11(c). See that solution.
Lemma. If S is an open subset of M = M
1
M
2
, then the projections
1
(S) = v M
1
[ (v, w) S for some w M
2
2
(S) = w M
2
[ (v, w) S for some v M
1
are open subsets of M

1
and M
2
respectively.
Proof: If v
0

1
(S), then there is a w
0
M
2
with (v
0
, w
0
) S.
Since S is open, there is an r > 0 such that (v, w) S whenever
d((v, w), (v
0
, w
0
)) < r. If v M
1
and d
1
(v, v
0
) < r, then
d((v, w
0
), (v
0
, w
0
)) = d
1
(v, v
0
) +d
2
(w
0
, w
0
) = d
1
(v, v
0
) + 0 < r.
So (v, w
0
) S and v
1
(S). Thus
1
(S) is an open subset of M
1
. The
proof that
2
(S) is an open subset of M
2
is similar.
The third is a technical addition to the second.
Lemma. If S is an open subset of M = M
1
M
2
, then for each xed
y in M
2
and each xed x in M
1
, the sets
1
(S (M
1
y)) and
2
(S (x M
2
))
are open subsets of M
1
and M
2
respectively.
The proof is much like the last. If x
0

1
(S(M
1
y)), then (x
0
, y)
S. Since S is open, there is an r > 0 such that (v, w) S whenever
d((v, w), (x
0
, y)) < r. If x M
1
and d
1
(x, x
0
) < r, then
d((x, y), (x
0
, y)) = d
1
(x, x
0
) +d
2
(y, y) = d
1
(x, x
0
) + 0 < r.
So (x, y) S (M
1
y), and x
1
(S (M
1
y)). Thus
1
(S
(M
1
y)) is an open subset of M
1
. The proof for the other assertion
is similar.
We are now prepared for the main argument.
STEP ONE: For each xed y in M
2
, the set C
y
= K
1
y is a
connected subset of M = M
1
M
2
.
Suppose U and V were open subsets of M which disconnected C
y
. Let
U
y
= U C
y
= U (K
1
y) and V
y
= V C
y
= V (K
1
y).
Then to say that U and V disconnect Cy is to say that
(1) C
y
= U
y
V
y
.
(2) Neither U
y
nor V
y
is empty.
(3) U
y
V
y
= .
Now let U
1
=
1
(U (M
1
y)) and V
1
=
1
(V (M
1
y)). By
the third lemma, these are open subsets of M
1
. If x K
1
, then (x, y)
K
1
y = C
y
. So it must be in either U
y
or V
y
. This implies that x
is in either U
1
or V
1
. So K
1
U
1
V
1
. On the other hand, if x were in
both U
1
and V
1
, then (x, y) would be in U
y
V
y
which is not possible.
So K
1
U
1
V
1
= . Finally, neither U
1
K
1
nor V
1
K
1
is empty since
neither U
y
nor V
y
is empty. Thus U
1
and V
1
would disconnect K
1
. Since
K
1
is connected, this is not possible. We conclude that C
y
is connected
as claimed.
STEP TWO: For each xed x in M
1
, the set C
x
= x K
2
is a
connected subset of M = M
1
M
2
.
This is essentially the same as the rst step with all appropriate roles
reversed. (Do it.)
STEP THREE: If y
0
in K
2
and x K
1
, the set B
x
= (x K
2
)
(K
1
y
0
) is a connected subset of M = M
1
M
2
.
The sets x K
2
and K
1
y
0
are connected by steps one and two,
and (x, y
0
) is in their intersection. So their union, B
x
, is connected by
the rst lemma.
STEP FOUR: C =
xK1
B
x
.
If (x, y) C, then (x, y) B
x
, so C

xK1
B
x
. Conversely, each
element of B
x
is either (x, y) for some y in K
2
or (t, y
0
) for some t K
1
.
So

xK1
B
x
C.
FINALLY: C is connected.
Each of the sets B
x
for x K
1
is connected by step three. Their in-
tersection is not empty since it contains K
1
y
0
. So their union is
connected by the rst lemma. But that union is C by step four.
(c) Suppose K
1
and K
2
are compact and let C = K
1
K
2
M =
M
1
M
2
. Since M is a metric space, we can show that C is com-
pact by showing that it is sequentially compact. To do this we re-
peat the pattern of the proof of the Bolzano-Weierstrass property in
R
2
. Suppose v
n
= (x
n
, y
n
) for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . is a sequence in C with
x
n
K
1
and y
n
K
2
for each n. Then x
n
)
1
is a sequence in the
compact set K
1
and y
n
)
1
is a sequence in the compact set K
2
. Each
must have a convergent subsequence. It is tempting merely to take
these convergent subsequences and say that they form a convergent
subsequence of the vectors v
n
)
1
, but this is not correct. Nothing has
been done to guarantee that the same indices have been used on the
two coordinate sequences. We might have selected x
1
, x
3
, x
5
, . . . , and
y
2
, y
4
, y
6
, . . . . The points (x
1
, y
2
), (x
3
, y
4
), (x
5
, y
6
), . . . are not a subse-
quence of (x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), (x
3
, y
3
), . . . . To overcome this problem we
perform the selection in two steps.
FIRST: The rst coordinate sequence x
n
)
1
is a sequence in the com-
pact set K
1
, so there are indices
n(1) < n(2) < n(3) < . . .
and a point a K
1
such that the sequence
x
n(1)
, x
n(2)
, x
n(3)
, x
n(4)
, . . .
converges to a.
SECOND: In considering the second coordinates we restrict attention
to the indices appearing in the subsequence found in the rst step. The
sequence
y
n(1)
, y
n(2)
, y
n(3)
, y
n(4)
, . . .
is a sequence in the compact set K
2
. So it has a convergent subsequence.
There are integers j(1) < j(2) < j(3) < . . . and a point b K
2
such
that the sequence
y
n(j(1))
, y
n(j(2))
, y
n(j(3))
, y
n(j(4))
, . . .
converges to b.
The corresponding xs
x
n(j(1))
, x
n(j(2))
, x
n(j(3))
, x
n(j(4))
, . . .
are a sub-subsequence of the convergent subsequence found in the rst
step. So they converge to a. Since we now have both coordinates converg-
ing with the same selection of indices, we conclude that the sequence of
vectors
(x
n(j(1))
, y
n(j(1))
), (x
n(j(2))
, y
n(j(2))
), (x
n(j(3))
, y
n(j(3))
), . . .
converges to the point w = (a, b) C = K
1
K
2
. Here we assume that
we have established the fact mentioned at the beginning that a sequence
in the cross product converges to w if and only if both coordinate se-
quences converge to the corresponding coordinates of w. Each sequence
in C has a subsequence converging to a point in C. The subset C of the
metric space M is sequentially compact, so it is compact.
CHALLENGE: Give a proof of the compactness of K
1
K
2
directly
from the denition of compactness without using the equivalence to sequen-
tial compactness. This is a bit trickier than it looks at rst glance. Here
is a very tempting wrong proof somewhat analogous to the wrong proof
mentioned above for sequential compactness.
Let S
A
be any open cover of C in M. That is, C
A
S
and
each of the sets S
is an open subset of M. From the lemma, the sets

U
=
1
(S
) and V
=
1
(S
) are open in M
1
and M
2
respectively. We
must also have
K
1

_
A
U
and K
2

_
A
V
since if v K
1
and w K
2
, then (v, w) K
1
K
2
= C. There is an index
such that (v, w) S
. So v
1

1
(S
) = U
, and w
2
(S
) = V
. Since
K
1
and K
2
are compact, there are nite subcovers of these open covers.
There are nite subsets B
1
and B
2
of the index set A such that
K
1

_
B1
U
and K
2

_
B2
V
.
So far everything is all right. It is now tempting to conclude that
C = K
1
K
2

_
B1B2
S
,
but this is not correct. The problem can be seen by considering the example
sketched in the gure.
Figure 3-1. 1(S3) covers K1 and 2(S3) covers K2, but S3 does not cover
K1 K2
3E-16. If x
k
x in a normed space, prove that [[x
k
[[ [[x[[. Is the
converse true? Use this to prove that x R
n
[ [[x[[ 1 is closed, using
sequences.
Sketch. Use the alternative form of the triangle inequality:
| v | | w|
| v w| .
Solution. Recall that we have an alternative form of the triangle inequal-
ity.
Lemma. If v and w are vectors in a normed space 1, then
| v | | w|
| v w|.
Proof: First we compute | v | = | v w +w| | v w| +| w|. So
| v | | w| | v w| . (1)
Reversing the roles of v and w, we nd that | w| = | w v +v |
| w v | +| v | = | v w| +| v |. So that
| w| | v | | v w| . (2)
Combining (1) and (2), we nd that
| v | | w|
| v w| as claimed.
With this version of the triangle inequality, the rst assertion of the
exercise is almost immediate. Let > 0. Since x
k
x, there is an N such
that | x
k
x| < whenever k N. For such k we have
| x
k
| | x|
| x
k
x| < . So | x
k
| | x| as claimed.
The converse is not true, even in one dimension. Let x
k
= (1)
k
and x =
1 then | x
k
| = 1 = | x| for each index k. We certainly have | x
k
| | x|,
but the points x
k
do not tend to x. Now suppose 1 is a normed space and
let F = x 1 [ | x| 1. If x cl(F), then there is a sequence x
k
)
1
in F with x
k
x. We now know that this implies that | x
k
| | x|. But
| x
k
| 1 for each k, so we must have | x| 1 also. Thus x F. This
shows that cl(F) F so that F is closed as claimed.
3E-17. Let K be a nonempty closed set in R
n
and x R
n
K. Prove
that there is a y K such that d(x, y) = infd(x, z) [ z K. Is this true
for open sets? Is it true in general metric spaces?
Sketch. As in Worked Example 1WE-2, get z
k
K with d(x, z
k
)
d(z, K) = infd(x, z) [ z K. For large k they are all in the closed
ball of radius 1 +d(z, K) around x. Use compactness to get a subsequence
converging to some z. Then z K (why?) and d(z
n(j)
, x) d(z, x). (Why?)
So d(x, z) = d(x, K). (Why?) This does not work for open sets. The proof
does not work unless closed balls are compact.
Solution. Let x R
n
K and S = d(x, z) R [ z K. Since K
is not empty, neither is S, and S is certainly bounded below by 0. So
a = inf S exists as a nonnegative real number. There must be a sequence
t
k
)
1
of points in S with t
k
a, and thus a sequence z
k
)
1
of points
in K with d(x, z
k
) = t
k
a. There is an N such that d(x, z
k
) < a + 1
whenever k N. So for these k we have z
k
F = z [ d(x, z) a + 1.
The set F is a closed bounded set in R
n
and so is compact. The sequence
z
K
, z
K+1
, z
K+2
, . . . in F must have a subsequence converging to a point in
F. Thus there are indices k(1) < k(2) < k(3) < . . . and a point z F with
z
k(j)
z as j . Since each z
k
is in K and K is closed, we have z K.
From the triangle inequality we know that d(z
k(j)
, x) d(z
k(j)
, z) +
d(z, x) and that d(z, x) d(z, z
k(j)
) +d(z
k(j)
, x). So
d(z, x) d(z, z
k(j)
) d(z
k(j)
, x) d(z
k(j)
, z) +d(z, x).
Since d(z, z
k(j)
) 0, we conclude (Sandwich Lemma) that d(z
k(j)
, x)
d(z, x). But, we know that d(z
k(j)
, x) a. Since limits are unique, we must
have d(x, z) = a = d(x, K) as desired.
This certainly does not work for open sets. If K = (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+y
2
<
1 is the open unit disk in R
2
and v = (1, 0), then infd(v, w) [ w K = 0,
but there certainly is no point w in K with d(v, w) = 0 since v is not in K.
The proof just given used the fact that closed bounded sets in R
n
are
sequentially compact. This is not true in every metric space, and, in fact,
there are complete metric spaces in which the assertion is false.
We will see in Chapter 5 that the space 1 = (([0, 1], R) of all continuous
real valued functions on the closed unit interval with the norm | f | =
sup[f(x)[ [ x [0, 1] is a complete metric space. For k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , let
f
k
be the function whose graph is sketched in Figure 3-2. Then | f
k
| =
1 + (1/k), and, if n and k are dierent, then each is 0 wherever the other
is nonzero. So | f
n
f
k
| > 1. So the f
k
are all smaller than 2 in norm
and form a bounded set. Furthermore the set K = f
1
, f
2
, f
3
. . . can have
no accumulation points and so is a closed bounded set. | f
k
0 | 1 as
k , but the distance is not equal to 1 for any function in the set.
3E-18. Let F
n
R be dened by F
n
= x [ x 0 and 2 1/n x
2
2 + 1/n. Show that
n=1
F
n
,= . Use this to show the existence of

2.
Suggestion. Use the nested set property.
Solution. Suppose x F
n+1
. Then
2
1
n
< 2
1
n + 1
x
2
2 +
1
n + 1
< 2 +
1
n
.
Figure 3-2. Graph of the function f
k
.
So F
n+1
F
n
for each n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . If x F
n
, then x > 0, and x < 3,
since if x 3 we would have x
2
9 > 2 + (1/n) and x would not be in
F
n
. So the sets F
n
are all bounded. One way to see that they are closed
is to let x
k
)
1
be a sequence of points in F
n
which converge to x. Then
x
2
k
x
2
. We have 2(1/n) x
2
k
2+(1/n) for each index k, so the same
is true of the limit x
2
. Thus x F
n
. This shows that the set F
n
is closed.
The sets F
n
thus form a nested sequence of compact subsets of R. By the
nested set property, 3.3.1, there is at least one point x
0
in the intersection
n=1
F
n
. For this point we must have x
0
0, and
2
1
n
x
2
0
2 +
1
n
for every positive integer n. So

x
2
0
2
1/n for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The

only way this can happen is for x
2
0
= 2. Thus x
0
is a positive square root
for 2.
3E-19. Let V
n
M be open sets such that cl(V
n
) is compact, V
n
,= ,
and cl(V
n
) V
n1
. Prove
n=1
V
n
,= .
Sketch. cl(V
n+1
) V
n
cl(V
n
). Use the nested set property.
Solution. Let K
n
= cl(V
n
), we have assumed that the sets K
n
are com-
pact, not empty, and that cl(V
k
) V
k1
for each k. Applying this with
k = n + 1 gives
K
n+1
= cl(V
n+1
) V
n
cl(V
n
) = K
n
.
So we have a nested sequence of nonempty compact sets. By the nested set
property, there must be at least one point x
0
in the intersection
1
K
n
. For
each n we have x
0
K
n
1 V
n
. Thus x
0

1
V
n
, and this intersection
is not empty.
3E-20. Prove that a compact subset of a metric space must be closed as
follows: Let x be in the complement of A. For each y A, choose disjoint
neighborhoods U
y
of y and V
y
of x. Consider the open cover U
y
yA
of A
to show the complement of A is open.
Solution. Suppose A is a compact subset of a metric space M, and sup-
pose x M A. If y A, then let r = d(x, y)/2 > 0, and set U
y
= D(y, r)
and V
y
= D(x, r). Then U
y
and V
y
are disjoint open sets with y U
y
and
x V
y
. We certainly have A

yA
U
y
. Since A is compact, this open
cover must have a nite subcover:
A U
y1
U
y2
U
y
N
.
If = mind(x, y
k
) [ 1 k N, then
D(x, ) A D(x, ) (U
y1
U
y2
U
y
N
) =
N
_
k=1
(D(x, ) U
y
k
) = .
Thus D(x, ) M A. This shows that M A is open. so A is closed as
claimed.
3E-21. (a) Prove: a set A M is connected i and A are the only
subsets of A that are open and closed relative to A. (A set U A is
called open relative to A if U = V A for some open set V M;
closed relative to A is dened similarly.)
(b) Prove that and R
n
are the only subsets of R
n
that are both open
and closed.
Sketch. Look closely at the denitions for the general statement. We
know R
n
is path-connected, so it is connected.
Solution. (a) If A is not connected, then there are open sets U and V
such that
(1) U V A = .
(2) A U is not empty.
(3) A V is not empty.
(4) A U V .
Let B = AU and C = AV . Since U and V are open, each of B and
C are open relative to A. From (1) and (4), we obtain B = A(M V )
and C = A(M U). (Details?) So B and C are each closed relative to
A. From (2) and (3), neither of the sets B and C are empty. So if A is
not connected, then there are proper subsets of A which are both open
and closed relative to A.
For the converse, suppose there is a nonempty proper subset B of A
which is both open and closed relative to A. Then there are an open
set U and a closed set F such that B = A U and B = A F. Let
V = M F and C = A V . Then U and V are open and we have
(1) U V A = : To see this compute
U V A = (A U) (A V )
= B [A (M F)]
= (B A) (M F)
= B (M F)
= (A F) (M F)
= .
(2) AU is not empty: This is true since AU = B which is nonempty
by hypothesis.
(3) A V is not empty: To see this, compute
A V = A (M F) = A (F A) = A B.
This is not empty since B is a proper subset of A.
(4) A U V : From (3) we know that A V = A B, so
A (U V ) = (A U) (A V ) = B (A B) = A.
Thus A U V as claimed.
Properties (1) - (4) show that the open sets U and V disconnect A. Thus
A M is connected if and only if and A are the only subsets of A
that are both open and closed relative to A as claimed.
(b) R
n
is path-connected. If v and w are in R
n
, then the path (t) = tw +
(1 t)v is a continuous path from v to w. Since it is path-connected,
R
n
is connected. Since R
n
is the whole space, open relative to R
n
and closed relative to R

n
mean the same as open and closed. It
follows immediately from part (a) that and R
n
are the only subsets of
R
n
that are both open and closed.
3E-22. Find two subsets A, B R
2
and a point x
0
R
2
such that AB
is not connected but A B x
0
is connected.
Suggestion. Pick two disjoint open sets whose closures have a point in
common.
Solution. If A and B are nonempty open subsets of R
2
with A B =
and C = AB, then C is not connected. If we arrange it so that each of A
and B are connected and their closures have a point v
0
in common, then
AB v
0
will be connected. For example, let A = (x, y) R
2
[ x > 0
and B = (x, y) R
2
[ x < 0 and v
0
= (0, 0). The half-planes A and
B are both open and path-connected, hence connected, but their union is
not connected. However, with the inclusion of (0, 0), the union becomes
path-connected. Any point v
0
in A can be connected to any point w
0
in B
by going along a straight line (t) = tv
0
to (0, 0) and then out along the
straight line (t) = tw
0
to w
0
. Thus AB(0, 0) is path-connected and
so connected.
3E-23. Let Q denote the rationals in R. Show that both Q and the
irrationals RQ are not connected.
Sketch. Q ] ,
2 [ [
2 , [ ; both intervals are open, they are

disjoint. They disconnect Q. Similarly RQ ], 0[ ]0, [ disconnects
R Q.
Solution. To show that Q R is not connected, recall that

2 is not
rational. The two open half lines U = x R [ x <
2 and V = x
R [ x >
2 are disjoint. Each intersects Q since 0 U and 3 V . Their

union is R
2 which contains Q. Thus U and V disconnect Q.

To show that R Q is not connected, we do essentially the same thing
but use a rational point such as 0 as the separation point. Let U = x
R [ x < 0 and V = x R [ x > 0. Then U and V are disjoint open half
lines. Each intersects R Q since
2 U and

2 V . Their union is
R 0 which contains R Q. Thus U and V disconnect R Q.
3E-24. Prove that a set A M is not connected if we can write A as
the disjoint union of two sets B and C such that B A ,= , C A ,= ,
and neither of the sets B or C has a point of accumulation belonging to
the other set.
Suggestion. Show cl(B) C and cl(C) B are empty. Show that the
complements of these closures disconnect A.
Solution. Suppose A is a subset of a metric space M with nonempty
disjoint subsets B and C such that neither B nor C has an accumulation
point in the other. Then cl(B) C = since a point is in the closure
of B if and only if it is either in B or is an accumulation point of B.
None of these are in C. Similarly, cl(C) B = . Let U = M cl(B) and
V = M cl(C). Then U and V are open since they are the complements of
the closed sets cl(B) and cl(C). Since B cl(C) = , we have B V , and
since C cl(B) = , we have C U. In fact:
(1) U V A = : To see this compute
U V = (M cl(B)) (M cl(C)) = M (cl(B) cl(C))
M (B C) = M A.
(2) B V , so A V is not empty.
(3) C U, so A U is not empty.
(4) A = B C U V .
So the open sets U and V disconnect A.
For a related result, see Exercise 3E-21.
3E-25. Prove that there is a sequence of distinct integers n
1
, n
2
, . . .
such that lim
k
sin n
k
exists.
Sketch. The sequence sin n for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . is contained in the compact
set [1, 1] and hence has a convergent subsequence sin(n
k
).
Solution. We know that [sin x[ 1 for every real number x. In particular,
[sin n[ 1 for every integer n. The sequence a
n
)
1
dened by a
n
= sin n for
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . is a sequence in the closed bounded set [1, 1] R. Since
this set is sequentially compact, there must be a convergent subsequence.
There are integers n
1
< n
2
< n
3
< . . . and a number [1, 1] such that
lim
k
sin n
k
= .
3E-26. Show that the completeness property of R may be replaced by
the Nested Interval Property: If F
n
1
is a sequence of closed bounded
intervals in R such that F
n+1
F
n
for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , then there is at
least one point in

n=1
F
n
.
Solution. We want to show that the following two assertions are equiv-
alent:
Completeness Property: If a
n
)
1
is a monotonically increasing se-
quence bounded above in R, then it converges to some point in R.
Nested Interval Property: If F
n
)
1
is a sequence of closed bounded
intervals in R such that F
n+1
F
n
for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , then there is at
least one point in

n=1
F
n
.
The development of the text starts with the assumption of the complete-
ness property and proves that closed bounded intervals are compact. The
nested interval property as stated then follows from the Nested Set Prop-
erty (Theorem 3.3.1) which says that the intersection of a nested sequence
of nonempty compact sets is not empty.
What is needed now is to start with the assumption of the nested interval
property and to show that the completeness property can be proved from
it. So, suppose the nested interval property is true in R and a
n
)
1
is an
increasing sequence in R with a
n
B R for all n. We want to show that
the a
n
must converge to a limit in R. The idea is to use the points a
n
as
the left ends of a nested family of intervals. The right ends, b
n
, are to be
selected so that the lengths of the intervals [a
n
, b
n
] tend to 0. If we can
manage this we will apply the following variation on the nested interval
property.
Lemma. If F
n
= [a
n
, b
n
], n = 1, 2, 3, . . . are closed bounded intervals in
R such that F
n+1
F
n
for each n and b
n
= a
n
0 as n , then there
is exactly one point in

n=1
F
n
and a
n
and b
n
.
Proof: That there is at least one point in the intersection follows from
the nested interval property. Any other point would be excluded from
any of the intervals with b
n
a
n
< [ [, so there is exactly one point in
the intersection. If > 0, then there is an index N with b
N
a
N
< . If
n N, we have a
N
a
n
b
n
b
N
. So [ a
n
[ < , and [b
n
[ < .
Thus a
n
and b
n
as claimed.
Returning to our original problem, we let b
0
= B so that b
0
a
m
for all
m. The right hand endpoints b
n
are produced inductively. Having selected
b
0
b
1
b
2
b
n
with b
n
a
m
for all m, we need to specify b
n+1
.
If there is a positive integer k with b
n
(1/k) x
m
for all m, then we
let k
n
be the smallest such integer and put b
n+1
= b
n
(1/k
n
). If there is
no such integer, put b
n+1
= b
n
. This produces a sequence b
n
)
1
such that
b
n+1
b
n
for each n and b
n
a
m
for all indices n and m. We will be able
to use the lemma to conclude that there is a real number to which the
points a
n
converge as soon as we know that b
n
a
n
0.
If b
n
a
n
did not tend to 0, there would be an > 0 such that b
m
a
m
>
for all indices m. Focus attention on one of the b
n
. If m n we would have
a
n
a
m
 . If m < n we would have
a
m
a
n
 . So b
n
> a
m
for all indices m and n. Fix a positive integer N with 0 < 1/N < . Then
b
n
(1/N) > x
m
for all m, so 1 k
n
N. This would imply that
b
n+1
= b
n

1
k
n
b
n

1
N
for every index n.
This would mean that the points b
n
would tend to and in a nite
number of steps would be smaller than a
1
. Since this is not the case, we
conclude that b
n
a
n
0. The length of our closed intervals tends to 0,
we can apply the lemma to conclude that there is exactly one point in their
intersection and that the right ends, a
n
converge to that point.
It is worth noting that the Nested Set Property as phrased in Theo-
rem 3.3.1 does not imply the completeness property. It is a perfectly good
theorem about compact sets which follows directly from the abstract def-
inition of compactness. It would apply perfectly well to nested sequences
of compact subsets of the rational line. Of course it does not imply that
the rational line is complete. The diculty is that to make the argument
work we would need to know that closed bounded intervals are compact,
and they are not in the rational line.
3E-27. Let A R be a bounded set. Show that A is closed i for every
sequence x
n
A, limsup x
n
A and liminf x
n
A.
Sketch. If x cl(A), there is a sequence x
n
)
1
in A converging to x. If
the condition holds, then x A. (Why?) So cl(A) A, and A is closed.
For the converse, if A is closed and bounded, the lim inf and lim sup of a
sequence in A are the limits of subsequences, so they are in A.
Solution. First suppose A is a bounded set in R and that limsup x
n
and
liminf x
n
are in A for every sequence x
n
)
1
of points in A. If x cl(A),
then there is a sequence x
n
)
1
of points in A converging to x. Since the
limit exists, we have
x = lim
n
x
n
= liminf
n
x
n
= limsup
n
x
n
.
By hypothesis, this is in A. This is true for every x in cl(A). So cl(A) A,
and A is closed.
For the converse, suppose A is a closed, bounded set in R and that x
n
)
1
is a sequence in A. Since A is a bounded set, the sequence is bounded and
a = liminf x
n
and b = limsup x
n
exist as nite real numbers. Furthermore,
there are subsequences x
n(j)
and x
k(j)
converging to a and b respectively.
Since A is closed, the limits of these subsequences must be in A.
3E-28. Let A M be connected and contain more than one point. Show
that every point of A is an accumulation point of A.
Solution. Suppose a and b are dierent points in A and that a is not an
accumulation point of A. Then there is a radius r > 0 such that D(a, r)
A = a. Let U = x M [ d(x, a) < r/3 and V = x M [ d(x, a) >
2r/3. Then U and V are open (why?) and disjoint. Neither A U nor
AV is empty since a AU and b AV . But A U V since there
are no points x in A with r/3 d(x, a) 2r/3. So the sets U and V would
disconnect A. Since A is connected, this is not possible. Thus a must be an
accumulation point of A. Since a was arbitrary in A assuming that there
was at least one other point in A, this establishes our assertion.
3E-29. Let A = (x, y) R
2
[ x
4
+y
4
= 1. Show that A is compact. Is
it connected?
Sketch. A is both compact and connected.
Solution. If x and y are real numbers with x
4
+y
4
= 1, then 0 x
4
1
and 0 y
4
1, so 1 x 1 and 1 y 1 and | (x, y) | =
_
x
2
+y
2
2. This shows that the set A is bounded. Suppose v

n
=
(x
n
, y
n
) is a sequence of points in A which converge to w = (x, y). Then
x
n
x and y
n
y. So x
4
n
x
4
and y
n
y
4
. Thus x
4
n
+ y
4
n
x
4
+ y
4
.
But x
4
n
+y
4
n
= 1 for each n, so x
4
+y
4
= 1, and w = (x, y) A. This shows
that the set A is closed. Since it is a closed bounded subset of R
2
, it is a
compact set.
One way to see that A is connected is to observe that it is path-connected.
This can be established by writing A as the union of the graphs of two
continuous functions. A = A
+
A
where
A
+
= (x, y) R
2
[ 1 x 1 and y =
4
_
1 x
4
and
A
= (x, y) R
2
[ 1 x 1 and y =
4
_
1 x
4
.
Two points in the same part of A can be connected by following along the
graph of the appropriate continuous function. Points in dierent parts of
A can be connected by connecting each to (1, 0).
3E-30. Let U
k
be a sequence of open bounded sets in R
n
. Prove or
disprove:
(a)

k=1
U
k
is open.
(b)

k=1
U
k
is open.
(c)

k=1
(R
n
U
k
) is closed.
(d)

k=1
(R
n
U
k
) is compact.
Answer. (a) Yes.
(b) Not necessarily.
(c) Yes.
(d) Not necessarily.
Solution. (a) The union of any collection of open subsets of R
n
is open,
so in particular

k=1
U
k
is open.
(b) The intersection of an innite collection of open sets need not be open.
Boundedness does not help. Let U
k
= v R
n
[ | v | < 1/k. Each of
the sets U
k
is open and bounded. But
k=1
U
k
= 0 which is not open.
(c) The sets R
n
U
k
are closed since the U
k
are open. The intersection of any
family of closed subsets of R
n
is closed, so in particular
k=1
(R
n
U
k
)
is closed.
(d) As in part (c) the intersection is closed, but it need not be bounded. Let
U
k
be the sets dened in part (b). Then U
1
U
2
U
3
U
4
. . . . So
(R
n
U
1
) (R
n
U
2
) (R
n
U
3
) . . . .
Thus
k=1
(R
n
U
k
) = R
n
U
1
= v R
2
[ | v | 1.
This set is not bounded and so is not compact.
3E-31. Suppose A R
n
is not compact. Show that there exists a se-
quence F
1
F
2
F
3
of closed sets such that F
k
A ,= for all k
and
_

k=1
F
k
_
A = .
Suggestion. The set A must be either not closed or not bounded or
both. Treat these cases separately. If A is not closed, there must be an
accumulation point of A which is not in A.
Solution. If A is not bounded, let F
k
= v R
n
[ | v | k. Since A is
not bounded, F
k
A is not empty. However,
k=1
F
k
= , so (
k=1
F
k
)A
is certainly empty.
If A is not closed, then there is a point v
0
cl(A) A. Such a point must
be an accumulation point of A. For k = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , let F
k
= v R
n
[
| v v
0
| 1/k. Then each F
k
is closed and each F
k
intersects A since
v
0
is an accumulation point of A. We certainly have F
1
F
2
F
3
. . . .
But

k=1
F
k
= v
0
and v
0
is not in A. So (
k=1
F
k
) A = .
If A is not compact then it is either not bounded or not closed or both,
so at least one of the previous paragraphs applies.
3E-32. Let x
n
be a sequence in R
3
such that [[x
n+1
x
n
[[ 1/(n
2
+n),
n 1. Show that x
n
converges.
Suggestion. Use the triangle inequality and the hypothesis to show that
the sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution. For each index k we have
| x
k+1
x
k
|
1
k
2
+k
=
1
k(k + 1)
=
1
k

1
k + 1
.
So we can compute
| x
n+p
x
n
| = | x
n+p
x
n+p1
+x
n+p1
+ x
n+1
+x
n+1
x
n
|
| x
n+p
x
n+p1
| +| x
n+p1
x
n+p2
| + +| x
n+1
x
n
|
_
1
n +p 1

1
n +p
_
+
_
1
n +p 2

1
n +p 1
_
+. . .
+
_
1
n

1
n + 1
_
1
n

1
n +p

1
n
.
If > 0, and N is large enough so that 1/N < , then | x
n+p
x
n
| <
1/n 1/N < whenever n N and p > 0. Our sequence is thus a Cauchy
sequence and must converge since R
3
is complete.
Here is a solution which uses a little more knowledge and less of a clever
trick. We know from the integral test that the innite series

k=1
(1/k
2
)
converges. So its partial sums must be a Cauchy sequence in R. Given > 0,
there is an N() such that n N() and p > 0 imply that
n+p
k=n+1
(1/k
2
) <
.
Now suppose n N() and p > 0. Then
| x
n+p
x
n
| = | x
n+p
x
n+p1
+x
n+p1
+ x
n+1
+x
n+1
x
n
|
| x
n+p
x
n+p1
| +| x
n+p1
x
n+p2
| + +| x
n+1
x
n
|
1
(n +p 1)(n +p)
+
1
(n +p 2)(n +p 1)
+ +
1
n(n + 1)
1
(n +p 1)
2
+
1
(n +p 2)
2
)
+ +
1
n
2
< .
Again the sequence is a Cauchy sequence in R
3
and must converge.
3E-33. Baire category theorem. A set S in a metric space is called
nowhere dense if for each nonempty open set U, we have cl(S) U ,= U,
or equivalently, int(cl(S)) = . Show that R
n
cannot be written as the
countable union of nowhere dense sets.
Sketch. If A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . are closed nowhere dense sets, put B
k
= R
n
A
k
to see that the assertion is implied by the following theorem.
Theorem. If B
1
, B
2
, . . . are open dense subsets of R
n
, then B =
k
B
k
is dense in R
n
.
Let x R
n
and > 0. Inductively dene a nested sequence of closed
disks B(x
k
, r
k
) = y [ | x
k
y | r
k
by
D
1
= B(x
1
, r
1
) where x
1
B
1
, | x x
1
| < /3, r
1
< /3,
and B(x
1
, r
1
) B
1
D
2
= B(x
2
, r
2
) where x
2
B
2
, | x
1
x
2
| < r
1
/3, r
2
< r
1
/3,
and B(x
2
, r
2
) B
2
etc.
Check that D
k
B
k
for each k and D(x, ) cl(D
1
) D
1
cl(D
2
)
D
2
. Existence of y
k
cl(D
k
) shows that B is dense in R
n
. (Why?)
Solution. To say that a set is nowhere dense is to say that its closure
has empty interior.
A is nowhere dense (U open = U cl(A) ,= U)
int(cl(A)) = .
Suppose A is such a set and B is the complement of A. If v
0
A, then
every neighborhood of v
0
must intersect B since otherwise v
0
would be an
interior point of A, and there are none. So v
0
cl(B). Thus A cl(B).
Since B cl(B) also, we see that the whole space is contained in the closure
of B. That is, B is dense. Conversely, if B is dense, then its complement
can have no interior. If A is closed so that A = cl(A), this says that A is
nowhere dense and that B is open. We summarize these observations.
Lemma. The set A is closed and nowhere dense if and only if its com-
plement is an open dense set.
The Baire category theorem asserts that R
n
, or more generally, any com-
plete metric space, is not the union of countably many closed, nowhere
dense sets. Suppose A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . , are closed nowhere dense sets and B
1
,
B
2
, B
3
, . . . , are their complements in a metric space M. Then
_
k=1
A
k
= M = M
_
k=1
A
k
=
k=1
(M A
k
) =
k=1
B
k
.
So the assertion that M is not such a countable union is equivalent to
saying that the last intersection is not empty. In fact, with a bit more care,
we see that it must be dense. Here are several forms of the theorem:
Baire Theorem (version (i)) Suppose M is a nonempty complete
metric space and that A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . , are closed nowhere dense subsets
of M. Then

k=1
A
k
,= M.
Baire Theorem (version (ii)) Suppose M is a complete metric space
and that A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . , are closed subsets of M with

k=1
A
k
= M.
Then at least one of the sets A
k
must have nonempty interior.
Baire Theorem (version (iii)) Suppose M is a complete metric space
and that B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, . . . , are open dense subsets of M. Then

k=1
B
k
is
not empty.
Baire Theorem (version (iv)) Suppose M is a complete metric space
and that B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, . . . , are open dense subsets of M. Then

k=1
B
k
is
dense in M.
Version (iv) certainly implies version (iii) since an empty set cannot be
dense in the nonempty space M. If version (iii) holds and A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, . . . ,
are closed nowhere dense subsets of M, then their complements B
k
are open
dense sets, and their intersection would not be empty. The computation
above shows that the union of the A
k
cannot be all of M. Thus version
(iii) implies version (i). Versions (i) and (ii) are essentially contrapositives
of each other and so are equivalent.
We prove version (iv):
Let B
1
, B
2
, B
3
, . . . be open dense subsets of M, and let B =
k=1
B
k
.
To show that B is dense in M, let x M and > 0. We need to show
that there is a point y in B with d(x, y) < . To do this we will construct a
Cauchy sequence x
k
)
1
with x
k
B
k
cl(D(x, /2)) for each k and obtain
y as the limit of that sequence. The construction proceeds inductively.
STEP ONE: Since B
1
is dense, there is a point x
1
B
1
with d(x, x
1
) <
/3. Since B
1
is open, there is an r
1
< /3 with D
1
= D(x
1
, r
1
) B
1
.
If x D(x
1
, r
1
), then d(x, z) d(x, x
1
) + d(x
1
, z) < 2/3. So cl(D
1
)
D(x, ).
STEP TWO: Since B
2
is dense, there is a point x
2
B
2
with d(x
2
, x
1
) <
r
1
/3. Since B
2
is open, there is a positive r
2
with r
2
< r
1
/3 < /9 and
D
2
= D(x
2
, r
2
) B
2
. If z D
2
, then d(z, x
1
) d(z, x
2
) + d(x
2
, x
1
) <
2r
1
/3, so D
2
cl(D
2
) D
1
.
.
.
.
STEP k + 1: We have found points x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
k
and positive radii
r
1
, r
2
,, r
3
, . . . r
k
with
1. D
j
= D(x
j
, r
j
) B
j
for each j = 1, 2, 3, . . . k.
2. D(x, ) cl(D
1
) D
1
cl(D
2
) D
2
D
k1
cl(D
k
) D
k
.
3. r
j
< /3
j
for j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , k.
Use the fact that B
k+1
is dense to pick x
k+1
B
k+1
with d(x
k+1
, x
k
) <
r
k
/3 and the fact that B
k+1
is open to select an r
k+1
with 0 < r
k+1
<
r
k
/3 < /3
k+1
such that D
k+1
= D(x
k+1
, r
k+1
) B
k+1
. If z D
k+1
, then
d(z, x
k
) d(z, x
k+1
) +d(x
k+1
, x
k
) < 2r
k
/3, so D
k+1
cl(D
k+1
) D
k
.
.
.
.
Continued inductively, this process produces a sequence of points x
1
, x
2
,
x
3
, . . . and positive radii r
1
, r
2
,, r
3
, . . . with
1. D
k
= D(x
k
, r
k
) B
k
for each k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
2. D(x, ) cl(D
1
) D
1
cl(D
2
) D
k1
cl(D
k
) D
k
. . . .
3. r
k
< /3
k
for k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
See the gure.
Figure 3-3. The construction for the Baire Category Theorem.
In R
n
we can nish the proof very quickly. The sets F
k
= cl(D
k
) are a
nested sequence of nonempty compact sets. From the Nested Set Property
(3.3.1), we know that there must be at least one point y in their intersection.
For such a y we have
y
k=2
cl(D
k
)
k=1
D
k
D(x, ) B
and we have the point we need.
In some other complete metric space, the closed balls cl(D
k
) might not
be compact, and we need to do a little more work. These closed balls are
nested, and their radii, r
k
tend to 0. So, if
> 0, there is a K such that

r
k
<
whenever k K. For such k and p > 0, we know that x

k
and x
k+p
are both in D
k
= D(x
k
, r
k
). So d(x
k+p
, x
k
) <
. Thus the sequence x

k
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in the complete metric space M and must converge
to some point y M. Since x
k
D
m
whenever k m and x
k
y, we
must have y cl(D
m
). Since this holds for each m we have
y
m=2
cl(D
m
)
k=m
D
m
D(x, ) B
just as before, and y is the point we need.
Some care is needed in the interpretation of this theorem. We know that
a closed subset of a complete metric space is complete. For example, the
set Z of integers is complete since they are all separated from each other
by a distance of at least one. The only way that a sequence of integers can
be a Cauchy sequence is for it to be eventually constant. So every Cauchy
sequence of integers certainly converges to an integer. But Z is a countable
union of single points. Why does this not contradict the Baire Category
Theorem. The trick is in being very careful about what we mean by open
sets. If we are considering the integers as a metric space in its own right
and not as a subset of a larger space, then those single point sets are open
n = D(n, 1/2). So n is both closed and open. It is not a closed nowhere
dense set. It has interior int(n) = n.
3E-34. Prove that each closed set A M is an intersection of a count-
able family of open sets.
Suggestion. Consider U
k
=
xA
D(x, 1/k).
Solution. For each positive integer k, let U
k
=

xA
D(x, 1/k). Since
each of the disks D(x, 1/k) is open, their union U
k
is also open. Since
x D(x, 1/k), we certainly have A

xA
D(x, 1/k) = U
k
. Since this is
true for each k, we have A

k+1
U
k
. On the other hand, if y is in this
intersection and > 0, then we can nd an integer k with 0 < 1/k < .
Since y U
k
, there is an x A with y D(x, 1/k) D(x, ). Since this
can be done for each > 0, we have y cl(A). But since A is closed, we
have cl(A) = A, and y A. Thus

k=1
U
k
A. We have inclusion in
both directions, so A =

k=1
U
k
which is the intersection of a countable
collection of open sets.
3E-35. Let a R and dene the sequence a
1
, a
2
, . . . in R by a
1
= a,
and a
n
= a
2
n1
a
n1
+ 1 if n > 1. For what a R is the sequence
(a) Monotone?
(b) Bounded?
(c) Convergent?
Compute the limit in the cases of convergence.
Answer. (a) All a. If a = 0 or 1, the sequence is constant.
(b) 0 a 1.
(c) 0 a 1.
Solution. Let f(x) = x
2
x + 1. Our sequence is dened by a
1
= a
and a
n+1
= f(a
n
) for n = 1, 2, 3, ..... The graph of y = f(x) is a parabola
opening upward. Its vertex is at the point x = 1/2, y = 3/4.
(a) For each n 1 we have
a
n+1
a
n
= a
2
n
2a
n
+ 1 = (a
n
1)
2
0.
So the sequence is monotonically increasing (or at least nondecreasing),
no matter what the starting point is. If a = 1, then the dierences are
always 0 and the sequence is constant. If a = 0, then a
1
= 1, and the
sequence is constant beyond that point.
a
n+1
= a
n
if and only if a
n
= 1, so the sequence is strictly increasing
unless there is some n with a
n
= 1. But a
n
= 1 if and only if a
n1
is either 1 or 0, and 0 has no possible predecessor since the equation
x
2
x + 1 = 0 has no real root. Thus the sequence is increasing for all
a and strictly increasing unless a = 0 or a = 1.
(b) The function f(x) = x
2
x + 1 dening our sequence has an absolute
minimum value of 3/4 occurring at x = 1/2. Also f(0) = f(1) = 1, and
if 0 x 1, then 3/4 f(x) 1. If 0 a
k
1, this shows that
0 f(a
k
) = a
k+1
1. If 0 a = a
1
1, then it follows by induction
that 0 a
n
1 for all n, and the sequence is bounded.
If a
k
> 1, then a
m
> a
k
> 1 for all m > k by part (a). Furthermore,
(a
m+2
a
m+1
) (a
m+1
a
m
) = (a
m+1
1)
2
(a
m
1)
2
= (a
2
m+1
2a
m+1
+ 1) (a
m
2a
m
+ 1)
= a
2
m+1
a
2
m
2(a
m+1
a
m
)
= (a
m+1
+a
m
2)(a
m+1
a
m
)
0.
So the dierences between successive terms is increasing. The terms
must diverge to +.
If a = a
1
> 1, then this analysis applies directly and the sequence must
diverge to +.
If a = a
1
< 0, then a
2
= f(a
1
) = f(a) = a
2
a + 1 = a
2
+[a[ + 1 > 1.
So the analysis still applies and the sequence must diverge to +.
Combining these observations, we see that the sequence is bounded if
and only if 0 a 1.
(c) From parts (a) and (b), we know that if 0 a 1, then the sequence is
a bounded monotone sequence in R and must converge to some R.
From part (b), we know that if a is not in this interval, then the sequence
diverges to +. Thus the sequence converges if and only if 0 a 1.
If the limit exists, then a
n+1
and a
2
n
a
n
+1
2
+1. Since
a
n+1
= a
2
n
a
n
+1 and limits are unique, we must have =
2
1.
So 0 =
2
2 +1 = ( 1)
2
. Thus we must have lim
n
a
n
= = 1.
The action of f on a to produce the sequence a
n
)
1
can be very eectively
illustrated in terms of the graph of the function y = f(x). Starting with a
k
on the x-axis, the point (a
k
, f(a
k
)) is located on the graph of f. The point
a
k+1
is then located on the x-axis by moving horizontally to the line y = x,
and then vertically to the x-axis. The xed point 1 occurs when the graph
of f touches the line y = x. Repetition produces a visual representation of
the behavior of the sequence. See the gure.
Figure 3-4. Iteration of a function to produce a sequence.
The iteration of the function f to produce the sequence a
n
)
1
from
the starting point a is an example of a discrete dynamical system. The
sequence obtained is called the orbit of the point. The study of the behavior
of sequences obtained from the iteration of functions is a rich eld with
many applications in mathematics and other elds. It can lead to nice clean
behavior such as we have seen here or to much more complicated behavior
now characterized by the term chaos. A couple of nice references are:
An Introduction to Chaotic Dynamical Systems, Robert L. Devaney,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Encounters with Chaos, Denny Gulick, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
3E-36. Let A R
n
be uncountable. Prove that A has an accumulation
point.
Suggestion. Consider the sets A
k
= A v R
n
[ | v | k.
Solution. For k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , let A
k
= A v R
n
[ | v | k. Then
A =

k=1
A
k
. If each of the countably many sets A
k
were nite, then
their union A would be countable. Since it is not, at least one of the sets
A
k
must have innitely many points. We can choose a sequence of points
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . in A
k
all dierent. This is a bounded sequence in R
n
, so by the
Bolzano-Weierstrass property of R
n
, it must have a subsequence converging
to some point w R
n
. (The closed bounded set cl(A
k
) R
n
is sequentially
compact.) Points in A
k
are in A, so there is a sequence of distinct points
of A converging to w and w must be an accumulation point of A.
3E-37. Let A, B M with A compact, B closed, and A B = .
(a) Show that there is an > 0 such that d(x, y) > for all x A and
y B.
(b) Is (a) true if A, B are merely closed?
Sketch. (a) For each x A there is a
x
such that D(x,
x
) M B;
apply compactness to the covering D(x,
x
/2) [ x A.
(b) No; let A be the y-axis and B be the graph of y = 1/x.
Solution. (a) If either A or B is empty, then the assertion is vacuously
true for any > 0. Otherwise for x A, let
x
= infd(x, y) [ y B.
Then there is a sequence of points y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, . . . in B with d(x, y
k
)
x
.
If
x
= 0, this would say that y
k
x. Since B is closed, this would
say that x B. But it is not since A B = . Thus
x
> 0. We have
d(y, x)
x
for every y B. If we pick any
x
with 0 <
x
<
x
, then
we have d(y, x) >
x
for every y B and x D(x,
x
) M B. So
A
_
xA
D
_
x,

x
2
_
M B.
This open cover of the compact set A must have a nite subcover, so
there are points x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, . . . a
N
in A such that
A D
_
x
1
,

x1
2
_
D
_
x
1
,

x1
2
_
D
_
x
N
,

x
N
2
_
M B.
Let
= min
_
1
2
,

2
2
, . . . ,

N
2
_
and suppose x A and y B. Then there is an index j with 1 j N
and x D(x
j
,
xj
/2) M B. So d(x
j
, y) d(x
j
, x) + d(x, y). This
gives
d(x, y) d(x
j
, y) d(x
j
, x) >
j
d(x
j
, x) >
j

j
2
=

j
2
> .
So d(x, y) > for all x in A and y in B as required.
(b) This is not true if we only assume that both A and B are closed. Let
A = (0, y) R
2
[ y R and B = (x, 1/x) R
2
[ x > 0. Then A is a
straight line (the y-axis), and B is one branch of a hyperbola (the graph
of y = 1/x for x > 0). Each of these sets is closed and their intersection
is empty. But d((0, 1/x), (x, 1/x)) = x 0 as x 0. So no such can
exist for these sets.
3E-38. Show that A M is not connected i there exist two disjoint
open sets U, V such that U A ,= , V A ,= , and A U V.
Suggestion. Suppose G and H disconnect A. Let U = G (M cl(H))
and V = H (M cl(G)).
Solution. If there are such open sets, then they satisfy the conditions of
Denition 3.5.1 and disconnect A. For the converse, suppose A is discon-
nected and that G and H are open sets which disconnect A. That is
1. G H A = .
2. A G is not empty.
3. A H is not empty.
4. A G H.
Let U = G (M cl(H)) and V = H (M cl(G)). Then U and V are
open since each is the intersection of a pair of open sets. We certainly have
A U = A G (M cl(H)) A G. On the other hand, if x A G,
then x is not in H since A G H = . So x is certainly not in cl(H),
and x A G (M cl(H)) = A U. Thus A U = A G. Similarly,
A V = A H. (Do it.). So neither A U nor A V is empty, and
(A U) (A V ) = (A G) (A H) = A.
So A U V . Finally,
U V = (A G) (AcapH) = A G H =
as required.
3E-39. Let F
1
= [0, 1/3] [2/3, 1] be obtained from [0, 1] by removing
the middle third. Repeat, obtaining
F
2
= [0, 1/9] [2/9, 1/3] [2/3, 7/9] [8/9, 1].
In general, F
n
is a union of intervals and F
n+1
is obtained by removing the
middle third of these intervals. Let C =
n=1
F
n
, the Cantor set. Prove:
(a) C is compact.
(b) C has innitely many points. [Hint: Look at the endpoints of F
n
.]
(c) int(C) = .
(d) C is perfect; that is, it is closed with no isolated points.
(e) Show that C is totally disconnected; that is, if x, y C and x ,= y
then x U and y V where U and V are open sets that discon-
nect C.
Solution. (a) Each F
n
is a union of nitely many closed intervals and so
is closed. The set C =
n=1
F
n
is thus an intersection of closed sets and
so is closed. It is contained in the unit interval and so is bounded. It is
a closed bounded subset of R and so is compact.
(b) At the nth stage, none of the endpoints of the subintervals making up
F
n
are removed, and two new endpoints are created within each of these
subintervals by the removal of the open middle third of it. Since all these
endpoints remain in the sets from step to step and each F
n
is a subset
of the previous one, they are all in the intersection. Since their number
increases by more than one at each step and there are innitely many
steps, there are innitely many of these endpoints in C.
(c) The length of the subintervals making up the set F
n
is 3
n
, so the
intersection can contain no interval longer than this. Since this is true
for every positive integer n and 3
n
0 as n , the intersection
can contain no interval of positive length. Any interior point of C would
have to have an interval around it of positive length contained in C, and
there are no such intervals. Thus there can be no interior points and
int(C) = .
(d) As noted in part (b), the endpoints of the subintervals making up the set
F
n
are never removed in succeeding steps. Thus they are all in the inter-
section. The distance between the endpoints of one of these subintervals
is 3
n
. If x is in the intersection, then at the nth stage it must be in
one of the subintervals of F
n
. If we let this subinterval be [a
n
(x), b
n
(x)],
then we have
a
n
(x) x b
n
(x) = a
n
(x) +
1
3
n
.
If x = a
n
(x) for some n, let c
k
(x) = b
k
(x) for all k.
If x = b
n
(x) for some n, let c
k
(x) = a
k
(x) for all k.
Otherwise, let c
k
(x) = b
k
(x) for all k.
Then [c
k
(x) x[ < 3
n
, so c
k
(x) x as k , and the c
k
(x) are
all dierent from x and from each other. As noted in part (b), each of
the points c
k
(x) is in C, so x is an accumulation point of C and is not
isolated. C is thus a closed set in which every point is an accumulation
point. That is, it is a perfect set.
(e) Let x and y be distinct points of C. Then they are both in F
n
for every
n. Since the subintervals making up F
n
have length 3
n
, the points
x and y must lie in dierent subintervals if n is large enough so that
3
n
< [x y[. In the language of part (d), if x < y we must have
a
n
(x) x b
n
(x) < a
n
(y) y b
n
(y).
At least one of the subintervals removed from F
n1
to create F
n
lies
between b
n
(x) and a
n
(y). Pick a point z in such a removed subinterval,
then z is not in F
n
, so z is not in C. Furthermore x < y < z. Let
U = s R [ s < z and V = t R [ z < t. Then U and V are
disjoint open sets, x U, y V , and C R z = U V . Thus U
and V disconnect C with x in one component and y in another. So C is
totally disconnected as claimed.
The set C is called the Cantor set. It was used by Georg Cantor as an ex-
ample of several interesting things in the theory of sets which he was devel-
oping. It is a very useful device for creating examples and counterexamples
for many things involving functions on the unit interval. For example, by
arranging for the function to be constant on the removed subintervals one
can create a continuous monotonically increasing function with f(0) = 0
and f(1) = 1, which is, in a fairly reasonable sense, constant almost every-
where. This is because the total length of the segments removed is one.
Another aspect of the Cantor set of interest is that it is an example of
a fractal set. If we zoom in and look at a piece of it magnied, we nd
that it looks essentially the same at every scale.
One way of thinking about the Cantor set is to expand numbers between
0 and 1 in a base 3 expansion instead of the customary base 10. In such an
expansion, we need only three symbols 0, 1, and 2 instead of 10. The
Cantor set consists of 0 and 1 together with those numbers between 0 and
1 which have no 1s in their ternary expansion.
3E-40. Let F
k
be a nest of compact sets (that is, F
k+1
F
k
). Further-
more, suppose each F
k
is connected. Prove that
k=1
F
k
is connected.
Give an example to show that compactness is an essential condition and
we cannot just assume that F
k
is a nest of closed connected sets.
Suggestion. Use the Nested Set Property.
Solution. From the nested set property, there is at least one point x
0
in the intersection F =

k=1
F
k
. Suppose U and V are open sets with
F U V = and F U V .
Claim. There is an integer k such that F
k
U V .
Proof of claim: For each k let C
k
= F
k
(M (U V )). Then C
k
is a
closed subset of the compact set F
k
, so C
k
is compact. (Why?) Furthermore
C
k+1
C
k
for each k. (Why?) If each of the sets C
k
were nonempty, then
by the nested set property there would be at least one point y in their
intersection. But such a point would be in all of the F
k
and so in F. We
would have y F U V which was supposed to be empty. Thus at least
one of the sets C
k
must be empty and for that k we have F
k
U V .
Let k be an index with F
k
U V . The point x
0
must be in one of the
sets U or V . Say x
0
U. Then x
0
UF
k
, so V F
k
must be empty or the
sets U and V would disconnect the connected set F
k
. Thus F F
k
U. So
F U and F V = . The sets U and V cannot disconnect F. Thus there
can be no pair of open sets which disconnect F and F must be connected.
For a counterexample in which the sets are closed and connected but not
compact, let F
k
= (x, y) R
2
[ [x[ 1 or [y[ k for k = 1, 2, 3, .... Each
of these is closed and connected. But their intersection is (x, y) R
2
[
[x[ 1 which is not connected.
Page 215
4
Continuous Mappings
4.1 Continuity
4.1-1. (a) Let f : R R, x x
2
. Prove that f is continuous.
(b) Let f : R
2
R, (x, y) x. Prove that f is continuous.
Suggestion. For x
0
R and > 0, try = min(1, /(1 + 2 [x
0
[)).
Solution. (a) To nd the form of the solution, compute the quantity
which is to be made small. For x
0
R we have
[f(x) f(x
0
)[ =
x
2
x
2
0
= [x +x
0
[ [x x
0
[ .
If [x x
0
[ < , then [x +x
0
[ [x x
0
[ + [2x
0
[ + 2 [x
0
[. If < 1,
this leaves us with [f(x) f(x
0
)[ < (1 +2 [x
0
[) [x x
0
[. So, if we take
to be the smaller of the two numbers 1 and /((1 + 2 [x
0
[), we have
[f(x) f(x
0
)[ ( + 2 [x
0
[) [x x
0
[ (1 + 2 [x
0
[) [x x
0
[
(1 + 2 [x
0
[)

1 + 2 [x
0
[
= .
Thus f is continuous at x
0
. Since x
0
was an arbitrary point in R, we
conclude that f is continuous on all of R.
(b) Solution One: If v = (a, b) R, then f(v) = a. This is called projection
onto the rst coordinate. If (x, y) is another point, then
[f(x, y) f(a, b)[ = [x a[
_
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
= | (x, y) (a, b) | .
216 4. Continuous Mappings
Let > 0. If we take = , we nd that if | (x, y) (a, b) | < , then
[f(x, y) f(a, b)[ | (x, y) (a, b) | < = .
(See Figure 4-1.)
Figure 4-1. The projections onto the coordinate axes are continuous.
Thus f is continuous at (a, b). Since (a, b) was an arbitrary point in R
2
,
we conclude that f is continuous on R
2
.
Solution Two: Another way to handle this exercise is to use the charac-
terization of continuity in terms of convergent sequences given in Theo-
rem 4.1.4(ii) together with facts we already know about the convergence
of sequences in R
2
. Let (x
k
, y
k
) (a, b)) in R
2
. We know from Chapter 2
that this happens (with respect to the usual Euclidean distance in R
2
) if
and only if x
k
a and y
k
b in R. In particular, f((x
k
, y
k
)) = x
k
a.
Since this happens for every sequence in R
2
converging to (a, b), Theo-
rem 4.1.4(ii) says that f is continuous at (a, b). Since (a, b) was arbitrary
in R
2
, we conclude that f is continuous on R
2
.
The function studied in part (b) is called the projection of R
2
onto the
rst coordinate. It is sometimes denoted by
1
. The projection onto the
second coordinate is dened similarly:
2
((x, y)) = y. This notation might
or might not be a good idea, but it is fairly common. It is one of the very
few times when it is permissible to use the symbol for something other
than the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
For related material, see Exercise 3E-15.
4.1-2. Use (b) in Exercise 4.1-1 to show that if U R is open, then
A = (x, y) R
2
[ x U is open.
4.1 Continuity 217
Solution. For (x, y) R
2
, let
1
(x, y) = x (the projection onto the rst
coordinate). From part (b) of Exercise 4.1-1, we know that the function
1
: R
2
R is continuous. Since A =
1
1
(U) and U is open in R, we
conclude from Theorem 4.1.4(iii) that A is open in R
2
.
4.1-3. Let f : R
2
R be continuous. Show A = (x, y) R
2
[ 0
f(x, y) 1 is closed.
Solution. A = f
1
([0, 1]). By Theorem 4.1.4(iv), this is closed in R
2
since f is continuous and [0, 1] is closed in R.
4.1-4. Prove directly that condition (iii) implies condition (iv) in Theo-
rem 4.1.4.
Solution. The conditions in question are:
4.1.4 Theorem Let f : A M N be a mapping from a subset A of a
metric space M into a metric space N. Then the following are equivalent:
iii. For each open set U in N, the inverse image, f
1
(U) A is open
relative to A. That is, f
1
(U) = V A for some open set V .
iv. For each open set F in N, the inverse image, f
1
(F) A is closed
relative to A. That is, f
1
(F) = G A for some open set V .
We are asked to prove (iii) = (iv).
Suppose F is a closed set in N. Let U = N F. Then U is open in N,
and f
1
(U) = f
1
(N F) = A (M f
1
(F)) = A f
1
(F). Since for
x A we have
x f
1
(U) x f
1
(N F)
f(x) N F
f(x) / F
x / f
1
(F)
x A f
1
(F)
With the assumption of (iii) we have f
1
(U) open relative to A. So there
is an open set V such that f
1
(U) = V A. So
f
1
(F) = A (A f
1
(F)) = A f
1
(U)
= A (A V ) = A (M V ).
Since V is open, G = M V is closed, and f
1
(F) = A G. So f
1
(F) is
closed relative to A as claimed.
4.1-5. Give an example of a continuous function f : R R and an open
set U R such that f(U) is not open.
Sketch. f(x) = 1, U = any open set;
f(x) =
_
_
0, if x 0
x, if 0 < x < 1
1, if x 1.
, U =] 1, 2[ ; f(U) = [0, 1] is closed.
Solution. For a very easy example, take the constant function f(x) = 1
for all x R. If a R and x
k
a, then f(x
k
) = f(a) = 0 for every k.
So we certainly have f(x
k
) f(a). Thus f is continuous at a by 4.1.4(ii),
and, since a was an arbitrary point in R, f is continuous on R. If U is any
nonempty open subset of R then f(U) = 1. This one point set is not an
open subset of R.
For a slightly more imaginative example, we could take
f(x) =
_
_
0, if x 0
x, if 0 < x < 1
1, if x 1.
See Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2. A continuous function.
Then if U =] 1, 2[ , we have f(U) = [0, 1], which is closed. (Show f is
continuous.)
4.2 Images of Compact and Connected Sets
4.2-1. Let f : R R be continuous. Which of the following sets are
necessarily closed, open, compact, or connected?
(a) x R [ f(x) = 0
4.2 Images of Compact and Connected Sets 219
(b) x R [ f(x) > 1
(c) f(x) R [ x 0
(d) f(x) R [ 0 x 1
Answer. (a) Closed, not necessarily compact or connected.
(b) Open, not necessarily compact or connected.
(c) Connected, not necessarily compact, open, or closed.
(d) Compact, closed, and connected; not necessarily open.
Solution. (a) If A = x R [ f(x) = 0, then A = f
1
(0). Since the
one point set 0 is closed in R, and f is continuous, A must be closed
by Theorem 4.1.4(iv).
If we use the function f(x) = 0 for all x, then f is continuous on all of
R. One way to see this is to let x
0
R and > 0. If x R, we have
[f(x) f(x
0
)[ = [0 0[ = 0 < . So we can let be any positive number
to get [x x
0
[ < = [f(x) f(x
0
)[ < . Thus f is continuous at x
0
,
and, since x
0
was arbitrary in R, f is continuous on R. For this function
we have f
1
(0) = R which is not bounded and not compact. So A
need not be compact.
Now consider f(x) = x
2
1. For this function we have A = f
1
(0) =
1, a two point set which is not connected. To see that f is continuous,
note that [f(x) f(x
0
)[ =

x
2
x
2
0
. Given > 0, select > 0 as in

Exercise 4.1-1(a). Thus A need not be connected.
(b) If B = x R [ f(x) > 1, then B = f
1
(U) where U = y R [
y > 1. Since U is open in R and f is continuous, B must be open by
Theorem 4.1.4(iii).
To see that B need not be compact, consider the constant function
f(x) = 2 for all x R. Modify the argument in part (a) slightly to show
that f is continuous on R. Since 2 > 1, we have B = f
1
(U) = R which
is not compact.
To see that B need not be connected, let f(x) = x
2
1. Then f is
continuous as in part (a). f(x) > 1 [x[ >
2, so B = x R [
x <
2 x R [ x >
2. Since B is the union of two disjoint,

nonempty open sets, it is not connected.
(c) If C = f(x) R [ x 0, then C = f(J) where J is the closed half
line x R [ x 0. Since J is path-connected it is connected. Since f
is continuous on J, C = f(J) must be connected by Theorem 4.2.1.
To see that f(J) need not be open, consider the function f(x) = 0 for all
x used in part (a). We know that f is continuous, and C = f(J) = 0.
This one point set is not open in R.
To see that C need not be closed, consider the function f(x) = 1/(x
2
+1)
for all x R. The arithmetic of limits allows us to conclude from 4.1.4(ii)
that f is continuous. If x
k
a, then x
2
k
a
2
, and x
2
k
+1 a
2
+1 1.
So f(x
k
) = 1/(x
2
k
+ 1) 1/(a
2
+ 1) = f(a). This shows that f is
continuous at a, and, since a was an arbitrary point in R, that f is
continuous on R. If x R, then 1 x
2
+ 1 < , so 0 < f(x) 1.
On the other hand, if 0 < y 1, then we can put x =
_
(1 y)/y
and compute that f(x) = y. So f(J) is the half-open interval ]0, 1].
This is not closed since 0 cl(]0, 1]) ]0, 1]. This supplies the required
counterexample.
Since the half-open interval ]0, 1] is not closed, it is not compact, and
the same example as in the last paragraph shows that C need not be
compact.
(d) If D = f(x) R [ 0 x 1, then D = f(K) where K is the closed
unit interval [0, 1]. Since K is compact, the image D = f(K) must be
compact by Theorem 4.2.2. Since it is a compact subset of R, the set D
must be closed. Since the interval K is connected, the image D = f(K)
must be connected by Theorem 4.2.1.
To see that D need not be open, use the function f(x) = x for all x.
Then f is continuous by Example 4.1.5, and D = f(K) = K = [0, 1].
The image D is not open since 0 D but no small interval around 0 is
contained in D.
4.2-2. Verify Theorems 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 for f : R
2
R, f(x, y) = x
2
+y,
K = B = (x, y) [ x
2
+y
2
1.
Suggestion. Show f(K) = [1, 2].
Solution. If K = B = (x, y) [ x
2
+ y
2
1, then the closed disk K is
both compact and connected. If we believe that the function f(x, y) = x
2
+y
is continuous, then Theorem 4.2.1 says that the image f(K) should be
connected, and Theorem 4.2.2 says that it should be compact. To check
this out, we show that that image is a closed bounded interval in R. To be
precise, f(K) = [1, 2].
For (x, y) in K we have 1 x 1, and 1 y 1. So 0 x
2
1.
Thus 1 f(x, y) = x
2
+y 2. On the other hand, we have:
If 1 t 0, then t = (
t + 1 )
2
1 = f(
t + 1, 1). So t f(K).
t )
2
+ 0 = f(
t, 0). So t f(K).
t 1 )
2
+ 1 = f(
t 1, +1). So t f(K).
Thus f(K) = [1, 2]. This closed bounded interval is both compact and
connected just as Theorems 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 say it should be.
4.2-3. Give an example of a continuous map f : R R and a closed
subset B R such that f(B) is not closed. Is this possible if B is bounded
as well?
4.2 Images of Compact and Connected Sets 221
Answer. It is not possible if B is closed and bounded since then it is
compact.
Solution. An example is given in part (c) of Exercise 4.2-1. B = x
R [ x 0, and f(x) = 1/(x
2
+ 1). Then f(B) =]0, 1] which is not closed.
If B is a subset of R, which is both closed and bounded, then it is
compact. Theorem 4.2.2 says that f(B) would also be compact. It would
thus be a closed subset of R.
4.2-4. Let A, B R, and suppose AB R
2
is connected.
(a) Prove that A is connected.
(b) Generalize to metric spaces.
Suggestion. Use Exercise 4.1-1(b).
Solution. (a) Let
1
: R
2
R be the projection onto the rst coordinate.
That is,
1
((x, y)) = x. Then
1
is continuous. (See Exercise 4.1-1(b).)
If B is not empty, then
1
(AB) = A. So A is connected by Theorem
4.2.1. If B = , then A B = , and
1
(A B) = . We are still all
right provided we realize that the empty set is connected. (Could there
be sets U and V which disconnect it?)
(b) To generalize to metric spaces, let M
1
and M
2
be metric spaces with
metrics d
1
and d
2
. One way to put a metric on the cross product M =
M
1
M
2
is to imitate the taxicab metric on R
2
d((x, y), (a, b)) = d
1
(x, a) +d
2
(y, b)
so that a set S M would be open if and only if for each (a, b) S
there is an r > 0 such that (x, y) S whenever d
1
(x, a) + d
2
(y, b) < r.
We could also use a formula analogous to the Euclidean metric on R
2
:
((x, y), (a, b)) =
_
d
1
(x, a)
2
+d
2
(y, b)
2
.
Then
d((x, y), (a, b))
2
= (d
1
(x, a) +d
2
(y, b))
2
= d
1
(x, a)
2
+ 2d
1
(x, a)d
2
(x, a) +d
2
(x, a)
2
d
1
(x, a)
2
+d
2
(x, a)
2
= (((x, y), (a, b)))
2
.
On the other hand,
d
1
(x, a) +d
2
(y, b)
_
d
1
(x, a)
2
+d
2
(y, b)
2
+
_
d
1
(x, a)
2
+d
2
(y, b)
2
2((x, y), (a, b)).
So
((x, y), (a, b)) d((x, y), (a, b)) 2((x, y), (a, b)).
These inequalities show that d and produce the same open sets, the
same closed sets, and the same convergent sequences with the same
limits in M. Also, since
d
1
(x, a) d((x, y), (a, b)) and d
2
(y, b) d((x, y), (a, b)),
and d((x, y), (a, b)) max(d
1
(x, a), d
2
(y, b)),
we see that
(x
k
, y
k
) (a, b) in M ((x
k
, y
k
), (a, b)) 0
d((x
k
, y
k
), (a, b)) 0
d
1
(x
k
, a) 0 and d
2
(y
k
, b) 0
x
k
a in M
1
and y
k
b in M
2
.
This last observation shows that if we dene the projections
1
: M
M
1
and
2
: M M
2
by
1
((x, y)) = x M
1
and
2
((x, y)) = y M
2
,
then
1
and
2
are continuous by Theorem 4.1.4(ii).
If A M
1
and B M
2
, then A =
1
(A B) and B =
2
(A B). So
Theorem 4.2.1 says that if AB is connected, then so are A and B. If
AB is compact, then so are A and B.
For implications in the opposite direction, see Exercise 3E-15.
4.2-5. Let A and B be subsets of R with B not empty. If AB R
2
is
open, must A be open?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. Since B is not empty, there is a point b B. If a A,
then (a, b) A B. Since A B is open, there is an r > 0 such that
_
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
< r implies (x, y) A B. If [x a[ < r, then
_
(x a)
2
+ (b b)
2
= [x a[ < r, so (x, b) A B. Thus x A. For
each a A there is an r > 0 such that x A whenever [x a[ < r. So A
is open.
4.3 Operations on Continuous Mappings
4.3-1. Where are the following functions continuous?
4.3 Operations on Continuous Mappings 223
(a) f(x) = xsin(x
2
).
(b) f(x) = (x +x
2
)/(x
2
1), x
2
,= 1, f(1) = 0.
(c) f(x) = (sin x)/x, x ,= 0, f(0) = 1.
Answer. (a) Everywhere.
(b) f is continuous on R 1, 1.
(c) Everywhere.
Solution. (a) If f(x) = xsin(x
2
), then f is the product of the continuous
function x x (Example 4.1.5) with the composition x sin(x
2
). The
function x x
2
is continuous. This was seen directly in Exercise 4.1-
1(a). We now have an easier indirect proof since it is the product of
x x with itself. The nal fact we need is that sin is continuous.
How this is proved depends on just how the sine function is dened. We
will just assume it here. Since products and compositions of continuous
functions are continuous, this function is continuous everywhere.
(b) The numerator and denominator of f(x) = (x + x
2
)/(x
2
1) are con-
tinuous everywhere since products and sums of continuous functions are
continuous. Since quotients are continuous except where the denomina-
tor is 0, the only possible discontinuities are at 1 and 1. The limit at
1 does not exist, and the limit at 1 is 1/2 since
lim
x1
x +x
2
x
2
1
= lim
x1
x(x + 1)
(x + 1)(x 1)
= lim
x1
x
x 1
=
1
1 1
=
1
2
.
Since 1/2 ,= 0 = f(1), f is not continuous at 1. Thus f is continuous
on R 1.
(c) Again we assume the the sine function is continuous everywhere. So the
numerator and denominator of f(x) = (sin x)/x are continuous every-
where. The only possible discontinuity is at x = 0 where the denominator
is 0. But the numerator is also 0 there. We know from LH opitals Rule
that
lim
x0
f(x) = lim
x0
sin x
x
= lim
x0
cos x
1
=
cos 0
1
= 1 = f(0).
So f is continuous at 0. It is thus continuous everywhere.
4.3-2. Let a
k
a and b
k
b be convergent sequences in R. Prove that
a
k
b
k
ab, directly and as a consequence of Corollary 4.3.3(ii).
Solution. First compute that
[a
k
b
k
ab[ = [a
k
b
k
a
k
b +a
k
b ab[ [a
k
b
k
a
k
b[ +[a
k
b ab[
[a
k
[ [b
k
b[ +[b[ [a
k
a[ .
Let > 0. Since a
k
a and b
k
b, there are N
1
, N
2
, and N
3
such that
k N
1
= [a
k
a[ < 1 = [a
k
[ < [a[ + 1
k N
2
= [b
k
b[ <

2([a[ + 1)
k N
3
= [a
k
a[ <

2([b[ + 1)
.
So, if k max(N
1
, N
2
, N
3
), then
[a
k
b
k
ab[ [a
k
[ [b
k
b[ +[b[ [a
k
a[
([a[ + 1)

2([a[ + 1)
+[b[

2([b[ + 1)
/2 +/2 = .
Thus a
k
b
k
ab as claimed.
According to 4.3.3(ii),
Proposition. Let f : A R and g : A 1 be continuous at x
0
. Then
the product f g : A 1 is continuous at x
0
.
We can apply this to our sequence problem by letting A = R
2
, f(x, y) =
1
(x, y) = x, and g(x, y) =
2
(x, y) = y for (x, y) R
2
. Then f and g are
continuous as in Exercise 4.1-1(b). Then 4.3.3(ii) implies that f g : R
2
R
is continuous. Using the fact that a sequence in R
2
converges to w if and
only if the coordinate sequences converge to the corresponding coordinates
of w, we have
a
k
a and b
k
b = (a
k
, b
k
) (a, b)
= a
k
b
k
= (f g)((a
k
, b
k
)) (f g)((a, b)) = ab
as desired.
4.3-3. Let A = x R [ sin x = 0.56. Show that A is a closed set. Is it
compact?
Suggestion. Use the fact that 0.56 is closed and sin x is continuous. A
is not compact.
Solution. Again we assume that the function f(x) = sin x is continuous.
Then A = x R [ sin x = 0.56 = f
1
(0.56). Since the one point set
4.3 Operations on Continuous Mappings 225
0.56 is closed in R and f is continuous, A must also be closed. It is not
compact since if x
0
is any one point in A, then x
0
+ 2k is also in A for
every integer k. Thus A is not bounded and cannot be compact.
4.3-4. Show that f(x) =
_
[x[ is continuous.
Solution. The function f(x) =
_
[x[ is the composition of the two func-
tions h : R R and g : A = y R [ y 0 R dened by h(x) = [x[ for
x R and g(y) =

y for y 0. Since h : R A, continuity of f on R will
follow from Theorem 4.3.1 as soon as we know that g and h are continuous.
Proposition. The function h : R R dened by h(x) = [x[ for x R is
continuous on R.
Proof: Let x
0
R and > 0. If we take = , we can use the alternate
form of the triangle inequality to compute
[x x
0
[ < = [h(x) h(x
0
)[ = [[x[ [x
0
[[ [x x
0
[ < = .
This shows that h is continuous at x
0
, and, since x
0
was an arbitrary point
in R, that h is continuous on R.
Proposition. The function g : A R dened on the set A = y R [
y 0 by g(y) =

y is continuous on A.
Proof: To show that g is continuous at 0, let > 0. Set =
2
. If
0 y , we have
[g(y) g(0)[ =

y <
2
= .
This shows that g is continuous at 0.
Now suppose y
0
> 0, and let > 0. Set =
y
0
. If [y y
0
[ < we have
[g(y) g(y
0
)[ = [
y
0
[ =
y y
0
y +
y
0
[y y
0
[
y
0
y
0
y
0
= .
This shows that g is continuous at y
0
. Since y
0
was an arbitrary positive
number and we have already taken care of the case y = 0, we see that g is
continuous on A as claimed.
Since h is continuous on R, g is continuous on A, h : R A and f = gh,
Theorem 4.3.1 shows that f is continuous.
4.3-5. Show that f(x) =

x
2
+ 1 is continuous.
Sketch. f = g h where g(x) =

x and h(x) = x
2
+ 1. f is continuous
since g and h are continuous.
Solution. We know that x x is continuous from Example 4.1.5 and
that constant functions are continuous. So h(x) = x
2
+ 1 is continuous on
R since products and sums of continuous functions are continuous. The
function g(y) =

y is continuous on the set y R [ y 0. (See Exer-
cise 4.3-4.) Since x
2
+ 1 1 0 for every real x, Theorem 4.3.1 says that
the composition f(x) =

x
2
+ 1 = g(h(x)) = (g h)(x) is continuous on
R.
4.4 The Boundedness of Continuous
Functions on Compact Sets
4.4-1. Give an example of a continuous and bounded function on all of
R that does not attain its maximum or minimum.
Answer. One possibility is f(x) = x/(1 +[x[).
Solution. If we let f(x) = x/(1 +[x[) for all x R, then the numerator
and denominator are continuous everywhere and the denominator is never
0, so f is continuous everywhere on R. Furthermore, [f(x)[ = [x[ /(1+[x[) <
1. So 1 < f(x) < 1 for all x R. Finally
lim
x+
f(x) = lim
x+
x
1 +x
= lim
x+
1
1 + (1/x)
=
1
1 + 0
= 1
lim
x
f(x) = lim
x
x
1 x
= lim
x+
1
1 + (1/x)
=
1
1 + 0
= 1
So supf(x) [ x R = 1 and inff(x) [ x R = 1 and neither of these
is attained anywhere in R. See Figure 4-3.
Figure 4-3. The function f(x) = x/(1 + |x|).
4.4 The Boundedness of Continuous Functions on Compact Sets 227
4.4-2. Verify the maximum-minimum theorem for f(x) = x
3
x on
[1, 1].
Solution. The function f(x) = x
3
x is continuous and dierentiable
everywhere. f
(x) = 3x
2
1. The derivative is 0 at x = 1/
3. Values at
these points and at the ends are:
f(1) = 0, f(1/
3) =
2
3
3
, f(1/
3) =
2
3
3
, f(1) = 0.
The maximum value is 2/3
3 and is attained at x = 1/
3. The minimum
value is 2/3
3 and is attained at x = 1/
3. See Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4. The function f(x) = x
3
x.
4.4-3. Let f : K R
n
R be continuous on a compact set K and let
M = x K [ f(x) is the maximum of f on K. Show that M is a compact
set.
Suggestion. M = f
1
(sup(f(x))). Why does this exist; why compact?
Solution. The function f is a continuous function from the compact

set K into R. We know from the Maximum-Minimum Theorem that b =
supf(x) R [ x K exists as a nite real number and that there
is at least one point x
0
in K such that f(x
0
) = b. So M = x K [
f(x) is the maximum of f on K is not empty. In particular, x
0
M. The
single point set b is a closed set in R. So M = f
1
(b) is a closed set
in K. Since it is a closed subset of the compact set K, it is also a compact
set by Lemma 2 to Theorem 3.1.3 (p. 165 of the text).
4.4-4. Let f : A R
n
R be continuous, c be a continuous function,
x, y A, and c : [0, 1] A R
n
be a curve joining x and y. Show that
along this curve, f assumes its maximum and minimum values (among all
values along the curve).
Sketch. The composition f c is a continuous function from the compact
set [0, 1] into R.
Solution. Let C A be the image curve of the function c : [0, 1] A.
Let b = supf(v) R [ v C. If v C, then v = c(t) for some t [0, 1].
Conversely, if t [0, 1], then c(t) C and f(c(t)) f(v) R [ v C. So
b = supf(c(t)) R [ t [0, 1].
Since c and f are both continuous and c maps the interval [0, 1] into
the domain A of f, the composition f c is a continuous function from
the compact set [0, 1] into R. From the maximum-minimum theorem we
conclude that b exists as a nite real number and that there is at least
one point t
0
[0, 1] at which f(c(t
0
)) = b. Thus v
0
= c(t
0
) is a point on
the curve C at which f(v
0
) = supf(v) R [ v C. This is exactly the
conclusion we wanted.
4.4-5. Is a version of the maximum-minimum theorem valid for the func-
tion f(x) = (sin x)/x on ]0, [? On [0, [?
Sketch. sup(f( ]0, [ )) = 1 is not attained on ]0, [. Extend by f(0) = 1
(continuous?) to get it on [0, [.
Solution. If f(x) = (sin x)/x for x not 0, then we know from calculus or
elsewhere that lim
x0
f(x) = 1. So if we dene f(0) to be 0, we obtain a
continuous function on R. f
(x) = (xcos x sin x)/x

2
. This is 0 only when
x = tan x. This occurs at x = 0 in the limit and not again until [x[ > .
See Figure 4-5.
We have f() = 0, f
(x) > 0 for < x < 0, and f
(x) < 0 for

0 < x < . Consequently, 0 < f(x) < lim
x0
f(x) = 1 = f(0) for 0 <
x < . For [x[ > , we have [f(x)[ = [sin x[ / [x[ < 1/ [x[ < 1/. Thus
supf(x) [ x R = 1 = f(1) and inff(x) [ x R occurs at the two
points with /2 < [x[ < at which the derivative is 0. The supremum is
attained on [0, [, but not on ]0, [. See Figure 4-6.
What is going on might be summarized by something like the following.
4.4 The Boundedness of Continuous Functions on Compact Sets 229
Figure 4-5. x = tan x?
Figure 4-6. The function f(x) = (sin x)/x.
Proposition. If f is a continuous real valued function on the closed half
line [a, [ and
limsup
x
f(x) < supf(x) [ x [a, [ < ,
then there is at least one point x
1
[a, [ at which f(x
1
) = supf(x) [ x
[a, [ . If
liminf
x
f(x) > inff(x) [ x [a, [ > ,
then there is at least one point x
2
[a, [ at which f(x
2
) = inff(x) [ x
[a, [ .
The hypotheses say that there is a number B > a such that f(x) is
smaller than supf(x) [ x [a, [ and larger than inff(x) [ x [a, [
for x > B. The supremum and inmum over [a, [ are thus the same as
those over the compact interval [a, B]. We can use the maximum-minimum
theorem to conclude that they are attained at points in that interval.
4.5 The Intermediate Value Theorem
4.5-1. What happens when you apply the method used in Example 4.5.4
to quadratic polynomials? To quintic polynomials?
Sketch. Quadratic polynomials need not be negative anywhere, so the
method fails. The method works for quintic polynomials and, in general,
for all odd-degree polynomials.
Solution. The method used to show that every cubic polynomial with
real coecients must have at least one real root depends rst on the fact
that they dene continuous real valued functions on all of R. This is true
of all polynomials with real coecients. The other fact needed was that
the value of the function dened by such a polynomial must be positive
for some values of x and negative for others. We were then able to apply
the intermediate value theorem to conclude that the value must be 0 some-
where between these. This fails for quadratic polynomials. For example, the
polynomial p(x) = x
2
+1 for real x takes on values only at least as large as
1. It is never negative. Similar examples can be found for any even degree.
However, if the degree is odd, such as the degree 5 of a quintic polynomial,
then the same basic idea used for degree 3 will work. Suppose p is an odd
degree polynomial
p(x) = a
2n+1
x
2n+1
+a
2n
x
2n
+ +a
1
x +a
0
= a
2n+1
x
2n+1
_
1 +
a
2n
x
+
a
2n1
x
2
+ +
a
1
x
2n
+
a
0
x
2n+1
_
with a
2n+1
not 0, and all of the coecients a
k
real. If [x[ is very large, then
the expression in parentheses is close to 1. In particular, it is positive. So,
if x is large positive, the sign of p(x) is the same as that of a
2n+1
, while if
it is large negative, then p(x) and a
2n+1
have opposite sign. Thus there are
a and b such that p(a) < 0 < p(b). Since p(x) is continuous for x [a, b],
the intermediate value theorem implies that there is at least one point c in
[a, b] at which p(c) = 0.
4.5-2. Let f : R
n
R
m
be continuous. Let = (x, f(x)) [ x R
n
be
the graph of f in R
n
R
m
. Prove that is closed and connected. Generalize
your result to metric spaces.
Solution. g : R
n
: R
n
R
m
by g(x) = (x, f(x)). If x
k
x in R
n
,
then f(x
k
) f(x) in R
m
since f is continuous. So g(x
k
) = (x
k
, f(x
k
))
(x, f(x)) R
n
R
m
since each of the n + m coordinates converges
correctly. Since R
n
is connected and g is continuous, the image = g(R
n
)
is also connected. Furthermore, if (x, y) cl(), then there is a sequence
4.5 The Intermediate Value Theorem 231
(x
k
, y
k
) with (x
k
, y
k
) (x, y). This means that x
k
x and y
k
y.
Since (x
k
, y
k
) , we have y
k
= f(x
k
), and since f is continuous, we have
y
k
= f(x
k
) f(x). Since limits are unique, we must have y = f(x). So
(x, y) . This shows that cl() . So is closed as claimed.
To generalize this, suppose M
1
and M
2
are metric spaces with metrics
d
1
and d
2
. We can establish a metric on the cross product M = M
1
M
2
by either of
d((x, y), (a, b)) = d
1
(x, a) +d
2
(y, b) or
((x, y), (a, b)) =
_
d
1
(x, a)
2
+d
2
(y, b)
2
.
As we have seen earlier, these metrics produce the same open sets, the same
closed sets, and the same convergent sequences converging to the same
limits in M. Furthermore (x
k
, y
k
) (x, y) in M if and only if x
k
x
in M
1
and y
k
y in M
2
. If f : M
1
M
2
, its graph is dened by =
(x, f(x)) M [ x M
1
. Essentially the same argument as given above
shows that if f is continuous, then is closed and that if f is continuous
and M
1
is connected, then is connected.
4.5-3. Let f : [0, 1] [0, 1] be continuous. Prove that f has a xed point.
Suggestion. Apply the intermediate value theorem to g(x) = f(x) x.
Solution. For x [0, 1], let g(x) = f(x) x. Since f is continuous and
x x is continuous, g is continuous. We have
g(0) = f(0) 0 = f(0) 0 and g(1) = f(1) 1 1 1 = 0
By the intermediate value theorem, there must be at least one point c in
[0, 1] with g(c) = 0. For such a point we have f(c) c = 0. So f(c) = c.
Thus c is a xed point for the mapping f as required.
See Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7. A xed point theorem.
4.5-4. Let f : [a, b] R be continuous. Show that the range of f is a
bounded closed interval.
Sketch. The interval [a, b] is compact and connected and f is continuous.
Solution. Suppose f : [a, b] R is continuous. The interval [a, b] is

a connected set and f is continuous. So the image f([0, 1]) must be a
connected subset of R. So it must be an interval, a half-line, or the whole
line. But [a, b] is a closed, bounded subset of R, so it is compact. Since f
is continuous, the image f([0, 1]) must be compact in R. It must thus be
closed and bounded. Of the possibilities listed above, this leaves a closed,
bounded interval.
4.5-5. Prove that there is no continuous map taking [0, 1] onto ]0, 1[.
Sketch. f([0, 1]) would be compact, and ]0, 1[ is not compact.
Solution. The interval [0, 1] is a closed bounded subset of R and so it is
compact. If f were a continuous function on it, then the image would have
to be compact. The open interval ]0, 1[ is not compact. So it cannot be the
image of such a map.
4.6 Uniform Continuity
4.6-1. Demonstrate the conclusion in Example 4.6.3 directly from the
denition.
Sketch. [(1/x) (1/y)[ = [(x y)/xy[ [x y[ /a
2
. Take = a
2
.
Solution. We are asked to show that the function f(x) = 1/x is uniformly
continuous on the interval [a, 1] if 0 < a < 1. To do this we compute
1
x

1
y
=
[x y[
[xy[

[x y[
a
2
.
If > 0, let = a
2
. If x and y are in [a, 1] and [x y[ < , then the last
computation shows that
[f(x) f(y)[ =
1
x

1
y
=
[x y[
a
2
<
a
2
a
2
= .
The same works everywhere on [a, 1], so f is uniformly continuous on
that domain.
4.6 Uniform Continuity 233
4.6-2. Prove that f(x) = 1/x is uniformly continuous on [a, [ for a > 0.
Suggestion. Compare to Exercise 4.6-1.
Solution. We are asked to show that the function f(x) = 1/x is uniformly
continuous on the half line [a, [ if 0 < a. To do this we compute
1
x

1
y
=
[x y[
[xy[

[x y[
a
2
.
If > 0, let = a
2
. If x and y are in [a, [ and [x y[ < , then the last
computation shows that
[f(x) f(y)[ =
1
x

1
y
=
[x y[
a
2
<
a
2
a
2
= .
The same works everywhere on [a, [, so f is uniformly continuous on
that domain.
4.6-3. Must a bounded continuous function on R be uniformly continu-
ous?
Sketch. No. Consider f(x) = sin(x
2
).
Solution. To get a bounded continuous function which is not uniformly
continuous, we want a function whose derivative stays large over nontrivial
regions. If we put f(x) = sin(x
2
), then f
(x) = 2xcos(x
2
). So f has a large
derivative near x =

2n for integer n. See Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-8. f(x) = sin(x
2
).
The function f is continuous. To show that it is not uniformly continuous,
we take = 1/2, and show that for any > 0 there are points x and y
with [x y[ < and [f(x) f(y)[ > 1/2. To this end let x =

2n and
y =
_
2n + (/2). Then
y x =
_
2n +

2

2n =
(2n +

2
) 2n
_
2n +

2
+
2n
<
/2
2
2n
.
Since this tends to 0 as n increases, we can pick n large enough so that
[y x[ < . But [f(y) f(x)[ = [sin(2n) sin(2n + (/2))[ = [0 1[ =
1. So no choice of > 0 can work everywhere in R. So f is not uniformly
continuous on R.
4.6-4. If f and g are uniformly continuous maps of R to R, must the
product f g be uniformly continuous? What if f and g are bounded?
Answer. No; yes.
Solution. The function f(x) = x is uniformly continuous on R since if
> 0, we can simply take = . If [x y[ < , then [f(x) f(y)[ =
[x y[ < = . The same works everywhere on R, so f is uniformly
continuous on R. If we take g(x) = x also, then f and g are both uniformly
continuous on R. The product is (f g)(x) = x
2
. This is not uniformly
continuous on R.
Claim. The function h(x) = x
2
is not uniformly continuous on R.
If we take = 1, then no matter how small we take > 0, there are
always points x and y with [x y[ < and

x
2
y
2
> 1. For positive

integers n, take x = n + (1/n) and y = n. Then [x y[ = 1/n, and we can
certainly arrange for this to be smaller than . However,
x
2
y
2
=
_
n +
1
n
_
2
n
2
= n
2
+ 2 +
1
n
2
n
2
= 2 +
1
n
2
> 2.
Thus h(x) = x
2
is not uniformly continuous on R.
If both functions are bounded and continuous, then the product is uni-
formly continuous.
Proposition. If f and g are uniformly continuous, bounded real valued
functions on a metric space M, then the product h(x) = f(x)g(x) is uni-
formly continuous on M.
Proof: Suppose f and g are continuous on M, that [f(x)[ A and
[g(x)[ B for all x in M. We compute
[f(x)g(x) f(y)g(y)[ = [f(x)g(x) f(x)g(y) +f(x)g(y) f(y)g(y)[
[f(x)g(x) f(x)g(y)[ +[f(x)g(y) f(y)g(y)[
[f(x)[ [g(x) g(y)[ +[g(y)[ [f(x) f(y)[
A[g(x) g(y)[ +B[f(x) f(y)[ .
4.6 Uniform Continuity 235
Let > 0. Since f is uniformly continuous on M, we can nd a
1
> 0 small
enough so that [f(x) f(y)[ < /2(B+1). Since g is uniformly continuous
on M, we can nd a
2
> 0 small enough so that [g(x) g(y)[ < /2(A+1).
If [x y[ < = min(
1
,
2
), then the computation above shows that
[f(x)g(x) f(y)g(y)[ A[g(x) g(y)[ +B[f(x) f(y)[
A

2(A+ 1)
+B

2(B + 1)
< .
The same works everywhere in M. So h = f g is uniformly continuous
on M.
It is not enough to assume that only one of f and g is bounded.
Challenge: Find a bounded function f and an unbounded function g,
both uniformly continuous on R such that the product f g is not uniformly
continuous on R.
4.6-5. Let f(x) = [x[. Show that f : R R is uniformly continuous.
Sketch. = works everywhere.
Solution. The alternative form of the triangle inequality gives us our
result almost immediately. If > 0, let = . If x and y are in R and
[x y[ < , then
[f(x) f(y)[ =
[x[ [y[
[x y[ < = .
The same works everywhere, so f is uniformly continuous on R.
4.6-6. (a) Show that f : R R is not uniformly continuous i there
exist an > 0 and sequences x
n
and y
n
such that [x
n
y
n
[ < 1/n
and [f(x
n
) f(y
n
)[ . Generalize this statement to metric spaces.
(b) Use (a) on R to prove that f(x) = x
2
is not uniformly continuous.
Solution. (a) First suppose that f : R R is not uniformly continuous.
Then there is an > 0 for which no > 0 will work in the denition
of uniform continuity. In particular, = 1/n will not work. So there
must be a pair of numbers x
n
and y
n
such that [x
n
y
n
[ < 1/n but
[f(x
n
) f(y
n
)[ > . These x
n
and y
n
form the required sequences.
Conversely, if there are such sequences, then for that no > 0 can
work in the denition of uniform continuity. No matter what > 0 is
proposed, we can, by the Archimedean Principle, select an integer n with
0 < 1/n < . For the corresponding x
n
and y
n
we have [f(x
n
) f(y
n
)[ >
even though [x
n
y
n
[ < 1/n < . Since this can be done for every
> 0, the function f cannot be uniformly continuous on R.
This can be reformulated with very little change for a map between
metric spaces.
Proposition. Suppose M
1
and M
2
are metric spaces with metrics d
1
and d
2
respectively. If A M
1
and f : A M
2
, then f fails to be uni-
formly continuous on A if and only if there are a number varepsilon > 0
and sequences x
n
)
1
and y
n
)
1
in A such that d
1
(x
n
, y
n
) < 1/n and
d
2
(f(x
n
), f(y
n
)) > for each n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
The proof is essentially the same as that given above. First suppose
that f : A M
2
is not uniformly continuous. Then there is an > 0
for which no > 0 will work in the denition of uniform continuity. In
particular, = 1/n will not work. So there must be a pair of points x
n
and y
n
in A such that d
1
(x
n
, y
n
) < 1/n but d
2
(f(x
n
), f(y
n
)) > . These
x
n
and y
n
form the required sequences.
Conversely, if there are such sequences, then for that no > 0 can
work in the denition of uniform continuity. No matter what > 0 is
proposed, we can, by the Archimedean Principle, select an integer n with
0 < 1/n < . For the corresponding x
n
and y
n
we have d
2
(f(x
n
), f(y
n
))
> even though d
1
(x
n
, y
n
) < 1/n < . Since this can be done for every
> 0, the function f cannot be uniformly continuous on A.
(b) To apply the result of part (a) to the function f(x) = x
2
on R, let
= 1/2, x
n
= n + (1/2n) and y
n
= n. Then [x
n
y
n
[ = 1/2n < 1/n
and [f(x
n
) f(y
n
)[ = n
2
+ 1 + 1/(4n
2
) n
2
= 1 + 1/(4n
2
) > 1 > .
According to the result of part (a), the function f cannot be uniformly
continuous on R.
4.6-7. Let f(x) =

x.
(a) Show that f is uniformly continuous on the interval [0, 1].
(b) Discuss the relationship between uniform continuity and bounded
slopes in light of this example.
Sketch. (a) f is continuous on a compact domain.
Solution. (a) We know that the function f(x) =

x is continuous on
x R [ x 0. (See Exercise 4.3-4.) So it is certainly continuous on
the smaller domain [0, 1]. Since the closed bounded interval [0, 1] is a
compact subset of R and f is continuous on this domain, it is uniformly
continuous there by Theorem 4.6.2.
(b) The function f(x) =

x studied in part (a) is dierentiable except at
x = 0 with derivative f
(x) = 1/(2
x). This becomes arbitrary large

as x approaches 0. Thus the slope is not bounded on the domain [0, 1].
The function is nonetheless uniformly continuous on that domain. Thus
unbounded slope does not necessarily imply lack of uniform continuity
4.7 Dierentiation of Functions of One Variable 237
even though it is a good clue. To destroy uniform continuity the slope
must remain large over a signicant interval as it does in the example
of sin(x
2
) considered in the solution to Exercise 4.6-3.
Bounded slope should imply uniform continuity although, strictly speak-
ing, this makes sense only for dierentiable functions. For continuous,
but not dierentiable functions, bounded slope might mean something
like a Lipschitz condition.
Denition. A function f is said to satisfy a Lipschitz condition on the
domain A if there is a constant M such that [f(x) f(y)[ M [x y[
whenever x and y are in A.
Proposition. If f satises a Lipschitz condition on the domain A,
then f is uniformly continuous on A.
Suppose f : A R satises a Lipschitz condition on A with constant
M. If M = 0, then f is a constant function and is surely uniformly
continuous. If M > 0 and > 0, put = /M. If x and y are in A and
[x y[ < , then
[f(x) f(y)[ M [x y[ < M = M

M
= .
The same works everywhere in A. So f is uniformly continuous on A.
Challenge: Rewrite the denition of Lipschitz condition for functions
between a pair of metric spaces and prove the corresponding proposition.
4.7 Dierentiation of Functions of One

Variable
4.7-1. Give an example of a function dened on R, which is continuous
everywhere and which fails to be dierentiable at exactly n given points
x
1
, . . . , x
n
.
Answer. One possibility is f(x) =
n
i=1
a
i
[x x
i
[, a
i
,= 0.
Solution. The function x [x[ is continuous (in fact uniformly so) on
all of R as are the functions x x x
i
for each of the constants x
i
. Thus
the compositions x [x x
i
[ are also. So the sum, f(x) =

n
i=1
[x x
i
[
is continuous on R.
If x is slightly greater than x
k
, then
f(x) f(x
k
)
x x
k
=
_
(x x
k
) +
i=k
[x x
i
[
_
_
(x
k
x
k
) +
i=k
[x x
i
[
_
x x
k
= 1.
While if x is slightly less than x
k
, then
f(x) f(x
k
)
x x
k
=
_
(x
k
x) +
i=k
[x x
i
[
_
_
(x
k
x
k
) +
i=k
[x x
i
[
_
x x
k
= 1.
Thus the left and right limits at x
k
are dierent and f is not dierentiable
at the points x
k
, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . On the other hand, if a is not equal to any
of the x
k
, then (f(x) f(a))/(x a) has the same sign on both sides of a,
and the derivative exists at a. (Either 1 or 1.)
4.7-2. Does the mean value theorem apply to f(x) =

x on [0, 1]? Does
it apply to g(x) =
_
[x[ on [1, 1]?
Solution. The function f(x) =

x is continuous on the closed interval
[0, 1]. (See Exercise 4.3-4.) and dierentiable on the interior [0, 1]. (To see
this, you can use the Inverse Function Theorem 4.7.15. f is the inverse of
the dierentiable function x x
2
.) So the mean value theorem does apply.
The function g(x) =
_
[x[ is continuous on [1, 1]. (Again, see Exer-
cise 4.3-4.) But it is not dierentiable at the point 0 in the interior of that
interval. So the mean value theorem does not directly apply. The theorem
can be applied separately on the intervals [1, 0] and [0, 1]. With some
care about how the function joins together at 0, the same conclusion can
be drawn even though the theorem cannot be applied directly.
4.7-3. Let f be a nonconstant polynomial such that f(0) = f(1). Prove
that f has a local minimum or a local maximum point somewhere in the
open interval ]0, 1[.
Sketch. f attains both maximum and minimum. (Why?) If both are at
ends, then f is constant. (Why?)
Solution. Polynomials are continuous everywhere, so the function f is
certainly continuous on the compact domain [0, 1]. By the maximum-mini-
mum theorem, it must attain both its maximum and its minimum on that
set. Since f(0) = f(1), the only way that both of these can be at the
ends is for the maximum and minimum to be the same. f would have to
be constant, but it has been assumed to be nonconstant. At least one of
the maximum or minimum must occur in the interior and thus be a local
extremum.
4.7-4. A rubber cube of incompressible material is pulled on all faces
with a force T. The material stretches by a factor in two directions and
4.8 Integration of Functions of One Variable 239
contracts by a factor
2
in the other. By balancing forces, one can establish
Rivlins equation:
T
2
2
+ 1 = 0,
where is a strictly positive constant (analogous to the spring constant for
a spring). Show that Rivlins equation has one (real) solution if T < 6
2
and has three solutions if T > 6
2.
Solution. Let f(x) = x
3
(T/2)x
2
+ 1. Then f
(x) = 3x
2
(T/)x =
x(3x(T/)). So f
(x) = 0 at x = 0 and at x = T/3. f
(x) = 6x(T/).
So f
(0) = T/ < 0 and f
(T/3) = T/ > 0. There is a local maximum

at x = 0 and a local minimum at x = T/3. Since f(0) = 1, we conclude
that there is one negative real root. Since f(T/3) = 1 (T/3)
3
/2, we
conclude that there are no other real roots if (T/3)
3
/2 > 1, exactly one
if (T/3)
3
/2 = 1, and 2 if (T/3)
3
/2 < 1. So things are critical when
T = 3
3
2. There is one real root when T is smaller than this and three
when T is larger.
4.7-5. Let f be continuous on [3, 5] and dierentiable on ]3, 5[, and sup-
pose that f(3) = 6 and f(5) = 10. Prove that, for some point x
0
in the
open interval ]3, 5[, the tangent line to the graph of f at x
0
passes through
the origin. Illustrate your result with a sketch.
Suggestion. Consider the function f(x)/x.
Solution. The equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at the
point (x
0
, f(x
0
) is y = f(x
0
) + f
(x
0
)(x x
0
). For this to pass through
the origin we must have 0 = f(x
0
) xf
(x
0
). A medium sized amount of
meditation and a bit of inspiration might remind one that this looks like the
numerator of the derivative of the function g(x) = f(x)/x computed by the
quotient rule. This function is continuous and dierentiable on [3, 5], and
g(3) = g(5) = 2. So Rolles Theorem applies and says that there is a point
x
0
in the interval at which g
(x
0
) = 0. But g
(x) = (xf(x) f(x))/x

2
. For
g
(x
0
) = 0, we must have x
0
f
(x
0
) = f(x
0
). This is exactly the condition
we needed. See Figure 4-9.
4.8 Integration of Functions of One Variable
4.8-1. Show directly from the denition that
_
b
a
dx = b a.
Sketch. The upper and lower sums are all equal to b a.
Figure 4-9.
Solution. Let P = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< < x
n
be any partition of the
interval [a, b]. The function we are integrating is f(x) = 1 for all x. So on
each subinterval [x
j1
, x
j
] we have M
j
= supf(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = 1 =
supf(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = m
j
. So
L(f, P) =
n
j=1
m
j
(x
j
x
j1
) =
n
j=1
(x
j
x
j1
) = b a,
U(f, P) =
n
j=1
M
j
(x
j
x
j1
) =
n
j=1
(x
j
x
j1
) = b a.
Thus
b a = L(f, P)
_
b
a
dx
_
b
a
dx U(f, P) = b a.
Since the outer ends of this string of inequalities are equal, all terms in it
must be equal. Thus f(x) = 1 is integrable on [a, b] and
_
b
a
dx =
_
b
a
dx =
_
b
a
dx = b a.
4.8-2. Evaluate
_
3
0
(x + 5) dx using the denition of the integral.
Suggestion. Use the formula

n
k=1
= n(n + 1)/2 to evaluate the sums.
Solution. Let f(x) = x+5. Partition the interval [0, 3] into n equal pieces
by P = 0, 3/n, 6/n, . . . , 3n/n = 3. That is, x
j
= 3j/n, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
The function f is increasing, so on each subinterval we have
m
j
= inff(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = x
j1
+ 5 =
3(j 1)
n
+ 5,
M
j
= supf(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = x
j
+ 5 =
3j
n
+ 5.
So
L(f, P) =
n
j=1
m
j
(x
j
x
j1
) =
n
j=1
_
3(j 1)
n
+ 5
_
3
n
=
9
n
2
n
j=1
(j 1) +
3
n
n
j=1
5 =
9
n
2
n1
k=0
k +
3
n
n
j=1
5
=
9
n
2
(n 1)(n 1 + 1)
2
+
3
n
5n =
39
2

9
2n
,
U(f, P) =
n
j=1
M
j
(x
j
x
j1
) =
n
j=1
_
3j
n
+ 5
_
3
n
=
9
n
2
n
j=1
j +
3
n
n
j=1
5
=
9
n
2
(n)(n + 1)
2
+
3
n
5n =
39
2
+
9
2n
.
Thus
39
2

9
2n
= L(f, P)
_
b
a
dx
_
b
a
dx U(f, P) =
39
2
+
9
2n
.
The upper and lower integrals dier by no more than 9/n. Since this is true
for every positive integer n, we conclude that they must be equal and that
f is integrable on [0, 3]. Letting n , we nd
_
b
a
dx =
_
b
a
dx =
_
b
a
dx =
39
2
.
4.8-3. Show directly from the denition that for f : [a, b] R and P any
partition of [a, b], U(f, P) L(f, P).
Sketch. This follows from the fact that for any S R we have sup S
inf S applied to the set S = f(x) [ x [x
j
, x
j+1
].
Solution. Let P = a = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< < x
n
= b be any partition
of [a, b]. For each j = 1, 2, . . . , n, we have
m
j
= inff(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] supf(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = M
j
.
Since x
j
> x
j1
, we have x
j
x
j1
> 0, and m
j
(x
j
x
j1
) M
j
(x
j
x
j1
).
Adding, we obtain
L(f, P) =
n
j=1
m
j
(x
j
x
j1
)
n
j=1
M
j
(x
j
x
j1
) = U(f, P)
as claimed.
4.8-4. Let f : [a, b] R R be integrable and f M. Prove that
_
b
a
f(x) dx (b a)M.
Solution. Let P = a = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< < x
n
= b be any partition
of [a, b]. Since f(x) M for all x, we have for each j = 1, 2, . . . , n,
M
j
= supf(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] M.
Since x
j
> x
j1
, we have x
j
x
j1
> 0, and M
j
(x
j
x
j1
) M(x
j
x
j1
).
Adding, we obtain
U(f, P) =
n
j=1
M
j
(x
j
x
j1
)
n
j=1
M(x
j
x
j1
) = M(b a).
Since f is integrable, we know that
_
b
a
f(x) dx exists. So
_
b
a
f(x) dx =
_
b
a
f(x) dx U(f, P) M(b a)
as claimed.
4.8-5. Evaluate
_
5
0
xe
3x
2
dx.
Answer. (1/6)(e
75
1).
Solution. We use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. This is the
bit of theory which underlies the method of integration by substitution or
change of variable. Let u = g(x) = 3x
2
. Then
du
dx
= g
(x) = 6x. So
_
5
0
xe
3x
2
dx =
1
6
_
5
0
e
3x
2
6xdx
=
1
6
_
5
0
e
g(x)
g
(x) dx
=
1
6
_
5
0
d
dx
_
e
g(x)
_
dx
=
1
6
e
g(x)
5
x=0
=
1
6
e
3x
2
5
x=0
=
1
6
e
75
1
6
e
0
=
e
75
1
6
.
_
5
0
xe
3x
2
dx =
e
75
1
6
6.222 10
31
.
4.8-6. Evaluate
_
1
0
(x + 2)
9
dx.
Suggestion. Try a substitution and the Fundamental Theorem of Cal-
culus.
Solution. We use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Let u = g(x) =
x + 2. Then
du
dx
= g
(x) = 1. So
_
1
0
(x + 2)
9
dx =
_
1
0
(x + 2)
9
1 dx =
1
10
_
1
0
10(g(x))
9
g
(x) dx
=
1
10
_
1
0
d
dx
_
(g(x))
10
_
dx =
1
10
(g(x))
10
1
x=0
=
1
10
(x + 2)
10
1
x=0
=
1
10
3
10
1
10
2
10
=
3
10
2
10
10
.
_
1
0
(x + 2)
9
dx =
3
10
2
10
10
=
58025
10
.
4.8-7. Let f : [0, 1] R, f(x) = 1 if x = 1/n, n an integer, and f(x) = 0
otherwise.
(a) Prove that f is integrable.
(b) Show that
_
1
0
f(x) dx = 0.
Sketch. L(f, P) = 0 for every partition of [0, 1]. (Why?) Now take a
partition with the rst interval [x
0
, x
1
] = [0,
2/n] and the others of length

no more than 1/n
2
. Show that U(f, P) (
2/n) + (n 1)/n
2
.
Solution. Let P = 0 = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< < x
m
= 1 be any partition
of [0, 1]. Since f(x) = 0 except at the isolated points 1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . , there
are points in every subinterval where f(x) = 0. Since f(x) is never negative,
we have m
j
= inff(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = 0 for each j = 1, 2, 3, . . . . So
0 = L(f, P)
_
1
0
f(x) dx.
Now let n be any integer larger that 3 and Q = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< <
x
m
be a partition of [0, 1] with x
0
= 0, x
1
=

2/n, x
m
= 1, and x
j

x
j1
< 1/n
2
for j = 2, 3, . . . , m. The points 1/n, 1/(n + 1), 1/(n + 2), . . .
are all located in [x
0
, x
1
]. So M
1
= supf(x) [ x [x
0
, x
1
] = 1, and this
subinterval contributes an amount M
1
(x
1
x
0
) =

2/n to the upper sum.
Outside this interval, f is nonzero only at the points 1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . , 1/(n
1). There are n1 of these points, and the subintervals in which they occur
each have length no more than 1/n
2
. So the total contribution to the upper
integral from these subintervals is no larger than (n 1)/n
2
. Thus
_
1
0
f(x) dx U(f, Q)
2
n
+
n 1
n
2
.
Since this tends to 0 as n increases, and the inequality holds for every
n > 3, we conclude that
0 = L(f, P)
_
1
0
f(x) dx
_
1
0
f(x) dx U(f, Q) 0.
The upper and lower integrals must both be 0. Since they are equal, f is
integrable on [0, 1], and
_
1
0
f(x) dx =
_
1
0
f(x) dx =
_
1
0
f(x) dx = 0.
4.8-8. Let f : [a, b] R be Riemann integrable and [f(x)[ M. Let
F(x) =
_
x
a
f(t) dt. Prove that [F(y) F(x)[ M [y x[. Deduce that F
is continuous. Does this check with Example 4.8.10?
Solution. Using Proposition 4.8.5(iv), we have
[F(y) F(x)[ =
_
y
a
f(t) dt
_
x
a
f(t) dt
_
y
x
f(t) dt
.
If x < y, this is

_
y
x
f(t) dt
. If y < x, then it is
_
x
y
f(t) dt
. In either
case, it is
_
max(x,y)
min(x,y)
f(t) dt
. From the observation at the top of page 207

of the text following Proposition 4.8.5, we have
[F(y) F(x)[ =
_
max(x,y)
min(x,y)
f(t) dt
_
max(x,y)
min(x,y)
[f(t)[ dt.
But [f(t)[ M for all t. With this, 4.8.5(iii), and the result of Exercise 4.8-
4, we have
[F(y) F(x)[
_
max(x,y)
min(x,y)
[f(t)[ dt
_
max(x,y)
min(x,y)
M dt
M(max(x, y) min(x, y)) = M [x y[
as claimed.
This inequality holds for all x and y in [a, b]. So F satises a Lipschitz
condition on [a, b] with constant M. This implies f is uniformly continuous
on [a, b]. If M = 0, then F must be constant and is certainly uniformly
continuous. If M > 0 and > 0, put = /M. If x and y are in [a, b]
and [x y[ < , we have [F(x) F(y)[ M [x y[ < M = . So F is
uniformly continuous on [a, b].
In Example 4.8.10 we had
f(x) =
_
0, 0 x 1
1, 1 < x 2
and F(x) =
_
0, 0 x 1
x 1, 1 < x 2
.
Although f is not continuous on [0, 2], the indenite integral F(x) is. See
Figure 4.8-3 of the text.
4E-1. (a) Prove directly that the function 1/x
2
is continuous on ]0, [.
(b) A constant function f : A R
m
is a function such that f(x) = f(y)
for all x, y A. Show that f is continuous.
(c) Is the function f(y) = 1/(y
4
+ y
2
+ 1) continuous? Justify your
answer.
Sketch. (a)

(1/x
2
) (1/x
0
)
2
[x x
0
[ ([x[ + [x
0
[)/x
2
x
2
0
. If > 0, try
= min(x
0
/2, x
3
0
/10).
(b) If > 0, let be anything larger than 0.
(c) Yes.
Solution. (a) If f(x) = 1/x
2
, suppose x
0
> 0 and compute [f(x) f(x
0
)[:
[f(x) f(x
0
)[ =
1
x
2

1
x
2
0
x
2
x
2
0
x
2
x
2
0
x +x
0
x
2
x
2
0
[x x
0
[ .
First we impose a condition on x to keep the rst factor from becoming
large and to keep it away from 0. If we require that [x x
0
[ < x
0
/2,
then x
0
/2 < xx
0
< x
0
/2, so x
0
/2 < x < 3x
0
/2. So x
2
x
2
0
> x
4
0
/4 and
3x
0
/2 < x +x
0
< 5x
0
/2. So, with this restriction on x we will have
[f(x) f(x
0
)[ =
x +x
0
x
2
x
2
0
[x x
0
[
5x
0
/2
x
4
0
/4
[x x
0
[ =
10
x
3
0
[x x
0
[ .
So, if > 0 and we let = min(x
0
/2, x
3
0
/10), then
[x x
0
[ < = [f(x) f(x
0
)[
10
x
3
0
[x x
0
[ <
10
x
3
0
x
3
0
10
= .
Thus f is continuous at x
0
. Since x
0
was an arbitrary point in ]0, [, f
is continuous on that domain.
(b) If f : A R
n
is a constant function, then there is a point v
0
R
n
such
that f(x) = f(y) = v
0
for all x and y in A. Let x
0
A. If > 0, we can
let be any positive number. If x A, we have
| f(x) f(x
0
) | = | v
0
v
0
| = 0 < .
So f is continuous at x
0
. Since x
0
was arbitrary in A, f is continuous
on A.
(c) The numerator of the function f(y) = 1/(y
4
+ y
2
+ 1) is the constant
1 and so is continuous everywhere (part (b)). The denominator is a
polynomial and so is also continuous everywhere. (Sums and products
of continuous functions are continuous.) So the quotient is continuous
except where the denominator is 0. If we allow only real numbers, then
y
4
and y
2
must both be nonnegative. So the denominator is at least as
large as 1 and is never 0. So f is continuous on all of R.
If we allow complex numbers, then the function would be discontinuous
at the four points at which the denominator is 0.
4E-2. (a) Prove that if f : A R
m
is continuous and B A, then
the restriction f[B is continuous.
(b) Find a function g : A R and a set B A such that g[B is
continuous but g is continuous at no point of A.
Solution. (a) Suppose > 0 and x
0
B. Then x
0
A, so there is a > 0
such that | f(x) f(x
0
) | < whenever x A and | x x
0
| < . If
x B, then it is in A, so
(x B and | x x
0
| < ) = | f(x) f(x
0
) | .
So f is continuous at x
0
. Since x
0
was arbitrary in B, f is continuous
on B.
(b) Let A = R, B = Q, and dene g : A R by g(x) = 1 if x Q
and g(x) = 0 if x / Q. The restriction of g to B = Q is constantly
equal to 1 on B. So it is continuous on B. (See Exercise 4E-1(b).)
But, if x
0
R, then there are rational and irrational points in every
short interval around x
0
. So g takes the values 1 and 0 in every such
interval. The values of g(x) cannot be forced close to any single value
by restricting to a short interval around x
0
. So, as a function on R, g is
not continuous at x
0
. This is true for every x
0
R.
4E-3. (a) If f : R R is continuous and K R is connected, is
f
1
(K) necessarily connected?
(b) Show that if f : R
n
R
m
is continuous on all of R
n
and B R
n
is
bounded, then f(B) is bounded.
Sketch. (a) No. Let f(x) = sin x and K = 1.
(b) f is continuous on all of R
n
, so f is continuous on cl(B) which is compact.
f(cl(B)) is compact and thus bounded. So, since f(B) f(cl(B)), f(B)
is also bounded.
Solution. (a) The continuous image of a connected set must be connected,
but not necessarily a preimage. For example. Let f(x) = sin x for all
x R, and let K = 1. The one point set K is certainly connected,
but f
1
(K) = (4n + 1)/2 [ n Z. This discrete set of points is not
connected.
For an easier example, let f(x) = x
2
and K = 1. Then f is continuous
and f
1
(K) = 1, 1. This two point set is not connected.
(b) Suppose f : R
n
R
m
is continuous and B is a bounded subset of
R
n
. Since B is bounded, there is a radius R such that | v | < R for
every v B. If w cl(B), then there is a v B with v D(w, 1). So
| w| | w v | + | v | 1 + R. So cl(B) is a bounded set in R
n
. It
is also closed, so it is compact. The function f is continuous on all of
R
n
, so it is continuous on cl(B). (See Exercise 4E-2(a).) So the image
f(cl(B)) is compact by Theorem 4.2.2. Since it is compact, it must be
bounded. Since B cl(B), we have f(B) f(cl(B)). Since it is a subset
of a bounded set, the image f(B) is bounded.
4E-4. Discuss why it is necessary to impose the condition x ,= x
0
in the
denition of lim
xx0
f(x) by considering what would happen in the case
f : R R, f(x) = 0 if x ,= 0 and f(0) = 1, and how one would dene the
derivative.
Solution. The function described has a limit of 0 as x tends to 0 even
though f(0) = 1. The use of the condition 0 < [x a[ < in the denition
of limit allows this since it means that the limit depends on the behavior
of the function near the point but not on the value of the function at the
point. With this we can have a limit even if f(a) does not exist, and we
can have a limit dierent from f(a) if f(a) does exist. This allows us to
use the limit in the denition of continuity simply by demanding that the
limit be equal to f(a). If we allowed [x a[ = 0 in the denition, then the
limit would have to equal f(a) no matter what.
The restriction is even more important in the denition of derivative as
the limit of a dierence quotient. The whole point of that denition is that
we want to consider what is happening to the ratio as the denominator
gets closer and closer to 0 without being forced to look directly at what
happens when it is 0.
4E-5. Show that f : A R
m
is continuous at x
0
i for every > 0
there is a > 0 such that | x x
0
| implies | f(x) f(x
0
) | . Can
we replace > 0 or > 0 by 0 or 0?
Sketch. If f is continuous, the condition holds by Denition 4.1.1 and
Denition 4.1.2. For the converse, use the hypothesis for /2 > 0, getting
| f(x) f(x
0
) | /2 < . We cannot replace > 0 by 0.
Solution. If f is continuous at x
0
A and > 0, then there is a
0
> 0
such that
(x A and | x x
0
| <
0
) = | f(x) f(x
0
) | < .
Put =
0
/2. Then
(x A and | x x
0
| ) = (x A and | x x
0
| <
0
)
= | f(x) f(x
0
) | <
= | f(x) f(x
0
) | .
In the other direction, suppose the stated condition holds and that > 0.
Then /2 > 0, and by hypothesis there is a > 0 such that
(x A and | x x
0
| < ) = (x A and | x x
0
| )
= | f(x) f(x
0
) | /2
= | f(x) f(x
0
) | < .
So the modied condition is equivalent to continuity at x
0
as claimed.
If we allowed = 0 in the target, but still required > 0, then we would
be requiring that f be constant in a neighborhood of x
0
. We certainly do
not want to require this for continuity. If we allow = 0, then every function
dened at x
0
would be continuous at x
0
. This is even more useless.
4E-6. (a) Let c
k
be a sequence in R. Show that c
k
c i every
subsequence of c
k
has a further subsequence that converges to c.
(b) Let f : R R be a bounded function. Prove that f is continuous
if and only if the graph of f is a closed subset of R
2
. What if f is
unbounded?
Solution. (a) If c
k
)
1
is a sequence in R and c
k
c R, then every
subsequence also converges to c. For the converse, suppose that c
k
)
1
is a sequence in R, that c R, and that every subsequence has a sub-
subsequence which converges to c. We want to show that the whole
sequence converges to c. If it did not, there would be an > 0 for which
no N would work in the denition of convergence of a sequence. In
particular, we could select an index k(1) such that
c
k(1)
c
> . Then,
having picked indices k(1) < k(2) < < k(n) with

c
k(j)
c
>
for j = 1, 2, . . . , n, there would have to be an index k(n + 1) > k(n)
with

c
k(n+1)
c
> also. This inductively generates indices k(1) <

k(2) < k(3) < . . . such that

c
k(j)
c
> for each j = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

Contrary to hypothesis, the subsequence c
k(1)
, c
k(2)
, . . . could not have
any sub-subsequence converging to c. This contradiction shows that we
must have c
k
c as claimed.
(b) Let f : R Rs be a bounded function and dene the graph of f as a
subset of R by = (x, f(x)) [ x R. First let f be continuous, and
suppose (x, y) cl(). Then there is a sequence v
k
= (x
k
, y
k
) with
v
k
(x, y). A sequence in R
2
converges to a limit w if and only if both
coordinate sequences converge to the corresponding coordinates of w.
So x
k
x and y
k
y. Since x
k
x and f is continuous at x, we must
have f(x
k
) f(x). But (x
k
, y
k
) is in the graph of f, so y
k
= f(x
k
).
Thus y
k
y and y
k
f(x). Since limits of sequences in R are unique,
we must have y = f(x). So (x, y) . Thus cl() and is closed.
For the converse, suppose that is a closed subset of R
2
. We want to
show that f is continuous on R. So let a R and x
n
)
1
be a sequence
in R converging to a. We want to show that f(x
n
) must converge to
f(a). To do this we show that every subsequence has a sub-subsequence
converging to f(a) and appeal to part (a). So, let c
1
, c
2
, c
3
, . . . be a subse-
quence of the images f(x
n
). Since f is a bounded function, the sequence
c
k
)
1
is a bounded sequence. By the Bolzano-Weierstrass property of
R, it must have a subsequence converging to some point y R. But
(x
k
, c
k
) for each k, and x
k
a. So, along the subsequence we have
x
k(j)
a and c
k(j)
= f(x
k(j)
) y. So (x
k(j)
, c
k(j)
) (a, y). Since each
of the points (x
k(j)
, c
k(j)
) is in the closed set , the limit (a, y) must be
in also. So y = f(a). We have shown that every subsequence of the
points f(x
k
) has a sub-subsequence converging to f(a). By the result
of part (a), we must have f(x
k
) f(a). Since this works for every se-
quence converging to a, we have f continuous at a, and, since a was an
arbitrary point in R, we have f continuous on R.
If f is not bounded, the rst half of the proof just given still works. We
can still conclude that if f is continuous, then the graph must be closed.
In the second half of the proof we used the hypothesis of boundedness
of f, and it is, in fact, required. Consider the function dened on R by
f(x) = 1/x for x ,= 0 and f(0) = 0. Then the graph of f consists of the
hyperbola (x, y) R
2
[ xy = 1 together with the origin (0, 0). This
is a closed subset of R
2
, but f is not continuous.
4E-7. Consider a compact set B R
n
and let f : B R
m
be continu-
ous and one-to-one. Then prove that f
1
: f(B) B is continuous. Show
by example that this may fail if B is connected but not compact. (To nd
a counterexample, it is necessary to take m > 1.)
Sketch. Suppose C is a closed subset of B. Then C is compact. (Why?)
So f(C) is closed. (Why?) Thus f
1
is continuous. (Why?) For a counterex-
ample with n = 2 consider f : [0, 2[ R
2
given by f(t) = (sin t, cos t).

Solution. FIRST PROOF: We use the characterization of continuity in
terms of closed sets. To show that f
1
: f(B) B is continuous on f(B),
we need to show that if C is a closed subset of the metric space B, then
(f
1
)
1
(C) is closed relative to f(B). Since B is a compact subset of R
n
, it
is closed, and a subset C of it is closed relative to B if and only if it is closed
in R
n
. Since it is a closed subset of the compact set B it is closed. (In R
n
this
follows since it is closed and bounded. However, it is true more generally.
See Lemma 2 to the proof of the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, 3.1.3, at
the end of Chapter 3: A closed subset of a compact space is compact.) Since
C is a compact subset of B and f is continuous on B and hence on C, the
image f(C) is compact. Since it is a compact subset of a metric space, it
is closed. (See Lemma 1 to the proof of 3.1.3.) But since f is one-to-one,
f(C) = (f
1
)
1
(C). Thus (f
1
)
1
(C) is closed for every closed subset C
of f(B). The inverse f
1
is thus a continuous function from f(B) to B.
SECOND PROOF: Here is a proof using sequences. Suppose y f(B)
and y
k
)
1
is a sequence in f(B) with y
k
y. We want to show that x
k
=
f
1
(y
k
) x = f
1
(y) in B. Since B is compact, there is a subsequence
x
k(1)
, x
k(2)
, x
k(3)
, . . . converging to some point x B. Since f is continuous
on B, we must have y
k(j)
= f(x
k(j)
) f( x). But y
k(j)
y. Since limits
are unique in the metric space f(B), we must have y = f( x). But y = f(x)
and f is one-to-one, so x = x. Not only does this argument show that there
must be some subsequence of the x
k
converging to x, it shows that x is the
only possible limit of a subsequence. Since B is compact, every subsequence
would have to have a sub-subsequence converging to something, and the
only possible something is x. Thus x
k
x as needed.
If the domain is not compact, for example the half-open interval B =
[0, 2[, then we can get a counterexample. The map f : [0, 2[ R
2
given
by f(t) = (sin t, cos t) takes [0, 2[ onto the unit circle. The point (0, 1) has
preimages near 0 and near 2. So the inverse function is not continuous at
(0, 1).
It turns out that a continuous map from a half-open interval one-to-one
into R must have a continuous inverse. Challenge: Prove it.
4E-8. Dene maps s : R
n
R
n
R
n
and m : RR
n
R
n
as addition
and scalar multiplication dened by s(x, y) = x + y and m(, x) = x.
Show that these mappings are continuous.
Solution. If x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) and y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
). Then s(x, y) =
x +y = (x
1
+y
1
, x
2
+y
2
, . . . , x
n
+y
n
), and m(, x) = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
).
We compute
| s(x, y) s(u, v) |
R
n = | (x +y) (u +v) |
R
n = | (x u) + (y v) |
R
n
| x u|
R
n +| y v |
R
n
2
_
| x u|
2
R
n +| y v |
2
R
n
2 | (x u, y v) |
R
n
R
n = 2 | (x, y) (u, v) |
R
n
R
n .
So, if | (x, y) (u, v) |
R
n
R
n < /2, then | s(x, y) s(u, v) |
R
n < . So s is
continuous.
Fix (, u) R R
n
. We have
| (, x) (, u) |
2
R
n
R
n = | ( , x u) |
2
R
n
R
n = ()
2
+| x u|
2
R
n .
Thus if | (, x) (, u) |
R
n
R
n < then [ [ < and | x u|
R
n < .
| m(, x) m(, u) |
R
n = | x u|
R
n = | x u +u u|
R
n
| x u|
R
n +| u u|
R
n = [[ | x u|
R
n +[ [ | u|
R
n
[[ + | u|
R
n ([[ +) + + | u|
R
n .
If we require that < 1 and < /2([[ + 1) and < /2(| u| + 1), we
have
| m(, x) m(, u) |
R
n ([[ +) + | u|
R
n
([[ + 1)

2([[ + 1)
+

2(| u| + 1)
| u| < .
Thus m is continuous.
4E-9. Prove the following gluing lemma: Let f : [a, b[ R
m
and
g : [b, c] R
m
be continuous. Dene h : [a, c] R
m
by h = f on [a, b] and
h = g on [b, c]. If f(b) = g(b), then h is continuous. Generalize this result
to sets A, B in a metric space.
Suggestion. Show that If F is closed in R
m
, then h
1
(F) = f
1
(F)
g
1
(F) and so is closed.
Solution. Put A = [a, b] and B = [b, c]. Let y
0
= f(b) = g(b). Then the
function h is well-dened since it makes no dierence whether we use f or
g to dene h at the point b in AB. and suppose F is a closed set in R
m
.
Then
h
1
(F) = h
1
(F) (A B) = (h
1
(F) A) (h
1
(F) B)
= (f
1
(F) A) (g
1
(F) B)
Since f and g are continuous and F, [a, b], and [b, c] are closed, this set is
closed. The inverse image of every closed set is closed, so h is continuous.
For the generalization, suppose A and B are closed sets in R
n
and that
f : A R
m
and g : B R
m
are continuous and that f(x) = g(x) for
x A B. Dene h on A B by putting h(x) = f(x) for x A and
h(x) = g(x) for x B. After observing that h is well-dened since f and g
agree on the intersection, the proof of continuity is the same.
Note that some sort of assumption needs to be made about the sets A
and B. Otherwise we could take something like A = Q and B = R Q.
If we put f(x) = 1 for all x in A and g(x) = 0 for all x in B, then, since
A B = , h is still well-dened, but h is not continuous at any point of
R = A B.
4E-10. Show that f : A R
m
, A R
n
, is continuous i for every set
B A, f(cl(B) A) cl(f(B)).
Solution. Suppose f is continuous on Aand B A. Then B f
1
(f(B))
f
1
(cl(f(B))). So f
1
(cl(f(B))) = A F for some closed set F since f
is continuous on A and cl(f(B)) is closed. So B F and cl(B) F. Thus
cl(B) A F A = f
1
(cl(f(B))).
This implies that f(cl(B) A) f(f
1
cl(f(B))) = cl(f(B)) as required.
For the converse, suppose f(cl(B) A) cl(f(B)) for every subset B of
A. Let C be any closed set in R
m
and put B = f
1
(C). The hypothesis
gives
f(cl(f
1
(C)) A) cl(f(f
1
(C))) cl(C) = C.
So
cl(f1(C)) A f
1
(f(cl(f1(C)) A)) f
1
(C) cl(f1(C)) A.
We must have f
1
(C) = cl(f1(C)) A. So f
1
(C) is closed relative to
A. Since this is true for every closed set C in R
m
, f is continuous on A.
4E-11. (a) For f : ]a, b[ R, show that if f is continuous, then its

graph is path-connected. Argue intuitively that if the graph of f
is path-connected, then f is continuous. (The latter is true, but it is
a little more dicult to prove.)
(b) For f : A R
m
, A R
n
, show that for n 2, connectedness of the
graph does not imply continuity. [Hint: For f : R
2
R, cut a slit in
the graph.]
(c) Discuss (b) for m = n = 1. [Hint: On R, consider f(x) = 0 if x = 0
and f(x) = sin(1/x) if x > 0.]
Sketch. (a) If (c, f(c)) and (d, f(d)) are on the graph, put (t) = (t, f(t)).
Solution. (a) If (c, f(c)) and (d, f(d)) are two points on the graph, then
either a < c < d < b or a < d < c < b. We may as well assume the rst.
The map : [c, d] R
2
given by (t) = (t, f(t)) is a continuous path
in the graph joining (c, f(c)) to d, f(d)) by Worked Example 4WE-1
since both coordinate functions are continuous. Thus the graph is path-
connected.
An intuitive argument for the converse is that the only paths possible
in the graph must be of the form (t) = (u(t), f(u(t))). For this to be
continuous, u and f should be continuous.
(b) Represent a point v R
2
in polar coordinates v = (r, ) where r = | v |
and 0 < 2 is the polar angle counterclockwise from the positive
horizontal axis. Dene f : R
2
R by f(v) = r and f(0, 0) = 0. Then
the graph of f is connected since it is path-connected. But f is not
continuous since it has a jump discontinuity across the positive x-axis.
(c) Let f : R R be dened by f(x) = sin(1/x) if x ,= 0 and f(0) = 0.
Although the graph of f is not path-connected, it is connected since
any open set containing (0, 0) would also contain points in the path-
connected portion of the graph. The function is not continuous since it
attain all values in the interval [1, 1] in every neighborhood of 0.
4E-12. (a) A map f : A R
n
R
m
is called Lipschitz on A if there
is a constant L 0 such that | f(x) f(y) | L| x y | , for all
x, y A. Show that a Lipschitz map is uniformly continuous.
(b) Find a bounded continuous function f : R R that is not uniformly
continuous and hence is not Lipschitz.
(c) Is the sum (product) of two Lipschitz functions again a Lipschitz
function?
(d) Is the sum (product) of two uniformly continuous functions again
uniformly continuous?
(e) Let f be dened and have a continuous derivative on ]a , b + [
for some > 0. Show that f is a Lipschitz function on [a, b].
Solution. (a) Suppose f : A R
n
R
m
and there is a constant L 0
such that | f(x) f(y) | L| x y | for all x, y A. If L = 0, then
| f(x) f(y) | = 0 for all x and y in A. f must be a constant function
on A and so is certainly uniformly continuous. If L > 0 and > 0, put
= /L. If x and y are in A and | x y | < we have
| f(x) f(y) | L| x y | < L = .
So f is uniformly continuous on A.
(b) Let f(x) = sin(x
2
) then f is continuous and [f(x)[ 1 for all x in R.
Let x
n
=

2n and y
n
=
_
2n + (/2). Then [f(y
n
) f(x
n
)[ = 1,
but
[y
n
x
n
[ =
_
2n + (/2)
2n
=
2n + (/2) 2n
_
2n + (/2) +
2n
2n
.
This tends to 0 as n increases. No matter how small a positive number
is specied, we can always nd x
n
and y
n
closer together than with
[f(x
n
) f(y
n
)[ = 1. So f is not uniformly continuous.
(c) Suppose | f(x) f(y) | L| x y | and | g(x) g(y) | M | x y |
for all x and y in A. Put h(x) = f(x) +g(x). Then
| h(x) h(y) | = | (f(x) +g(x)) (f(y) +g(y)) |
= | (f(x) f(y)) + (g(x) g(y)) |
| f(x) f(y) | +| g(x) g(y) |
L| x y | +M | x y | = (L +M) | x y | .
So the sum is a Lipschitz function with constant no larger than L+M.
The product of two Lipschitz functions need not be a Lipschitz function.
If we put f(x) = g(x) = x for all x R, then f and g are both Lipschitz
with constant 1. But, if we put x
n
= n + (1/n) and y
n
= n, then
[x
n
y
n
[ = 1/n, but

x
2
n
y
2
n
= 2 + (1/n
2
) > 2 = (2n) [x
n
y
n
[. So
there can be no Lipschitz constant for the function x x
2
which works
on all of R.
(d) If f and g are uniformly continuous on A and > 0, then there are
constants
1
> 0 and
2
> 0 such that for x and y in A we have
| x y | <
1
= | f(x) f(y) | < /2,
| x y | <
2
= | g(x) g(y) | < /2.
If x and y are n A and | x y | < = min(
1
,
2
), then
| (f +g)(x) (f +g)(y) | = | (f(x) f(y)) + (g(x) g(y)) |
| f(x) f(y) | +| g(x) g(y) | /2 +/2 = .
Thus the sum of two uniformly continuous functions must be uniformly
continuous.
The function x x is certainly uniformly continuous on R since =
will work everywhere. However, the product of this function with itself
is x x
2
. The computation in part (c) shows that this is not uniformly
continuous. So the product of two uniformly continuous functions might
not be uniformly continuous.
(e) Since f
is continuous on the compact set [a, b], it is bounded on that set.

There is a constant M such that [f
(c)[ M for every c in [a, b]. If a

x < y b, we know from the mean value theorem that there is a point
c between x and y with f(y) f(x) = f
(c)(y x). So [f(y) f(x)[

M [y x[. Thus f satises a Lipschitz condition on [a, b] with constant
M.
4E-13. Let f be a bounded continuous function f : R
n
R. Prove
that f(U) is open for all open sets U R
n
i for all nonempty open sets
V R
n
,
inf
xV
f(x) < f( y) < sup
xV
f(x)
for all y V .
Sketch. If inf(f(V )) or sup(f(V )) were in f(V ), then f(V ) could not be
open since it could not contain an interval around either of these points.
Solution. First suppose that f(u) is an open subset of R for every open
U R
n
, and let V be a nonempty subset of R
n
. If inf(f(V )) = a = f(y) for
some y V , then a = f(y) cannot be an interior point of f(V ) since f(V )
can contain no points smaller than a. So f(V ) would not be open contrary to
hypothesis. Similarly, if sup(f(V )) = b = f(y) for some y V , then b would
be in f(V ) but could not be an interior point of f(V ) since f(V ) could
contain no points larger than b. Again f(V ) would not be open contrary to
hypothesis. Since we always have inf
xV
f(x) f(y) sup
xV
f(x) for all
y in V and we have just shown that neither equality can occur, we must
have inf
xV
f(x) < f(y) < sup
xV
f(x) as claimed.
For the converse, suppose that for every open set V in R
n
we have
inf
xV
f(x) < f(y) 0 with D(x, 2r) U. So
cl(D(x, r)) U. Let K = cl(D(x, r)). The closed disk K is a closed
bounded set in R
n
and so is compact. Since f is continuous, the image,
f(K), is a connected, compact set in R. So it must be a closed, bounded
interval containing y. y f(K) = [a, b]. Let V be the open disk D(x, r).
We have y f(V ) f(K) = [a, b]. By hypothesis,
a = inf(f(K)) inf(f(V )) < y < sup(f(V )) sup(F(K)) = b.
Let be the smaller of (by)/2 and (ya)/2. Then ]a+, b[ is an open
interval in f(U) containing y. Since this can be done for any y in f(U), the
set F(U) is open as claimed.
4E-14. (a) Find a function f : R
2
R such that
lim
x0
lim
y0
f(x, y) and lim
y0
lim
x0
f(x, y)
exist but are not equal.
(b) Find a function f : R
2
R such that the two limits in (a) exist and
are equal but f is not continuous. [Hint: f(x, y) = xy/(x
2
+y
2
) with
f = 0 at (0, 0).]
(c) Find a function f : R
2
R that is continuous on every line through
the origin but is not continuous. [Hint: Consider the function given
in polar coordinates by r tan(/4), 0 r <, 0 <2.]
Solution. (a) Let f(0, 0) = 0, and for other points, put f(x, y) = x
2
/(x
2
+
y
2
). For xed nonzero x we have lim
y0
f(x, y) = x
2
/x
2
= 1. So
lim
x0
_
lim
y0
f(x, y)
_
= lim
x1
(0) = 1.
For xed, nonzero y, we have lim
x0
f(x, y) = 0/y
2
= 0. So
lim
y0
_
lim
x0
f(x, y)
_
= lim
y0
(0) = 0.
(b) Let f(0, 0) = 0, and for other points, put f(x, y) = xy/(x
2
+ y
2
). For
xed nonzero x we have lim
y0
f(x, y) = 0/x
2
= 0. So
lim
x0
_
lim
y0
f(x, y)
_
= lim
x0
(0) = 0.
For xed, nonzero y, we have lim
x0
f(x, y) = 0/y
2
= 0. So
lim
y0
_
lim
x0
f(x, y)
_
= lim
y0
(0) = 0.
But, if we look at the values of f along the line y = x, we nd f(x, x) =
x
2
(x
2
+x
2
) = 1/2. Since there are such points in every neighborhood of
the origin, and f(0, 0) = 0, f is not continuous at the origin.
(c) Let f : R
2
R be given in polar coordinates by r tan(/4), 0 r <
and 0 < 2. Any line through the origin can be parameterized as
(t) = (t cos
0
, t sin
0
) for < t < and xed
0
with /2 <
0
/2. Along such a line, the values of f are given by t tan(
0
/4)
which is a continuous function of t. So f is continuous along every line
through the origin with the value 0 at the origin. However, if you x
r
0
> 0 and move counterclockwise around the circle of radius r
0
, the
values of f start at 0 on the horizontal axis at (r
0
, 0). As you move
around the circle, the values are r
0
tan(/4. As you get close to (r
0
, 0)
from below the horizontal axis. /4 /2, so the values of f tend to
+. Thus f is not continuous across the positive horizontal axis.
4E-15. Let f
1
, . . . , f
N
be functions from A R
n
to R. Let m
i
be
the maximum of f
i
, that is, m
i
= sup( f
i
(A)). Let f =

f
i
and m =
sup( f(A)). Show that m
m
i
. Give an example where equality fails.
Suggestion. For an example with inequality, try f
1
(x) = x and f
2
(x) =
1 x on [0, 1].
Solution. If x A, then f
k
(x) supf
k
(x) [ x A = m
k
for each
k = 1, 2, . . . N. So
f(x) = f
1
(x) +f
2
(x) + +f
N
(x)
m
1
+f
2
(x) + +f
N
(x)
m
1
+m
2
+ +f
N
(x)
.
.
.
m
1
+m
2
+ +m
N
.
This holds for every x A, so m = supf(x) [ x A m
1
+m
2
+ +m
N
as claimed.
The inequality can be strict. Let A = [0, 1] R, and set f
1
(x) = x and
f
2
(x) = 1x. Then m
1
= supx [ x [0, 1] = 1 and m
2
= sup1x [ x
[0, 1] = 1. So m
1
+m
2
= 2. But f(x) = f
1
(x) +f
2
(x) = x+(1x) = 1 for
all x. So m = supf(x) [ x [0, 1] = 1. This is strictly less than 2.
4E-16. Consider a function f : AB R
m
, where A R, B R
p
. Call
f separately continuous if for each xed x
0
A, the map g( y) = f(x
0
, y)
is continuous and for y
0
B, h(x) = f(x, y
0
) is continuous. Say that f is
continuous on A uniformly with respect to B if for each > 0 and x
0
A,
there is a > 0 such that | x x
0
| < implies | f(x, y) f(x
0
, y) | <
for all y B. Show that if f is separately continuous and is continuous on
A uniformly with respect to B, then f is continuous.
Solution. Let > 0 and (x
0
, y
0
) A B R R
2
. Since f is sep-
arately continuous in x and y, there is a
1
> 0 such that | y y
0
| <
1
= | f(x
0
, y) f(x
0
, y
0
) | < /2. Since f is continuous on A uni-
formly with respect to B, there is a
2
> 0 such that [x x
0
[ <
2
=
| f(x, y) f(x
0
, y) | < /2 for every y B. Let = min(
1
,
2
).
If | (x, y) (x
0
, y
0
) | < , then
| x x
0
|
_
(x x
0
)
2
+| y y
0
|
2
= | (x, y) (x
0
, y
0
) | <
1
,
| y y
0
|
_
(x x
0
)
2
+| y y
0
|
2
= | (x, y) (x
0
, y
0
) | <
2
.
So
| f(x, y) f(x
0
, y
0
) | = | f(x, y) f(x
0
, y) +f(x
0
, y) f(x
0
, y
0
) |
| f(x, y) f(x
0
, y) | +| f(x
0
, y) f(x
0
, y
0
) |
/2 +/2 = .
Thus f is continuous on AB as claimed.
4E-17. Demonstrate that multilinear maps on Euclidean space are not
necessarily uniformly continuous.
Suggestion. Let f(x, y) = xy. Show that f is not uniformly continuous
by showing that [f(a, a) f(b, b)[ = ([a +b[ /
2) | (a, a) (b, b) |.
Solution. For (x, y) R R, let f(x, y) = xy R. Then f is bilinear
since
f(as +bt, y) = (as +bt)y = ast +bty = af(s, y) +bf(t, y) and
f(x, as +bt) = x(as +bt) = xas +xbt = axs +bxt = af(x, s) +bf(x, t).
To show that f is not uniformly continuous, let = 2, and suppose > 0.
Pick an integer n with 0 < 2/n < . If we let a = n and b = n+(1/n), then
| (a, a) (b, b) | =
_
(a b)
2
+ (a b)
2
=

2 [a b[ =

2/n < . But, for
the images, [f(a, a) f(b, b)[ =

n
2
(n + (1/n))
2
= 2 + (1/n
2
) > 2. So,
no matter how small a positive is specied, we can always nd points
closer together than whose images are farther apart than 2. So f is not
uniformly continuous on R R.
4E-18. Let A M be connected and let f : A R be continuous with
f(x) ,= 0 for all x A. Show that f(x) > 0 for all x A or else f(x) < 0
for all x A.
Solution. If there were a points x
1
and x
2
with f(x
1
) < 0 and f(x
2
) > 0,
then by the intermediate value theorem, 4.5.1, there would be a point z in
A with f(z) = 0. By hypothesis, this does not happen. So f(x) must have
the same sign for all x in A.
4E-19. Find a continuous map f : R
n
R
m
and a closed set A R
n
such that f(A) is not closed. In fact, do this when f : R
2
R is the
projection on the xaxis.
Sketch. A = (x, y) R
2
[ xy = 1; f(A) = x R [ x ,= 0.
Solution. For (x, y) R
2
, let f(x, y) =
1
(x, y) = x. Then f is a contin-
uous map from R
2
to R (Exercise 4.1-1(b)). Let A = (x, y) R
2
[ xy = 1.
This hyperbola is a closed set in R
2
, but f(A) = R0 which is not closed.
For a second example, let A R
2
be the graph of y = tan x for /2 <
x < /2. The curve A is a closed set in R
2
, but f(A) is the open interval
] /2, /2[ which is not closed.
4E-20. Give an alternative proof of Theorem 4.4.1 using sequential com-
pactness.
Solution. We are asked to use sequential compactness to prove the max-
imum-minimum theorem, 4.4.1.
Theorem. Let (M, d) be a metric space, A m, and f : A R be
continuous. Let K A be compact. Then f is bounded on K. That is,
B = f(x) [ x K R is a bounded set. Furthermore, there exist points
x
0
, x
1
K such that f(x
0
) = inf(B) and f(x
1
) = sup(B).
First we want to show that B = f(K) is a bounded set. If it were not, the
we could pick a sequence of points y
n
)
1
in f(K) with [y
n
[ > n for each n.
For each n there is a point x
n
K with f(x
n
) = y
n
. Since K is sequentially
compact, there should be a convergent subsequence x
n(k)
x K as
k . Since f is continuous on K we should have f(x
n(k)
) f(x). But
this leads to trouble since

f(x
n(k)
)
y
n(k)
> n(k) as k . So
[f(x)[ would have to be innite. This is not possible, so f(K) must be a
bounded set.
Since f(K) is a bounded subset of R, a = inf(f(K)) and b = sup(f(K))
exist as nite real numbers. There must be y
n
and z
n
in f(K) with
a y
n
< a +
1
n
and b
1
n
< z
n
b.
Since these are in f(K), there must be points s
n
and t
n
in K with f(s
n
) =
y
n
and f(t
n
) = z
n
. Since K is sequentially compact, there must be subse-
quences converging to points in K
s
n(k)
x
0
K and t
n(k)
x
1
K
as k . Since f is continuous on K, we have
y
n(k)
= f(s
n(k)
) f(x
0
) K and z
n(k)
= f(t
n(k)
) f(x
1
) K
as k . But y
n(k)
a and z
n(k)
b. Since limits are unique, we must
have a = f(x
0
) and b = f(x
1
) as desired.
4E-21. Which of the following functions on R are uniformly continuous?
(a) f(x) = 1/(x
2
+ 1).
(b) f(x) = cos
3
x.
(c) f(x) = x
2
/(x
2
+ 2).
(d) f(x) = xsin x.
Answer. (a) Yes.
(b) Yes.
(c) Yes.
(d) No.
Solution. Parts (a), (b), and (c) can all be handled using Example 4.6.4.
Each is dierentiable everywhere on R.
(a) If f(x) = 1/(x
2
+ 1), then f
(x) = 2x/(x
2
+ 1)
2
. The denominator is
always at least as large as 1. So, if [x[ 1, then [f
(x)[ 2. If [x[ > 1,

then [f
(x)[
2x/x
4
= 2/
x
3
< 2. So [f
(x)[ 2 for all x R, and f

is uniformly continuous on R by Example 4.6.4.
(b) If f(x) = cos
3
x, then [f
(x)[ =

3 cos
2
xsin x
3 for all real x since

[sin x[ 1 and [cos x[ 1 for all real x. Again, f is uniformly continuous
on R by Example 4.6.4.
(c) If f(x) = x
2
/(x
2
+ 2), then
[f
(x)[ =
4x
x
4
+ 4x
2
+ 4
x
x
2
+ 1
.
The denominator is always at least as large as 1, so, if [x[ 1, then
[f
(x)[ 1. If x > 1, then [f
(x)[
x/x
2
= 1/ [x[ < 1. So [f
(x)[ 1
for all x R, and f is uniformly continuous on R by Example 4.6.4.
(d) The function f(x) = xsin x is continuous on R but not absolutely con-
tinuous. Let = 1. We will show that no > 0 can satisfy the deni-
tion of uniform continuity everywhere in R. Let a be any number with
0 < a < min(, /4). Then sin a > 0. Pick an integer k large enough so
that 2k sin a > 1. Let x = 2k and y = 2k +a. Then [x y[ = a < ,
but
[f(y) f(x)[ = [(2k +a) sin(2k +a) sin(2k)[
= (2k +a) sin(a)
> 1.
No single > 0 can work for = 1 in the denition of uniform continuity
everywhere in R. So f is not uniformly continuous on R.
4E-22. Give an alternative proof of the uniform continuity theorem us-
ing the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem as follows. First, show that if f is
not uniformly continuous, there is an > 0 and there are sequences x
n
, y
n
such that (x
n
, y
n
) < 1/n and (f(x
n
), f(y
n
)) . Pass to convergent
subsequences and obtain a contradiction to the continuity of f.
Solution. We are asked to prove that a continuous function on a compact
set is uniformly continuous on that set by using the Bolzano-Weierstrass
Theorem which says that a compact set is sequentially compact. So, sup-
pose K is a compact subset of a metric space M with metric d and f is a
continuous function from K into a metric space N with metric . If f were
not uniformly continuous, then there would be an > 0 for which no > 0
would work in the denition of uniform continuity. In particular, = 1/n
would not work. So there would be points x
n
and y
n
with d(x
n
, y
n
) < 1/n
and (f(x
n
), f(y
n
)) > . Since K is a compact subset of the metric space
M, it is sequentially compact by the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem (3.1.3).
So there are indices n(1) < n(2) < n(3) < . . . and a point z K such that
x
n(k)
z as k . Since n(k) and d(x
n(k)
, y
n(k)
)) < 1/n(k), we
can compute
d(y
n(k)
, z) d(y
n(k)
, x
n(k)
) +d(x
n(k)
, z) <
1
n(k)
+d(x
n(k)
, z) 0.
So y
n(k)
z also. Since f is continuous on K, we should have f(x
n(k)
)
f(z) and f(y
n(k)
) f(z) as k . We can select k large enough so that
(f(x
n(k)
), f(z)) < /2 and (f(y
n(k)
), f(z)) < /2. But this would give
< (f(x
n(k)
), f(y
n(k)
))
(f(x
n(k)
), f(z)) +(f(y
n(k)
), f(z))
<

2
+

2
= .
This impossibility shows that f must, in fact, be uniformly continuous on
K.
4E-23. Let X be a compact metric space and f : X X an isometry;
that is, d (f(x), f(y)) = d(x, y) for all x, y X. Show that f is a bijection.
Sketch. To show onto suppose y
1
Af(A) and consider the sequence
y
2
= f(y
1
), y
3
= f(y
2
), . . . .
Solution. If f(x) = f(y), then 0 = d(f(x), f(y)) = d(x, y), so x = y.
Thus f is one-to-one. If > 0, let = . If d(x, y) < , then d(f(x), f(y)) =
d(x, y) < = , so f is continuous, in fact uniformly continuous, on A.
It remains to show that f maps A onto A. Since A is compact and f is
continuous, the image, f(A) is a compact subset of the metric space A.
So it must be closed. Its complement, A f(A) must be open. If there
were a point x in A f(A), then there would be a radius r > 0 such that
D(x, r) A f(A). That is, y f(A) implies d(y, x) > r. Consider the
sequence dened by x
0
= x and x
n+1
= f(x
n
) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . For
positive integer k, let f
k
denote the composition of f with itself k times. If
n and p are positive integers, then
d(x
n+p
, x
n
) = d(f
n
f
p
(x), f
n
(x)) = d(f
p
(x), x) > r
since f
p
(x) f(A). The points in the sequence are pairwise separated by
distances of at least r. This would prevent any subsequence from converg-
ing. But A is sequentially compact by the Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem.
So there should be a convergent subsequence. This contradiction shows
that there can be no such starting point x for our proposed sequence. The
complement A f(A) must be empty. So f(A) = A and f maps A onto
A as claimed.
4E-24. Let f : A M N.
(a) Prove that f is uniformly continuous on A i for every pair of se-
quences x
k
, y
k
of A such that d(x
k
, y
k
) 0, we have (f(x
k
), f(y
k
))
0.
(b) Let f be uniformly continuous, and let x
k
be a Cauchy sequence of
A. Show that f(x
k
) is a Cauchy sequence.
(c) Let f be uniformly continuous and N be complete. Show that f has
a unique extension to a continuous function on cl(A).
Solution. (a) Suppose f is uniformly continuous on A and that x
n
)
1
and
y
n
)
1
are sequences in A such that d(x
n
, y
n
) 0. Let > 0. Since f is
uniformly continuous on A, there is a > 0 such that (f(x), f(y)) <
whenever x and y are in A and d(x, y) < . Since d(x
n
, y
n
) 0, there
is a K such that d(x
k
, y
k
) < whenever k K. So
k K = d(x
k
, y
k
) < = (f(x
k
), f(y
k
)) < .
So (f(x
k
), f(y
k
)) 0.
Now suppose (f(x
k
), f(y
k
)) 0 for every pair of sequences x
k
)
1
and
y
k
)
1
in A with d(x
k
, y
k
) 0. If f were not uniformly continuous on
A, there would be an > 0 for which no > 0 would work in the
denition of uniform continuity on A. In particular, = 1/k would fail
for each positive integer k. There would be points x
k
and y
k
in A with
d(x
k
, y
k
) < 1/k but (f(x
k
), f(y
k
)) > . We would have d(x
k
, y
k
) 0
but (f(x
k
), f(y
k
)) 0. By hypothesis this should not happen. So f
must be uniformly continuous on A.
(b) Suppose f is uniformly continuous on A and that x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy
sequence in A. Let > 0. Since f is uniformly continuous on A, there
is a > 0 such that (f(x), f(y)) < whenever x and y are in A and
d(x, y) < . Since x
n
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in A, there is an index
K such that d(x
k
, x
j
) < whenever k K and j K. We have
(k K and j K) = d(x
k
x
j
) < = (f(x
k
), f(x
j
)) < .
So f(x
k
))
k=1
is a Cauchy sequence in N as claimed.
(c) We are asked to prove the following theorem about the extension of
functions.
Theorem. If f is a uniformly continuous function from a subset A
of a metric space M into a complete metric space N, then f has a
unique continuous extension to cl(A). That is, there is a unique function
g : cl(A) N such that G is continuous on cl(A) and g(x) = f(X) for
every x in A.
Proof: It is easy to see that there can be no more than one such function.
If x cl(A), then there is a sequence x
k
)
1
of points in A such that
x
k
x. If g is to be continuous on cl(A), we must have g(x
k
) g(x).
But g is to be an extension of f and each of the points x
k
is in A.
So g(x
k
) = f(x
k
) for each k. So, the only possible value for g(x) is
lim
k
f(x
k
). In order to use this to dene the function g we need to
show that the limit exists and that it does not depend on what sequence
is selected from A converging to x.
ONE: If x
k
)
1
is a sequence in A and x
k
x cl(A), then there is a
point z N with f(x
k
) z.
Pf: Since x
k
x in M, the sequence x
k
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in M.
By the result of part (b), f(x
k
))
k=1
is a Cauchy sequence in N. Since
N is complete, there is a point z in N with f(x
k
) z as claimed.
TWO: If x
k
)
1
and y
k
)
1
are sequences in A with x
k
x and y
k
x
in cl(A), then lim
k
f(x
k
) = lim
k
f(y
k
) in N.
Pf: Both the limits exist by ONE. Let a = lim
k
f(x
k
) and b =
lim
k
f(y
k
). We want to show that a = b. Let > 0. Pick K
1
and K
2
such that
k K
1
= (f(x
k
), a) <

3
and k K
2
= (f(y
k
), b) <

3
.
Since f is uniformly continuous on A, we can pick > 0 such that
(f(x), f(y)) < /3 whenever x and y are in A and d(x, y) < . Pick K
3
and K
4
such that
k K
3
= d(x
k
, x) <

2
and k K
4
= d(y
k
, x) <

2
.
Fix an index k larger than max(K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
). Then d(x
k
, y
k
)
d(x
k
, x) +d(x, y
k
) < /2 +/2 = . So (f(x
k
)f(y
k
)) < /3 and
(a, b) (a, f(x
k
)) +(f(x
k
)f(y
k
)) +(f(y
k
), b) <

3
+

3
+

3
= .
Since this is true for every > 0, we must have (a, b) = 0. So a = b.
This completes the proof of the second claim.
Using the two results just established, we can unambiguously dene a
function g : cl(A) N by the following process: For x cl(A),
(1) Select a sequence x
k
)
1
in A with x
k
x.
(2) Set g(x) = lim
k
f(x
k
).
The limit in step (2) exists by the rst claim and is independent of
which particular sequence is used to dene it by the second. Thus this
process does dene a function on cl(A). If x A, then the dening
sequence could have been selected as x
k
= x for all k. For this sequence
we certainly have f(x
k
) f(x). So g(x) = f(x) for x A. Thus g is
an extension of f to cl(A). It remains to show that g is continuous on
cl(A).
Suppose x cl(A) and z
k
)
1
is a sequence in cl(A) with z
k
x. We
need to tie the sequence z
k
)
1
to a closely related sequence actually in
A. Since g(z
k
) is dened as the limit of the images of any sequence in
A converging to z
k
, we can, for each positive integer k, select a point
x
k
A with d(x
k
, z
k
) < 1/k and (f(x
k
), g(z
k
)) < 1/k. Since the z
k
converge to x and the x
k
are progressively closer to the z
k
, we also have
x
k
x. More precisely:
d(x
k
, x) d(x
k
, z
k
) +d(z
k
, x) <
1
k
+d(z
k
, x) 0.
Since x
k
)
1
is a sequence of points in A converging to x, we have
f(x
k
) g(x). But then
(g(z
k
), g(x)) (g(z
k
), f(x
k
)) +(f(x
k
), g(x))
1
k
+(f(x
k
, g(x))
0.
So g(z
k
) g(x). This works for every sequence z
k
)
1
in cl(A) converg-
ing to x. So g is continuous at x. Since x was arbitrary in cl(A), the
function g is continuous on the set cl(A).
There is actually something to be done here. Simply getting an exten-
sion to cl(A) is trivial. The extension could be dened in any manner
desired on cl(A) A. The trick is to get a continuous extension. As we
have seen, there cannot be more than one. But there might not be any.
For an easy example, consider A = [0, 2] 1 R. On A dene f by
f(x) =
_
x, for 0 x < 1
x 1, for 1 < x 2
.
See the gure.
Figure 4-10. A function without continuous extension to the closure of the do-
main.
Then f is continuous on A. The closure of A is [0, 2]. The limits as x
tends to 1 from the two portions of A are dierent. The limit is 1 from
the left and 0 from the right. So there is no way to consistently dene
the function at 1 in such a way as to make it continuous on the whole
interval from 0 to 2.
For a less articial example, represent a point in the plane by polar
coordinates r and where r 0 and 0 < 2 with being the
counterclockwise angle from the positive horizontal axis. Let A = R
2
nonnegative horizontal axis. Then the map (r, ) is continuous on

A, but there is no way to extend it continuously to the whole plane. It
makes a jump of 2 as you cross the positive horizontal axis.
4E-25. Let f : ]0, 1[ R be dierentiable and let f
(x) be bounded.
Show that lim
x0
+ f(x) and lim
x1
f(x) exist. Do this both directly
and by applying Exercise 4E-24(c). Give a counterexample if f
(x) is not
bounded.
Sketch. f(x) = sin(1/x) is a counterexample with f
not bounded.
Solution. First notice that as in Example 4.6.4, if [f
(x)[ M for all x

in ]0, 1[, then, if s and t are in [0, 1[, the mean value theorem says that there
is a point c between s and t where [f(s) f(t)[ = [f
(c)(s t)[ M [s t[.

Thus f satises a Lipschitz condition on ]0, 1[ and is uniformly continuous
there.
Claim. If s
k
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in ]0, 1[, then f(s
k
)) is a Cauchy
sequence in R.
To see this, note that if > 0 there is an index K such that [s
k
s
j
[ <
/M. So, for such k and j we have [f(s
k
) f(s
j
)[ M [s
k
s
j
[ < M/M =
.
Suppose x
k
)
1
is a sequence in ]0, 1[ increasing monotonically to a limit
of 1. Then x
k
)
1
is a Cauchy sequence in ]0, 1[, so f(x
k
)) is a Cauchy
sequence in R. There must be a number R with f(x
k
) . Fix an
index k with
1

2M
< x
k
< 1 and [f(x
k
) [ <

2
.
Put = /2M. If 1 < t < 1, then
[f(t) [ [f(t) f(x
k
)[ +[f(x
k
) [
M [t x
k
[ +

2
< M

2M
+

2
= .
So lim
t1
f(t) exists and is equal to .
The argument at the other end is similar. Suppose y
k
)
1
is a sequence
in ]0, 1[ decreasing monotonically to a limit of 0. Then y
k
)
1
is a Cauchy
sequence in ]0, 1[, so f(y
k
)) is a Cauchy sequence in R. There must be a
number R with f(y
k
) . Fix an index k with
0 < y
k
<

2M
and [f(y
k
) [ <

2
.
Put = /2M. If 0 < t < , then
[f(t) [ [f(t) f(y
k
)[ +[f(y
k
) [
M [t y
k
[ +

2
< M

2M
+

2
= .
So limt 0
+
f(t) exists and is equal to .
Another approach is to appeal to the more general result of Exercise 4E-
24(c). Since f is uniformly continuous on the open interval ]0, 1[, it has a
continuous extension to the closure of that domain which is the closed
interval [0, 1]. There is a unique function g from [0, 1] into R which is
continuous on [0, 1] and for which g(x) = f(x) for all x ]0, 1[. Since g is
continuous on [0, 1], we have
g(0) = lim
x0
+
g(x) = lim
x0
+
f(x) and g(1) = lim
x1
g(x) = lim
x1
f(x).
In particular, both of those limits exist.
The function f(x) = sin(1/x) is continuous and dierentiable on the open
interval ]0, 1[. The derivative, f
(x) = (sin(1/x))/x
2
, is not bounded on
that interval. Indeed, f
(2/((4k + 1))) = (4k + 1)

2
2
/4 for integer k.
The limit as x tends to 0 does not exist. The function f takes on every
value from 1 to 1 in every neighborhood of 0.
4E-26. Let f : ]a, b] R be continuous and such that f
(x) exists on
]a, b[ and lim
xa
+ f
(x) exists. Prove that f is uniformly continuous.

Suggestion. Use the limit of the derivative at a to get uniform continuity
on a short interval ]a, a +2d]. Use Theorem 4.6.2 to get uniform continuity
on an overlapping interval [a +d, b]. Then combine the two results.
Solution. Let > 0, and suppose lim
xa
+ f(x) = . There is a d such
that 0 < 2d 0 such that
[f(x) f(y)[ < whenever x and y are in ]a, a+2d] and [x y[ <
1
. Since
f is continuous on ]a, b], it is continuous on the subinterval [a +d, b]. Since
that interval is compact, f is uniformly continuous on it by the uniform
continuity theorem, 4.6.2. There is a
2
> 0 such that [f(x) f(y)[ <
whenever x and y are in [a+d, b] and [x y[ <
2
. Now we take advantage
of the overlap we have carefully arranged between our two subdomains. If x
and y are in ]a, b] and [x y[ < min(
1
,
2
, d/2), then either they are both in
]a, a+2d] or they are both in [a+d, b], or both. If they are both in ]a, a+2d],
then [f(x) f(y)[ < since [x y[ <
1
. If they are both in ]a, a + 2d],
then [f(x) f(y)[ < since [x y[ <
2
. In any case, [f(x) f(y)[ <
whenever x and y are in ]a, b] ans [x y[ < = min(
1
,
2
, d/2). So f is
uniformly continuous on ]a, b] as claimed.
4E-27. Find the sum of the series

k=4
(3/4)
k
.
Answer. 81/64.
Solution. Use the known sum for a geometric series with ratio smaller
than 1 to compute
k=4
_
3
4
_
k
=
_
3
4
_
4
+
_
3
4
_
5
+
_
3
4
_
6
+. . .
=
_
3
4
_
4
_
1 +
_
3
4
_
+
_
3
4
_
2
+. . .
_
=
_
3
4
_
4
1
1 (3/4)
=
_
3
4
_
3
1
4 3
=
3
4
4
3
=
81
64
.
k=4
_
3
4
_
k
=
81
64
.
4E-28. Let f : ]0, 1[ R be uniformly continuous. Must f be bounded?
Answer. Yes.
Solution. If f were not bounded on ]0, 1[, we could inductively select a
sequence of points x
k
)
1
in ]0, 1[ such that [f(x
k+1
)[ > [f(x
k
)[ + 1 for
each k. In particular, we would have [f(x
k
) f(x
j
)[ > 1 whenever k ,= j.
But the points x
k
are all in the compact interval [0, 1], so there should be
a subsequence converging to some point in [0, 1]. This subsequence would
have to be a Cauchy sequence, so no matter how small a positive num-
ber were specied, we could get points x
k
and x
j
in the subsequence
with [x
k
x
j
[ < and [f(x
k
) f(x
j
)[ > 1. This contradicts the uniform
continuity of f on ]0, 1[. So the image f(]0, 1[) must, in fact, be bounded.
If we knew the result of Exercise 4E-24(c), then we would know that
f has a unique continuous extension to the closure, [0, 1]. There is a con-
tinuous g : [0, 1] R such that g(x) = f(x) for all x in ]0, 1[. Since g is
continuous on the compact domain [0, 1], the image g([0, 1]) is compact and
hence bounded. So f(]0, 1[) = g(]0, 1[) g([0, 1]) is bounded.
4E-29. Let f : R R satisfy [f(x) f(y)[ [x y[
2
. Prove that f is
a constant. [Hint: What is f
(x)?]
Suggestion. Divide by x y and let y tend to x to show that f
(x) = 0.
Solution. Suppose x
0
R. Then for x ,= x
0
we have [f(x) f(x
0
)[
[x x
0
[
2
, so
0
f(x) f(x
0
)
x x
0
[x x
0
[ .
Letting x x
0
, we nd that lim
xx0
(f(x) f(x
0
))/(x x
0
) = 0. So
f
(x
0
) exists and is equal to 0 for every x
0
R. If t R, there is, by the
mean value theorem, a point x
0
between 0 and t such that [f(t) f(0)[ =
[f
(x
0
)(t 0)[ = [0(t 0)[ = 0. So f(t) = f(0) for all t R. Thus f is a
constant function as claimed.
4E-30. (a) Let f : [0, [ R, f(x) =

x. Prove that f is uniformly
continuous.
(b) Let k > 0 and f(x) = (x x
k
)/ log x for 0 < x < 1 and f(0) = 0,
f(1) = 1 k. Show that f : [0, 1] R is continuous. Is f uniformly
continuous?
Suggestion. (a) Use Theorem 4.6.2 to show that f is uniformly continu-
ous on [0, 3] and Example 4.6.4 to show that it is uniformly continuous
on [1, [. Then combine these results.
(b) Use LHopitals Rule.
Solution. (a) Let > 0. We know that f(x) =

x is continuous on [0, [,
so it is certainly continuous on the compact domain [0, 3]. By the uniform
continuity theorem, 4.6.2, it is uniformly continuous on that set. There
is a
1
> 0 such that [f(x) f(y)[ < whenever x and y are in [0, 3]
and [x y[ <
1
.
We also know that f is dierentiable for x > 0 with f
(x) = 1/(2
x).
So [f
(x)[ 1/2 for x 1. As in Example 4.6.4, we can use the mean

value theorem to conclude that if
2
= 2, and x and y are in [1, [
with [x y[ <
2
, then there is a point c between x and y such that
[f(x) f(y)[ = [f
(c)(x y)[ < (1/2)(2) = .

Now take advantage of the overlap of our two domains. If x and y are
in [0, [ and [x y[ < = min(1,
1
,
2
), then either x and y are both
in [0, 3] or both are in [1, [ or both. If they are both in [0, 3], then
[f(x) f(y)[ < since [x y[ <
1
. If they are both in [1, [, then
[f(x) f(y)[ < since [x y[ <
2
. In either case, [f(x) f(y)[ < .
So f is uniformly continuous on [0, [ as claimed.
(b) Suppose k is a positive integer and f(x) = (xx
k
)/ log x for 0 < x < 1,
f(0) = 0, and f(1) = 1 k. The numerator, xx
k
, is continuous for all
x. The denominator, log x, is continuous for x > 0. So f is continuous
on x > 0 except possibly at x = 1 where the denominator is 0, However,
the numerator is also 0 at x = 1. To apply LH opitals Rule, we consider
the ratio of the derivatives
1 kx
k1
1/x
= x kx
k
1 k = f(1) as x 1.
x1
(x x
k
)/ log x = lim
x1
f(x) also exists
and is equal to f(1). So f is continuous at 1. As x 0
+
, the numerator
of f(x) tends to 0 and the denominator to . So lim
x0
+ f(x) =
0 = f(0). So f is continuous from the right at 0. So f is continuous on
[0, [ and on the smaller domain [0, 1]. Since the latter is compact, f is
uniformly continuous on it by the uniform continuity theorem, 4.6.2.
4E-31. Let f(x) = x
1/(x1)
for x ,= 1. How should f(1) be dened to
make f continuous at x = 1?
Answer. f(1) = e.
Solution. For x ,= 1, f(x) = x
1/x1
= e
(log x)/(x1)
. This is continuous
on x > 0 except possibly at x = 1. We have log f(x) = (log x)/(x 1).
Both numerator and denominator tend to 0 as x approaches 1, so we can
try LH opitals Rule. For the ratio of derivatives we have
1/x
1
=
1
x
1 as x 1.
x1
(log x)/(x 1) also exists and is 1. So
lim
x1
f(x) = lim
x1
e
(log x)/(x1)
exists and is e
1
.
So, if we put f(1) = e, f will be continuous at 1.
4E-32. Let A R
n
be open, x
0
A, r
0
> 0 and B
r0
= x R
n
[
| x x
0
| r
0
. Suppose that B
r0
A. Prove that there is an r > r
0
such
that B
r
A.
Solution. The closed disk B
r0
is a closed bounded set in R
n
and so is
compact. Since A is open, there is for each x A a radius (x) > 0 such
that D(x, (x)) A, and we surely have B
r0

D(x, (x)/2) [ x B
r0
.
This open cover of the compact set B
r0
must have a nite subcover, so
there are points x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
N
in B
r0
with B
r0

N
k=1
D(x
k
, (x
k
)/2).
Let = min(x
k
)/2 [ 1 k N and r = r
0
+ . If y B
r
, then
| y x
0
| r
0
+. Since r
0
< r, B
r0
B
r
. So if | y x
0
| r
0
, then y is
certainly in A. If not, then on the straight line between y and x
0
there is a
point x B
r0
with | x x
0
| = r
0
and | y x| . There is an index k
with x D(x
k
, (x
k
)/2). So
| y x
k
| | y x| +| x x
k
| +| x x
k
| < +
(x
k
)
2
(x
k
).
So y A. Thus B
r
A as required. See Figure 4-11.
4E-33. A set A R
n
is called relatively compact when cl(A) is compact.
Prove that A is relatively compact i every sequence in A has a subsequence
that converges to a point in R
n
.
Figure 4-11. An open set in R
n
containing a closed disk contains a bigger closed
disk.
Sketch. If A is relatively compact, then cl(A) is compact. Convergent
subsequences exist by the Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem. If every sequence
in A has a subsequence convergent in R
n
, then start with a sequence in
cl(A). Get a nearby sequence in A. Take a subsequence converging in R
n
,
and show that the corresponding subsequence of the original sequence con-
verges also, necessarily to a point in cl(A).
Solution. If A is relatively compact, then cl(A) is compact. Every se-
quence in A is also in cl(A) and so must have a subsequence converg-
ing to some point in the sequentially compact set cl(A) by the Bolzano-
Weierstrass theorem.
For the converse, suppose that every sequence in A has a subsequence
converging in R
n
. To show that cl(A) is compact, we will show that it is
sequentially compact. Let y
k
)
1
be a sequence in cl(A). For each k we can
select a point x
k
in A with | x
k
y
k
| < 1/k. By hypothesis, the sequence
x
k
)
1
has a subsequence x
k(j)
)
1
converging to some point x R
n
. Since
each of the points x
k
is in A, the limit x of the subsequence is in cl(A). If
> 0, we can pick an index J large enough so that
_
_
x x
n(j)
_
_
< /2 and
1/k(j) < /2 whenever j J. For such j we have
_
_
y
k(j)
x
_
_
_
_
y
k(j)
x
k(j)
_
_
+
_
_
x
k(j)
x
_
_
<
1
k(j)
+

2
< .
So y
k(j)
x cl(A). Every sequence in cl(A) has a subsequence converging
to a point in cl(A). So cl(A) is a sequentially compact subset of R
n
. So cl(A)
is compact.
4E-34. Assuming that the temperature on the surface of the earth is a
continuous function, prove that on any great circle of the earth there are
two antipodal points with the same temperature.
Solution. View the great circle as a circle of radius R in the xy-plane.
If t is a real number, then (Rcos t, Rsin t) and (Rcos(t + ), Rsin(t + ))
are antipodal points (at opposite ends of a diameter). Let f(t) be the
temperature at (Rcos t, Rsin t), and g(t) = f(t) f(t + ). We want to
show that there is a t
0
with g(t
0
) = 0. But g(t +) = f(t +) f(t +2) =
f(t + ) f(t) = g(t). If g(t) is not zero, then g(t) and g(t + ) have
opposite sign. Since f is continuous, so is g, and the intermediate value
theorem guarantees a point t
0
at which g(t
0
) = 0 just as we need.
4E-35. Let f : R R be increasing and bounded above. Prove that the
limit lim
x0
+ f(x) exists.
Sketch. A = f(x R [ x > 0) is nonempty and bounded below by
f(0). Show that lim
x0
+ f(x) = inf(A).
Solution. Since f is increasing, f(x) f(0) for all x > 0. So A = f(x :
x > 0) is a nonempty subset of R which is bounded below by f(0). By
completeness, it has a nite greatest lower bound a = inff(x) R [ x >
0. If > 0, there is a point > 0 with a f() < a + . Since f is
increasing, we conclude that a f(x) f() < a + whenever 0 < x < .
So lim
x0
+ f(x) exists and is equal to a.
4E-36. Show that (x, sin(1/x)) [ x > 0 (0 [1, 1]) in R
2
is
connected but not path-connected.
Solution. Let A = (x, sin(1/x)) [ x > 0 and B = 0 [1, 1] =
(0, y) [ 1 y 1. Let C = A B. We are asked to show that C is
connected but not path-connected.
Each of A and B are path-connected, and so connected, subsets of R
2
.
Suppose U and V were open sets with C contained in their union and
U V C = . If A U and A V were both nonempty, then U and V
would disconnect A. But A is connected. So one of these must be empty.
Similarly, one of B U and B V must be empty. Say B V = and
B U. Since U is open and (0, 0) U, the point (1/2n, 0) is also in U for
large enough integer n. But these points are in A. So A U is not empty.
So A V is empty, and A U. So C = A B U. The sets U and V
cannot disconnect C. So C must be connected.
Suppose : [0, 1] C were a continuous path with (0) = (1/2, 0)
and (1) = (0, 0). Since is continuous on the compact domain [0, 1], it
would be uniformly continuous, and there would be a > 0 such that
0 s t < implies | (s) (t) | < 1/2. But this gets us into trouble.
As the path moves from (1/2, 0) to (0, 0), it must pass through the points
v
n
= (1/2n, 0) and w
n
= (1/(2n+(/2)), 1). We could inductively select
preimages 0 = s
1
< t
1
< s
2
< t
2
< s
3
< 1 such that (s
n
) = v
n
and
(t
n
) = w
n
. For large enough n, both s
n
and t
n
are within of 1, so their
images should be separated by less than 1/2. But | v
n
w
n
| 1. So there
can be no such path.
4E-37. Prove the following intermediate value theorem for derivatives: If
f is dierentiable at all points of [a, b], and if f
(a) and f
(b) have opposite

signs, then there is a point x
0
]a, b[ such that f
(x
0
) = 0.
Sketch. Suppose f
(a) < 0 < f
(b). Since f is continuous on [a, b] (why?),

it has a minimum at some x
0
in [a, b]. (Why?) x
0
,= a since f(x) < f(a)
for x slightly larger than a. (Why?) x
0
,= b since f(x) < f(b) for x slightly
smaller that b. (Why?) So a < x
0
< b. So f
(x
0
) = 0. (Why?) The case of
f
(a) > 0 > f
(b) is similar.
Solution. We know from Proposition 4.7.2 that f is continuous on the
compact domain [a, b]. By the maximum-minimum theorem, 4.4.1, it attains
a nite minimum, m, and a nite maximum, M, at points x
1
and x
2
in
[a, b].
CASE ONE: f
(a) < 0 < f
(b): Since f
(b) > 0, and it is the limit of the

dierence quotients at b, we must have (f(x) f(b))/(x b) > 0 for x
slightly smaller than b. Since x b < 0, we must have f(x) < f(b) for such
x. So the minimum doe not occur at b. Since f
(a) < 0, and it is the limit

of the dierence quotients at a, we must have (f(x) f(a))/(x a) < 0
for x slightly larger than a. Since x a > 0, we must have f(x) < f(a)
for such x. So the minimum does not occur at a. Thus the minimum must
occur at a point x
0
]a, b[. By Proposition 4.7.9, we must have f
(x
0
) = 0.
CASE TWO: f
(a) > 0 > f
(b): Since f
(b) < 0, and it is the limit of

the dierence quotients at b, we must have (f(x) f(b))/(x b) < 0 for x
slightly smaller than b. Since x b < 0, we must have f(x) > f(b) for such
x. So the maximum does not occur at b. Since f
(a) > 0, and it is the limit

of the dierence quotients at a, we must have (f(x) f(a))/(x a) > 0
for x slightly larger than a. Since x a > 0, we must have f(x) > f(a)
for such x. So the maximum does not occur at a. Thus the maximum must
occur at a point x
0
]a, b[. By Proposition 4.7.9, we must have f
(x
0
) = 0.
By modifying this result a bit, we can establish an apparently stronger
result.
Theorem. If f is dierentiable at all points of [a, b] and w is between
f
(a) and f
(b), then there is at least one point c in [a, b] at which f
(c) = w.
That is, f
satises the same sort of intermediate value property as does

a continuous function. This may not seem particularly striking until you
notice that we do not require that f
be continuous. It might not be, but

it cannot have a simple jump discontinuity, that is, a point at which the
left and right limits exist but are dierent.
Corollary. If f is dierentiable at all points of [a, b], then f
can have
no simple jump discontinuities in [a, b].
A function which is a derivative at every point need not be continu-
ous. But any discontinuities must be rather messy. For an example of the
kind of thing which can happen, consider the function dened on R by
f(x) = x
2
sin(1/x) for x ,= 0 and f(0) = 0. One can use LH opitals
rule to show that the limit of the dierence quotients exists and is 0 at
0. So f is dierentiable everywhere. For x not equal to 0, the derivative is
f
(x) = 2xsin(1/x)cos(1/x). This oscillates wildly in every neighborhood

of 0. See the gure.
Figure 4-12. Intermediate Value Property for derivatives.
4E-38. A real-valued function dened on ]a, b[ is called convex when the
following inequality holds for x, y in ]a, b[ and t in [0, 1]:
f(tx + (1 t)y) tf(x) + (1 t)f( y).
If f has a continuous second derivative and f
> 0, show that f is convex.

Solution. Fix x and y in ]a, b[. We want to show that f(tx +(1 t)y)
tf(x) +(1 t)f(y) for all t in [0, 1]. Let g(t) = tf(x) +(1 t)f(y) f(tx+
(1 t)y). Our project is to show that g(t) 0 everywhere in [0, 1]. Since f
is twice dierentiable, so is g.
g(t) = tf(x) + (1 t)f(y) f(tx + (1 t)y)
g
(t) = f(x) f(y) f
(tx + (1 t)y)(x y)
g
(t) = f
(tx + (1 t)y)(x y)
2
< 0.
The second derivative of g is negative everywhere in [0, 1]. We are in a
position to use the second derivative test about local extremes. Since f is
continuous between x and y, g is continuous on the compact domain [0, 1]
and must attain a nite minimum at some point t
1
and a nite maximum
at some point t
2
in [0, 1] by the maximum-minimum theorem, 4.4.1. Since
g
exists and is negative everywhere in ]0, 1[, the second derivative test,
Proposition 4.7.16, implies that any extreme occurring in the interior would
have to be a maximum. Thus the minimum must occur at one of the ends.
But
g(0) = 0f(x) + 1f(y) f(0x + 1y) = f(y) f(y) = 0
g(1) = 1f(x) + 0f(y) f(1x + 0y) = f(x) f(x) = 0.
Since the minimum must be g(0) or g(1), we conclude that g(t) 0 for all
t in [0, 1] just as we wanted.
Geometrically, the inequality we have just established says that the chord
between any two points on the graph of f always lies above the graph. See
the gure.
Figure 4-13. A convex function.
4E-39. Suppose f is continuous on [a, b], f(a) = f(b) = 0, and x
2
f
(x)+
4xf
(x) + 2f(x) 0 for x ]a, b[. Prove that f(x) 0 for x in [a, b].
Suggestion. Consider the second derivative of x
2
f(x).
Solution. Let g(x) = x
2
f(x). Since x
2
0, it is enough to show that
g(x) 0 for all x in [a, b]. At the ends we have
g(a) = a
2
f(a) = 0 and g(b) = b
2
f(b) = 0.
Since f is continuous on the compact domain [a, b], so is g, and the max-
imum-minimum theorem, 4.4.1, says that g must attain its maximum at
some point x
0
in [a, b]. If g(x) were ever larger than 0, then g(x
0
) > 0 and
x
0
would have to be in the interior. From these we will get a contradiction.
Since f is twice dierentiable, so is g, and
g(x) = x
2
f(x)
g
(x) = 2xf(x) +x
2
f
(x)
g
(x) = x
2
f
(x) + 4xf
(x) + 2f(x) 0
for x ]a, b[. With x
0
in the interior and g(x
0
) > 0, the mean value theorem
gives points c
1
and c
2
with a c
1
x
0
c
2
b where
0 < g(x
0
)g(a) = g
(c
1
)(x
0
a) and 0 > g(b)g(x
0
) = g
(c
2
)(bx
0
).
So g
(c
1
) > 0 and g
(c
2
) < 0. By the mean value theorem again there would
be a point c
3
between c
1
and c
2
with
0 < g
(c
2
) g
(c
1
) = g
(c
3
)(c
2
c
1
).
This would imply that g
(c
3
) < 0. But we know that g
(x) 0 for all x.

This contradiction shows that we must, in fact, have g(x) 0 for all x.
Since g(x) = x
2
f(x) and x
2
0, we also have f(x) 0 for all x in [a, b].
4E-40. Calculate
d
dt
_
t
0
dx
1 +x
2
.
Solution. The integrand is continuous on R, so the fundamental theorem
of calculus says that F(t) =
_
t
0
dx
1+x
2
is an antiderivative for f(t) = 1/(1 +
t
2
).
d
dt
__
t
0
dx
1 +x
2
_
=
1
1 +t
2
.
4E-41. Prove that
n
k=1
k =
n(n + 1)
2
and
n
k=1
k
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
.
These formulas were used in Worked Example 4WE-6.
Sketch. Both are reasonably straightforward by mathematical induction.
For the rst, get from step n to step n + 1 by adding n + 1 to both sides.
For the second, add (n + 1)
2
.
Solution. We proceed in both by mathematical induction.
Proposition. For every positive integer n N, we have
(a)
n
k=1
k =
n(n + 1)
2
and (b)
n
k=1
k
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
.
(a) Initialization Step: For n = 1, the formula becomes 1 =

1
k=1
k =
1(1 + 1)/2 = 2/2 = 1 which is true.
Induction Step: Form the Induction Hypothesis. IH: Suppose the for-
mula is true for n = m:
m
k=1
k =
m(m+ 1)
2
.
We want to show that this implies that the formula would also hold for
n = m+ 1, so we compute:
m+1
k=1
k =
m
k=1
k + (m+ 1)
=
m(m+ 1)
2
+ (m+ 1) (Using the induction hypothesis)
=
m(m+ 1) + 2(m+ 1)
2
=
(m+ 1)(m+ 2)
2
=
(m+ 1)((m+ 1) + 1)
2
.
This is exactly the desired formula for n = m+1. Truth of our formula
for all n N follows by mathematical induction.
(b) Initialization Step: For n = 1, the formula becomes 1 =

1
k=1
k
2
=
1(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1)/6 = (1 2 3)/6 = 1 which is true.
Induction Step: Form the Induction Hypothesis. IH: Suppose the for-
mula is true for n = m:
m
k=1
k
2
=
m(m+ 1)(2m+ 1)
6
.
We want to show that this implies that the formula would also hold for
n = m+ 1, so we compute:
m+1
k=1
k
2
=
m
k=1
k
2
+ (m+ 1)
2
=
m(m+ 1)(2m+ 1)
6
+ (m+ 1)
2
(Using the IH)
=
m(m+ 1)(2m+ 1) + 6(m+ 1)
2
6
=
(m+ 1)(m(2m+ 1) + 6(m+ 1))
6
=
(m+ 1)(2m
2
+ 7m+ 6)
6
=
(m+ 1)(m+ 2)(2m+ 3)
6
=
(m+ 1)((m+ 1) + 1)(2(m+ 1) + 1)
6
This is exactly the desired formula for n = m+1. Truth of our formula
for all n N follows by mathematical induction.
Less formal proofs, especially of the rst formula, abound. One of the
most popular involves writing out the terms twice, the second time in re-
verse order under the rst.
1 2 3 4 . . . (n 2) (n 1) n
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) . . . 3 2 1
. . .
n + 1 n + 1 n + 1 n + 1 . . . n + 1 n + 1 n + 1
Each of the n columns sums to n+1, so the total of both rows is n(n+1).
This is twice the desired sum since all terms appear twice.
A graphical presentation of essentially the same idea is to stack bars of
length 1, 2, 3, . . . n into a triangle and then arrange two of these triangles
into an n (n + 1) rectangle. The area of this rectangle is twice our sum.
This is illustrated for n = 5 in Figure 4-14.
4E-42. For x > 0, dene L(x) =
_
x
1
(1/t) dt. Prove the following, using
this denition:
(a) L is increasing in x.
(b) L(xy) = L(x) +L(y).
Figure 4-14. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = (5 6)/2.
(c) L
(x) = 1/x.
(d) L(1) = 0.
(e) Properties (c) and (d) uniquely determine L. What is L?
Sketch. Do parts (c) and (d) before part (b). Then do part (b) by xing
y > 0 and considering f(x) = L(xy) L(x) L(y) as a function of x.
Solution. (c) The integrand 1/t is a continuous function of t for t > 0.
So, by the fundamental theorem of calculus we have
d
dx
_
x
1
1
t
dt =
1
x
.
(d)
L(1) =
_
1
1
1
t
dt = 0.
(a) From part (c) we know that L is dierentiable on x > 0 and that L
(x) =
1/x > 0 on that half-line. So L is strictly increasing by Proposition
4.7.14.
(b) Fix an arbitrary y > 0. For x > 0 let f(x) = L(xy) L(x) L(y).
We want to show that f(x) = 0 for all x > 0. Using part (d) we have
f(1) = L(x) L(x) L(1) = L(x) L(x) 0 = 0. Using part (c) and
the chain rule, we have
f
(x) =
d
dx
_
L(xy) L(x) L(y)
_
= L
(xy)
d
dx
_
xy
_
L
(x)
d
dx
_
L(y)
_
=
1
xy
y
1
x
0
=
1
x

1
x
0 = 0.
From Proposition 4.1.14(v) we conclude that f is constant. Since f(1) =
0, we must have f(x) = 0 for all x > 0 as we wanted.
(e) Suppose we also had K
(x) = 1/x for all x > 0 and K(1) = 0. Let

g(x) = L(x) K(x) Then g is dierentiable on x > 0, and g
(x) =
K
(x) L
(x) = (1/x) (1/x) = 0. By Proposition 4.1.14(v) we know

that g is constant on x > 0. Since g(1) = K(1) L(1) = 0 0 = 0, we
conclude that 0 = g(x) = K(x) L(x) for all x > 0. So K(x) = L(x)
for all x > 0. Thus there is exactly one function on the positive real line
which has these properties. It is the natural logarithm function. (See
also 5.3.)
4E-43. Let f : R R be continuous and set F(x) =
_
x
2
0
f(y) dy. Prove
that F
(x) = 2xf(x
2
). Give a more general theorem.
Sketch. Use the chain rule and the fundamental theorem of calculus. If
F(x) =
_
g(x)
0
f(y) dy and g is dierentiable and f continuous, then F
(x) =
f(g(x))g
(x).
Solution. If g(x) is dierentiable and u = g(x) and I(u) =
_
u
0
f(y) dy.
Put F(x) = I(g(x)) =
_
g(x)
0
f(y) dy. Since f is continuous, the fundamental
theorem of calculus gives
dI
du
=
d
du
_
u
0
f(y) dy = f(u).
So, by the chain rule, F
(x) = I
(g(x))g
(x) = f(g(x))g
(x).
In particular, in our problem g(x) = x
2
, so g
(x) = 2x, and F
(x) =
f(x
2
)2x = 2xf(x
2
) as claimed.
4E-44. Let f : [0, 1] R be Riemann integrable and suppose for every
a, b with 0 a < b 1 there is a c, a < c < b, with f(c) = 0. Prove
_
1
0
f = 0. Must f be zero? What if f is continuous?
Suggestion. Show that the upper and lower sums are both 0 for every
partition of [0, 1]. Consider a function which is 0 except at nitely many
points.
Solution. Since f is integrable on [0, 1], the upper and lower integrals are
the same and are equal to the integral. Let P = 0 = x
0
< x
1
< x
2
< <
x
n
= 1 be any partition of [0, 1]. For each subinterval [x
j1
, x
j
] there is a
point c
j
in it with f(c
j
) = 0. So
m
j
= inff(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] 0 supf(x) [ x [x
j1
, x
j
] = M
j
.
So
L(f, P) =
n
j=1
m
j
(x
j
x
j1
) 0
n
j=1
M
j
(x
j
x
j1
) = U(f, P).
This is true for every partition of [0, 1]. So
_
1
0
f(x) dx =
_
1
0
f(x) dx = sup
P a partition of [0,1]
L(f, P) 0
inf
P a partition of [0,1]
U(f, P) =
_
1
0
f(x) dx =
_
1
0
f(x) dx.
So we must have
_
1
0
f(x) dx = 0.
The function f need not be identically 0. We could, for example, have
f(x) = 0 for all but nitely many points at which f(x) = 1.
If f is continuous and satises the stated condition, then f must be
identically 0. Let x [0, 1]. By hypothesis there is, for each integer n > 0,
at least one point c
n
in [0, 1] with x(1/n) c
n
x+(1/n) and f(c
n
) = 0.
Since c
n
0 and f is continuous, we must have 0 = f(c
n
) f(x). So
f(x) = 0.
4E-45. Prove the following second mean value theorem. Let f and g be
dened on [a, b] with g continuous, f 0, and f integrable. Then there is
a point x
0
]a, b[ such that
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx = g(x
0
)
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
Sketch. Let m = inf(g([a, b])) and M = sup(g([a, b])). Then
m
_
b
a
f(x) dx
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx M
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
(Why?) Since t
_
b
a
f(x) dx depends continuously on t, the intermediate value
theorem gives t
0
in [m, M] with
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx = t
0
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
Now apply that theorem to g to get x
0
with g(x
0
) = t
0
. (Supply details.)
Solution. Since g is continuous on the compact interval [a, b], we know

that m = inf(g([a, b])) and M = sup(g([a, b])) exist as nite real numbers
and that there are points x
1
and x
2
in [a, b] where g(x
1
) = m and g(x
2
) =
M. Since m g(x) M and f(x) 0, we have mf(x) f(x)g(x)
Mf(x) for all x in [a, b]. Assuming that f and fg are integrable on [a, b],
Proposition 4.8.5(iii) gives
m
_
b
a
f(x) dx =
_
b
a
mf(x) dx
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx
_
b
a
Mf(x) dx
= M
_
b
a
f(x) dx.
The function h(t) = t
_
b
a
f(x) dx is a continuous function of t in the interval
m t M, and
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx is a number between h(m) and h(M).
By the intermediate value theorem there is a number t
0
in [m, M] with
h(t
0
) =
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx. Since g is continuous between x
1
and x
2
and t
0
is
between m = g(x
1
) and M = g(x
2
), another application of the intermediate
value theorem gives a point x
0
between x
1
and x
2
with g(x
0
) = t
0
. So
_
b
a
f(x)g(x) dx = h(t
0
) = t
0
_
b
a
f(x) dx = g(x
0
)
_
b
a
f(x) dx
as desired.
In the argument above we assumed that the function fg was integrable
on [a, b]. We need the following modication of Theorem 4.8.4(i):
Theorem. If f : [a, b] R is integrable on [a, b] and g : [a, b] R is
continuous, then the product f g : [a, b] R is integrable on [a, b].
Proof: Let > 0. Since f is integrable there are partitions P
1
and P
2
of
[a, b] with
U(f, P
1
) <
_
b
a
f =
_
b
a
f =
_
b
a
f < L(f, P
2
) +.
If Q is any common renement of P
1
and P
2
, then
L(f, P
2
) L(f, Q) U(f, Q) U(f, P
1
).
So U(f, Q) L(f, Q) < 2. Since f is integrable on [a, b], it is bounded, as
is the continuous function g
[f(x)[ | f |
and [g(x)[ | g |
for all x [a, b].

Also, since g is continuous on the compact domain [a, b], it is uniformly
continuous on it. So there is a > 0 such that [g(x) g(t)[ < whenever
x and t are in [a, b] and [x t[ < . Let Q = a = t
0
< t
1
< < t
n
= b
be a common renement of P
1
and P
2
with t
j
t
j1
< for each j. If x
and t are in the same subinterval of Q, then
[f(x)g(x) f(t)g(t)[ [f(x)g(x) f(t)g(x)[ +[f(t)g(x) f(t)g(t)[
[f(x) f(t)[ [g(x)[ +[f(t)[ [g(x) g(t)[
(M(f, Q, j) m(f, Q, j)) | g |
+ | f |
.
Since this holds for every x and t in the subinterval, we have
M(fg, Q, j) m(fg, Q, j) (M(f, Q, j) m(f, Q, j)) | g |
+ | f |
.
So
U(fg, Q) L(fg, Q) =
n
j=1
(M(fg, Q, j) m(fg, Q, j))(t
j
t
j1
)
j=1
((M(f, Q, j) m(f, Q, j)) | g |
+ | f |
)(t
j
t
j1
)
| g |
j=1
((M(f, Q, j) m(f, Q, j))(t
j
t
j1
)
+ | f |
j=1
(t
j
t
j1
)
| g |
(U(f, Q) L(f, Q)) + | f |
(b a)
| g |
2 + | f |
(b a)
= (2 | g |
+| f |
(b a)).
So
L(fg, Q)
_
b
a
fg
_
b
a
fg U(fg, Q)
< L(fg, Q) + (2 | g |
+| f |
(b a)).
Since this can be done for any > 0, we must have
_
b
a
fg =
_
b
a
fg. So fg is
integrable on [a, b].
4E-46. (a) For complex-valued functions on an interval, prove the
fundamental theorem of calculus.
(b) Evaluate
_
0
e
ix
dx using (a).
Solution. (a) If F(x) = U(x) + iV (x) is a complex valued function of a
real variable x with U(x) and V (x) dierentiable real valued functions,
then
lim
h0
F(x +h) F(x)
h
= lim
h0
U(x +h) U(x) +i(V (x +h) V (x))
h
= lim
h0
U(x +h) U(x)
h
+i lim
h0
V (x +h) V (x)
h
= U
(x) +iV
(x).
Now suppose f; [a, b] C is a continuous function and f = u + iv
with u and v real. The u and v are continuous functions. From the
fundamental theorem of calculus for real valued functions, 4.8.8, each of
u and v have antiderivatives on ]a, b[ given by integrals. u(x) = U
(x)
and v(x) = V
(x) where
U(x) =
_
x
a
u(t) dt and V (x) =
_
x
a
v(t) dt.
Now we put together the computation of derivatives above and Worked
Example 4WE-7.
d
dx
__
x
a
f(t) dt
_
=
d
dx
__
x
a
(u(t) +iv(t)) dt
_
=
d
dx
__
x
a
u(t) dt +i
_
x
a
v(t)) dt
_
=
d
dx
(U(x) +iV (x)) = U
(x) +iV
(x)
= u(x) +iv(x) = f(x).
Thus F(x) =
_
x
a
f(t) dt is an antiderivative for f(x) on ]a, b[.
If G is any other antiderivative then F and G dier by a constant. So
_
b
a
f(t) dt = F(b) F(a) = G(b) G(a).
(b) Let f(x) = e
ix
= cos x+i sin x. Then f
(x) = sin x+i cos x = i(cos x+

sin x) = ie
ix
= if(x). So an antiderivative for f(x) is given by G(x) =
(1/i)e
ix
. So we have
_

0
e
ix
dx = G() G(0) =
e
i
i

e
0
i
=
1
i

1
i
=
2
i
= 2i.

Solution Manual Elementary Classical Analysis Marsden Chap 1 To 4

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What are the properties of one-to-one and onto functions discussed in the text?

What are the properties of one-to-one and onto functions discussed in the text?

What are the properties of inverse functions discussed in the text?

What are the properties of inverse functions discussed in the text?

Exercises for the Introduction 1

Exercises for the Introduction

Solution. (a) f(A) = f(1), f(1) = 1, 1 = 1. Since f(1) =

2 Introduction: Sets and Functions

0E-3. Let f : S T be a function, C

Exercises for the Introduction 5

0E-9. Let / be a family of subsets of a set S. Write / for the union

/, then x A for some A /. Since / B, A B,

B. The second part is similar.

/, then x A for some A /. Since / B, A B,

0E-11. Let f : S T, g : T U be given mappings. Show that for

/). Then x is not in

B, then x is in each of the

/). We have inclusion in

/). Then x is not in

/, and so there is at least

B, then x is in at least one

/). We have inclusion in

0E-13. Let A, B S. Show that

) (x, y) AB and (x, y) A

0E-15. Show that

Solution. (a) Suppose f : S T is one-to-one and let s

0E-16. Let f : S T and g : T U be bijections. Show that g f is a

1.1-2. In a eld, show that if b ,= 0 and d ,= 0, then

1.1-4. Prove that in an ordered eld, if

1.2 Completeness and the Real Number System 19

1.2-2. Show that 3

< 1/j. for 1 j k, there is an index n(k + 1) with

Solution. If either x or y is 0, then they are certainly on the same ray

17) = arccos (0.48507) 1.06435 radians.

1.6-4. Describe the sets B = x R

30 1. The Real Line and Euclidean Space

1.7-2. Identify the space of polynomials of degree n1 in a real variable

1.7-3. Put the inner product f, g) =

15. The triangle inequality

6 or, squaring, to 31 10+2

15. By subtracting 16, we see that this is equivalent to 15 4

is not the norm dened by the inner product in

= sup[f(x)[ [ x [0, 1] = supx [ x [0, 1] = 1.

3 is not equal to 1, these norms are dierent.

Solution. (a) (2 + 3i) + (4 +i) = (2 + 4) + (3 + 1)i = 6 + 4i.

1.8-3. Is it true that Re(zw) = (Re z)(Re w)?

34 1. The Real Line and Euclidean Space

Solution. (a) Let z

1.8-8. Show that

1.8-9. For what z does the sequence z

7, [ . The set is bounded

1E-2. Review the proof that

Solution. (a) Suppose x 0 and that x for every > 0. If x > 0,

1E-10. Verify that the bounded metric in Example 1.7.2(d) is indeed a

of the space M spanned by u = (1, 0, 1, 1) and v = (1, 2, 0, 0). Then

= s(2, 1, 0, 2) +t(0, 0, 1, 1) [ s R and t R

1E-26. Assume that A = a

2. This holds for every > 0, so

2. (We use here the fact that