TECHNICAL REFERENCE BOOK

OCTOBER 2004 HYDERABAD

TRANSMISSION CORPORATION OF ANDHRA PRADESH LIMITED

CHAPTERS

Protective Relaying Philosophy of Protective Relaying Transmission Line Protection Transformer Protection Bus Bar Protection

II

Extra High Tension Transmission Lines Statutory Clearances Tower foundations Line Materials Hot Line Techniques

III

EHT Substations Layouts Maintenance Schedules Dissolved Gas analysis

IV

Distribution Release of Services Procedure for release of Service Maintenance of Distribution transformers, Lines Voltage Regulation SLC & Development charges Functions & Duties of various Officers MBC (Metering, Billing & Collections) Quality & Reliability of supply Reactive compensation Line losses, causes and remedies Distribution system considerations Earthing practices at (Lines, Substations & Service connections) Distribution lines - Construction Over head lines - Crossings of Railway lines, P&T lines & Roads Transformers

Metering HT Metering LT Metering Static Meters New trends - Pre-paid, etc. Single phase HVDS PMRs, Sectionalisers, SSCBs & AVBs Energy Audit Introduction to HVDC Monopolar, Bipolar, Back to back Switchyard Convertor transformers Valve Hall D.C Harmonic filters Control of HVDC link Telemetry & Tele control Man - Machine Interface Application software RTUs Database Trouble Call Management System Communication functions

VI

Modern trends in Distribution & Single phase HT Distribution System -

VII

HVDC Transmission -

VIII

SCADA -

IX

Extracts Extracts from APSEB Manuals (useful for T&D Engineers) Classification of Revenue Receipts Service connections - supply at LT Tariffs Power factor correction Testing of Meters, Reading and adjustment of Bills Duties and responsibilities of various officers Standard clearances Line patrolling schedules Reporting breakdowns on lines / equipment General and miscellaneous

PROTECTIVE RELAYING

1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING 1.1.1 Function of Protective Relaying It is to cause a prompt removal from service of any element of a power system when it suffers a short circuit or when it starts to operate in any abnormal manner that might cause damage or otherwise interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system. The relaying equipment is aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of disconnecting the faulty element when they are called upon to do by the relaying equipment. The basic connections of a protective relay and healthy trip circuit are indicated below:

Push Button High Resistance

Lamp

(+) Relay Battery (-) Contacts Trip Coil

1.1.2

The functional requirement of the relay:-

i) Reliability: The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability since they supervise the circuit for a long time before a fault occurs; if a fault then occurs, the relays must respond instantly and correctly. ii)Selectivity: The relay must be able to discriminate (select) between those conditions for which prompt operation is required and those for which no operation, or time delayed operation is required. iii)Sensitivity: The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it operates reliably when required under the actual conditions that produces least operating tendency. iv) Speed : The relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow which may result in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result in undesired operation.

1.1.3

Different Types of panels in use

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Control Panels Relay Panels Control & Relay Panels Synchronising Panels Communication Panels Annunciation Panels D.C. Distribution Boards A.C Distribution Boards Charger Panels Relay Galleries Auxiliary Control Panels

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Marshalling Boxes MG Panels Machine Panels

Duplex(HV,LV) combined Panels

Bus Zone Protection Panels

OLTC/RTC Panels (Master Follower)

RTI Panel Indoor Panels Outdoor Panels Panels with mimics & Semaphore indicators for circuit breaker and isolator status

The general arrangement of protective zones

1.1.4

The types of Relays based on various sensing mechanism are indicated below:

Relay Family Relays

Electro Magnetic

Static

Numerical

Mechanical

Based on Actuations 1.Current Relays 2. Voltage Relays 3. Frequency Relays 4. Power Relays etc.

Based on Time Character 1. Definite time Relays 2. Inverse time Relays with definite minimum time (IDMT) 3. Inverse with d.m.t and instantaneous element 4. Stepped Characteristic 5. Programme Switches, etc.

1. Thermal (a) OT Trip (b) WT Trip (C) Lamp Trip etc. 2. Float Type (a) Buchholz (b) OSR (c) PVR (d) Water level Controls etc. 3. Pressure Switches 4. Mechanical Interlocks 5. Pole discrepancy etc.

Auxiliary Relays 1. Annunciator Relays 2. Inter Trip relays 3. Multi Contactor D.C operated relays 4. Time delay relays 5. Fuse failure relays 6. Trip circuit supervision relays, etc.

Inclusive of logic 1. Differential 2. Unbalance 3. Neutral Displacement 4. Directional 5. Restricted Earth Fault 6. Over Fluxing 7. Distance Schemes 8. Bus bar Protection 9. Reverse Power Relays 10.Loss of excitation 11.Negative Phase Sequence etc.

1.1.5

DEVICE NUMBERS AND THEIR UNIVERSAL NOMENCLATURE 2 3 21 25 27 30 32 37 40 46 49 50 51 52 52a 52b 55 56 59 60 64 67 68 74 76 78 79 81 81U 81O 83 85 86 87 87G 87GT 87U 87NT 95 99 186A 186B Time delay relay Interlocking relay Distance relay Check synchronizing relay Undervoltage relay Annunciator relay Directional power (Reverse power) relay Low forward power relay Field failure (loss of excitation) relay Negative phase sequence relay Machine or Transformer Thermal relay Instantaneous Overcurrent relay A.C IDMT overcurrent relay Circuit breaker Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch Normally open (a contact) Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch Normally closed (b contact) Power Factor relay Field Application relay Overvoltage relay Voltage or current balance relay Earth fault relay Directional relay Locking relay Alarm relay D.C Overcurrent relay Phase angle measuring or out of step relay AC Auto reclose relay Frequency relay Underfrequency relay Overfrequency relay Automatic selective control or transfer relay Carrier or pilot wire receive relay Tripping Relay Differential relay Generator differential relay Overall differential relay UAT differential relay Restricted earth fault relay (provided on HV side of Generator transformer) Trip circuit supervision relay Overflux relay Auto reclose lockout relay Auto reclose lockout relay

1.2 NORMS OF PROTECTION BEING FOLLOWED IN APTRANSCO / APSEB 1.2.1 For Transmission & Distribution Lines Voltage 400 KV Line 220 KV Line Protection Scheme Main-I: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme Main-II: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme Main-I : Non switched distance scheme (Fed from Bus PTs) Main-II: Switched distance scheme (Fed from line CVTs) With a changeover facility from bus PT to line CVT and vice-versa. Main Protection : Switched distance scheme (fed from bus PT) Backup Protection: 3 Nos. directional IDMT O/L Relays and 1 No. directional IDMT E/L relay. Non-directional IDMT 3 O/L and 1 E/L relays. Non-directional IDMT 2 O/L and 1 E/L relays.

S. No. 1. 2.

3.

132 KV lines

4. 5. Notes

33 KV lines 11 KV lines

i. On some of the old 220KV lines one distance scheme with backup directional IDMT 3 O/L & E/L relays were provided. ii. On some of the 132KV grid lines, only distance scheme is available iii. Very few 66KV lines are in service (which are also being phased out) with distance / OL / EL relays 1.2.2 Busbars:All 220 KV busbars will have busbar protection scheme with main and check zone Breaker failure protection: The LBB protection scheme will be provided for all 220KV stations (along with busbar protection scheme) Transformers

1.2.3

1.2.4

i. No Buchholz relay for transformers below 500 KVA capacity ii. Transformers upto 1500 KVA shall have only Horn gap protection iii. Transformers above 1500 KVA and upto 8000 KVA of 33/11KV ratio shall have one group control breaker on HV side and individual LV breakers if there is more than one transformer. When there is only one transformer HV CB is necessary if the transformer is 3 MVA or above. iv. Transformers above 8000 KVA shall have individual HV and LV circuit breakers. v. The following relays shall be provided on HV and LV vi. LAs to be provided on HV & LV for transformers of all capacities and voltage class. vii. OLTC out of step protection is to be provided where Master follower scheme is in operation viii. Fans failure and pumps failure alarms to be connected. ix. Alarms for O.T., W.T., Buchholz (Main tank & OLTC) should be connected.

NORMS OF PROTECTION FOR EHV CLASS POWER TRANSFORMERS Voltage ratio & HV Side LV Side Common relays capacity i. 132/33/11KV upto 3 O/L relays + 1 2 O/L relays + 1 Buchholz, OLTC 8 MVA E/L relay E/L relay Buchholz, OT, WT 3 O/L relays + 1 3 O/L relays + 1 Differential, ii. 132/33/11KV E/L relay Buchholz, OLTC above 8 MVA and dir. E/L relay Buchholz, OT, WT below 31.5 MVA iii. 132/33KV, 31.5 3 O/L relays + 1 3 O/L relays + 1 Differential, Overflux, MVA & above dir. E/L relay E/L relay Buchholz, OLTC PRV, OT, WT 3 O/L relays + 1 3 O/L relays + 1 Differential, Overflux, iv. 220/33 KV, dir. E/L relay dir. relay Buchholz, OLTC 31.5MVA & PRV, OT, WT 50MVA 220/132KV, 100 MVA 3 directional O/L Differential, Overflux, v. 400/220KV 3 directional Buchholz, OLTC 315MVA O/L relays (with relays (with PRV, OT, WT and dir.highset)+1 dir.highset) overload (alarm) relay directional E/L +1 directional relays. E/L relays. Restricted E/F Restricted E/F relay relay + 3 Directional O/L relays for action

1.3 TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

1.3.1 Distance Relays Principles

Introduction: Generating Stations, transmission and receiving substations are interconnected to form a power system network. In such a system, it become impossible to co-ordinate overcurrent or directional overcurrent relays to provide protection for the transmission lines, since for a given fault location, the current seen by the relay varies over a wide range depending upon the system operating conditions. The impedance relays provides method of protecting tranmission lines connected in a network. Though the ideal form of protection for feeders is the Unit protection. It is also established that Unit protection for feeders is not economical when long lines are involved. A Non-Unit form of protection like distance relay, offers considerable economic and technical advantage. They are comparatively simple to apply, operate with extremely high speed, and both primary and backup protection features are inherent in them. Moreover, they can be easily modified to work as unit schemes by coordinating them with power line carrier facilities and are suitable for high speed reclosing. The impedance relay is made to respond to the impedance between the relay location and the fault point. The 10

impedance is proportional to the distance to the fault, (hence the name distance relay) and is therefore independent of the fault current levels. Ex: Consider the following system to be a section of a larger system:

For the fault at X, the relays at A & B will operate in the forward direction (i.e for currents flowing from the bus onto the line) Distance Relaying Principle: A distance relay compares the currents and voltages at the relaying point with Current providing the operating torque and the voltage provides the restraining torque. In other words an impedance relay is a voltage restrained overcurrent relay. The equation at the balance point in a simple impedance relay is K1V2 = K2I2 or V/I = K3 where K1, K2 and K3 are constants. In other words, the relay is on the verge of operation at a constant value of V/I ratio, which may be expressed as an impedance. For a fault at the far end of the line, the local voltages, is the IZ drop in the line and therefore the voltage to current ratio for such a fault will be Z, where Z is the impedance of the line. For a fault internal to the protected section, V/I < Z and for a fault beyond the protection section, V/I is > Z. The V/I ratio at the relay can be termed as the impedance seen by the relay. The relay will operate if the impedance seen by the relay is less than Z. Since the impedance seen is directly proportional to the length of the line between the relay and the fault, it is also a measure of distance to the fault from the relay and hence such relays which compare the voltage and currents are called distance relays. Since the operating characteristics of the relay depend upon the ratio of voltage and current and the phase angle between them, their characteristics can be best represented on an R-X diagram where both V/I ratio and the phase angle can be plotted in terms of an impedance R+jX. Further, the power system impedance like fault impedance, power swings, loads etc. can also be plotted on the same R-X diagram. Therefore response of a particular relay during power swing, faults and other system disturbances can easily be assessed. Types of Distance Relays: (1)Impedance relay (2)Reactance relay (3)Mho relay (4) Modified impedance relay

11

(1) Impedance relay: Characteristics of an impedance relay on R-X diagram is shown in fig

The numerical value of the ratio of V to I is shown as the length of the radius vector, such as Z and the phase angle between V and I determines the position of the vector, as shown. Operation of the impedance relay is practical or actually independent of the phase angle between V and I. The operating characteristic is a circle with its center at the origin, and hence the relay is non-directional. Characteristic of Directional Impedance Relay: Characteristic of a directional impedance relay in the complex R-X phase is shown in fig.

Along the line impedance locus line, the positive sequence impedance of the protected line as seen by the relay between its location and different points along the protected line can be plotted. The directional unit of the relay causes separation of the regions of the relay characteristic shown in the figure by a line drawn perpendicular to the line impedance locus. The net result is that tripping will occur only for points that are both within the circles and above the directional unit characteristic.

12

The Reactance-type Distance Relay: Reactance relay measures V/I Sin (i.e. Z sin ). Whenever the reactance measured by the relay is less than the set value, the relay operates. The operating characteristic on R-X diagram is indicated below:

The resistance component of impedance has no effect on the operation of reactance relay, the relay responds solely to reactance component of impedance. This relay is inherently non-directional. The relay is most suitable to detect earth faults where the effect of arc resistance may render other types of relays to detect faults with difficulty.

Mho relay: This is a directional impedance relay, also known as admittance relay. Its characteristic on R-X diagram is a circle whose circumference passes through the origin as illustrated in figure showing that the relay is inherently directional and it only operates for faults in the forward direction.

Modified impedance relay: Also known as offset Mho relay whose characteristic encloses the origin on R-X diagram as indicated below:

13

This offset mho relay has three main applications: i) Busbar zone backup ii) Carrier starting unit in distance/carrier blocking schemes. iii)Power Swing blocking.

Other Operating characteristics : During the days of electromagnetic relays, the characteristics involving straight lines and / or circles on R-X diagram were only possible. With the advent of static relays, microprocessor based relays and presently of numerical relays, and desired / required operating characteristic is possible giving wider choice for selection of relays, These will be discussion in more detail in subsequent paras.

14

1.3.2 DISTANCE RELAYS APPLICATION 1.3.2.1 Relay Setting Since the distance relays are fed from the secondaries of line CTs and bus PTs/line CVTs, the line parameters are to be converted into secondary values to set the relay as per requirements. Zsecy = Zpri/Impedance ratio (where Impedance ratio = P.T.Ratio/C.T.Ratio) It is to be noted that C.T Ratios (and P.T Ratios) and relay settings are inter-related. Hence any changes in C.T .ratio has to be effected along with revision of relay settings only. For the lines, the impedance in Ohms per KM is approximately as under: KV 132 KV 220 KV 400 KV Z1 (=Z2) 0.4 0.4 0.3 Line Angle 60 to 70 Deg 70 to 80 Deg 80 to 85 Deg

A distance relay is either 3 zones or 4 zones to provide protection. To ensure proper coordination between distance relays in power system, it is customary to choose relay ohmic setting as follows: S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Zones Zone-1 Zone-2 Zone-3 Zone-4 Reactance 80% of ZL 100% of ZL + 40-50% of ZSL 100% of ZL + 120% of ZSL 100% of ZL + 120% of ZLL Time Instantaneous (no intentional time delay) 0.3 to 0.4 seconds 0.6 to 0.8 seconds 0.9 to 1.5 seconds

where ZL = Positive sequence impedance of line to be protected. ZSL = Positive sequence impedance of adjacent shortest line. ZLL = Positive sequence impedance of adjacent longest line.

Note: i) Where a three zone relay only is available, the zone 3 will be set to cover the adjacent longest line. ii) The zonal timings will be carefully selected to properly grade with the relays on adjoining sections.

15

A. Typical 3 zone time distance characteristic of distance relay is shown in sketch below:

The zone-1 reach is limited to 80% of ZL to provide a reasonable margin against a possible overreach due to errors in CTs, PTs, relay measurement, line parameters, etc. The zone-2 reach is set to cover upto 40-50% of adjoining line so that this will definitely cover the balance 20% of main line (after zone-1 reach) and provides backup to adjoining line relay. Zone-2 setting shall be not less than 120% of ZL in order to ensure definite coverage of 100% of main line. The zone-3 & zone-4 reaches will be suitably set to provide backup for relays on adjacent lines with proper time gradation. 1.3.2.2 Distance Scheme consists of the following major components i) ii) iii) iv) Starters. Measuring units. Timers Auxiliary relays

i) Starters: The starting relay (or starter) initiates the distance scheme in the event of a fault within the required reach (more than zone-3). Other functions of the starter are: a) Starting of timer relays for second and third zones. b) Switching of the respective faulty phase currents and voltage to the measuring unit in a Switched Scheme. The starters are generally of Mho or impedance type.

16

With Mho type starters: Measuring units for phase and earth faults can be either directional or non-directional as Mho starter is inherently directional. With impedance type starters: Measuring units have to be directional as impedance starters are non directional. The under impedance relay can be used in conjunction with the directional relay as starter which will then function similar to the Mho starter. ii) Measuring units: They are generally of a mho or reactance or a combination of mho, reactance and resistance types. Phase Fault Units:These measuring units are fed with line to line voltages (such as Va, Vb) and difference between line currents (Ia-Ib). They measure the positive sequence impedance from the relay location to the fault point. Three such relays respond correctly to all possible single line to ground faults line to line faults, double line to ground faults and 3-phase faults. They however do not respond correctly to earth faults. Earth Fault Units: These measuring units utilize line to neutral voltage (Van, Vbn Vcn) and phase currents (Ia, Ib, Ic). In order to make these units measure the positive sequence impedance correctly, a zero sequence current compensation is to be provided which is obtained by: KN = (Z0-Z1)/ 3*Z1 (where Z1 = positive sequence impedance of line. Z0 = Zero sequence impedance of line) In the current circuit (1+KN) Ia will be fed for the above measurement. iii)Timers: Timer relays when initiated by starters provide the time lag required for zones. They also will be used for zone extension purpose whenever required. iv)Auxiliary relays: Distance scheme comprises of several auxiliary relays, which perform functions such as flag indications, trippings, signaling, alarm etc. Additional Features in distance schemes: i) Power Swing blocking relay ii) VT fuse failure relay. iii)Switch onto fault relay iv) Fault locator v) Auto-reclosing scheme. vi) Carrier communication scheme.

17

i)

Power Swing blocking: Distance relay which respond to balanced 3-phase changes in the impedance will be affected by power swings. These swings or oscillations occur following a system disturbance such as major load change or a dip in voltage due to delayed fault clearance. As generators in the system strive to find a stable operating angle relative to each other, the enroute distance relays on the line may see these conditions as three phase fault and falsely operate to trip their breakers. To avoid such operation, power swing blocking relays is used. In case of fault, the transition from period of impedance locations (25 to 33% of starter impedance) to fault impedance (starter impedance) is sudden whereas during power swings, the transition to swing impedance is slow, the PSB relays use this difference to block the tripping during swings. While the old schemes have blocking in all three zones whereas new static / numerical schemes have the feature of blocking any particular zone of our choice.

ii)

VT fuse failure relay: The distance relays being voltage restraint O/C relays, loss of voltage due to main PT fuse failure or inadvertent removal of fuse in one or more phases will cause the relay operation. The fuse failure relay will sense such condition by the presence of residual voltage without residual current and blocks the relay.

iii)

Switch onto fault: Under normal service conditions, a close-up 3-phase fault will be seen by the relays in zone-1 and clear the fault instantaneously. But when the line is switched on to a close by fault (say after line clear with earth switch closed), the voltage at the relaying point will be zero. Faults of this type will normally be cleared by backup zones. The voltage applied to the relay is low and this condition occurring simultaneously with the operation of starter will cause instantaneous trip by SOTF relay. This SOTF feature will be effective only for about 1-2 seconds after the line is charged. Faults occurring after this time will be measured in the normal way.

iv)

Fault locator: It measures the distance between the relay location and fault location in terms of Z in Ohms, or length in KM or percentage of line length. This relay gets same inputs as the distance relay (connected in series with one of the main relays). The measurement is initiated by trip signal from distance relays. While the distance relay provides general idea where a fault has occurred, the fault locator gives the exact location of the fault, thereby reducing the time of restoration.

v)

Auto Reclosing Schemes:Types of faults:i) Transient Faults:18

These are cleared by the immediate tripping of circuit breakers and do not recur when the line is re-energised ii) Semi-Permanent Faults:These require a time interval to disappear before a line is charged again. iii)Permanent Faults:These are to be located and repaired before the line is re-energised

About 80-90% of the faults occurring are transient in nature. Hence the automatic reclosure of breaker (after tripping on fault) will result in the line being successfully reenergised, thereby a) b) c) d) Decreasing outage time Improving reliability Improving system stability Reduces fault damage and maintenance time

Dead Time:The time between the Auto-reclosing scheme being energized and the operation of the contacts which energise the circuit breaker closing circuit. Reclaim Time:The time following a successfully closing operation measured from the instant autoreclosing relay closing contacts make which must elapse before the auto-reclosing relay initiates another reclosing attempt. In other words, it may be said to be the time between 1st and 2nd auto-reclosure.

19

Types of Auto-reclosing schemes (based on phase): a) Three Phase Auto-reclosing:This type of auto-reclosing causes an immediate drift apart of the two systems and hence no interchange of synchronizing power can take place during the dead time. b) Single Phase Auto-reclosing:In this, only the faulty phase (which already has tripped on SLG fault) is reclosed without causing interruption in interchange of synchronizing power between two systems through other two healthy phases. Types of Auto-reclosing schemes (base on attempts of reclosure) a) Single shot Auto-reclosing:In this scheme, breaker is reclosed only once a given fault before lockout of circuit breaker occurs. High speed auto-reclosing for EHV system is invariably single shot. b) Multi-shot Auto-reclosing:In this scheme, more than once reclosing attempt is made for a given fault before lockout of the circuit breaker occurs. Repeated closure attempts with high fault level would seriously affect the circuit breaker, equipment and system stability. The factors that must be taken into account:i) Circuit Breaker Limitations: Ability of circuit breaker to perform several trip close operations in quick succession. ii) System conditions In the percentage of the semi-permanent faults (which could be burnt out) is moderate, for example on the lines through the forest, multishot auto-reclosing is followed. Types of Auto-reclosing (depending on speed) i) High speed Auto-reclosing This aids in fast restoration of supply but should be done by taking into account the following factors:i) System disturbance time can be tolerated without loss of system stability ii) Characteristics of protection schemes and circuit breaker. ii) Low speed or Delayed Auto-relcosing:This is suitable for highly interconnected systems where the loss of a single line is unlikely to cause two sections of the system to drift apart and loose synchronism. For EHV Systems a) Choice of Dead time:Lower limit is decided by deionising time of circuit breaker. Upper limit is decided by transient stability and synchronism Long transmission lines require longer dead time for single phase faults. The dead time for high speed auto-reclosing scheme with EHV system is 0.3-0.8 Sec. 20

b) Choice for reclaim time:This should not be set to such a low value that the operating cycle of breaker if exceeded when two fault incident occurs close together. The reclaim time will be in the range of 1030 Sec., depending on the breaker opening and closing mechanisms. These relays are provided in all the 132 KV and 200 KV feeder relay panels, they are not being commissioned so far. vi) Carrier Communication Schemes The main disadvantage of conventional time-stepped distance protection is that the instantaneous zone-1 of the protective scheme at each end of the protected line is set to cover 80% of the line and hence faults in the balance 20% of the line (at each end) are cleared in zone-2 time, which is undesirable. The desirable scheme is the one wherein the relays clear the faults on the 100% of the protected line instantaneously and also provide backup for uncleared faults on adjacent lines. This can be achieved by interconnecting the distance relays at each end of the line by a signaling channel (which can be either pilots, a powerline carrier communication channel, a radio link or a microwave channel). The purpose of the signaling channel is to transmit the information about the system conditions at one end of the protected line to the other end and initiate or prevent tripping of the remote circuit breaker. The former arrangement is referred to as a Transfer trip scheme while the latter is known as a blocking scheme. a) Transfer trip scheme In this scheme, the distance relay at one end of the protected lines sends a carrier signal to the relay at other end of the line for inter-tripping, thereby clearing the faults on entire line instantaneously. Transfer trip of two types:i) Under-reaching scheme:The scheme in which the zone-1 relay (set to cover about 80% of ZL) is used to send a signal to the remote end of the feeder for inter-tripping is termed as transfer trip underreaching scheme. To avoid mal-operation due to receipt of false signal, the receiving end relay operation is inter-locked with its Zone3 / starter operation i.e., the scheme operates either by its own Zone-1 relay operation or by receipt of carried and its Zone-3 / Starter operation. ii) Over-reaching scheme:This scheme is suitable for short lines where an under-reaching zone-1 would be too short to be of any practical use. In this scheme the relay set to reach beyond 100% of the line, is used to send an inter-tripping signal to the remote end of the line. It is essential that the received relay contact be monitored by a directional relay to ensure that tripping does not take place unless the fault is within the protected section. The disadvantage of this scheme is that there is no independent Zone-1 tripping. The fast tripping therefore realize entirely on signaling channel. 21

The disadvantage of these schemes is that the signal is transmitted over the faulty line section. Distortion of the signal may occur due to attenuation introduced into the line by the fault. b) Blocking schemes:In this scheme, a blocking signal is sent by the reverse looking directional unit ZR to prevent instantaneous tripping for Zone-2 & Zone-3 faults, external to the protected line. Here ZR must operate faster than forward looking Zone-3 units and the signaling channel must also be extremely fast in operation. Though all the distance schemes with carrier inter-tripping / carrier blocking facility are procured, the same are yet to be commissioned. 1.3.2.4 Factors affecting distance relay operation:i) Fault resistance. ii) Infeed effect. iii) Branching-off effect. iv)Load encroachment. i) Fault resistance:Fault resistance has two components:a) Arc resistance. b) Ground resistance. In a fault between phases, only arc resistance is involved.

For a fault at F, the actual line impedance = R + JX = ZL Due to the presence of fault resistance, the impedance measured by the relay = R + JX + RF = ZR (where ZR > ZL)

22

Fault arc resistance is given by Warringtons formula:

Rarc = 8750 xl / I 1.4

where l = length of arc in ft I = fault current in Amps The arc resistance has little effect on accuracy of zone-1 unit as it operates instantaneously before the arc can stretch appreciably except in case of short lines. Reactance relays are therefore used for short lines where the fault resistance may be comparable with that of the protected lines and also for ground faults where the ground resistance is high. The arc resistance will have greater impact on accuracy of backup zones (time delayed) as the arc stretches appreciably. ii) Infeed effect:The effect of intermediate current source between relay location and fault point is termed as infeed effect. Consider the following example:-

A fault at F on the line BC is at a distance of Z1+Z2 for the relay at station A. But when current I2 flows from bus D, the impedance to the fault as seen by the relay at A is Z1 + Z2 + Z2 x (I2/I1). Thus the fault is seen by the relay as farther than what it really is, i.e. distance relay under reaches due to the infeed effect. The effect of infeed becomes more pronounced with more interconnections at stationB. iii)Branching-off effect: Consider the following example:

23

A fault at F is at the distance of Z1+Z2 for the relay at station A. But when current I1 gets distributed as I2 & I3 at station B, the impedance to fault seen by the relay at station A will be (Z1 + I3/I1 * Z2) which is less than (Z1+Z2). Then the fault is seen by the relay as nearer than what it really is i.e. distance relay overreaches due to branching-off effect. This overreaching tendency will cause the relay to loose its selectivity. iv) Load encroachment: While protecting long lines the necessary reach may be so large that the minimum service impedance (or load impedance) falls within the region of the starter. This would result in tripping without there being any fault. The two conditions i.e. operation at heavy load and short circuit differ by virtue of phase angle between voltage and current. For the load impedance, the phase angle will be within +30 to 30 Deg. While during short circuits, the fault impedance has a phase angle of 60 to 80 deg. (i.e. line angle). Load encroachment problem is more pronounced in case of under impedance starters and gets lessened in case of mho, elliptical, lens etc, type of starters. Relays with suitable characteristic on R-X diagram have to be carefully chosen to protect long and heavily loaded lines, and this becomes easily possible with microprocessor based numerical relays. 1.3.2.5 Non-switched scheme vs switched scheme: In an ideal Non-switched scheme, there will be 6 starters, 3 for phase faults and 3 for ground faults. There will be independent measuring units for both phase faults and earth fault for each phase, for all three zones, totaling to 18 units. This scheme is faster and more accurate but is costly. In the switched scheme, only one measuring unit will be used for all types of faults. This single measuring unit is switched to the correct fault loop impedance by switching-in the respective voltages and currents by the starter. The reach of the measuring element gets extended to zone-2 and zone-3 after the elapse of corresponding timings through zone extension process. Switched scheme is relatively slow in operation and has the risk of total scheme failure in the event of failure of the only one measuring unit available.

24

Zone extension schemes: As a via media between non-switched and switched schemes, there are schemes with zone extension facility (such as EE make MM3V & MR3V relays). These schemes consists of 3 measuring units for phase faults and 3 measuring units for earth faults (apart from 3 starters). The reach of the measuring unit gets extended to zone-2 and zone-3 after elapse of corresponding timings through a zone extension process.

13.3

DISTANCE RELAYS IN A.P SYSTEM & THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

13.3.1 S.No. Make 1.

Distance relays in service in A.P.System: Main-I distance relay MM3V SHPM OPTIMHO Main-II relay MR3V SSRR3V (MHO/UI starter) PYTS | | RAZOA RAZOA RAZOG RELZ-100 LIZ6 L3wyas+L6ft L3wys+L6ft 7SA511 THR4PE1 MDTB101

GEC Alstom/ EE RR3V

2.

ABB/ASEA

RELZ-100 RAZFE RYZFC RADSL LZ96 L3wyas+L6ft L3wys+L6ft 7SA511 THR4PE24 MDT45B

3.

BBC/HBB

4. 5. 6.

SEIMENS RIZ24a ER UE

On 220 KV lines, the above combination of distance relay is provided. On 132 KV lines, the relay indicated under Main-II distance relay column are provided along with directional IDMT 30 / L& 1E/L relays, on few lines MM3T, LZ32 type relays are available.

25

Details of distance relays:1.3.3.2 1) Make: i) MM3V : GEC Alstom Ltd. It is an electromagnetic type distance relay with: 3-mho measuring units for phase to phase faults. 3-mho measuring units for phase to earth faults. 3-mho starting units, each starter being associated with one phase and operating for all faults associated with that phase and one offset mho unit for power swing blocking.

R-X diagram is indicated below

Setting range in ohms for Zone-1

0.834 to 30 1.335 to 48 1.668 to 60 Z2 = 1 to 3.5 times Z1 Z3 = 1 to 5 times Z1 Some of the schemes are provided with a Zone-4 timer to make the scheme works as a 4 zone relay, the starter itself being the 4th zone. ii) MR3V: It is an electromagnetic relays with 3 mho units for phase faults, 3 reactance units for earth faults. 3 mho starters, each being associated with one phase for all types of faults and one offset mho unit for power swing blocking. Setting ranges same as in MM3V. 26

R-X diagram for phase faults is same as that for MM3V relay and for earth faults it is indicated in figure

iii)RR3V: It is an electromagnetic relay with 3 Nos. reactance units for phase faults, 3 reactance units for earth faults, and 3 mho starters per phase for all types of faults and one offset mho unit for PSB. R-X diagram is indicated in figure iv) SSRR3V: It is an electromagnetic switched scheme with two version i.e. with mho or under impedance starter and available in low and high range. SSR3V (Mho) 3 Mho starters for all types of faults. One reactance measuring unit for phase and earth faults.

SSRR3V (U/I) 3 under impedance starters directionalised by mho element or 3 mho element starters and for all types of fault, one reactance-measuring unit for phase and earth faults. Low range relay: Z1 = 0.5 to 7.7. Ohms (k1 of zone1: 7.7, 3.0, 1.22) High range relay: Z1 = 1.3 to 20 Ohms (k1 of zone-1: 20, 7.8, 3.16) Z2 = (1 to 3.5) times Z1 Z3 = (1 to 5) times Z1 27

R-X diagram is same as that for RR3V relay. Few versions do not have separate zone-4 timer. In such relays, zone-4 time = zone-3 time + 150 msec (fixed built-in delay). v) SHPM (Quadra mho): It is a non-switched static scheme with 18 measuring mho units. The zone-3 measuring elements will act as starters, which have either mho or a lenticular characteristic. The operating characteristic on R-X diagram is indicated in figure The lenticular characteristics allows healthy overloads and hence prevents tripping on load encroachment. Setting range: - 0.2 to 240 Ohms. It has built-in feature of continuous self monitoring (on demand and periodic self testing).

All the additional features provided by relay can be enabled or disabled with the help of switches provided for them. vi) PYTS: It is a static switched scheme with modular plug-in construction (with built in test points). It has 3 under impedance starters and a single mho measuring unit. One U/I unit for power swing blocking. R-X diagram is indicated below.

28

Setting range: 0.05 to 40 Ohms, with starter having range of 20 to 70 Ohms. It has an uncompensated U/I starter, which has become a problem due to load encroachment for long lines. The V-I characteristic of the starter is indicated in above figure. When the voltage is less than 65% rated, the starter operates at a current greater than 0.25 In. With low voltages at some of the stations, this feature has caused relay to operate unnecessarily. The same can be avoided by making the zone-4 trip inoperative (by making LINK6 of module 5 OUT position). 1.3.3.3 Make: - BBC/HBB i)LZ96: It is a non-switched scheme with 3 underimpedance measuring units common for ground and 3-phase faults. 3 Nos. under impedance (offset mho) starters, one under-impedance unit for all possible phase to phase faults. R-X diagram is indicated below:

29

Forward and reverse reach can be selected independently in starters (with zone-4 time setting). Setting range: 0.1 to 100 Ohms. ii) LIZ6: It is a switched scheme with 3 under-impedance starters, 3 overcurrent starters and one neutral current starter. It has one reactance measuring unit for all faults. With the provision of angle replica unit the relay has special operating characteristic on R-X diagram indicated in figure, which permits high loading on long lines. This being the initial versions of static relays there have been number of component failure and are being phased out.

iii) L3 relays: a) L3WYS: This relay consists of 3 under impedance starters and a single directional reactance measuring unit (CM relay). It is four zone relay, the zone-4, starter step being non-directional. Time settings for all the four zones (including Zone-1) can be varied from 0.1 to 5 seconds. R-X diagram is indicated in figure.

30

b) L3wyas: This is similar to L3WYS relay except that the U/I starters are provided with compounding chokes thereby shifting the circle, making it an offset mho as indicated in figures.

It is also supplemented by Yi/L - power swing blocking unit. iv) L6ft: It is high speed, single step distance relay usually supplemented to L3wyas or L3wys. It is set to protect 80% of line and without any time delay. v) Yke/l relay: This consists of three under impedance starters, used in conjunction with L3wyas relays. By provision of compounding chokes, the operating region of the Yke/l relay is shifted much above the origin of the R-X diagram. The operating characteristic of the combination of L3wyas and Yke/l relay is indicated in figure.

It may be seen from the diagram that this combination permits much higher loading and protects longer lines, without any problem of load encroachment. These relays are one of the oldest relays in system procured in late 50s and early 60s and still working reasonably well. 31

1.3.3.4. Make: ABB: i) RYZFC: It has come into service in the initial stage of the advent of static relays, has 3 mho measuring units for earth faults, one mho unit for phase faults and 3 under impedance starters. In addition, this relay has negative sequence current starter with a fixed setting of 20% of In, which causes the relay to trip in Zone-4. The starter can be made to operate either as a circle or as oval. R-X diagram is indicated below.

Setting range: - 1.8 to 200 Ohms. a) This relay is found to lose its directional sensitivity for closeby reverse faults and hence not recommended for use on feeders emanating from generating stations. b) Also the negative phase sequence starter is found to respond to very far end faults. ii) RAZOG: It is a switched scheme with 3 under impedance starters and one reactance measuring unit. It has quadrilateral characteristic. R-X diagram is indicated below.

32

Setting range: 0.25 to 64 Ohms. The starter can be made to operate either as a circle or oval. iii)RAZFE: It is static three zone non-switched scheme. For ground and 3-phase faults, the distance relay has a reactance like operating characteristic, the reactance line being inclined by a few o towards resistance axis on RX diagram, which provides excellent margin for high resistance faults and minimises effects of load current and remote ends infeed on distance measurement R-X diagram is indicated below. To avoid load encroachment problem, the relay is provided with blinder, which has independent settings in resistive and reactive directions. For phase to phase faults, mho units are used. Setting rage: 0.25 to 64 Ohms.

iv) RAZOA: It is a static scheme having 3 under -impedance starters and one measuring unit. The directional measuring unit has got quadrilateral characteristic with independent settings in resistive and reactive directions. R-X diagram is as indicated below.

33

The U/I starter can be made to operate with a circle or oval characteristic with a selectable switch (S3: 1 ON for circle OFF for oval in RGZB module). RGSB Module: Directional Non-directional Setting range (v)RELZ-100: It is a numerical relay with quadrilateral impedance units for phase and earth faults. Each measuring unit has individual and independent setting of the reach in resistive and reactive directions, as well as for the zero sequence compensation factor, KN. Entire Zone-3 reach (in forward direction) is available in reverse direction with a separate timer T3R. R-X diagram is as indicated : S1: 1 - OFF : S1: 1 - ON : 0.16 to 64 Ohms.

34

Four groups of setting parameters are possible to suit different system conditions. Only one of the groups will be in service by choice. It has continuous self monitoring and self testing feature and indicate the same by extinguishing Relay Available LED on the relay. Through MMI, one can enter; edit the settings, read the mean service values of line voltage, current, real, reactive power and frequency. It stores data of latest 3 disturbances occurred. (The settings are not password protected). Setting rage: 0.1 to 150 Ohms. Timers: 0 to 10 Secs. It has a feature which does overload supervision and unsymmetrical load condition, which can be used for alarm or trip. vi) RADSL: This pilot wire protection scheme used for protection of short lines. It is very fast operating relay, clearing the faults in 100% of line without any time delay. This is commissioned on 220 KV KTS C Station - KTS V Stage tie lines 1 & 2 at both ends as Main-1 protection scheme (Main-II being RELZ-100 relay). Likewise GEC make FAC34 pilot wire differential relays are provided on 220 KV NTPC - RAMAGUNDAM tie lines 1 & 2 with backup O/L, E/L relays. 1.3.3.5 Make: - Universal Electric i) MDT45B: It is a non-switched 3-zone distance scheme with 18 measuring units, 3 Nos. low set starters ZL and 3 Nos. high set starters ZH. It is available in two ranges low and high. R-X diagram is indicated in figure. 35

a)

For Low range: Reactance Measuring units for Zone-1 & Zone-2. For High range: Mho measuring units for Zone-1 & Zone-2.

b)

ii) MDTB101: It is switched scheme, with 3 impedance starters, one neutral overcurrent starter and one mho measuring unit. R-X diagram is indicated in figure. This relay has a V-I characteristic similar to that of PYTS relay. When the voltage is less than 65% rated, the starter operates at a current greater than 0.25 In. For 220 KV lines, the settings on Main-I distance relay must be on par with that of Main-II relay and vice-versa. For 132 KV lines, distance relay along with directional O/L, E/L relays are used. The operating time of O/L, E/L relays for adjacent bus faults are set equal to or more than zone-2 time of distance relay.

36

1.3.3.6 Make: - Easun Reyrolle: i) THR4PE24: It is static non-switched scheme with 3 forward zones and 1 reverse zone consists of a total of 24 measuring units. 12 Nos. mho units for zone-1 & zone-2 for phase and earth faults. 6 Nos. offset mho units for zone-3, 6 Nos. Mho units for reverse reach. R-X diagram is indicated in figure. It has reverse reach set to (c x zone-1) for phase faults and (c x zone-1) (1+KN) for earth faults, KN being compensation factor. Generally c is set equal to 1.

ii) THR4PE1: It is static switched scheme with 3 offset mho starters and one mho measuring unit. R-X diagram is indicated in the figure. It is available in low and high ranges: Setting range: Low range: - 0.08 to 9.5 Ohms (with A:0.8 to 9.6) High range: - 0.4 to 47.5 Ohms (with A: 4 to 48)

37

The starter has a built in reverse reach, equal to 50% of forward reach for phase faults and 50% of forward reach (1+KN) for earth faults, KN being compensation factor. Make: - Seimens Ltd. 7SA511 relay: It is a numerical protection scheme with 16 bit microprocessor. With three version of detectors. i) Phase selective overcurrent fault detector. ii) Voltage controlled (under-impedance) fault detector (with independent R & X reaches) and iii)Polygonally shaped angle-dependent impedance fault detector. It has five zones (two of which can be used for communication schemes). R-X diagram is indicated below. Apart from common features, it provides Emergency overcurrent function, which comes into picture when main distance scheme is blocked due to VT fuse failure conditions. It provides two user defined logic functions. It has continuous self monitoring and self testing feature. It stores data of latest three faults and measures values of load current, operating voltage, power and frequency continuously.

Setting range: 0.1 to 200 Ohms with 0.0 to 32 sec (in step of 0.01 sec) timers. Four groups of settings are possible to suit different system conditions. Only one of the groups will be in service by choice. 38

SEL 321: - It is numerical relay with a) Four Mho zones for phase faults with independent phase to phase overcurrent supervision. b) Four ground faults for Mho and Quadrilateral zones with independent phase and residual overcurrent supervision and zero sequence compensation. c) Two Quadrilateral zones for power swing blocking. d) Load-encroachment characteristics. e) Instantaneous, Definite time and IDMT overcurrent characteristics. f) Six (6) setting groups are available in the scheme. Setting ranges:For Mho zones For Quadrilateral Zones Reactance Resistance Timers : : : : : 0.25 to 320 Ohms (Secondary) 0.25 to 250 Ohms (Secondary) 0-2000 Cycles 0.25 to 320 Ohms (Secondary)

1.3.3.8 Relay indications: purpose and meaning: The relay indications are a guide to identify the type and broad location of fault. They are the means to assess the relay performance by tallying with the actual faults occurred. They help in review and analysis of the trippings occurred. Different manufacturers used different symbols/flags of signaling different types of faults. Whenever the relays operate, their indications should be noted before they are reset Relay indications with their meanings on various types and makes of relays are indicated in the following table. 39

CHART SHOWING RELAY INDICATIONS FOR VARIOUS RELAYS

S.No Make & Type Distance protection of Relay
operated Trip.

Type of Fault with Indications

Zone Indication

Switch Power Carrier On-to Swing Relay Fault Blocking Operated Trip Z4

V.T Fuse Failure

Type Phase to phase

Indica-tions

Type Phase to Earth

Indica -tions

Z1

Z2

Z3

1.

EE/GEC MM3V

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

30(A-B) 30(B-C) 30(C-A) AB BC CA AB,BC,C A 30(A-B) 30(B-C) 30(C-A) 30(A-B) 30(B-C) 30(C-A) 30A 30B 30C A,B B,C C,A A,B,C

R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E

30A 30B 30C AN BN CN 30G Z1

30G 30H Z2

30G 30H 30J Z3

2/21

85X

Tripping Blocked

2.

MM3T

Tripping Blocked

3.

RR3V

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E

30A 30B 30C 30A 30B 30C 30D 30E 30F A B C

30G

30G 30H

30G 30H 30J 30G 30H 30J 30G 30H 30J

Z1,Z 3

Tripping Blocked

2/21

4.

MR3V

30G

30G 30H 30G 30H

2/21
Tripping Blocked

5.

MR3V

30G

6.

SSRR3V

Z1

Z1,Z2

2/21

40

CHART SHOWING RELAY INDICATIONS FOR VARIOUS RELAYS

S.No Make & Distance Type of protection operated Relay
Trip.

Type of Fault with Indications

Zone Indication

Power Switch Swing On-to Fault Trip Blocking Z4

Carrier Relay Operated

V.T Fuse Failure

Type Phase to phase

Indica-tions

Type Phase to Earth

Indications

Z1

Z2

Z3

7.

EE/GEC PYTS

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

A,B B,C C,A A,B,C A,B B,C C,A A,B,C R,S S,T T,R R,S,T R,S S,T T,R R,S,T

R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E

A B C A B C R S T

Z2

Z3

Z4

SOTF

PSB

8.

SHPM QUADR OMHO

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

Z2

Z3

SOTF

AIDED VTRIP FAIL

9.

LZ-96

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

HF (Yellow)

10.

LIZ-6

R-E Y-E B-E

R,E S,E T,E

T2

T2, T3 T2,T
3T4

41

CHART SHOWING RELAY INDICATIONS FOR VARIOUS RELAYS

S.No Make & Distance Type of protection operated Relay
Trip.

Type of Fault with Indications

Zone Indication

V.T Power Carrier Switch Fuse Relay Swing On-to Fault Trip Blocking Operated Failure Z4

Type Phase to phase

Indications

Type Phase to Earth

Indications

Z1

Z2

Z3

11.

L3wyas / L3wys/ Lz3s (signal Block)

PD (D)

R-Y

PAR, PAS(S)

R-E

PARP E(E)

PSII (2)

PSII
PS-III (2) (3)

PSII
PS-III (2) (3)

PTa

PtrH

Y-B B-R 12. 13. L6FT ASEA / ABB :RYZF C PD3

PAS(S) PAT(T) PAT(T) PAR

Y-E B-E

PAS(S) PE(E) PAT(T) PE(E) PTa5

UD

R-Y Y-B B-R R-YB R-Y Y-B B-R R-YB R-Y } Y-B } B-R } R-YB

R,S S,T T,R R,S,T R,S S,T T,R R,S,T

R-E Y-E B-E

R S T

2,3

2,3,4

CS/C R

14.

RAZO G

UD

R-E Y-E B-E

R S T

2,3

15.

RAZFE

2-phase

R-E Y-E B-E

RN SN TN

Z1 Z2

Z2, TK 2

TK2, TK3

3-Phase

42

CHART SHOWING RELAY INDICATIONS FOR VARIOUS RELAYS

S.No Make & Distance Type of protection operated Relay
Trip.

Type of Fault with Indications

Zone Indication

Switch On-to Fault Trip Z4

Power Swing
Blocking

Carrier Relay Operated

V.T Fuse Failure

Type Phase to phase

Indica-tions

Type Phase to Earth

Indications

Z1

Z2

Z3

16.

ASEA/ ABB RAZOA Trip

17.

REL-100 Trip Z

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

R,S S,T T,R R,S,T PSR,PSS PSS,PST PST,PSR PSR,PSSP ST AB,ZIS BC,ZIS CA,ZIS ABC,ZIS AB BC CA ABC r, y y, b b, r r, y, b

R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E

R,N S,N T,N

PSR,PSN (Trip-R) PSS,PSN (Trip-S) PST,PSN (Trip-T) TRZ1

2,3

2,3,4

TRZ2

TRZ3

TRZ3R

Zm1, Zm2, Zm3 Z1

Zm2, Zm3

Zm3

TREF Zm3R SOTF

PSB

CRZ/CBZ

VTF / VTS

(Rever se)

18.

UE
MDT-45B

19

UE
MDTB-101

20.

ER
THR4PE24

PO

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E

A B C A B C r y b

Z2

Z3

Z4

SOFT

PSB

RR/CS

SV

Z2

Z3

Z4

SOFT

CAT

VTF

Pt 1 2 3

43

CHART SHOWING RELAY INDICATIONS FOR VARIOUS RELAYS

S. No Make & Type of Relay
Distance protection operated Trip.

Type of Fault with Indications

Zone Indication

Switch On-to Fault Trip Z4

Power Swing
Blocking

Carrier Relay Operated

V.T Fuse Failure

Type Phase to phase

Indications

Type Phase to Earth

Indications

Z1

Z2

Z3

21.

THR4PE1

PO

22.

SIEMENS

RIZ-24a

R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B

r, y y, b b, r r, y, b
JR,JS,R,S JS,JT,S,T JT,JR,T,R JR,JS,JT, R,S,T LED 2,3, 12,13 LED 3,4, 13,14 LED 4,2, 14,12 LED 2,3, 4,12,13,14

R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E R-E Y-E B-E

r, Earth y, Earth b, Earth

JR,TM, R,M JS,JM,S,M JT,JM,T,M

2&3

T2

T3

T4

23.

75A511

LED 2,5,12 LED 3,5,13 LED 4,5,14

LED 7

LED 8

LED 9

LED 10

AR

24

IGE:a) GCY51A b) GCX51A

R-Y Y-B B-R

R,Y Y,B B,R R-E Y-E B-E R Y B

II

III

44

1.3.4 : DISTANCE RELAY TESTING In testing high speed distance relays, it is important to apply simulated fault conditions suddenly, otherwise the behavior of the relay in service may be different from its behavior in test. Checking the relay characteristic by reduction the voltage or increasing the current until the relay operates is not realistic, as the voltage and current change Instantaneously in magnitude and phase angle when a fault occur in service. This causes transient mechanical, electrical and magnetic conditions in the relay which may cause it to overreach unless its operating time exceeds 4 cycles, during which time the conditions will have disappeared. One of the popular makes of distance relay testing equipment (EE make type ZEB) is described below in order to understand the various components in the testing equipment and procedure that should be followed for testing the distance relays. Warning :- Wherever Main-II relays are being tested, the LBB relay for that breaker should be disenabled lest it should operated the busbar protection. Description : The testing equipment comprises four units. a) supply unit. b) Control unit c) Current transformer d) Fault impedance unit Figure (2) shows the internal and external connections of the equipment. (a) Supply Unit : This unit comprises the following major components. Three single phase transformer (T1, T2 and T3) ratio 420, 400, 380/110, 63.5 volts connected delta/star to form a three phase transformer bank. Transformer 1 is used to supply the control unit at 110 volts or 63.5 volts as desired, and is continuously rated at 12 amperes secondary output. This transformer also has a further volts secondary winding rated at 300 mA to give an auxiliary supply to the fault contractor in the control unit. Transformers 2 and 3 are used merely to supply quadrative or polarizing voltage to relays that require such voltage in addition to the normal fault voltage. These transformers are continuously rated at 1 ampere secondary output. A fast operating electrical reset, trip relay suitable for DC supplies of 30, 110 or 220 volts. The relay is provided with indicating lamps and push buttons. The indicating lamps show the position of the trip relay and also indicate that the main AC supply is healthy. The trip relay is included so that it is operated from the distance scheme under test while the master trip relay on the relay panel is left in service with the backup protection still connected contracts of the trip relay are koved out to terminals (as to stop the external ti ming, device when timing the operation of the scheme and (b) to remove the DC negative of any auxiliary deenergised when the scheme trips.

45

A relay selector switch is included to quick selection of relays in the scheme. Having once connected the three voltage and current leads to the relay scheme; any one of the measuring or human error when changing in connections from one relay in the scheme to another. The selector switch Connections are arranged such that when injecting into a phase to connected measuring relay the fault voltage and current are supplied from transformer T1 of the main supply bank while transformers T2 and T3 supply the necessary quadrature voltage for the starting relays in the scheme. When injection into a phase to phase connected relay, the fault voltage and current are again supplied from transformer T1, while additional voltage connection for the starting relay is taken from transformer T3. This arrangement is not ideal but is sufficient to cause operation of the starting relays under the fault condition which is all that is necessary. Control Unit:This unit comprises the following major components :The source impedance (L2) tap provides a range of 0.5 to 24 Ohms. This impedance is issued to control the relay current and vary the source to line (fault) impedance ratio in confirmation with the fault impedance (L1) and (R1). The voltage anti-transformer (T4) which is connected across the line impedance via the fault contractor, is tapped in 10% and 1% steps from 0-110%. This permits a precise setting of voltage to be applied to the relay and alarms the fault impedance to be matched to the relay impedance setting. The load resistance which is connected in series with the line impedance via the load push button, permits the load current to be passed through the relay coils prior to a fault being applied. The load resistance is fixed to give a current of approximately 3.5 amperes for phase to phase faults and 2.0 amperes for phase to earth faults. The fault contactor is energized form the 115 volts AC supply from the supply unit via bridge rectifier and push button. The contactor is fitted with an economy resistance and the coil is thus continuously started operation of the fault contactor causes current to flow from the supply unit transformer T1 via the source impedance (L2) the relay current coil and the fault impedance (L1 and R1). A normally open contact of the fault contractor is brought out to terminals to start an external timing device when required. The current reversing switch S3 is included to enable the current supplied to the relays to be reversed and so check that the relays are measuring in the current direction. Fault impedance unit :This unit represents the line impedance as seen by the relays under the fault condition. The impedance is made up from a tapped choke (L2) and tapped impedance (R1). The choke is the same type as used for the source immedance (L2) and has an Ohmic range of approx. 0.5 Ohms to 24 Ohms in 8 steps. The angle of the choke varies between approx. 72 Deg. And 82 Deg. Depending on the Ohmic tap the resistance has 15 taps are calibrated within 1% accuracy and all the data, including all the possible combinations of tappings, are tabulated in the lid of the fault impedance unit. 46

47

48

1.4 1.4.1: Type of Faults

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

The type of faults that the Power Transformers are subjected to are classified as: 1) Through Faults 2) Internal Faults Through Faults:These are due to overload conditions and external short circuits. The Transformers must be disconnected when such faults only after allowing a predetermined time during which other protective gear would have operated. A sustained overload conditions can be detected by a thermal relay which gives an alarm so that the situation can be attended to or the supply disconnected, if necessary. For the external short circuit conditions, time graded O/C relays are generally employed. Fuses are provided for low capacity Transformers (Distribution Transformers). Internal Faults:The primary protection of a transformer is intended for conditions which arise as a result of faults insider the protected zone. Internal faults are very serious and there is always the risk of fire. These internal faults can be classified into two groups. a) Electrical Faults which cause immediate serious damage but are generally detectable by unbalance of voltage or current such as phase to earth or phase to phase faults, short circuit between turns of high voltage and low voltage windings, etc. b) Incipient faults : Which are initially minor faults, causing slowly developing damage. They include: i) ii) iii) iv) A poor electrical connection of conductors or a core fault due to breakdown of the insulation of lamination bolts or clamping rings. Coolant failure which will cause a rise of temperature even below full load operation. Possibility of low oil content or clogged oil flow, which can readily cause local hot spots on windings. Bad load-sharing between transformers in parallel, which can cause overheating due to circulating currents

Generally for group (a) it is important that the faulted transformer should be isolated as quickly as possible after the fault has occurred to limit the damage to the equipment. The faults of group (b) though not serious in their incipient stage may cause major faults in the course of time and should thus be cleared as soon as possible. It should be emphasized that the means adopted for protections against faults of group (a) are not capable of detecting faults of group (b), whereas the mean applicable to detect the faults of group (b) may detect some faults in group (a) but are not quick enough. These ideas are basic to transformer protection and the means for protection against groups (a) and (b) should not be treated as alternatives but as supplements to each other. 49

In A.P System, the rating of Power Transformers at EHV substations in general are as follows:220/132 KV 100 MVA Auto Transformers. 220/33 KV 50 KVA and 31.5 MVA Transformers 132/66 KV 40 KVA and 27.5 MVA Transformers 132/33 KV 50 MVA, 31.5 MVA, 25, 16, 15 & 7.5 MVA Transformers 132/11 KV 16, 15 & 7.5 MVA Transformers Most of the Power Transformers are of star-star type with neutral solidity earthed. There are a few Transformers with Delta-Star windings (Delta on HV side) Norms of Transformer Protection generally followed in A.P System are indicated below. Voltage ratio & HV Side LV Side Common relays capacity i. 132/33/11KV upto 3 O/L relays + 1 2 O/L relays + 1 Buchholz, OLTC 8 MVA E/L relay E/L relay Buchholz, OT, WT 3 O/L relays + 1 3 O/L relays + 1 Differential, ii. 132/33/11KV E/L relay Buchholz, OLTC above 8 MVA and dir. E/L relay Buchholz, OT, WT below 31.5 MVA iii. 132/33KV, 31.5 3 O/L relays + 1 3 O/L relays + 1 Differential Overflux, MVA & above dir. E/L relay E/L relay Buchholz, OLTC Buchholz PRV, OT, WT 3 O/L relays + 1 3 O/L relays + 1 Differential Overflux, iv. 220/33 KV, dir. E/L relay dir. relay Buchholz, OLTC 31.5MVA & Buchholz PRV, OT, WT 220/132KV, 100 MVA 3 directional O/L Differential, Overflux, v. 400/220KV 3 directional Buchholz, OLTC 315MVA O/L relays (with relays (with PRV, OT, WT and dir.highest)+1 dir.highest) overload (alarm) relay directional E/L +1 directional relays. E/L relays. Restricted E/F Restricted E/F relay relay

1.4.2

Transformer Protection Different types of relays i) ii) iii) iv) v) Buchholz relays Differential relays O/C & E/F relays REF relays. Overfluxing relays

1.4.2.1 Buchholz Relays: Whenever a fault in transformer develops slowly, heat is produced locally, which begins to decompose solid of liquid insulated materials and thus to produce inflammable gas and oil flow. This phenomenon has been used in the gas protection relay or popularly known as Buchholz relay. This relay is applicable only to the so called conservator type transformers 50

in which the transformer tank is completely filled with oil, and a pipe connects the transformer tank to an auxiliary tank or Conservator which acts as an expansion chamber. Figure shown as Buchholz relay connected into the pipes leading to the conservator tank and arrange to detect the gas produced in the transformer tank. As the gas accumulates or a minor fault the oil level falls and, with it a float F which operates a mercury switch sounding an alarm. When a more serious fault occurs within the transformer during which intense heating takes place, an intense liberation of gases results. These gases rush towards the conservator and create a rise in pressure in the transformer tank due to which the oil is forced through the connecting pipe to the conservator. The oil flow develops a force on the lower float shown as V in the figure and overtips it causing it contacts to complete the trip circuit of the transformers breaker. Operation of the upper float indicates an incipient fault and that of the lower float a serious fault. Buchholz Relay Operation : Certain Precautions: The Buchholz relay may become operative not only during faults within the transformer. For instance when oil is added to a transformer, air may get in together with oil, accumulate under the relay cover and thus cause a false operation of the gas relay. For this reason when the Gas alarm signal is energised the operators must take a sample of the gas from the relay, for which purpose a special clock is provided. Gases due to faults always have colour and an odour and are inflammable. The lower float may also falsely operate if the oil velocity in the connection pipe though not due to internal faults, is sufficient to tip over the float. This can occur in the vent of an external short circuit when overcurrents flowing through the windings over-heat the copper and the oil and cause the oil to expand. If mal-operation of Buchholz relay due to overloads or external short circuits is experienced it may be necessary that the lower float is adjusted for operation for still higher velocities.

In installing these relays the following requirements should be fulfilled. a) The conductor connection the contacts to the terminal on the cover must have paper insulation, as rubber insulation may be damaged by the oil. b) The floats must be tested for air tightness by for example, submerging them in hot oil to create a surplus pressure in them. c) The relay cover and the connection pipe should have a slope of 1.5 to 3 percent and not have any protruding surface to ensure unrestricted passage of the gases into the conservator. A large number of false gas protection operations may result from failure to fully observe the above precautions. 1.4.2.2 Differential relays 51

A simple differential relay compares the current at both ends of a protected element as indicated below:

As long as there is no fault within the protected equipment the current circulates between the two CTs and no current flows through the differential element. But for internal faults the sum of the CTs secondary currents will flow through the differential relay making it to operate Percentage Differential Relays : Two basis requirements that the differential relay connections are to be satisfied: i) It must not operated for load or external faults ii) It must operate for internal faults

As on-load tap change facilities are invariably provided in the grid transformers, any departure from the nominal tap position will result in spill currents in the relay circuits. Further, the CTs are often of different types and have dissimilar magnetization characteristics, again resulting in spill current during heavy through fault conditions. To avoid unwanted relays operation under the above two conditions a Percentage bias differential relays is uses. The operating characteristic of percentage bias differential relay is shown in following figures

52

In general the transformer primary currents do not equal their secondary current and the connections of the secondary winding do not correspond to those of the primary. In order that the current flowing through the relay should nearly equal zero during normal operating conditions and when external short circuit appear, it is necessary to do everything to have secondary current of the current transformers on the transformer primary and secondary sides of equal order and coincide in phase. This is achieved by accordingly selecting the current transformer ratios, having the method of connection CTs made in conformity with the vector group of the 3-phase power transformer and by the use of additional auxiliary CTs in the scheme. Current Transformer ratios and connections for differential relays: A simple rule of thumb is that the current transformers on any Wye (Star) winding of a Power Transformer should be connected in delta and the CTs on any delta winding should be connected in Wye (Star). Very rarely this rule is broken. In case of winding connected in zig-zag the CTs will be connected in Wye (Star). This arrangement of CT connections will compensate for the phase shift due to power transformer vector group connection. The significant point is that, when ground current can flow in the Wye windings for an external fault, we must use the delta connection (or resort to a Zero-phase-sequencecurrent shunt that will be discussed later). The delta CT connection circulates the Zerophase-sequence components of the currents inside the delta and thereby keeps them out of the external connection to the relay. This is necessary because there are no Zero-phasesequence components of current on the delta side of the power transformer for a ground gault on the wye side: therefore, there is no possibility of the Zero-phase-sequence currents simply circulating between the sets of CTs and, if the CTs on the Wye side were no delta connected, the Zero-phase-sequence components would flow in the operating coils and cause the relay to operate undesirably for external ground faults. Transformer full load current: In = Transformer Capacity in MVA / 3 x Rate KV If the CTs are to be connected in Star, the C.T ratio will be IN/1 A If the CTs are to be connected in Delta i) ii) The C.T Ration will be :IN / 0.5775 A If the 0.5775 A rated secondary core is not available, an auxiliary CT of 1/0.5775 A ratio can be used and its secondary connected in delta.

If the available CTs on HV & LV sides are not in inverse ratio of voltage, auxiliary CTs of suitable ratio have to be selected to match the currents to the relay equal from both HV & LV sides. The typical connections diagrams for differential relay applications for following Transformers are at figure: i) ii) iii) iv) 132/11 KV 16 MVA Y-Y Transformer 132/11 KV 16 MVA D-Y Transformer 132/33 KV 31.5 MVA Y-Y Transformer 220/132 KV 100 MVA Auto-transformer

53

54

55

Magnetizing Inrush Current: When a power Transformer with its secondary circuit open, is switched on, it acts as a simple inductance and a magnetizing in rush current which will be several times, transformer full load current will flow. As the inrush current flows in the primary of the Transformer only, it appears to the differential relay as an internal fault. This relay is able to distinguish the difference between the magnetizing inrush current and short circuit current by the difference in wave shape. Magnetising inrush current is characterized by large harmonic components and that are not noticeably present in the short circuit current. A harmonic analysis of a typical magnetizing inrush current wave is shown in table below: Harmonic Component 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Amplitude in percentage of fundamental 63.0 26.8 5.1 4.1 3.7 2.4

As seen from the above, the second harmonic component is predominant in the magnetizing inrush current. A differential relay which extracts the 2nd harmonic current and fed to the restraining coil to make the relay inoperative due to magnetizing inrush current. 1.4.2.3 Backup O/L & E/L relays The following O/L & E/L relays are provided on Transformers in A.P System Make of relay EE / GEC ABB ER ALIND LV O/L & E/L (Type) CDG (without highest) + CDG (CDD for 100 MVA transformers) ICM 21P (with highest) ICM21 NP + ICM21 NP TJM10 + TJM10 TJM1 (highest) + TJM12 TMAS311a + TMAS101a + TMAS301a + TMAS 101a TMWD (Directional element) HV O/L & E/L (Type) CDG (with highest) + CDD

1.4.2.4 Restricted Earth Fault Protection (REF): An earth fault in the winding is the most common type of transformer fault and is best detected by using a restricted form of earth fault protection. In this way time and current setting can be made independent of other protection systems, thus low settings and fast operating times can be achieved. 56

The restricted scheme is a balanced system of protection and can be applied to either Star or Delta windings. The scheme connections of either types of winding are shown in figure.

For the star winding, three line current transformers are balanced against a current transformer in the neutral connection; while on the delta side, the three line current transformers are connected in parallel. An external fault on the star side will result in current flowing in the line current transformer of the affected phase and a balancing current in the neutral current transformer, the resultant current in the relay is therefore zero. During an internal fault, the neutral current transformer only carries current and operation results. The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta side of a transformer is only sensitive to earth faults on the delta side because zero sequence currents are blocked by the delta winding. For example, on earth fault on the star side transferred through the transformer appears on the delta as a phase fault. Therefore the arrangement is an inherently restricted earth fault scheme in this application. Modern practice is to employ a voltage operated (high-impedance principle) relay for the application. The relay is set to operate with a certain minimum voltage across its terminals. The value of this operating voltage is chosen to be slightly higher than the maximum voltage which can possibly appear across the relay terminals during external fault conditions. 1.4.2.5 Overfluxing Protection : Principles & Relays in A.P System: The fundamental equation for generation of e.m.f in a Transformer to give flux. = K (E/F) The Overfluxing condition in a transformer can occur during system over voltage and/or under frequency conditions (V/F). This will cause an increase in the iron loss and disproportionately great increase in the iron loss and disproportionately great increase in magnetizing current. In addition flux is diverted from the laminated core structure into the steel structural parts. In particular under condition of over-excitation of core, the core bolts which normally carry little flux may be subjected to large component of flux diverted from highly saturated and constricted region of core along side. Under such condition, the bolts may be rapidly heated to a temperature which destroys their own insulation and will damage the coil insulation if the condition continues. 57

The Overfluxing condition does not call for high speed tripping. The tripping can be delayed for a minute or two by which time, the conditions may come to normalcy. Of late the margins between the operating flux density and the designed flux density are coming down due to economic consideration for the manufacturer of the Transformer. Moreover with sustained low frequency operation, the Transformers are naturally subjected to more than the rated values. These conditions prompted provision of overfluxing relays from 80s in the system. For following overfluxing relays are used in A.P System. i) EE make / GTT type relay The setting is adjustable from 1.0 to 1.25 times the rated V/F It has defined time delay adjustable from 12 to 120 Sec. Normal Settings :V/F : 1.1875 rated V/F Time delay : 30 Sec.

ii) GEC / GTTM type overfluxing relay : The overfluxing withstand time of Transformer is generally found to be varying inversely with the working flux density in the core. GTTM relay with inverse time characterizing measuring element is designed to detect the overfluxing conditions taking into account the overflyuxing withstand capability of the Transformer. The highest element provides protection against severe overfluxing condition (which can be blocked when not required) Setting ranges : V/F (inverse) K1 V/F (highest) K2 : : 1 1.25 times rated V/F 1.0 to 1.5 times K1

Operating times: Alarm : 0.5 Sec (Fixed) Time delayed Unit: If follows inverse time characteristic curve. Typical operating timers are a follows: V/F 1.01 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 Time in 605 149 55 24.7 9.3 5.8 4.3 Sec. iii) ABB make RATUB type overfluxing relay:RATUB relay is similar to GTTm relay, with adjustable inverse time characteristic to suit overfluxint withstand capability of the Transformer Setting range:Operating Value : 1.5 to 3.0 V/Hz., for both alarm and tripping 58

Operating times :For alarm : 0.1 to 3.5 Sec. For tripping (Inverse characteristic) Operating time t = 0.8 + 0.18 x K (M-1)2 Sec.

Where
M = actual excitation (V/F) divided by set starting value K = the adjustable contant (1-63) for adapting the operating time of RATUB to the excitation characteristic of the power transformer. iv) ALIND make TMB type overfluxing relay:The TMB relay gives a two-level protection from the same input value, named lowthreshold and high-threshold. When low-threshold value is reached, the detector operates the starting of T2 & T3 timers. When the Short time (T2) is over, the alarm output relay is energized. When the long time (T3) is over, the output relay actuates the release of the high threshold measuring circuit. When the high threshold value is reached, the detector operates the starting of the timer T1. When the short time T1 is over, the output relay energizes the tripping of the machine. Setting ranges :Low threshold High threshold Fine adjustment for both T1 & T2 T2 : : : : : 1.4, 1.7, 2, 2.3, V/Hz. 1.8, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7 V/Hz 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.25 V/Hz 1 to 10 Sec. in seps of 1 21, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, 224, 256, 286, 320 Sec.

1.4.3

Differential relays IW AP System and their characteristics: i) EE make DTH-31 relay:The relay is a triple pole high speed biased differential relay, designed to protection Transformer against internal faults. This really is used for 2-winding Transformer. Biased to provide stability during heavy through-faults. The relay utilities second harmonic restraint to prevent operation by normal magnetizing in-rush current produced when the Transformer is energized. Fifth harmonic bypass circuit is provided to avoid mal-operation under over-excited conditions. An instantaneous highest circuit overrides the biased differential circuit to clear heavy internal faults in about one cycle. The relay operates when differential currents exceeds 15% (fixed) relay rated current. Bias setting is adjustable to 15%, 30% or 45%. Highest circuit operates when differential current exceeds 10 times (fixed) the rated current. 59

ii) EE make DTH-32 relay:This relay used for a 3-winding Transformer is similar to DTH-31 in all aspects. iii)GEC make MBCH-12:This is static relay with dual slope percentage bias restraint, having high stability during through faults even under conditions of C.T saturation and with upto 20% ratio unbalance resulting from effect of tap changing and C.T errors. Differential current setting is adjustable between 10% and 50% of rated current in steps of 10%. The initial bias slope is 20% from zero to rated current, which ensures sensitivity to faults while allowing a 15% ratio mismatch due to tap range, plus 5% for C.T ratio errors. Above rated current, extra mirror may be introduced due to C.T saturation and bias slope is increased to 80%. At the inception of a through fault the transient bias is increased to more than 100% ensuring stability. During internal faults this transient bias is suppressed to ensure faster operation of the relay.

60

iv) ABB make RADSB type relay:This is having all the features of DTH relay, with non-linear percentage restraint characteristic which provided stability for external faults. This relay has an unrestrained instantaneous module which responds to total differential current and will provide redundant operation for severe internal faults. The two operate value of the differential relay: The restraint operate value: ISR 0.20, 0.25, 0.35 & 0.5 times rated current The unrestrained value: ISU 8, 13 & 20 times rated current v) ALIND make , TMADT differential relay In addition to the regular features, this relay is provided with multiple tap auxiliary transformers to enable current matching. vi) E.R make 4C21 type differential relay Biased high speed differential protection, with 2nd harmonic restraint feature. Differential current setting (Operation) Bias setting = = 20% in (fixed) 20%, 30% & 40%

The above relay is equipped with separate high-set unbiased element type MCAA, to operate on heavy internal fault, having a setting range of 400% to 1600%.

vii) UE make HUB type differential relay HUB differential relay has the following features:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Second harmonic restraint to prevent operation against magnetizing in-rush current. Fifth harmonic restraint to avoid spurious trippings on over excitation of Transformer. Varaible ratio differential characteristic to give better stability during throughfault conditions. Mismatch tap settings of 0.58-0.65-0.72, 0.08-0.90-1.00-1.74 A are provided (both on high voltage and low voltage sides) Minimum pick-up of differential measuring unit is set to 30% (fixed) The operating value of instantaneous highest element is fixed to 1000% of the tap value current. Inverse bias characteristic.

61

1.5

: O/L & E/L RELAYS

1.5.1. Types of O/l relays:1) Inverse definite minimum type relays (IDMT) a) Normal Inverse:i) ii) 3.0 sec relays i.e., 3.0 Sec., at ten times pick-up with T.L of 1.0 1.3 sec. relay i.e., 1.3 sec at 10 times pick-up

b) Very inverse relays c) Extremely inverse relays 2) Definite time relays Instantaneous highest O/L relay supplementing the above O/c relays. The O/L, E/L relays are used for line protection (for 11 KV to 132 KV) and for Transformer Protection. O/C relaying is very well suited to distribution system protection for the following reasons:1) It is basically simple and inexpensive 2) Very often the relays do not need to be directional and hence no PT supply is required 3) It is possible to use a set of two O/C relays for protection against interphase faults and a separate O/C relay for ground faults. 1.5.2: Relay settings: i) Pick-up settings:For coordination of the inverse time O/C relays, the pick-up current and time dial setting are to be chosen. The pick-up of the relay must be chosen such that it will operate for all short circuits in its own line and provide back-up for adjoining lines. In choosing the pick-up of the O/C relay, we must also consider that under minimum fault current conditions, the multiple of pick-up (ratio of actual current to pick-up value) is not less than 1.5 so tat the relay will operate reliably under such conditions. The pickup of the phase O/C relay is selected as: Ip = Ksf x IL (Max) / Kd Where Ip = IL (Max) = Ksf = Kd = Pick-up current Maximum load current anticipated Safety factor (1.15 to 1.3) Drop out to pick-up ratio of the relay (0.9 to 0.95)

For the E/F relay, the load current is not a factor in the selection of pickup settings (for the Transformers and EHV lines), and is normally set at 20% of rated current. For distribution lines it is preferably to have higher setting si nce there will be a ground current normally because of unbalance load. 62

ii) Time Setting :The actual operating time of the O/C relay can be varied by proper selection of the Time Dial Setting which is selectable from 0.1 to 1.0. 1.5.3. Time Characteristics :A typical time characteristics to an IDMT relay shown below :

DIAGRAM

A family of inverse time curves for an IDMT relay with the different time dial settings is indicated below:

63

It may be noted that both the figures are plotted in terms of multiple of pickup (PSM) so that the same curves can be used for an value of pickup. PSM = If (Fault current)/lp (Pickup current) Where PSM is plug setting multiplier. 1.5.4: Selective time interval:The time interval between two successive breakers to provide the required selectivity is termed as selective time interval. Consider the following:

The operating time of the relay at 1 i.e., t1 = t2 + b2 + 01 +1 Where t2 = operating time of relay at 2 b2 = breaker operating time at 2 F = factor of safety time 01 = overtravel time of relay at 1 The selective time interval S = b2 _ o1 + 1 = 0.3 to 0.4 Sec. 1.5.5: Current Transformers and Relay Connections :i) Three overcurrent relays for affording protection against both phase and earth faults:For 3-phase faults the overcurrent relays in all the 3-phases act. For phase to phase faults the relays in only the affected phases operate. For single line to ground faults only the relay in the faulty phase gets the fault current and operates. Even then with 3-O/L relays, the sensitivity desired and obtainable with earth leakage overcurrent relays cannot be obtained in as much as the high current setting will have to be necessarily adopted for the

64

O/L relays to avoid operation under maximum load condition. Overcurrent relays generally have 50% to 200% setting while earth leakage overcurrent relays have either 10% to 40% or 20% to 80% current settings. One important thing to be noted here is that the connection of the star points of both the C.T. secondaries and relay windings by a neutral conductor should be made. A scheme without the neutral conductor will be unable to ensure reliable relay operation in the event of single phase to earth faults because the secondary current in this case (without star-point interconnection) completes its circuit through relay and C.T. windings which present large impedance. This may lead to failure of protection and sharp decrease in reduction of secondary currents by CTs. It is not sufficient if the neutral of the CTs and neutral of the relays are separately earthed. A conductor should be run as stated earlier. ii) Three overcurrent relays and one earth fault overcurrent relays (3-O/L & 1-E/L):The scheme of connection for 3-O/L and 1 = E/L relays is shown in figure. Under normal operating conditions and three phase fault conditions the current in the 3-phase are equal and symmetrically displaced by 12 Deg. Hence the sum of these three currents is zero. No current flow through the earth fault relay. In case of phase to phase faults (say a short between R and Y phases) the current flows from R-phase upto the point of fault and return back through Yphase. Thus only O/L relays in R and Y phases get the fault and operate. Only earth faults cause currents to flow through E/L relay. A note of caution is necessary here. Only either C.T secondary star point of relay winding star point should be earthed. Earthing of both will short circuit the E/L relay and make it inoperative for faults. iii) Two overcurrent relays and one earth fault relay:The two overcurrent relays in R&B phases will respond to phase faults. Atleast one relay will operate for fault involving two phase. For fault involving ground reliance is placed on earth fault relay. This is an economical version of 3-O/L and 1-E/L type of protection as one overcurrent relay is saved. With the protection scheme as shown in Figure complete protection against phase and ground fault is afforded 65

iv)

Directional O/L & E/L relays:Except at locations where fault power can flow in only one direction O/C relays must be supplemented by directional elements. They have to be used to discriminate between faults for which a relay should trip and those for which is should not trip according to direction of fault. The tripping directions of the relay is away from the bus, looking into the equipment to be protected. The directional O/L, E/L relays have to be supplied with both current and voltage. Directional O/L & E/L relays are used for all 132 KV lines as a backup protection. Directional E/L relays are used on HV side of 132/33/11 KV Transformers and on both HV & LV side of 220/132 KV 100 MVA transformers. On 400/220 KV 315 MVA Transformers directional O/L & E/L relays are used on both HV & LV sides. For all 33 & 11 KV feeders and lower capacity transformers non-directional O/L & E/L relays are used. The connection diagrams for directional O/L & E/L relays are shown in figure.

1.5.6

Highest (Instantaneous) O/C relay A highest instantaneous relay is provided in addition to the IDMT relays for the Transformer Protection. Recently highest elements in conjunction with IDMT relays are being used on the 11 KV feeders for faster clearance of faults.

66

1.5.7
Make EE /GEC

O/C & E/L relays in A.P System

Type Characteristic N.I / V.I / E.I Directional / NonDirectional Directional Whether Plug setting T.L Range Range instantaneous & Range 0.5-2.0A (O/L) 0-1 0.2-0.80A 0-1 (E/L) 0.5-2.0A (O/L) 0-1 0.2-0.80A 0-1 (E/L) 0.5-2.0A (O/L) 0-1 0.2-0.80A 0-1 (E/L) 0.5-4.0A (O/L) 0-1 0.2-0.80A 0-1 (E/L) 0.5-4.0A (O/L) 0-1 0.2-0.80A 0-1 (E/L) 0.5-4.0A (O/L) 0-1 0.2-0.80A (E/L) Inst.5-20 A 0.5-200A 0.2-0.80A 0.5-20A 0.2-0.80A 0.5-20A 0.2-0.80A 0.5-20 A 0.1-0.4 A 0.5-2.0 A 0.1-0.4 A 0.5-2.0 A 0.1-0.4 A 0.5-2.0 A 0.5-2.0 A 0.2-0.80 A 0.5-4.0 A 0.5-4.0 A 0.125-1 A 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1 0.11.0 0.11.0 0.11.0 Remarks

CDD-21

N.Inverse

CDD-23

V.Inverse

Directional

CDD-24

External Inv.

Directional

CDG-11

N.Inverse

NonDirectional NonDirectional NonDirectional

CDG-13

V.Inverse

CDG-14

Extremely

CAG-17 ER

NonDirectional NonDirectional Directional NonDirectional NonDirectional Directional NonDirectional NonDirectional NonDirectional NonDirectional NonDirectional

This will be used CDD 41 & CDG21 for Transformer Protection

TJM-10 TJM-11 TJM-12 IJM-20 IJM-21 IJM-22

N.Inverse N.Inverse N.Inverse N.Inverse V.Inverse V.Inverse N.Inverse N.Inverse N.Inverse N.Inverse N.Inverse

Inst. 4-16 A Inst. 4-16 A Inst. 4-16 A Inst. 1-4 A Inst. 4-20 A Inst. 4-20 A Inst. 4-20 A

ABB

ICM21F
ICM2ANF

ALIND

TMA8 301a TMA8 311b TMA8 101a

TMWD Directional elements used for directionalising these relays

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1.6.
1.6.1 Introduction

BUS BAR PROTECTION

In olden days, the clearance of busbar faults way by time delayed distance relays or overcurrent relays, causing the feeding of fault for longer duration of time. With present day networks, which are highly interconnected, having numerous infeeds and consisting of line sections of varying lengths clearance of bus faults in zone-2 or zone-3 of a distance relay cannot be tolerated. Also selective tripping becomes a problem on installations having different bus sections. In order to maintain system stability and minimize fault damage due to high fault levels, time delayed tripping for busbar faults is not longer acceptable. It is therefore necessary to detect busbar faults selectively with a unit form of protection scheme. Busbar protection scheme should possess following things:i) It should be completely reliable ii) It should be absolutely stable under all types of severe through fault conditions. iii) It should provide discrimination between sections of the busbars to ensure that circuits connected to fault busbar alone are isolated iv) It should be high speed protection so as to minimize damage and maintain system stability

1.6.2 General Busbar Arrangements i) Single Busbar Arrangement This scheme has only single busbar to which all lines/Transformers/Generators, etc. are connected. In the event of the fault or breaker failure, the entire bus has to be de-energised and a major outage occurs. It lack operational flexibility

68

ii) Single Sectionalised Busbar Scheme In this, main bus is divided into two sections with a circuit breaker. One complete section can be taken out for maintenance or for breakdown works without distribution continuity of other section.

In this, main bus is divided into two sections with a circuit breaker and isolators in between the adjoining sections. One complete section can be taken out for maintenance without disturbing the continuity of other section. Even if a fault occurs on one section of the bus, that faulty section along will be isolated while the other section continues to be in service. iii) Main & transfer busbar scheme: With this arrangement, all the feeders are normally on the main bus. If at any time, a line breaker maintenance is required, that particular feeder, can be transferred on to the transfer bus. The feeder protection thus gets transferred to trip bus couple breaker. On fault occurrence or maintenance, entire bus becomes de-energised.

Salient features:a) Only one line at a time can be transferred on the transfer bus b) For maintenance or on fault occurrence, total bus becomes dead. 69

iv) Double Bus arrangement: -

Salient features:a) This has got flexibility of transferring any line to any of the buses b) For maintenance or on fault occurrence only one bus becomes dead while the other bus remains in service c) For maintenance of a breaker, that particular line has to be taken out of service. To overcome this, an additional bypass isolator is provided as indicated in figure below

In this scheme, all other lines have to be transferred to one bus and this line breaker is bypassed by using the bypass isolator, transferring line protection to bus coupler breaker. 70

v) Double bus and transfer bus arrangement:This is combination of main and transfer bus and double bus arrangement.

Salient features:a) This has got flexibility of transferring any line to any of the main buses b) For maintenance or any fault occurrence, only one bus becomes dead while other bus continues to be in service c) Any line breaker can be taken out for maintenance by transferring it to transfer bus, transferring its protection to transfer bus coupler breaker. vi) Breaker and half arrangement:

Salient features:a) It has 3 breakers for two circuits. b) No changeover of line from one bus to the other is required. c) For breaker maintenance of any line, the load gets transferred to the other bus. 71

d) For maintenance or an occurrence of a bus fault, all the interconnections will be on healthy bus. e) Even if both buses become dead, lines can still be in service through the tiebreaker. f) This has got many such advantages to maintain the system stability

vii)

Double bus with sectional breakers:The 220 KV double bus at Kothagudem (A, B & C Stations) is provided with bus sectional breakers on the buses as indicated in figure below.]

This is an improvement over the double busbar arrangement. For maintenance or an occurrence of a fault, only one section of the faulty bus only becomes dead while the rest continues to be in service.

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1.6.3 BUSBAR PROTECTION SCHEMES : Principles & Applications

i) ii) High impedance circulating current scheme Biased differential or low impedance circulating scheme.

1.6.3.1: High Impedance circulating current protection Principles a) Operating Principles:This a unit type of protective scheme in which the currents entering and leaving the busbar installations are compared continuously. The object is to provide fast operation at a low fault setting for internal faults and yet retain stability upto the highest possible value of short circuit current on through faults. Current transformers on each circuit of the busbar are connected in parallel (phase segregated), which will provide a resultant current to operate a relay for faults internal to the busbars installations only. Theoretically, such a system is unaffected by through faults, but in practice, the associated current transformers may not behave ideally when the current exceeds a certain value. Errors in transformation due to saturation on the CT cores may be sufficient to cause maloperation if special precautions are not taken. Consider the figures 1 (a) & 1 (b). Assuming that due to external fault on line X, CT X gets saturated (i.e.) produces no output. This is represented by short circuit as indicated in figure (b). This is the worst condition for the relay from stability point of view, since the spill current is maximum. The high impedance principle involves choosing an impedance high enough to stabilize the relay for this worst condition. Assuming that current Iy flows through the saturated CT only. This will develop a voltage Vr given by Vr = Iy (Rct + Rlx) Where y = Fault current in Amps Rct = CT secondary resistance Rlx = Lead resistance

73

The relay circuit impedance is then adjusted so that the necessary voltage to operate the relay is greater than the voltage VR. Vs = Ir * R Where Vs = Setting voltage Ir = Relay current setting R = Relay branch impedance To avoid relay operation for inter faults Vs > Vr For this, an additional resistor called stabilizing resistor Rst is used in series with relay coil resistance Rr Thus R = Rst + Rr During an internal fault (indicated in figure-2) the CTs will attempt to transform the full fault current and pass this through relay circuit. This will be many times the setting current and hence voltage output required from CTs will be of the order of many KVs. Practically this is not possible and CTs may get saturated. To enable faster operation of relay, this CTs should have a knee point voltage equal to atleast twice the relay setting voltage Vs. b) Through Fault Stability The stability limit of the scheme is based on the maximum throughfault current. As shown previously, the stability limit is governed by the relay setting voltage. Time must not be less than the stability voltage of the system, which is calculated by assuming that maximum through fault current flows through one CT and out through a second one, the latter being the most remote (and hence maximum lead resistance) from the relay associated with the Zone considered. It is further assumed that the DC component of the offset primary current completely saturates the second CT, while the first one continues to transform perfectly. c) Check Feature A second line of defence is considered good practice in most schemes of busbar protection, not to give security against mal-operation of the primary protection, but to prevent incorrect tripping due to damage to wiring and equipment from extraneous sources. A check feature is provided by duplication of the primary protection using a second set of current transformers on all circuits other than bus section and bus coupler units. The check system its arranged in a similar manner of the primary protection, but forms one zone only covering the whole of the busbars and does not discriminate between faults in various sections of the busbars.

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75

d) Use of Non-linear Resistors Under internal fault conditions the high impedance relays circuit constitutes an excessive burden to the CTs, leading to development of high voltage. The insulation of CT secondary winding and the relay will not be able to withstand these high voltages, hence it is limited to less than 3 KV peak by use of non-linear resistors called metrosils connected in parallel with the relay circuits as shown in figure-3 e) Supervision When a CT secondary winding or connections between CT and the relay circuit become open circuited, the resultant out of balance current will flow through the parallel combination of the relay, metrosil and the CT magnetizing impedance. This may cause unwanted operation of the relay for load or through faults depending on the effective primary setting. This condition of an open circuit can be detected by measuring the voltage across the relay circuit by a sensitive voltage operated relay as shown in Figure.4. This relay is set to operate when the out-of-balance current equals about 10% of the least loaded feeder connected to the busbar or 25 amperes, whichever is greater. Operation of the supervision relay is arranged to give an alarm that the busbar protection is faulty, and to short circuit the buswires f this is necessary to prevent damage to the protective relay and stabilizing resistors. When the busbar protection has a fault setting below full load of the connected feeders, it is very likely to operate due to an open circuited current transformer. In this case, a check feature is required to prevent tripping. At the same time, it is important that the buswires are short circuited via the supervision relay to prevent thermal damages to the relay and stabilizing resistors which would otherwise remain continuously picked up under load conditions. The supervision must be time delayed to avoid a false alarm during genuine fault conditions, typically three seconds is adopted.

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1.6.3.2. High Impedance relays :a) GEC make CAG-34 type :This relay is designed for applications where sensitive settings with stability on heavy through faults is required. It consists of Main and Check zone element. During through faults, the voltage developed across the relay is V = If (Rct + 2R1) Where If Rct R1 = Fault current (in secondary) = Internal resistance of CT at 75oC = Cable resistance

EEC recommended that the operating current lop (primary) setting should be less than 30% of the minimum fault current and should be more than 130% of full load rating of heavily loaded circuit. 77

Once V is known, one can adjust the relay circuit and ensure that the relay operating voltage is slightly above this value. This is achieved by means of stablising resistor SR in series with a current operated relays. SR is computed by the formula. SR = (V/lop)-[VA burden of relay)2/lop)] The range of current settings ; 10-40% of In. Stabilising resistor :0-200 Ohms. The resistor setting may require change depending on fault level of the busbar. It is provided with VTX31 type supervision relay which guards against faults and opening in CT secondary windings & bus wires and issues and alarm after time delay of 3 sec. b) GEC make PBDCB relay :It is static scheme with main and check zone. It is five zones relay i.e. we can protect five different sections of busbar. It operating time is 5 m Sec. It consists of (i) (ii) (iii) Static high impedance differential relay PVHN161 (both for main and check zone each) Static bus supervision relay PVHD 161. Bus shorting relay module RWH161.

Range for voltage setting Vs : 100-348 in 32 equal steps 2 --4 --8 --16 --Vs = (25 + Vs) x 4 Volts 32 --Supervision relay :Setting range :- 2-14 Volts continuously adjustable. Trip relay is energized in operation of both the main and check zone relay. Supervision relay PVHD161 supervises the CT open circuits and raises an alarm and shorts the differential relay. PBDCC is same as PBDCB but provided with built-in Auto-test facility. 1.6.3.3:Low impedance biased differential relays :- Principle. An alternative to the high impedance protection described above is the biased differential relay. This type of protection makes use of the fact that during system conditions that give rise to high spill current (namely, heavy through faults), there is high amount of circulating current as well between the in-feeding and out-feeding CT secondaries. The operating quantity in the scheme is the same as before the secondary differential current. The total value of fault current is usually obtained by means of diodes which route all the secondary currents through the bias circuit. The resultant bias is proportional to the arithmetic sum of all the circuit current, whereas the operating circuit is energized by the vector sum of all the 78

circuit currents as shown in figure 5. In a biased differential relay, the operating current is arranged to increase proportionally to the load (circulating) current. Many of the considerations application to high impedance schemes are applicable here as well. For example independent check zone in addition to the main zone and supervision element are provided in this scheme. 1.6.3.4.: Low impedance relays in A.P. System :i) ABB make RADSS relay :-

This is a percentage biased restraint bus differential relay. It come with factory setting. This relay has only main zone. A separate check zone relay is not provided. A simple O/C starting relay SR is included as standard check feature in RADSS. This O/C relay is of the same high speed as that of main differential relay and has a fixed setting normally arranged to coincide with the largest line CT primary current rating. An alarm (Supervising element) is included in the differential circuit to sense CT opening and disconnect the trip circuit after a present time delay of 5 Sec. Relays performance is unaffected by use of auxillary CTs. ii) GEC make MBCZ relay :-

This is a percentage biased differential relay having main and check zones. Separate module is used each circuit breaker an also one for each zone of protection. In addition to these, there is a common alarm module (which supervises the CT secondary circuits), test unit and number of power supply units. It has an O/C element in differential circuit to sense opening of CT secondary circuits. On CT open condition, it gives an alarm. This is time delayed of 3 Sec. So that the operation of alarm does not occur during faults either internal or external to the protected zone. 1.6.4: Some concluding Remarks :In must be clearly understood that the high impedance as well as low impedance schemes have their own advantages. Both are well-tried, proven methods of providing protection for the busbar. The most obvious advantage of a high impedance scheme is the fact that it combines sensitivity to internal faults and stability during throughfaults. The scheme may be made stable to any throughfault level, and yet retain sufficient sensitivity for internal faults with week infeeds. As it requires only very nominal current for operation, it can deal with internal faults that result in saturation of the CT. The scheme is simple and straightforward to apply. A true low impedance scheme has the advantage that it can work with CTs of moderate output compared to a high impedance scheme. The scheme does not impose a high burden on the CT. Also, the scheme can work with CTs of u unequal ratio, which is of use in some situations. 79

In most substations, two Class PS cores per feeder are allocated for busbar protection one for the main zone and the other for the check zone. Whenever two cores are available, a protection scheme that utilized both the cores must be employed for busbar protection. Otherwise, one is compromising the security of the protection, as well as underutilizing available resources. A scheme that uses only one core has an inherent disadvantage - its setting must be such that no mal-operation occurs when there is an open circuitry of the CT secondary or the secondary leads. Under this condition, the concerned zone will see an unbalance current equal to the load current flowing in the relevant feeder. To avoid unnecessary operation of the scheme, the zone settings or the setting of the check relay must be more than the maximum expected load current on any feeder in the substation. Thus, in the case of schemes that utilize only one CT core, the basic sensitivity is poorer than the load current. When the scheme involves two CT cores, one feeding the main zone and the other feeding the check zone, the above problem does not arise. Open circuiting will affect only on the zones, and the tripping will not be through since the other zone remains stable. The chances of open circuitry occurring in two CT cores simultaneously is very remote. Hence is such a scheme, setting much lower then load current is possible. In the same connection, it must be pointed out that schemes have check zone fed off independent CT cores are clearly superior to schemes that do not have check zones or those that cannot accommodate separate inputs for the main and check zones. First and foremost, a check zone contributes significantly to the security scheme.

1.7

: BREAKER FAILURE PROTECTION

Main protective schemes provided for the line/transformer/generator are required to operate and clear the fault immediately, isolating the faulty section of the system. It is then important that the circuit breaker operates correctly, clearing the fault quickly by tripping. However, there is a risk that breaker may not trip (either due to mechanical sluggishness or due to inability to interrupt heavy fault current). Then the fault gets cleared by backup relays at remote stations. Increasing power system complexity demands shorter fault clearing times. It is therefore necessary to provide breaker failure relay (also called Local breaker backup relay or stuck breaker protection). This scheme will isolate the bus to which the stuck breaker is connected, faster. It comprises of O/L & E/L relays with a timer. The LBB relay is energized by trip command of main protection schemes and thus initiate busbar protection scheme after elapsing of defined time. Then all the breaker connected to the bus get tripped, thus isolating faulty element. In our system, ABB make RAICA, GEC mahe CTIG39 type breaker failure relays are commonly used. The general practice is to set the current setting = 20% of In and Time setting = 200 m Sec. The schematic diagrams for the application of the LBB realy (type CTIG) are indicated in the figure (a) enclosed. 80

Even if the busbar protection scheme is not available, the LBB scheme can be made use of by providing special trip circuit and trip relays similar to that of bus protection trip circuits for each line. A schematic for such applications is indicated in figure (b) enclosed.

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82

1.8: RAILWAY TRACTION SYSTEM Railways avail 132 KV single phase supply (between phases R&Y or Y&B or B&R) from our 3-phase system to feed their 132/25 KV, 12.5 MVA single phase transformer whose one terminal on secondary side is earthed. Schematic diagram of supply arrangement for AC traction system is shown below:

Railway traction avails supply through 2-phases. Double circuit line. Normally Railways avail supply on one line and one transformer. The other line is kept idle-charge from Board side and the other transformer is cent percent standby. On the transformer secondary side, one conductor is strung overhead (25 KV), while the other terminal is grounded. The railway track from the return path. The 132KV supply between any two phases to railways will cause unbalanced loading on the system and creates some undesirable effects due to the presence of negative sequence currents. To reduce the unbalance on the 132 KV system, the feed for the adjoining railway substations are given from different phases in cyclical order (i.e.R-Y, Y-B, B-R) and hence not paralleled. A short dead section called Neutral section will be created on the 25 KV overhead line of railways.

83

This concept of feeding adjoining Railway Substations from different phases in cyclic order was followed in Vijayawada Madras section as well as in Waltair Kirandul section (except in the case of similguda and Tyada substations which were fed from same station, because of ghat section and consequential difficulties to maintain the neutral section). Protection Schemes provided: a) For 132 KV Traction feeders Distance relay with IDMT O/L, E/L relays are provided. But most of the traction feeders are very short in length and hence are provide with very inverse O/L, E/L relays (with highest) EE make CDG-13 and E.R make TJM-21 or TJM-22 are provided on the traction feeders. The 132/25 KV, 12.5 MVA 1-Phase Transformer is provided with:Differential relay, REF relay on HV & LV Side O/L, E/L relays on HV & LV sides. The general arrangement of O/L, E/L relay on traction feeder is shown below:

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The phase to earth fault on 25 KV side is seen as phase to phase fault on 132 KV side. Hence the E/L relay on 132 KV traction feeder need not be graded with Transformer relays and minimum plug setting and time lever settings can be adopted. Whereas the O/L relay has to be graded with Transformer HV O/L relays.

85

Supply to Railway traction is extended from the following substations Name of the Boards Substation Railway Traction station Supply phase Sl. No. 1) Vijayawada Madras Tadepalli Krishna Canal Junction R-Y Tenali Tenali B-R (*) Bapatla Bapatla Y-B 220/132 KV Ongole SS Ongole B-R Kavali Kavali R-Y NTS Padugupadu Y-B Gudur Gudur B-R Sullurpet Sullurpet R-Y Renigunta Renigunta R-Y (*) Puttur Puttur R-Y (*) 2) Vijayawada Vizag Eluru Vatluru R-Y Peddatadepalli Tadepalligudem Y-B Bommuru Rajahmundry B-R Peddapuram Samalkot R-Y Payakaraopeta Tuni Y-B Kasimkota Anakapalli B-R 3) Vizag Kirandul Simhachalam Simhachalam North R-Y T.B Vara S.kota Y-B Araku Tyada, Similiguda B-R 4) Sirpur Kagaznagar - Vijayawada Sirpur Kagaznagar Sirpur Kagaznagar B-R Bellampalli Bellampalli Y-B (*) Ramagundam Ramagundam R-Y Jammikunta Jammikunta Y-B Nekkonda Nekkonda B-R Khammam Domakal R-Y Chillakallu Bonakallu Y-B Kondapalli Kondapalli B-R 5) Kazipet Hyderabad Maddikonda Kazipet R-Y R.G.Palli Ghanpur Y-B Alair Alair B-R Ghanpur Ghatkesar R-Y Sanathnagar Sanathnagar Y-B (*) Not contemplated earlier and commissioned later

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1.9: BULK LOAD FEEDER PROTECTION For the consumers having CMD of more than 5 MVA, it is statutory to avail supply at 132 KV. These consumers avail the supply from nearest grid substation through a feeder. As these consumers are linked to system, the consumer feeder protection is very important aspect. Most of the consumer feeders are very short in length (i.e., their substation is very close to APTRANSCOs 132 KV substation) Very inverse O/L, E/L relays with highest (instantaneous) element are provided on consumer feeders. The highest element is set to cover 100% of the line and part of the consumer Transformer, to enable the relays clear the faults instantaneously for the entire line.

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88

EXTRA HIGH TENSION TRANSMISSION LINES

89

EXTRA HIGH TENSION TRANSMISSION LINES 2.1 2.1.1 STATUTORY CLEARANCES PLANNING AND CLEARANCE The Extra High Tension Transmission Lines are covered by three categories (viz.) (i) Transmission &Distribution Scheme of Five Year Plans, (ii) Bulk Load Schemes and (iii) Special Transmission Schemes of Rural Electrification Projects. Plan lines are those proposed by the A.P. Transco for clearance by the Central Electricity Authority and Planning Commission of Government of India guided by Load Flow Studies and System Stability Conditions. The Central Electricity Authority scrutinizes the proposals of the A.P. Transco and recommends to the Planning Commission with necessary changes if any. The Planning Commission clears the E.H.T. Transmission Scheme guided by the budgetary considerations. There-upon, concerned Chief Engineer accords Technical Sanction which forms the starting point for execution of the lines. Normally the Plan lines have to be taken up for execution only after clearance by the Planning Commission. However, in case of delay in getting such statutory clearance, the lines can still be taken up for execution after obtaining administrative authorization from the A.P. Transco. The proposals for extension of supply to the prospective bulk consumers are cleared by the Electricity Board based on considerations of remuneration. The other category of EHT lines aer linked up with the Rural Electrification Schemes. These lines are cleared and financed by the Rural Electrification Corporation of India under Special Transmission Schemes. 2.1.2. FIXING OF ROUTE ALIGNMENT

2.1.2.1 Reconnoiter surveys are made by the Transmission Line Construction Engineers and alignment of the power line will be finalized taking into consideration the site conditions. The route is to be got approved from the concerned Chief Engineer in Hqrs office. 2.1.3. ROUTE APPROVAL BY POWER COORDINATION COMMITTEE (P.T.C.C.) TELECOMMUNICATION

2.1.3.1 It is a statutory obligation of the Electricity Board to obtain approval of the Power Telecommunication Coordination Committee for the route of proposed E.H.T. line before its execution. The formation of this Coordination Committee is a result of recognition by the Government of the fact that a power line under fault conditions can cause L.F. inductions on the telecommunication lines, etc. in the vicinity. Also, the power lines under normal conditions cause interference currents in the single wire earth return circuits. The L.F. inductions produced in the telecommunication lines may cause fatal accidents to the personnel working on the telecommunication lines. The interference currents exceeding 10% limitation may make speech devoid of clarity. Based on the calculated values of induced voltages and interference currents, the P.T.C.C. decides the protective measures to be taken on the telecommunication lines and Railway Block Circuit etc. Approval for the route of the proposed power line will be given subject to carrying out the protective measures stipulated therein. 90

2.1.3.2 In order to facilitate quick clearance by the P.T.C.C. with lesser quantum of protective measures stipulated, it is necessary to judiciously choose the line alignment. It should be kept in mind that the Low Frequency induction depends on (i) Fault Level at the sending end if the proposed line is a radial one or at both ends if the line forms parallel one (ii) Soil resistances along the route of the proposed line (iii) The separation distance of telecommunication line from the power line (iv) The length of parallelism of the telecom line with the proposed power line, to the extent possible the power line may be taken away from the existing telecom lines. If the soil resistances in a particular region exceed 1,00,000 Ohm cms, it may be necessary to take alignment of the E.H.T. line away from the telecom line by a distance of 4 to 5 kms. If the region has soil resistances in the range of 5,000 to 20,000 Ohm cms., a separation distance of one to two K.M.s can still be adopted based on other site conditions. Judicious choice of the power line alignment may be made on the aforesaid conditions ensuring that the alignment so chosen shall not be longer than the Bee line by 8%. To achieve this limitation, the Construction Engineer is at liberty to resort to Railway crossings and P & T line crossings, keeping in view however, the stipulated angles of crossing, electrical clearances and other design aspects. 2.1.3.3 Normally, the following protective measures are stipulated in the route approvals of the P.T.C.C. i) Re-Engineering of Telecommunication Lines has to be done if the L.F. induction on the telecom lines under single line to ground fault exceeds 2000 volts. ii) If the induction is more than 650 V but less than 2000 Volts, gas discharge tubes will be provided on the telecom lines at the cost of Power Supply undertaking. iii) For the induced voltages in the range between 430V and 650V, gas discharge tubes are to be provided at the cost of P & T Department. iv) If the interference current in the single wire earth return circuits is found to be more than 10% such S.W.E.R. circuits are to be converted to metallic return circuits. 2.1.3.4 It may be noted that clearance from Railways is necessary if it is found that their telecom lines and/or block circuits are likely to be affected due to low frequency induction. The Railway Authorities formulate the protective measures required for their telecom/block circuits which shall form part of the list of protective measures to be annexed to P.T.T.C. approval letter. 2.1.4. CLEARANCE FROM AVIATION AUTHORITIES

2.1.4.1 Clearance from the Aviation authorities is to be obtained if the towers are proposed to be erected within the Aviation Zone of one mile radius from the runway of the aerodrome. The limitations of tower height and coloured markings to be provided will be stipulated by the aviation Authorities for clearing the line.

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2.1.5

P & T LINE CROSSINGS

2.1.5.1 Posts & Telegraphs Department has to give clearance for the crossing arrangement of power line with P & T lines. A detailed sketch showing profile of crossing span, angle of crossing and electrical clearance shall accompany the proposal along with the prescribed questionnaire duly answered. Clearance for the power lines will be given if the following conditions are fulfilled. (i) The angle of crossing of the power line with the P & T line is not less than 60o (ii) The nearest power conductor shall be away from the telecom line by not less than the distances tabulated below under maximum sag conditions. For 132 KV Lines: 2.744 Mtr. (9feet). For 220 KV Lines : 4.572 Mtr. (15 feet) For 400 KV Lines : 4.881 Mtr. (16 feet) 2.1.6 RAIL CROSSINGS

2.1.6.1 Clearance is to be obtained from the Railway Authorities for the proposed power line crossing railway track. A sketch showing full particulars such as Vertical Clearance of the lowest power conductor over the railway track, angle of crossing and the shortest distance from the railway track from the nearest tower shall accompany the proposal for railway crossing. The prescribed questionnaire duly answered and Factor of Safety Calculations shall also be sent along with the proposals for railway crossing. 2.1.6.2 Clearance for the railway crossing will be accorded if the following conditions are fulfilled. i) The power line shall cross the railway track at an angle not less than 60o. ii) The crossing span shall not exceed 80% of the normal design span. iii) The minimum clearance of the lowest power conductor over the railway track shall be as per the statement 2-1 on page II-4. iv) The minimum distance between footing of the nearest tower and the railway track shall not be less than 1.5 times the height of the tower. v) The Railway crossing span shall be strung with double tension hardware fitted to the towers on either side of crossing span with dead end towers. vi) The foundations, structures and power conductors and earth-wire are all provided to have a minimum Factor of Safety of 2.00 under normal conditions and 1.50 under Broken Wire Conditions. vii) The towers shall be earthed by providing two earth pits on either side. The clearance over the Railway Track and the bottom most conductor for different Transmission lines shall not be less than the distances below under max. sag conditions. Statement 2-1. For 132 KV Lines For 220 KV Lines For 400 KV Lines : 14.60 Metres. : 15.40 Metres : 17.90 Metres.

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2.2 2.2.1

SURVEYS, TOWER SPOTTING AND FOUNDATIONS RECONNOITRE SURVEY

2.2.1.1 Topo sheets to the scale 1 = 1 Mile or 1:50,000 covering the entire area through which proposed EHT line is likely to pass through are obtained from Geological Survey of India. The topo sheets may be joined together so that the entire line can be plotted on the combined topo sheets. Walk over survey has to be carried out touching all the salient land marks such as hillocks, tanks, railway stations/tracks, roads, rivers, etc. all along the probable alignment of the power line. Based on the findings during reconnoiter survey, the route of the proposed power line with Angle Points is marked on the topo sheets giving due consideration to the statutory requirements. 2.2.2. DETAILED SURVEYS 2.2.2.1 Detailed surveys include taking of levels in different sections of the line, each section being the portion between two angle points. The levels are taken on a graph sheet adopting the Scales 1 Cm. = 20 mtrs. Vertical. These profiles are again examined for lower spotting. After finalizing the tower schedules, check surveys are taken up. 2.2.3. TOWER SPOTTING REQUIREMENTS 2.2.3.1 For spotting of towers on the profiles (i) tower spotting requirements and (ii) sag template are needed. The tower spotting requirements are evaluated from the tower designs. These tower spotting requirements include (i) the maximum value of sum of adjacent spans, (ii) limitation of individual span on considerations of separation distance (iii) the maximum permissible weight spans for different deviation angles. (iv) whether or not vertical loads acting upward can be applied (v) normal values of wind span and weight span. 2.2.4. SAG TEMPLATE

2.2.4.1 Sag template is a tool to decide (i) tower location (ii) whether tower or tower fitted with bottom extensions to be used. A sag template is an acrylic sheet of requisite size on which sag template curves are inscribed. The sag template sheet being a white transparent one, a profile kept below it will be visible and hence facilitates to read the ground profile with reference to tower footing curve, ground clearance curve and conductor line of the sag template. The sag-template curves are virtually the span versus sag curves at maximum and minimum temperature. Three curves are drawn as per the above graph to represent (i) Tower Footing Curve. (ii) Ground clearance curve and (iii) Conductor Hot curve. There could be another tower footing line representing span versus sag curve at minimum temperature which is denoted as uplift curve, the scales to be adopted for vertical and horizontal axis shall be the same as those adopted in the profile.

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2.2.5

TOWER SPOTTING :

2.2.5.1 Refer to Figure 2-1 wherein application of sag template to ground profile for fixing tower locations is shown. The separation distances DN and OD shall be taken to be equal to maximum sag for normal span and ground clearance respectively as adopted in the design of towers. Having known an obligatory point A on the profile it required to fix up another suitable support point B For this purpose, the sag template shall be adjusted over the profile always keeping the central line OZ perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the profile and at the same time ensuring that the point A on the profile touches tower footing line. It shall also be ensured that the ground profile does not cut the ground clearance line any where between the obligatory point A and the subsequent support point B. If ground profile cuts the ground clearance line, it has to be checked if the normal tower fitted with 3 Metre or 6 Metre extensions can provide the required ground clearance. For this purpose, the tower footing line of the sag template shall be made to touch a point 3 mtr. Or 6 mtr. (10 ft. or 20 ft. ) (reduced to scale) as the case may be vertifically above the point B on ground profile and it should be checked whether the ground profile is still cutting the ground clearance line. A judicious selection of the tower footing points if necessary with tower extensions can reduce the cost of project enormously while finalizing the tower schedules it is necessary to verify whether the tower locations so selected fulfil the tower spotting requirements. The profile rolls and the tower schedules so finalized and approved shall be communicated to erection agency to proceed with check survey along the proposed alignment of the power line. 2.2.6 TYPE OF TOWERS : EHT Transmission towers are self supporting lattice structures. 2.2.6.1 There could be four types of normal towers (viz). (i) tangent towers designed as suspension tower with angle of deviation not exceeding 5o ii) 15o angle tower designed for cut point with angle of deviation for 0-15o, (iii) 30o angle tower designed for cut point with angle of deviation between 0 30o, (iv) Dead end tower designed for either terminal point or cut point with angle of deviation for 30-60o. 2.2.7 TOWER FOUNDATIONS : Similar but separate foundations are to be laid for the four legs. 94

For each type of tower, different types of foundations are to be designed suitable for different soils. The soils normally encountered are classified as follows for the purpose of laying foundations. i) NORMAL SOIL : Vegetable or organic soil, turf, sand, ordinary gravel, clay, mud, black cotton soil, soft soil and loose morram. ii) HARD SOIL : Hard gravel, hard morram, kankar, lime stone and stone matrix. iii) SOFT ROCK : Decomposed rock, laterite or soft disintegrated rock which generally require chiseling, wedging and hammering, besides the use of pick axe or crowbar and spade. iv) HARD ROCK : The hard rock is the one which has to be excavated by drilling and blasting. 2.2.7.1 Under normal conditions the following types of foundations are adopted for the towers. i) Inverted frustrum with chimney and bottom concrete pad with or without reinforcement. ii) Stepped pads with chimney and with or without Steel reinforcement. iii) Mass concreting of excavated pits of designed dimensions for rocky locations. iv) Well foundations with anchor bolts laid in river bed locations. v) Pile foundations adopted in locations where soils of poor bearing capacity are met with.

The foundations to be adopted for different soils are detailed below : i. NORMAL DRY FOUNDATIONS : this foundation shall be adopted at locations where normal dry cohesive or non cohesive soils are met with. ii. WET FOUNDATIONS : This foundation shall be laid for soils wherein subsoil water is met with at 1.5 metres more below ground level or surface water for a depth not more than 1.0 mtr. below ground level or where full depth dry black cotton soil is met with. iii. Partially submerged Type : This foundation is adopted at locations where subsoil water table is met at more than 0.75 metres below the ground level. iv. Fully submerged Type : This foundation is adopted at Locations where subsoil water is met with at less than 0.75 metres from the ground level. v. ROCKY FOUNDATIONS : This type of foundation shall be adopted for locations where hard rock is met with. (This foundation is designed for use in the hard rock having bearing strength not less than 66000 kgs/Sq. mtr. and for bond strength between stub angle and concrete not less than 6 kgs. Per sq. cm.) and where the bond strength between the rock and the concrete will be very high.

2.2.9. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FOUNDATIONS The design criteria for foundations is adopted from Manual on Transmission Line Towers chapter 10, Technical Report NO. 9 of CBIP, December 1996 Issue and IS 456 1978.

95

2.2.9.1.The following Factor of Safety are to be adopted in the design of foundations. 132 KV and 220 KV and 400 KV LINES : 2.20 for normal Condition and 1.65 for Broker Wire Conditions. 2.2.9.2.The following loads are taken into account for designing foundations. i) Down thrust or compression for normal and broken wire condition. ii) Uplift for normal and broken wire condition. iii) Side thrust a) Transverse for normal and Broken wire condition. b) Longitudinal for normal and Broken wire condition. 2.2.9.3 The following characteristic values of different soils are adopted for the purpose of design of tower foundations 1. BEARING STRENGTH :a) Normal dry soil b) Soil in wet location c) Soft Rock d) Hard Rock 2. WEIGHT OF SOIL :a) Normal Dry soil b) Soil in Wet Location c) Dry Black Cotton Soil 3. ANGLE OF REPOSE :a) Normal dry soil b) Wet Soils due to presence of soil water c) Black Cotton soil d) Soft Rock 30o 15o 0o 20o 1440 Kg. / Cu.Mtr. 940 Kg. / Cu.Mtr. 1440 Kg. / Cu.Mtr. 27350 Kg / Sq.Mtr. 13675 Kg./Sq.Mtr. 62500 Kgs/Sq.Mtr. 1,25,000 Kgs. / Sq.Mtr.

4. LATERAL BEARING STRENGTH OF EARTH x W x h2 x B x (1 + Sin ) (1 - Sin ) Side Thrust Force (F) = where W = Weight of soil B = 0.65 = Angle of earth frustrum

96

2.2.9.4 The following characteristic values of the concrete of 1:2:4 mix are adopted in the design of tower foundations. 1. Weight of dry concrete = 2. Weight of concrete in wet and submergible location = 3. The bond strength between stub angle and concrete = 4. The maximum stress in concrete C = 5. Limit bond stress between concrete and = reinforcement steel deformed Bars in Tension 6.The Modular Ratio m = Design of Reinforcement is done as shown in Fig.2.2 2400 Kg. / Cu.Mtr. 1400 Kg. / Cu.Mtr. 10 Kg / Cm2 153 Kg. / Cm2 16 Kg / Cm2 19

From the above, C = t/m = t n (d-n) md (1-n0) Hence n = .43 d Total Cross section of reinforcement bars required is As Resistance Moment RM = As x t x .857 d Taking into account the actual over hang provided in the reinforced bottom pad, the turning moment M can be calculated. The steel reinforcement (cross section As) is given by As = M .857 d 2.2.12.2 The reinforcement shall be as shown in the diagram. In the design of reinforcement, the size and number of reinforcement rods and support rods are to be indicated. It is to be ensured that the extreme end rods are fixed well inside the concrete pad at least 50 mm away from the edge of the concrete pad.
OR

no

mc = 0.4286 t + mc = .43 say

97

2.2.10. FOUNDATION IN NORMAL DRY LOCATIONS

2.2.10.1The maximum compression is obtained by applying the factor of safety to the value of compression due to Bending Moment Forces acting on the tower, dead weight of tower and power conductors and ground wire and weight of concrete. The bearing strength of the ground of area b Sq. Mtr. should be more than the above maximum compression. The total uplift force is calculated based on the transverse and longitudinal forces. The minimum vertical loads due to conductors and ground wire and the dead weight of tower and weight of concrete are calculated per leg and deducted from the total uplift force to arrive at the net uplift. Counter weight for this uplift is provided by the weight of earth pyramid and concrete frustum. It is to be checked whether maximum uplift after applying factor of safety is fully compensated by the counter weight. The proposed foundation has to be checked for side thrust also. Based on the horizontal component of the stress in the stub, the maximum side thrust is calculated after applying the necessary F.O.S. The lateral bearing capacity of the soil is obtained by calculations based on the soil characteristics. This lateral bearing capacity of the soil should be equal to or more than the above maximum side thrust. The depth of the stub below ground level indicated as d is decided by the design of tower and hence cannot be altered. While choosing dimensions a and w, care must be taken to ensure that the thickness of concrete all around the stub is not less than 100 mm. 2.2.11 FOUNDATION IN WET LOCATIONS

98

2.2.11.1 In case of wet foundation, the bearing strength of the soil is half of dry soil and the angle of internal resistance. In view of this an additional concrete slab with or without steel reinforcement as shown in fig.2.4 underneath the inverted frustum may be provided. However, the dimension x, y and z have to be chosen, keeping in view the fixed dimension d (depth of stub below ground level). 2.2.12 FOUNDATION IN SUBMERGIBLE LOCATIONS

2.2.12.1 In case of fully submergible location steel reinforcement has to be provided in view of a large bottom concrete pad and as the over-hang of bottom concrete pad in too long to be contained under compression. The dimensions t and z are determined based on the soil characteristics and the design values of compression and uplift. 2.2.13 FOUNDATIONS IN ROCKY LOCATION

2.2.13.1 In view of tremendous bearing strength of rock and bond strength between stub angle and concrete, special type of foundation is to be designed providing for preparing a much smaller pit and mass concreting after stub setting. The dimension A and B have to be decided based on the design values of compression and uplift. The excavation in the hard limited to A and B within hard rock portion. After stub setting the pit in the hard rock and chimney shall be filled with concrete of 1:2:4 Mix as shown in the figure. Depending upon how deep below ground 99

level, the rock is met with, the stub angle may have to be cut to limit the depth of stub below ground level to (C-0.050) Mtr. It may be noted that necessary holes have to be provided at the bottom of the stub angle to fix the cleat. The remaining portion of the pit above the hard rock level shall be back filled with the excavated rock bits and earth properly rammed to form a homogenous earth pyramid. The dimension E may be kept slightly less than the designed dimension A to ensure rigidity of concrete block. The dimensions d and w of the chimney portion may normally be taken the same as those of wet foundations. 2.2.14 REVETMENT FOR FOUNDATIONS : 2.2.14.1 Revetment has to be provided for the foundations laid on sloping grounds to prevent loss of earth. The revetment or the retaining wall will protect the foundation from being exposed to running water during rains. 2.2.15 EARTHING OF TOWERS 2.2.15.1 Every tower has to be grounded as per the standard procedure. The materials required are Charcoal and Salt and Pipe type earthing set. The pipe type earthing set consists of 3 mtr. long galvanized steel pipe provided with holes, galvanised steel strip and bolts and nuts. The grounding of towers shall be done as shown in the figure.

2.2.15.2 COUNTERPOISE EARTHING :- It is necessary to provide counterpoise earthing at locations where soil resistance is found to be high. The materials required for providing counterpoise earthing are (a) 60 metres or more of 7/10 SWG G.I. Wire, (b) 4 Nos. Connecting lugs to tower legs and (c) 4 Nos. H.R.H. Bolts & Nuts. 15 Mtrs. of G.I. Wire shall be connected to each leg through the connecting lug. The four wires shall be taken radially to a distance of 15 Mtrs. duly buried in the ground. The purpose of providing the counterpoise earthing is to bring down the tower footing resistance to below 15 Ohms. If necessary, the counterpoise earthing may be run to longer radial distances to achieve the above. 100

2.3

DESIGN ASPECTS OF E.H.T. TRANSMISSION TOWERS

2.3.1. Types of Towers : The EHT transmission towers are self-supporting latticed towers. These towers are classified into four categories (viz.) (a) Tangent Tower:This is a suspension tower designed to support the power conductors and ground wire (s) for extending the power line alignment in a straight line. (b) 15o Small Angle Tower: This tower is used at cut point location. Fitted with two stacjs of insulators per each phase duly connected by a jumper. This tower will facilitate deviation of power line alignment upto 15o (c) 30o Medium Angle Tower:- This tower is similar to the above angle tower but designed to take line deviation upto 30o (d)Large Angle Dead-end Tower :- This tower is designed for use as a terminal tower as well as a cut point support capable of taking the deviation upto 60o. In addition to the above normal towers, special structures may be used for river crossings and hill slopes. Tower extensions to be fixed to the bottom of normal towers are also designed and fabricated for use on the lines wherever required. Normally 3 Mtr. and 6 Mtr. tower extensions are used for raising the normal tower to a vertical distance of 3 Mtr., and 6 Mtr., respectively. Special tower extensions for 9 Mtr., and 12 Mtr., elevation are also used. In addition to these, hill side tower extensions are also designed and fabricated to facilitate erection of the broad based towers in uneven hall ridges. 2.3.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS OF EHT TRANSMISSION TOWERS:The design of Transmission line towers is governed by the stipulations of IS 802 (Part-1 Section 1 & 2) of 1995/92 use of structural steel in overhead transmission line towers was published in 1967 and subsequently revised in 1973, 1977 and 1995. Some of the major modifications made in revision 1995 are as follows: i) ii) iii) Concept of maximum working load multiplied by the factors of safety as per I.E rules has been replaced by the ultimate load concept. For assuring the loads on tower, concept of Reliability, Security and Safety have been introduced on the basis of IEC 826-1991 Technical report on loading and strength of overhead transmission lines. Basis wind speeds based on peak guest velocity averaged over 3 seconds duration, as per the wind map of India given in IS 875-(Par-3) 1987 Code of practice for design loads for buildings and structures (second revision) are kept as the basis of calculating reference wind speed. Terrain and Topography characteristics of the ground are taken into consideration in working out the design wind speeds. Wind loads on towers and conductors have been revised. These are based on the modified wind map of the country. Reference wind speed averaged over 10 minutes duration has been used for the determination of wind loads on tower and conductor. Provisions for the temperature effects have been modified. In order to permit additional current carrying capacity in the conductor, the max., temperature in the ACSR conductor has now been permitted to be 75oC in any part of the country. For AAA Conductors, the corresponding max. temperature has been permitted to be 85oc. Provisions for anti cascading checks have been included in the design of angle towers. 101

iv)

v)

vi)

2.3.3 The towers to be used as supports for 132 KV, 220 KV and 400 KV Transmission lines are designed by adopting the following criteria. Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Description 132 KV lines 220 KV lines 400 KV lines 380 & 350 475, 525 200 32 oc 75 oc 53 oc 10 oc 30 o 8.5 Mtr. 7.0 Mtr. 400 600 320 32 oc 75 oc 53 oc 10 oc 20o 9 Mtr. 8.84 Mtr.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Normal Span (Mtr.) 320 Maximum weight span (Mtr.) 400/ 480 Minimum Weight span (Mtr.) 125 a) Every day temperature 32oc b) Maximum temperature for 75 oc conductor (ACSR) c) Maximum temperature for ground 53 oc wire d) Minimum temperature 10 oc Protection or shield angle 30 o Minimum midspan clearance between 6.1 Mtr. groundwire and top power conductor Minimum ground clearance of the 6.10 Mtr. bottom most conductor Minimum clearance of the live parts from the tower body a) Suspension Insulator string when 0 o 1.530 Mtr. deflected 15 o 1.530 Mtr. 30 o 1.370 Mtr. 45 o 1.220 Mtr. 60 o 1.070 Mtr. b) Jumper connection on angle towers when deflected 1.530 Mtr. 1.070 Mtr. 1.070 Mtr. 2.00 1.50

2.130 Mtr. 1.980 Mtr. 1.830 Mtr. 1.675 Mtr. ---

3.050 Mtr. (for deflection upto 22 o) 3.050 Mtr. (for deflection upto 20 o) 1.86 Mtr. (for deflection upto 40 o) 2.00 1.50 Either groundwire or anyone bundled power conductor broken.

upto 10 o upto 20 o upto 30 o 9. Factor of safety for design of members of tower. a) Under normal conditions. b) Under broken wire conditions. 10. Broken wire conditions: a) For tangent towers.

2.130 Mtr. 1.675 Mtr. 2.00 1.50

Either Either groundwire or groundwire or one of the one of the power power conductor conductor broken. broken.

102

b) For 15o and 30o angle towers

c) For 60o angle/ deadend towers.

Ground wire Ground wire Two ground and one of wires and any and one of one bundled the power power conductor or conductor or conductor and one any two any two power ground wire power conductors or any two conductors broken. bundled broken. conductors broken. Ground wire Ground wire Two ground and any two and any two wires and any one bundled power power conductors or conductors or conductor or three power three power one ground conductors wire and two conductors bundled broken. broken. conductors broken.

2.3.3.1 The various members of the tower can be classified into (i) main leg members including ground wire peak, (ii) Lattice member including transverse and longitudinal brackings, (iii) Horizontal and longitudinal belt members situated in the same horizontal plane as lower (compression) members of crossarms, (iv) Crossarm members and (v) redundant members and hip bracings. The leg members are subjected to (i) Transverse forces due to (a) wind on conductors/groundwire (b) wind on tower (c) Force due to deviation in the alignment of power line at the tower location (d) Wind on insulators (ii) Vertical forces due to (a) weight of power conductors/groundwire (b) dead weight of tower (c) weight of man with kit and (d) weight of insulator strings, (iii) Longitudinal force due to tension in the broken conductor under broken wire condition only, and (iv) unbalanced vertical load under broken wire condition only. The lattice members are to be designed for the stresses due to transverse loads, vertical loads, Longitudinal loads and torsional loads under broken wire conditions. The horizontal and longitudinal belts are to be checked for torsion due to longitudinal load. The purpose of redundant members is to reduce the unsupported length of design members thereby increasing the allowable maximum stress in that member. The crossarm members are to be checked for vertical and transverse loads. 2.3.3.2 UTLIMATE COMPRESSION STRENGTH In respect of steel sections conforming to I.S 2062-1992 and having a minimum yield strength of 2600 KG/Sq.cm., the permissible stress on the gross section of axially loaded compression members is given by the following formulae.

103

a) F=2600 (KL/r2)12 Kgs/Sq.cm., where KL/r is less than or equal to 120 b) F = 20,000,000 Kg/Sq.cm., where KL/r > 120 (KL/r)2 where F = permission stress in the tower member. KL/r = Slenderness ratio Here again, K is fixity factor L is unsupported length of the member r is radius of gyration. While L is decided by the design considerations, the radius of gyraton r is obtained from the I.S.I Structural Hand Book. It is normal practice to take Rw for design calculations. The value of the fixity factor K depends on the physical status of the members within the tower. The value of K shall be taken as 1 in case of tower leg members and joint members bolted at connections in both faces and for members unrestrained against rotation at both ends of the unsupported panel for values of L/r from 120 to 200 and for members with concentric load at both ends of the unsupported panel for values of L/r upto and including 120. For members with concentric loading at one end and normal eccentricities at the other end of the unsupported panel with values of L/r upto and including 120, the value of KL/r is taken as 30 + 0.75 L/r. It may be noted that the formulae 2.3.3.2 (a) and 2.3.3.2 (b) hold good for the largest width thickness ratio b/t not more than 13. Here again, b is defined as the distance between the edge of the root fillet and free edge of broader flange both appearing on the same flange. This dimension b is shown in figure 3.9. t is the thickness of the section.

For values b exceeding 13, the ultimate t Compression is given by the following formulae. 104

(c) (d)

F = 4680 160 (b/t) Kgf/Sq.cm. Where 13 < b/t < 20 F = 5,90,000 Kgf/Sq.cm. where b > 20 (b/t)2 t

2.3.3.3 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH : For steel sections conforming to I.S 2062 the minimum yield strength is 2,600 KGs/ per sq.cm. This value multiplied by net sectional area of section of the member gives the permissible maximum tension in the member. The net sectional area is obtained after deducting the portions of the cross-section covered by the bolt holes. 2.3.3.4 BOLTS & NUTS :The number of bolts required for joining two or more members of a tower are worked out based on the maximum values of compression and tension ie., after applying factors of safety) obtaining in the member to be joined to the main member. Normally for E.H.T transmission line towers, the bolts of 16 mm dia are used. The bolts of different lengths will be required depending upon the thickness of the members to be joined. The dia of the bolt holes to be provided to the tower members shall be 17.5 mm. The centre of the bolt hole shall be away by not less than 20 mm from the rolled edge ad 23 mm from the sheared edge. The bolts and nuts shall be hot dip galvanized and shall confirm to IS 12427 of 1988. The bolts and nuts are to be used with galvanized spring washers of 3mm thickness. For design purpose, the maximum bearing strength of the bolts of property class 5.6 quality is taken as 6320 Kg/cm2 and shear strength 3160/Kg/cm2 2.3.4 TOWER ACCESSORIES 2.3.4.1 BIRD GUARDS : These are fixed to the crossarms of tangent towers to prevent birds from perching over the insulator strings. If such provision is not made, the droplets may foul continuously with the insulator string resulting in breakdown of insulation. The bird guard is made of a 18 gauge M.S sheet. The arrangement of saw tooth type bird guard is shown in the Figure 2.9 below.

105

The dimensions indicated in the figure may be suitably altered depending upon the crossarm dimensions and arrangement. 2.3.4.2 ANTI-CLIMBING DEVICES :- These devices are provided to towers at a height of about 3.00 Mtrs. from ground at vulnerable places such as road crossings, near villages and other inhabited places. These anti climbing devices prevent persons from reaching the live power conductors or their vicinity. The anti climbing devices are made of M.S angle and barbed steel wire. The arrangement of anti climbing devices are fixed to the tower legs is shown in the Figure 2.10.

2.3.4.3 DANGER PLATES :- 16 guage M.C sheet of size 200 x 325 Mtr. is used as Danger Plate. The word DANGER in English and Local Language shall be inscribed on the Plate. Danger sign depicting of a skull above two bones is painted on the Danger Plate. The voltage at which the E.H.T line is charged is also indicated on the plate. Provision is made in the danger plate to fix it on the tower leg with 16mm bolts. 2.3.4.4 NUMBER PLATES :- Each tower in any transmission line is allotted a number in a serial order commencing from one terminal tower and ending with the terminal tower on the other end. The number plate is made of 16 guage sheet of 100 x 150 Mtr. Size. The number is enameled in Red on white enameled background. The number plate is fixed to the tower body at about 4 Mtrs ground level. 2.3.4.5 PHASE PLATES :- Each angle tower is provided with a set of three circular discs of 0.100 mtr. dia each enameled in Red, Yellow and Blue. These phase plates are fixed to the towers at a height of about 4 mtr., above ground. 2.4 2.4.1 STRINGING AND COMMISSIONING OF E.H.T LINES :Design Aspects of Tensioning of Power Conductors and Ground Wire (S)

2.4.1.1 The following shall be the basis for evaluating stringing data in respect of power conductor. (a) The minimum factor of safety for conductor at minimum temperature of 10oc and under full wind pressure shall be 2.00 106

(b)

The conductor at every day temperature of 32oc and under still air shall not be tensioned to more than the values indicated below in percentages of ultimate tensile strength of the conductor Initial unloaded tension - 35% of Ultimate Tensile Strength of conductor Final unloaded tension - 25% of UTS of conductor

(c)

Taking into consideration the above stipulation, the value of stress in Kgs per Sq.mm f in the power conductor at 32oc and still air is decided while designing the towers. Hence the value of f is fixed based on which the design aspects of power conductors have to be evaluated.

2.4.1.2 As already stated in the foregoing paras, the values of sag of power conductor at maximum temperature of 75 oc and still air and at minimum temperature of 10oc and still air have to be calculated for different span lengths to prepare sag-template. The values of sag are obtained only when values of conductor tension are known. Also, the atmospheric temperature may vary at different times of stringing (or tensioning) the conductor. In other words, the values of tension of power conductor at still air and at different temperatures ranging from 10oc to 60 oc have to be calculated. The tensions in the conductors and groundwire (s) have to be evaluated for full wind pressure at 32 oc and 2/3 full wind pressure at minimum temperature of 10 oc for arriving at the transverse and longitudinal forces acting on the tower. The following procedure shall be adopted for arriving at the tension in conductor or ground wire at a given temperature and wind pressure and for a given span length (equivalent span). Let the stress in power conductor at every day temperature of 32oc and still air be f kg per sq.mm for normal span l mtrs. These values of f and l are decided for design of towers and shall form basic design criteria. It is now required to evaluate value of stress f2 in the power conductor at temperature. T2 and wind pressure P2 for a span length of l2. The relationship between the values of f and f2 in terms of other quantities is given by the following equation. f2 (f- Ext I2 K21 q2 E) --------------24 f2 = I2 K2 Q22 E -------------24

f2 2

Where K = K / A Where E = Final Modulus of Elasticity Kg cm, a = Co-efficient of linear expansion per oc t = T2 32 l = Normal span. l2 = Span for which stress f2 is to be calculated k = Unit weight of conductor = W/A Kg/Mtr/Sq.mm Here again, W is weight of conductor/ground wire per metre length and A is area of cross section in square millimeters. q and q2 are loading factors. q2 = P2 + W2 and q22 = P22 + W2 W2 W2 107

Here P and P2 are wind pressures. The value of p is considered to be equal to zero as the stress f pertains to still-air condition. Thus q2 = 0 + W2 = 1 or q = 1 W2 But q2 = P2 + W2 W2 As all the other values are known in the above equation, the values of f2 can be calculated for different span lengths at any given temperature or at different atmospheric temperatures for any given span at still air as well as at full wind. 2.4.1.3 STRINGING CHARTS : Also known as Sag-Tension Charts, these charts are required for deciding the value of tension to be applied to power conductor/ground wire at two consecutive angle points. A typical stringing chart is shown in Figure 2.11.

The Sag-Tension chart consists of two sets of graphs (viz) (i) Span Vs. Tension for different atmospheric temperatures and (ii) Sag Vs. tension for different span lengths. It may be noted in this connection that the values of tensions for a given span may be taken from the tension statements pertaining to different temperatures. It is also to be noted that the value of span length in the span vs. tension curves is actually the equivalent span I which is given by the following formula. Ruling span l = I3 + I32 + I33 + ----ln3 I1 + I2 + I3 + ---- ln Where I1, I2, I3, etc., are the individual spans between two consecutive tension points or in other words between two angle locations. The Sag Vs. Tension curves in the chart correspond to different values of individual spans. HOW TO READ THE CHART :- It is required to know the quantum of tensioning to be made to the conductors/groundwire at angle towers on either side. The equivalent span shall be arrived at the site temperature is known. Choose the value of temperature indicated in the Chart nearest to the site temperature. Choose the Span Vs. Tension Curve corresponding to that nearest temperature. Read the value of tension in Kgs corresponding to the equivalent span. Note this point at S the conductors/steel wire is to be tensioned to this value of tension at the two angle 108

towers. In between the two angle towers, there are individual spans. It is now required to know how much sag should be allowed in each individual span. Choose the tension vs. sag curve corresponding to the value of span length nearest to the individual span for which sag is to be computed. Draw a horizontal line from the above point S to cut the above chosen tension vs. sag curve. From the point at which the curve is cut, draw a vertical line and read the value of sag in respect of other individual spans between the two angle towers. 2.4.4 LINE MATERIALS FOR STRINGING POWER CONDUCTORS

2.4.4.1 SUSPENSION HARDWARE There are three types of Suspension hardware in the normal use viz., (i) Single Suspension hardware with fixed type arcing horn (ii) Single Suspension hardware with adjustable arcing horn on tower side (iii) Double Suspension Hardware Single Suspension hardware assembled with required number of Ball and Socket type insulators are used to support the power conductors from the crossarms of tangent towers. The single suspension hardware provided with adjustable arcing horns on tower side are used on approach tangent towers near the substations. The double suspension hardware assembled with two stacks of insulators are used for the tangent towers on either side of river crossing spans, road crossing span etc. The components of single suspension hardware are indicated below. 1. Ball hook with provision to fix adjustable or fixed arcing horn 2. Socket clevis to fix ball hook to yoke plate in case of double suspension hardware 3. Two yoke plates one connecting two ball clevises to the two stacks of insulators and another connected to two socket clevises which are in turn connected to the bottom most insulators of the two insulators stacks. The bottom yoke is also connected to the suspension clamp through clevis-clevis or clevis link. Provision is made in the bottom yoke to fix line side arcing horns. All these components are required for double suspension hardware set. 4. In case of single suspension hardware the bottom most insulator is connected to the suspension clamp through socket clevis which has provision to fix line side arcing horns. 5. One set of line side arcing horns 6. One set of tower side arcing horns is provided in case of 132 KV, 220 KV and 400 KV hardware 7. One suspension clamp. In case of 400 KV suspension hardware, two suspension clamps are provided to support twin conductors 8. Corona Control Rings are to be fixed to the yoke plate which in turn connects the suspension clamps through clevis eyes in case of 400 KV single suspension hardware. A typical 400 KV single suspension hardware set is shown in Figure 2.12.

109

2.4.4.2 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS OF EHT SUSPENSION HARDWARE The 132 KV and 220 KV suspension hardware shall be suitable for insulators of 16 mm ball designation an d400 KV hardware suitable for insulators of 20 mm., ball designation The breaking/failing load of suspension hardware shall be 7000 kgs. The slip strength of the suspension clamp shall be 25% of the ultimate tensile strength of conductor In case of 400 KV suspension hardware, the magnetic power loss corresponding to 600 Amps per sub-conductor shall be not more than 7 watts. In case of 400 KV suspension hardware, the maximum value of Radio Influence voltage for the complete string (i.e.,) including grading/corona rings, arcing horns, clamps etc. at 266 KV R.M.S shall be 500 Micro volts. In case of 400 KV lines, the corona extinction voltage for the complete string is 320 KV (RMS). 2.4.4.3 TENSION HARDWARE There are three types of tension hardware sets normally used (viz) (i) Single tension hardware (ii) Single Tension hardware with adjustable arcing horns and (iii) Double tension hardware. The tension hardware sets are used at angle locations. Two sets of hardware are required to clamp the conductor(s) for each phase connected in turn by a jumper. Thus, per each angle location of a single circuit line, six sets of tension hardware are required per each angle location for a single circuit line and twelve sets for a double circuit. 110

Normally, single tension hardware sets with fixed arcing horns on tower side are used for angle locations of 132 KV and 220 KV lines. The single tension hardware sets with adjustable arcing horns are used on angle towers of the approach locations of the connected E.H.T substations. The actual spacing between the spheres of the tower side and line side arcing horns is adjusted as per the insulation co-ordination decided for the connected substation near the approach towers. Double tension hardware sets are used for angle towers on either side of river crossing spans and railway crossing spans in case of 132 KV and 220 KV lines and for all angle towers of 400 KV lines. The double tension hardware sets have provision for assembling two stacks of insulators. The single tension hardware has in general the following components . i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) D shackle. Ball link with provision to fix arcing horn. Socket clevis with provision to fix arcing horn. Tower side arcing horn (fixed or adjustable). Line side arcing horn. Compression type deadened cone.

The double tension hardware has in general the following components. i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) xii) xiii) Anchor shackle connected to the tower crossarm. Link. Anchor shackle connecting link and yoke plate. Yoke plate on tower side. Tower side arcing horn connected to the yoke in between the two stacks of insulators. Two ball clevises connecting two insulator stacks to the tower side yoke. Two socket clevises connecting the bottom most discs of the two insulator stacks to the line side yoke plate. Line side yoke plate with provision to fix line side arcing horn. Line side arcing horn fixed to the line side yoke plate in case of 132 KV and 220 KV lines or Corona control ring in case of 400 KV lines. Clevis-Clevis to connect line side yoke plate to the compression type deadend tension clamp for 132 KV and 220 KV lines. Two clevis eyes in case of 400 KV lines. Two sag adjusting plates connecting clevis eyes to the anchor shackles on line side for 400 KV double tension hardware. Two anchor shackles connecting sag adjusting plates to the compression type deadend clamps, in case of 400 KV double tension hardware. One compression type deadend tension clamp for 132 KV and 220 KV double tension hardware and two numbers for 400 KV double tension hardware.

111

A typical 400 KV Double Tension hardware is shown in Figure- 2.13

2.4.1.1 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS OF E.H.T. TENSION HARDWARE: i. ii. iii. iv. v. The tension hardware shall be suitable for use with Ball and socket type disc insulators with designation/shank pin dia of 20 mm. The minimum failing load of the hardware set shall be 95% of the breaking load of conductor The compression type deadened cone shall be compressible with 100 ton hydraulic compressors to obtain requisite results after compression with reference to dimensions and bondage. In case of 400 KV lines, the R.I.V. for complete string (i.e.,) including grading/corona rings, arcing horns, clamps etc. at 256 KV (rms) shall not be more than 500 Micro volts The corona extinction voltage for complete string shall be 300 KV

2.4.4.5 INSULATORS: Ball and socket type disc insulators are assembled to the 132 KV, 220 KV and 400 KV suspension and tension hardware, certain important design aspects and other details are indicated below : Sl. No. Description 132 KV lines 220 KV lines 400 KV lines

1. Type of insulators

2. Dimensions of insulators of suspensions string 3. Dimensions of insulators for 280mm x 145mm 280mm x 145mm 280mm x 170mm tension string 4. Number of insulator disc per 9 nos. 13 nos. 23 nos. single suspension string 5. Number of insulator disc per 2 x 9 nos. 2 x 13 nos. 2 x 23 nos. double suspension string 6. Number of insulator discs per 10 nos. 14 nos. 24 nos. single tension string 7. Number of insulator discs per each 2 x 10 nos. 2 x 14 nos. 2 x 24 nos. double tension string

Ball and socket Ball and socket Ball and socket type disc insulator type disc insulator type disc insulator 255mm x 145mm 280mm x 145mm 280mm x 145mm

112

8. Electro Mechanical strength for tension string insulator 9. Electro Mechanical strength for suspension string insulator 10. Total creapage distance of each disc insulator for suspension strings 11. Total creapage distance of each disc insulator for tension string 12. Minimum impulse dry withstand voltage (wave of 1 x 50 Micro second) for each disc insulator (I.E.C standard) 13. One minute power frequency withstand voltage for each disc insulator 14. Power frequency puncture voltage per each disc insulator

7000 Kgs. 11,500 Kgs. 280 mm 280 mm 110 KV

7000 Kgs. 11,500 Kgs. 280 mm 280 mm 110 KV

11,500 Kgs. 16,500 Kgs. 315 mm 330 mm 120 KV

70 KV (dry) 40 KV (wet)

70 KV (dry) 40 KV (wet)

70 KV (dry) 40 KV (wet)

15. Size and designation of bal pin shank for suspension string discs 16. Size and designation of bal pin 20 mm 20 mm 20 mm shank for tension string discs 17. Maximum Radio Influence 50 Micro Volts at 50 Micro Volts at 50 Micro Volts at Voltage at 10 KV (RMS) for each 1 MHz 1 MHz 1 MHz disc insulator 18. Corona extinction voltage for 320 KV complete (RMS) string both (RMS) suspension and tension strings 19. Maximum RIV for complete 500 Micro volts string both volts suspension and tension strings

140 KV 110 KV 110 KV (Suspension (Suspension (Suspension strings) strings) strings) 140 KV 140 KV 140 KV (Tension Strings) (Tension Strings) (Tension Strings) 16 mm 16 mm 20 mm

A typical string insulator disc is shown in figure-2.14 with part-wise descriptions

113

2.4.4.6 GROUNDWIRE CLAMPS AND ACCESSORIES Normally for 132 KV and 220 KV lines, only one Groundwire is used, while for 400 KV lines two Groundwires are required. One groundwire suspension clamp is required for each groundwire for every tangent tower. Each suspension clamp is provided with tinned copper earth bond which is in turn connected to the tower body. Two ground wire tension clamps are required per groundwire per each angle tower. Each of these tension clamps is provided with tinned copper earth bond, which is to be connected to the tower body. Groundwire midspan joints are used for jointing two pieces of groundwire. After fixing the two end portions of the groundwires to be jointed, the midspan compressor with suitable die set.

2.4.4.7 POWER CONDUCTOR ACCESSORIES i) PRE-FORMED ARMOUR RODS :- The preformed armour rods are used at the tangent locations. The armour rods are wound over t he portion of power conductor which is to be clipped in a suspension clamp of the suspension hardware. Each set of preformed armour rods generally consists of 11 nos. rods for 132 KV lines (PANTHER ACSR), 12 Rods for 220 Kv lines (ZEBRA ACSR) and 12 rods for 400 KV lines (MOOSE ACSR). The preformed armour rods are of helical shape and made of aluminium alloy which has a minimum tensile strength of 3500 Kg/ sq.cm. The armour rods can be fixed over conductor by hand. For 132 KV and 220 KV lines, either ball ended or parrot bill ended rods are accepted. For 400 KV lines, parrot ball ended rods are specified. The slip strength of suspension clamp over the conductor wound with armour rods shall be not less than 25% of the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor. For 400 KV lines, the RIV, at 266 KV (rms) phase to ground shall not be more than 500 Micro volts. MIDSPAN COMPRESSION JOINTS :- The compression type joints are required for jointing two ends of two pieces of ACSR conductors. The compression joint consists of (a) outer sleeve made of Aluminium (extruded tube) and (b) inner sleeve made of Mild steel hot dip galvanized. After inserting the steel core portions of the conductors to be jointed into the steel sleeve, the same is compressed by means of 100 tonne hydraulic compressor fitted with suitable die set. The steel sleeve duly compressed with steel core portions of two conductors is fixed in the outer Aluminium sleeve alongwith the aluminium strands of both the conductors. Then the aluminium sleeve is compressed together with steel sleeve and aluminium strands by means of 100 tone Hydraulic Compressor fitted with suitable die set. Both the steel sleeve and the aluminium sleeves are compressed from round to hexagonal shape. The failing load of the compression joint shall be not less than 95 per cent of the breaking load of conductor. For 400 KV lines, the radio interference voltage at 260 KV rms, phase to ground shall shall not be more than 500 Micro volts REPAIR SLEEVES:- The repair sleeve is of tubular shop with a sliding (removable) part known as a Keeper. If a few strands (not more than three) of the conductor are found to be cut or damaged, the repair sleeve is to be fixed to the conductor over the damaged portion and compressed by means of 100 ton hydraulic compressor fitted with suitable die set. The repair sleeves are made out of aluminium extruded sections. 114

ii)

iii)

The compressor die used for repair sleeve is the same as that used for midspan compression joint. The repair sleeves als are compressed from round to hexagonal shape. The minimum failing load of re pair sleeves used in 400 KV lines shall have RIV not more than 500 micro volts at 266 KV (rms), phase to ground iv) STOCK BRIDGE TYPE VIBRATION DAMPERS : A stock bridge vibration damper consists of (i) two dead weights made of cast iron (ii) messenger cable made of high tensile stranded steel wire and (iii) a clamp made of Aluminium alloy. The dimensions of the components are made to effectively dampen the conductor vibrations. The conductors get excited to vibrations are classified under three categories (viz) (i) Side swing or Sway caused by cross winds, (ii) Galloping of conductor which occurs when the conductors are ice loaded and behave eccentric to the wind force and (iii) Aeolian vibration; the vibrations with frequencies from 3 to 12 HZ occur in the direction transverse to the steady wind flow of speeds ranging from 1 to 8 mtr. per second. The vibrations result in frequent bending of conductor and lead to fatigue failure at the root. As the aeolian vibrations are known to be most detrimental, the prime objective is to effectively dampen (or substantially reduce the amplitude) the Aeolian vibrations. As per the practice in vogue in this State, the vibration dampers are fixed to the power conductors at angle towers on either side. The vibration dampers may be used at tangent locations also to facilitate dampening of vibrations at suspension locations. The stock bridge type vibraton damper is a vital conductor accessory to protect the power conductor from fatigue failure. The vibration damper has to be tested thoroughly for dynamic characteristics to assess its dampening capacity. The clamp shall have a slip strength not less than 250 Kgs. For 400 KV lines the RIV at 266 KV (rms) phase to ground shall be not more than 500 micro volts. Again among the stock bridge vibration dampers two types of dampers are in extensive use (viz) (i) two resonant type and (ii) Four Resonant type. Normally for 132 KV lines 2-R dampers are preferred while both 2-R type and 4-R type of dampers are in use for 220 KV lines. For Moose ACSR Conductors strung on 400 KV lines, 4-R dampers are known to be more effective in dampening the aeolian vibrations. The two dead weights in 2R dampers are equal mass and similar in shape. The dead weights of 4-R dampers are neither equal in mass nor in size. v) SPACERS : The spacers are used fixing the two conductors of each phase in 400 KV lines. The two conductors are held in cushioned grips of spacer consists of an aluminium alloy body provided with cushioned grips which is made of NEOPRENE. The cushioned grips which hold the two sub-conductors apart are fixed to the sub-conductors by means of armour rods made of Aluminium alloy. The spacers are suitably designed to provide subconductor spacing of 450 mm. The spacers are to be fixed at sub-span lengths of 80 meters each. SPACER DAMPERS :- Spacer dampers are used on 400 KV lines instead of separately fixing dampers and spacers. A typical spacer-damper used in 400 KV lines is shown in Figure 2.15 below :

115

2.4.5

STATUTORY INSPECTION AND COMMISIONING : After the E.H.T lines are completed, statutory inspection is carried out to check for (i) ground clearances (ii) midspan clearances (iii) proper fixing of insulators and hardware. (iv) jungle clearance and (v) proper erection of super structures. Necessary relay settings and other arrangements are provided in the connected substations as per the stipulations of Grid Operation wing. The EHT line is first charged on no load to see whether it can stand O.K. Then the line is taken into commercial operation.

116

NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN TRANSMISSION LINE MAINTENANCE BY HOTLINE TECHNIQUES

117

1.0

INTRODUCTION

In the modern age, the electricity has become a major essential commodity after air, food clothing and water. In the daily life any development of the country depends on the availability of the energy resources in abundance. Even though the other mineral and natural resources are available Electrical Power is contributing major role for the development of the country. It is our bound duty to maintain the Electricity uninterruptedly to achieve not only revenue earnings for the organization but also for the major industrial growth and thus development of the country in four fold. For maintaining the uninterrupted power supply one of the preventive maintenance techniques used in our organization is Hotline Techniques. The details are discussed below. 1.2 WHAT IS HOTLINE

Hot lines mean energized electrical power lines. Any equipment or machinery suffers from minor ailments which leads to major breakdowns. To prevent this timely action is always required as the proverb says Stitch in times saves nine. Adoption of the Live Line maintenance techniques for the power lines will suit to this proverb. 1.3 MAINTENANCE METHODS

Following are the methods adopted by all the Electrical Utilities (Companies) either in generation, transmission or distribution. i) Pre-arranged shut down methods after identifying the faults ii) Sudden faults developed as break downs and rectification is a breakdown maintenance. iii) Preventive Hotline maintenance The paper is to study in detail and explain the august gathering the details of preventive maintenance of Electrical power lines by Hotline Maintenance Techniques. 2.0 HOTLINES

Hotlines techniques mainly deals with the maintenance of energized line without any interruption to the power from Low Voltage Line to Ultra High Voltage Line 2.1 Broadly there are two types of techniques at present in use. i) Hot Stick Technique ii) Bare Hand Technique Hot Stick technique can be used from 11 KV to 220 KV lines where as Bare Hand Method is a must for Ultra High Tension lines i.e., from 400 KV and above. This organization is proud to present that the Bare Hand Techniques are being used for the preventive maintenance of 132 KV and 220 KV EHT lines and sub-stations also which is an unique feature in our country.

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2.2

HOT STICK METHOD In the year 1935 the lengthy bamboo dry sticks were used to remove cartridge fuses and for disconnection of isolators. In later days, after research, two types of woods were discovered to serve the above purpose. They are (i) OAKWOOD (ii) SITCA SPRUCE AND HIMALAYAN SPRUCE. OAK WOOD Oak wood having a property of high mechanical strength and high dielectric strength was used till 70s. Since the weight of the sticks made by this wood has become a constraint, these sticks were used for tension relieving purpose only, where high mechanical strengths were required. SITCA & HIMALAYAN SPRUCE The laminated light wood like SITCA Spruce and Himalayan Spruce were found and with them the laminated pieces are gloved and tools were made for the requirement. Eg. Tie sticks, Wire Tongs, Flexible Wrenches etc. i) Tie stick will be used for tying or untying the insulator bindings where the pin binding were taken up and also in use for various applications. ii) Wire tong holds the conductor or jumper and move them for a safe clearance of the crew who manipulates the works iii) Flexible wrench by fixing the suitable sockets of the required size, the bolt and nuts, of pad clamps, T clamps etc. can be tightened or loosened.

2.3

2.4

2.5

Likewise many more tools manufactured by this wood were in use upto 80s. But the above wood tools have got inherent property of absorbing moisture, even though they have outerly coated with Araldite and Teflon etc., looses their insulation values which requires heating chambers, air tight chambers and continuous insulation monitoring before use everyday at the work spot, which is a costly affair. Even then, if the operation time is delayed, the wood sticks will absorb the moisture content present in the atmosphere and failures will occur and is dangerous to the crew members and may cause breakdown to the power line. Thereby the very purpose of preventive maintenance of the energized line by risking the crew will be lost. To overcome the above constraints a further research was made on this and a new material i.e., Glass Fibre was introduced with trade name Epoxy Glass which is having very high dielectric strength, high mechanical strength and less weight than the wood sticks. The glass Fibers have been soaked with Epoxy resin and wound to manufacture a hollow stick. The hollowed portion is filled with a Unicellular foam to prevent external moisture to enter inside the stick and thus insulation value of the Epoxy Glass Stick will be maintained.

2.6

2.7

2.8

With this advantage and inherent capacity of not absorbing moisture from the external atmosphere, though sudden rain comes the crew can leave the tools in engaged condition of the work and after rain lashes, they can complete the work. 119

Because of the presence of unicellular foam material the rain drop swill not creep inside the hollow portion of the stick thereby insulation value will not be affected. Due to aberrations even though the water enters inside the hollow portion of the Epoxy Glass Stick, the water will not creep inside the stick due to stuffed unicellular foam material inside the stick. If the stick get watered in the rain, just wiping of the stick with moisture eater solution and little drying in the sun is quite enough to make the stick fit for the work. Like wise, Epoxy Glass Sticks will all the above added advantages are better in use than the wooden sticks in the live line maintenance of the Hot lines. For these Hot Sticks different suitable metal heads are fitted for carrying out number of operations like changing of broken insulators, flashed over insulators and all the connected parts of tension and suspension points of the live lines without interruption to the power or without availing any shut down. And also tightening or loosening of cut point jumper bolt and nuts, replacing vibration dampers, replacing suspension shoe clamps etc., of the EHT lines and Lifting up of the conductors, changing of cross arms upto 11 KV and 33 KV can be carried out by this Hot Stick method. 3.0 BARE HAND TECHNIQUE Bare Hand Technique means to charge a person to the required voltage level on an insulated platform either by traversing the person by insulated ladder or by raising through an insulated boom, and carrying out the work on charged line with Hands. The chargeable person will wear a conductive suit comprising of cotton, asbestos and stainless steel threads, along with conductive shoes of copper threaded carbon sole with conductive socks and conductive hand gloves. Total continuity will be maintained from Head to Toe covering the head with hood except the face. 3.1 The Bare Hand Technique is not a single man operation, it requires both Hot Stick Method as explained previously and a bare hand person. By the effective utilization of this method the APTRANSCO erstwhile APSEB was commissioned additional transformers in 220 kv and 132 kv Sub-stations and further equipment like capacitor bank etc. without interruption to any equipment or without Bus shut downs. 3.2 By this Bare Hand Technique damaged Bus jumpers, T Clamps, Isolator Pad Clamps, Female Contacts are being replaced without the interruption to the bus bars, and conductor damages also being attended when sufficient clearances are there for operation. By adopting this Bare Hand Technique lot of problems like taking Bus shut downs, line clear etc. can be avoided and thereby lot of time and revenue and also interruption are being avoided. APTRANSCO and APGENCO are extensively using this technique to avoid interruption, there by the better consumer satisfaction and plant load factors are achieved.

3.3

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4.0

THERMOGRAPHY Thermography means projecting the Infra-red rays on an object and receiving the reflected image on the screen. Depends upon the temperature the colour intensity of the image will change. Depending upon the intensity of the colour, the fault is identified and predictivity is by human eye and experience only. Rectification will be carried out by depending upon gravity of the situation

4.1

With the latest version of Inframatics 760 system with Thermotroniks software, the condition of the line jumpers, insulators, metal parts, connectors of transformers and current transformers, where the change of temperature is there, can be identified well in advance and behaviour of the metal part can be analysed in the computer. The temperature rise of any connector since being identified well in advance by the Thermovision Camera the same is being rectified well in advance even before deformity or red hot occurs for the clamp or connector. With this latest version of thermal imaging system the APTRANSCO is able to identify the internal faults of any electrical system in the Generating Stations and EHT substations and by the analysis of computer the rectification action is also being initiated. The following are the major identified by the Thermal Imaging System : a) TURFOUNION 100 MVA transformer winding connectors at bushing end at Shapurnagar and Nellore EHT substations. b) VTPS Generator Transformers 3,4 & 5 of BHEL make winding terminals at bushing are identified and due to emergency immediate action initiated and saved huge damage to the Transformer and connected equipment. c) Sub-station equipment at almost all the EHT substations in the State and also major feeders connectors are scanned. e.g Ghanapur-Chandrayanagutta Chandrayanagutta-Shapurnagar VTS- Narketpally-Hyderabad VTS- Tadikonda-Ongole VTS-Nellore 220 kv Line 220 kv Line 220 kv Line 220 kv Line 220 kv Line

4.2

4.3 5.0

Rectification action already initiated and strengthened the weak points OTHER HOTLINE WORKS Apart from the above Hotline and Bare Hand Work, the Hotline sub-divisions are also taking up the special Hotline works, like removing and cleaning of the saline contamination of the insulators, cement dust deposits on the insulators and chemical deposits on the insulators by three types of methods. a) Dry washing b) Hot Spraying c) Wet washing

5.1

DRY WASHING The Dry Washing and Spraying will be undertaken with huge hot air along with corn husk or paddy husk on peanut husk with lime stone granules. The hot spray of air through nozzles will clean the cement contamination. 121

5.2

HOT SPRAYING To avoid the cement dust pollution and other chemical pollution the spraying of chemical on the insulators will be taken up. When once the cleaning of the insulators by dry washing is completed a thin film of silicon compound will be deposited on the insulators by Hot Spray.

5.3

WET WASHING Previously the wet washing of the live insulators is used to be carried out by a small cylinder with carbon dioxide along with water to a limited extent.

5.4

At present with latest equipment and trigger controls etc. the ordinary water having the conductivity of less than 2 mhos is being sprayed directly on the live insulator to clear the salt contamination, dust and chemical contamination which is soluble in water. The above works are being taken up at all the coastal areas, by one Sub-division trained for this special nature of work to carry out the operation with special equipment. Due to cost constraint only one equipment is purchased and being used wherever necessary in the State.

5.5

The special nature work of thermal imaging equipment is with Hyderabad and used in entire state. Vijayawada Hot Lines sub-division is having the special nature equipment of Hot Spray and Dry Washing Kit and being used. Visakhapatnam Hot Line Sub-division is having the Wet Washing Kit and being used. Visakhapatnam Hot Line crew has taken up several lines to clear the salt deposits on the insulators with the help of wet washing and maintained the supply of power and contributing much to the entire State. On Macheeryala, Tadepally, Yerraguntla and Vadapally EHT Lines Cement deposits on Insulators have been cleared to much extent by Vijayawada Hot Line Sub-division. Hyderabad Hot line Sub-division attended many works by Bare Hand Technique as noticed by Thermovision camera in changing female contacts, jumper clamps and jumpers, and provided many repair sleeves on the live conductors. Many additional transformers of 50 MVA and 100 MVA were commissioned in the sub station system by connecting the HV side and LV side jumpers to the existing 220 KV /132 KV Buses without availing any bus shut downs and interruption to the equipment.

6.0

AUTHORISATION AND APPLICATION : In this Hotlines field the crew is authorized to carryout insulatiors changing, jumpers both tightening etc., and all the connected works of Hotlines by way of 122

training at Hotline Training Centre and a Certification from the Competent Authority. The personnel who were trained in Hotlines shall only carryout the work under the trained Supervisor. 6.1 CONSTRAINT: The IE Act 1948 and IE rules 1956 insisted the working personnel to obtain license to work on live line, but the present Hotline Training Centre at Bangalore is imparting training on Hot Stick Methods only, But not in Bare Hand Techniques. 6.2 In this juncture it is worth mentioning that the APTRANSCO (erstwhile APSEB) is the only organization carrying out the works of Bare Hand Technique in the entire Country. In the absence of training facility in Bare Hand Technique all the Hot line trained people are trained in Bare Hand Techniques also by Sri K.S.N.Murthy, Divl.Engineer,APTRANSCO but certification is a major constraint. By these two techniques, Hotlines and Bare Hand APTRANSCO is able to save the Revenue to the tune of 2.20 crores every month. By the adoption of these Techniques the transmission system can be maintained upto the standards. SET BACKS: a. At present the equipment like CTs, Wave Traps, Power transformers could not be attended without interruption to the equipment due to potential differences. b. Hotlines experienced personnel even though they can perform Bare Hand Works due to rules prevailing certificates could not be issued. c. Due to much risk involvement and extensive touring the new blood is not flowing into the Hotlines and this matter requires special attention. d. Since the tools are of imported once, paucity of founds is of major setback to equip the working personnel with T&P required while opening new working groups or wings. The tools and vehicle costs Rs.30 lakhs for each working group and revenue is 2.2 crores. If the above bottle necks are over come the transmission system can best utilize the Hotlines and bare hand techniques even upto 11 KV in the low level and 400 KV and above in the higher level and can maintain uninterrupted supply to the most extend and there by the reputation of the organization will go high.

6.3

7.0

7.1

123

EHT SUB STATIONS

124

3.00 3.1 3.1.1

EHT SUB-STATIONS LAYOUTS The selection of bus system has to be made keeping in view the degree of reliability of supply required during maintenance of faults. Bus system adopted and being adopted in A.P Grid are as follows. Arrangement Advantages Disadvantages Simple 1. In case of busfault or 1. Improved Single Busbar bus bar isolator fault Arrangement (33 KV, 132 or maintenance KV & 220 KV) associated system is lost 2. In case of maintenance of transformer circuit breaker the associated transformer has also to be shut-down

2.

Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement (132 KV)

Maintenance on any one feeder breaker at a time, is possible without main bus or feeder shut down

As in the case of single bus bar arrangement, in case of fault on the main bus-bar or the associated isolator, there is a complete shutdown of substation

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3.

Duplicate-Bus bar Arrangement (220 KV)

Each circuit can be connected to either one of the bus bars.

Only one bus will be available during maintenance of any one Circuit Breaker. Consequently the disadvantage in Main & Transfer bus arrangement is eliminated.

4.

Breaker and a Half Arrangement (400 KV)

1. Load transfer is done through breaker and hence operation is simple.

2. Any circuit breaker can be taken out for maintenance without causing interruption.

1. Relaying is complicated. Since third breaker is to be responsive to the faults on either feeder in correct sequence. 2. each breaker has to be suitable for carrying the current of two circuits to meet the requirements of various switching operations which may in some cases increase the cost.

126

5.

Three Bus System (220 & 132 KV)

Since by-pass will be utilized for maintenance of breakers, two buses will be available for normal operation even during maintenance, thus increasing reliability.

This system cannot be adopted where space is restricted.

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3.2 3.2.1

STRUCTURES DESIGN LOADS:

3.2.1.1 WIND PRESSURE ON STRUCTURES: In regions other than coastal regions 125 Kg/Sq. m. on 1.5 times the projected area of members of one face for latticed structures and other non-cylindrical objects and on single projected area in the case of other structures. In coastal regions the wind pressure may be assumed as 260 Kg./Sqm. 3.2.1.2 WIND PRESSURE ON CONDUCTORS : In regions other than coastal and hilly regions, 75 Kg/Sq.m on two thirds projected areas. Coastal areas 125/150 Kg. / Sq.m. In hilly regions 90 Kg. / Sq.m 3.2.1.3 Maximum tension per conductor of transmission line conductors strung from terminal towers to station structures or strung buses : 1) 33 KV and 11 KV 450 Kg. 2) 60 KV 450 Kg. 3) 132 KV and 220 KV 900 Kg. 4) 400 KV 1000 Kg. 5) Ground wire Tension 450 Kg. 3.2.1.4 MAXIMUM SPANS OF LINES ADJACENT TO STATIONS 33 KV and below 60.00 m 66 Kv and above 150.00 m 3.2.1.5 UPLIFT OF ADJACENT SPANS : Maximum slope (mean of the 3-phases) at the point of attachment 1 : 8 above horizontal. 3.2.2. FACTOR OF SAFETY: 3.2.2.1 FOR STEEL : 2.0 based on maximum loading conditions (on elastic limit for tension members and crippling load for compression members). 3.2.2.2 FOR R.C.C. : 3.5 on ultimate breaking load 3.2.2.3 FOR SAFETY AGAINST OVER TURNING Steel 2 R.C.C 2.0

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3.2.3

SLENDERNESS RATIO (L/R) SHOULD NOT EXCEED : i) main members of cross arms and for leg ii) other members having calculated stresses iii) members having nominal stresses iv) for members other than those covered under i) above and carrying tensile stress only (Where L = unsupported length) R = Radius of gyration) 140 200 250 400

3.2.4

STANDARD BAY WIDTHS IN METERS : 11 KV 33 KV 66 KV 132 KV 220 KV 400 KV 4.7 4.7 7.6 12.2 & 11 17.00 27.00

3.2.5

STANDARD BUS AND EQUIPMENT ELEVATIONS Rated voltage (KV) 11 & 33 66 132 220 400 Equipment live terminal elevation in meters 2.8 to 4.0 4.0 3.7 to 5 4.9 to 5.5 8.0 Main Bus / Buses elevation in metres Low High 5.5 to 6.5 9.0 6.0 to 7.0 9.0 to 10.5 8.0 to 9.5 13.5 to 14.5 9.0 to 13.0 18.5 15.5 -Take-off elevation in metres 6.5 to 8.5 9.5 12.0 to 12.5 15.0 to 18.5 23 M

3.3.1

BUS BAR MATERIAL The materials in common use for strain type Bus bars are ACSR conductors. Bundled conductors (two or four) are used where high ratings for bus bars are required. The size of conductors commonly used are : 11 KV 33 KV 132 KV 220 KV 61/3.18 mm 61/3.18 mm 61/3.18 mm 61/3.53 mm 61/3.8 mm 61/3.53 mm ZEBRA ZEBRA ZEBRA MOOSE MOOSE Twin Twin (Single/Twin)
(Single/Twin/Quadruple)

400 KV 3.3.2

Quadruple

STRINGING TENSIONS : The insulators, bus bars and connections should not be stressed to more than one fourth of the breaking load or one third of their elastic limit whichever is lower. 129

3.4

CLEARANCES The following are the minimum clearances for out-door equipment and rigid conductors in air. BIL Basic Minimum Clearance Phase to phase spacing in Rated insulation between voltage isolators and switches Phase to Phase to level (KV) (KV)
phase (mm) earth (mm)

11 33 66 132 220 400

75 170 325 550 650 900 1050 1425 1550

400 400 750 1350 1600 2300 2700 4000 5200

310 320 630 1150 1380 1960 2300 3500 3640

610 760 1530 2140 3400

920 120 2140 3050 4000

3.4.2

Normally adopted phase spacings for strung bus are indicated below : 11 KV 33 KV 66 KV 132 KV 220 KV 400 KV 1300 mm 1300 mm 2200 mm 3000/3600 mm 4500 mm 7000 mm.

3.4.3

a) The minimum clearance of the live parts to ground in an attended outdoor substation and the sectional clearance to be maintained between live parts in adjacent sections for safety of persons while working with adjacent sections alive are given below Voltage rating (KV) 11 33 66 132 220 400 Minimum Clearance to ground (mm.) 3700 3700 4600 4600 5500 8000 Sectional Clearance (mm.) 2600 2800 3000 3500 4300 7000

3.4.3 3.4.4

b) The bottom most portion of any insulator or bushing in service should be at a minimum height of 2500 mm above ground level. The earthing practice adopted at generating stations, sub-stations and lines should be in such a manner as to provide : a) Safety to personnel b) Minimum damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy fault currents c) Improve reliability of power supply 130

3.4.5

The primary requirements are : The impedance to ground (Resistance of the earthing system) should be as low as possible and should not exceed 1 ohm in large sub-stations and 2 ohms in small substations and 0.5 ohms in power stations. In distribution transformer stations, it could be 5 ohms The step and touch potentials should be within safe tolerable limits

3.4.6.1 Resistance of the earthing system R= P +P 4r L where P = L = R = Soil resistivity in ohm meter Length of the conductor buried in meters Radius in meters of a circle having the same area as that occupied by earth mat.

The value of R should be within limits as specified in para 2.4.5 (a) 3.4.6.2 The size of earth mat conductor (steel strip) shall be: A (Steel) = = Where A I = = = and t = 26 x 1 t circular mills (Or 0.0013 x It sq.mm) for bolted joints 21.6 x I t circular mills (Or 0.011 x It sq.mm) for welded joints Cross section Fault current in amps., at the station Fault MVA x 103 3 x system kv Time in seconds during which current is applied

3.4.6.3 In order to take care of corrosion etc. some extra margin may be provided in the size of earthing strip. 3.4.7.1 The permissible values of step and touch potentials can be calculated as follows : i) Safe tolerable E step (Volts) = 165 + Ps t where Ps is the resistivity of the ground in ohm meter just beneath the feet of a person (3000 for crushed rock). t is the time in seconds to clear earth (fault by the concerned breaker (0.5 may be assumed) ii) Safe tolerable E touch (Volts) = 165 + 0.25 Ps t

131

3.4.7.2 The maximum attainable step and touch potentials can be calculated as follows. (These potentials shall be less than the tolerable value, calculated under clause 2.4.7.1) Ks.Ki.Pl L Where Ks = 7 x ( 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + n terms) 22 2h D+h 2D 3D n D h Ki P l L = = = = = = = Number of parallel conductors in the grid Spacing of conductors in grid in meters Depth of burial in meters 0.655 + (0.172 x n) Average resistivity of the ground in ohm meters Maximum total RMS current flowing between the ground grid and Earth in amps Length of buried conductor in meters a) Maximum attainable E step =

b) Maximum attainable E touch = Km. Ki. P.l L Where Km = 7 x logs D x D + V x log 3 x 5 x 7 x (n-2) terms 44 16 hd 22 4 6 8 (Approximately) Km = 7/44 x loge(dr / 16 hd) + 7/22 Loge 0.25 n = Number of parallel conductors in the grid d = Equivalent dia of conductor used in metres D = Spacing of conductors Ingrid in metres h = Depth of burial in metres Ki = 0.655 + (0.172 x n) P = Average resistivity of the ground in ohm metres l = Maximum RMs current following between the ground grid and earth in amps L = Length of buried conductor in metres REFERENCES 1) 2) LAURENT , P.G general fundamentals of electric grounding technique, Bulletin De La Societe Franciaise Des Electriciens 1 (July 1951) 368-402. AIEE committee report Voltage gradient through the ground under fault conditions , AIEE Trans, 77 pt.III (1958 ) 669-692.

3.4.7.3 All exposed steel earthing conductors should be protected with bituminous paint. PLATE EARTHS i)EHT Substation - 1.3 M x 13 M.Ms cast iron plates 25mm thick Plates are to be buried vertically in pits and surrounded by finely divided coke, crushed coal or char coal atleast 155 mm all round the plates. Plates should not be less than 15 m apart and 132

should be buried to sufficient depth to ensure that they are always surrounded by moist earth. 3.4.7.5 PIPE EARTH ING a) EHT substations Cast iron pipes 125 mm in diameter 2.75 m long and not less than 9.5 mm thick. Pipes 50.8 mm in dia and 3.05m long.

Pipes are to be placed vertically at intervals of not less than 12.2 m in large stations surrounded by finely broken coke crushed coal and charcoal atleast 150 mm around the pipe on the extra depth. a) Peripheral or main earth mat 100 x 16 m MS flat b) c) Internal earth mat Branch connections 50 x 8m MS flat to be placed at 5m apart Cross section not less than 64.5 sq.mm

i) Joints are to be kept down to the minimum number ii) All joints and connections in earth grid are to be brazed, riveted, sweated, bolted or welded. For rust protection the welds should be treated with barium chromate. Welded surfaces should be painted with red lead and aluminium paint in turn and afterwards coated with bitumen. Joints in the earthing conductor between the switchgear units and the cable sheaths, which may require to be subsequently broken should be bolted and the joint faces tinned. All joints in steel earthing system should be made by welding except the points for separating the earthing mat for testing purposes which should be bolted. These points should be accessible and frequently supervised. 3.4.7.6 In all sub-stations there shall be provision for earthing the following : a) The neutral point of each separate system should have an independent earth, which in turn should be interconnected with the station grounding mat b) Equipment frame work and other non-current carrying parts (two connections) c) All extraneous metallic frame work not associated with equipment (two connections) d) Lightning arrestors should have independent earths which should in turn be connected to the station grounding grid. e) Over head lightning screen shall also be connected to the main ground mat. 3.4.7.7 The earth conductor of the mat could be buried under earth to economical depth of burial of the mat 0.5 meters.

133

3.4.7.8 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE : 3.4.7.8.1 The earth resistance can be measured by any of the following methods : i) Three point method ii) Four point method 3.4.7.8.2 THREE POINT METHOD : In this method, two temporary electrodes or spikes are driven, one for current and the other for voltage, at a distance of 150 ft. and 75 ft. respectively from earth electrode under test and ohmic values of earth electrode resistances are obtained from the earth megger. The earth resistance is calculated from the following formula : R R L D P = = = = = P log 10 (4 L/D) 2 L where,

Electrode resistance in ohms Length in centimeters of the Rod driven under ground Diameter in cms. of the rod Earth resistivity in ohm-cm

3.4.7.8.3 FOUR POINT METHOD : In this method, four spikes are driven into the ground at equal intervals of a cms. The depth of insertion of spikes into the ground must not exceed one twentieth of a. The two outer spikes are connected to the current terminals of earth megger while the two inner spikes are connected to potential terminals. The megger handle is rotated till a steady reading R ohms is recorded. Assuming that the soil is homogeneous the earth resistivity P in ohms/ cubic centimeter (ohm/cm) is calculated from the following formula : P = 2aR

Increased spacing of spikes gives high values for P and this effect is believed to be due to different strata in the earths depth having different resistivities. 3.5 3.5.1 INSULATORS Technical particulars of the tension and suspension type porcelain insulators shall normally be as that of line insulators. The post solid core type insulator shall be capable of being mounted either up-right or under hung. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS : The solid core insulators are intended for erection with 220 KV, 132 KV and 33KV isolators and for support purpose in the Boards EHT substations. The particulars of the system, the insulation levels to be withstood by the insulators and other particulars are indicated below : 134

3.6

The values under columns (A), (B) and (C) shall correspond to their usage as 220 KV, 132 KV and 33KV insulators (A) (B) (C )

Nominal System voltage Highest System voltage Standard impulse withstand voltage One minute Power Frequency withstand voltage No. of insulator units per stack Height of each basic unit Total height of the stack Pitch Circle diameter (4 nos. holes of 17.5 mm dia on the base and top suitable for bolts of 16mm dia for each piece) Top Bottom Total creapage distance (Min.) Mechanical strength required (Min.) Cantilever (N) Tension (N) Torsion (N-M) Compression (N)

220 KV (Rms) 245 KV (Rms) 1050 Kv (Peak) 460 KV (Rms) Two 1150 mm 2300 3.5mm

132 KV (Rms) 145 KV (Rms) 650 KV (Peak) 275 KV (Rms) One 1500 2.5mm 1500 2.5 mm

33 KV (Rms) 36 KV (Rms) 170 Kv (Rms) 75 KV (Rms) One 445 1 445 1

127 mm 178 mm 3800 mm

127 mm 178 mm 2250 mm

76 mm 76 mm 760 mm

4000 80000 3000 160000

6000 7000 3000 1,40,000

4500 30000 1500 60000

All other mechanical and electrical features shall be in conformity with post insulators designation C4-1050, C6-650 and C6-170 of IS: 5350 Part-II for 220 cu arce insulators respectively. 3.7 LIGHTNING SHIELDING This protection could be achieved by overhead ground wires of 7/4.064 mm hot dip galvanized steel wire, mounted at a h eight above the power conductors maintaining minimum earth clearance. Lightning masts also could be used instead of ground wires. 3.7.2 When overhead ground wires used, all electrical equipment outside the area enclosed by the ground wires shall fall within the area covered by 30 degrees angle to the vertical on the outside of the outer most ground wires. All electrical equipment within the area enclosed by the ground wires shall within the area covered by a 60 degree angle to the vertical on the side of the ground wires. 135

If lightning masts or rod used all electrical equipment outside the area enclosed by the lightning masts or rods shall fall within the protective cone formed by rotating a line at 30 degrees to the vertical with the lightning mast or rod peak as apex through 360 degrees. All electrical equipment within the area enclosed by the lightning masts or rods shall fall within the protective cone formed by rotating a line at 60 degree to the vertical with the lightning mast or rod peak as apex through 360 degrees. The ground wire and/or masts/rods shall be connected to the main station earthing system bus solidly (and not through supporting steel structures) for preventing difference of surge potential between the shield and other grounded parts of the station. 3.8 LIGHTING : IS : 3646 (Part II) Schedule of values of illumination and glare index-recommends values of intensity of illumination. The following uniform illumination levels are being adopted. i) Switchyard 25 Lux ii) Control room and Test room 300 to 500 Lux iii) Carrier room MCC room, LT panels, Chargers, Offices, Conference Hall, Rest Room Reception, Workshop, Repair bay etc., - 300 Lux iv) Battery room, Corridors, PLCC room, Toilets, Store Room, Cloak room, Stairs etc. 100 Lux 3.9 3.9.1 SURGE DIVERTOR (Lightning Arrestors) Guide for selection of LA

3.9.1.1 Before selecting the L.A it should be ascertained whether the system is effectively earthed, non-effectively earthed or having isolated neutral. 3.9.1.2 The system neutrals are considered to be effectively earthed when the co-efficient of earthing does not exceed 80%. In this case, the reactance ratio X0/ X1 (zero sequence reactance/positive sequence reactance) is positive and less than 3 and at the same time the resistance ratio RO/X1 (zero sequence resistance/positive sequence reactance) is less than 1 at any point on the system. For this system the arrestor rating will be 80% of the highest phase to phase system voltage. 3.9.1.3 The L.A voltage rating corresponding to the system voltages normal are indicated below : Rated system Highest system Arrester rating in KV Voltage (KV) Voltage (KV) Effectively earthed systems 11 12 9 33 36 30 66 72.5 60 132 145 120/132 (latex) 220 245 198/216 (latex) 400 420 336 136

3.9.1.4 The L.As are usually procured along with surge counters and leakage current ammeters, if available. 3.9.2 LOCATION OF LIGHTING ARRESTORS : The L.As employed for protecting transformers should be installed as close as possible to the transformer. The electrical circuit length between L.A and the transformer bushing terminal should not exceed the limits given below : Rated system Voltage KV 11 33 66 132 220 400 BIL KV Peak 75 200 325 550 650 900 1050 1425 1550 Max. distance between L.A and Transformer bushing terminal (inclusive of lead length) (in metres) Effectively earthed 12.0 18.0 24.0 35.0 43.0 Closes to Transformer

3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5

Station type L.As should be installed on the H.V and L.V sides of power transformers in sub-stations. Station type L.As should be provided on all feeders rated 33KV and below . Long cables from the station to exposed Overhead lines should be protected by arrestors installed at the junction of the cable to O.H line. ISOLATORS Air break isolators or disconnecting switches are not intended to break load though these are meant for transfer of load from one bus to another and also to isolate equipment for maintenance. These are available mainly in two types vertical break type and horizontal break type. The later type requires larger width. However the space requirement can be reduced in this horizontal break isolators by having double break with a center rotating pillar. Pantograph and semi-pantograph disconnects involve vertical movements of contact arm and therefore require less separation between phases and thereby require less separation between phases and thereby help in reducing the sub-station area to a larger extent. The isolators could be operated mechanically or hydraulically or pneumatically or by electric motor. Earthing facility shall be provided wherever required.

3.10

137

Rated Insulation Levels (IS 1818 1972) Sl. Item 11 KV 33 KV 66 KV 132 KV 220 KV 400 KV No. 1. Standard and impulse withstand voltage positive and negative polarity (KV peak) 375 750 / 630 1210 / 1035 1780 / 1640 195 85 a) Across isolating distance 325 650 / 550 1050 / 900 1550 / 1425 170 75 b) To earth and between poles 2. One minute power frequency with stand voltage (KV rms) a) To earth and between poles b) To earth and between poles c) To earth and between poles in the case of oil immersed ones for routine testing after (x)

35 35 28

75 75 70

140 140 140

275 / 230 275 / 230 275 / 230

460 / 395 460 / 395 460 / 395

680 / 630 680 / 630 680 / 630

These values apply when the frame of the isolator is connected to the mid point of the voltage source. Note 1. Note 2. For earthing devices only, the test voltages to earth and between poles apply The table applies at the conditions of temperature, pressure and humidity which are 20 Degrees Centigrade, 760 mm and humidity which are 20 Degrees Centigrade, 760 mm and 11g of water/cub. Meter.

3.10.2 Switches controlling transformers or feeders should be capable of breaking their charging currents. 3.10.3 High pressure contact switches for outdoor service are generally with a contact pressure of 0.227 kgs per Amp. Capacity (rough guide) 3.10.4 Breaking capacity of switches : Breaking current of ASEA switchs Empirical formula I=K L E Where I =

Breaking current in Amps (r.m.s) 138

0.06 when breaking a capacitor or unloaded cable 0.15 when breaking an unloaded overhead transmission line 0.20 when breaking unloaded transformer 0.40 when breaking load current Centre to Centre phase distance in mm. though not exceeding four Times the flash over distance across an open pole. Breaking voltage, Main voltage Kv-rms

L E

= =

1. MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE OF E.H.V. POWER TRANSFORMERS Sl.No. Item of Maintenance Periodicity Remarks
Daily Checking the colour of silicagel in the breather and replacement or reconditioning if colour changes from blue to pink say about 50% of the total quantity. Checking up the oil level of the oil seal (to be upto the level marked in the cup) 2. Checking of oil level in a) Main conservator b) Daily OLTC conservator c) bushings and examining for leaks of oil 3 Visual check for overheating if any at terminal Daily each shift connections and checking for unusual internal noises 4 Checking for noise and vibrations or an Daily abnormality from oil pumps and cooling fans 5 Checking up of oil and winding temperatures Hourly 6 Checking for pressure relief explosion vent Daily diaphram from cracks 6 (a) Forced cooling system: Checking for leakage of Daily water into cooler (forced cooling system by oil pumps) 7 Cleaning of bushings. Inspect for any cracks or Monthly chippings of the porcelain 8 Ensuring that oil comes out when air release valve Quarterly is opened (of the main tank) 9 Measuring insulation resistance of windings with Quarterly an appropriate Megger (note down oil temp.) 10 (a) Checking up of winding and oil temperature. Quarterly Bucholtz and surge relay and oil level trips for correct operation 10 (b) Checking up of Auto starting of pumps and Quarterly cooling fans 11 OLTC oil test for BDV and moisture content. Quarterly Ensure oil level in OLTC 12 Main tank oil testing for BDV and moisture Half yearly content 13 a) Checking of Bucholtz relay for any gas Quarterly or during fault collection and testing the gas collected b) Checking of operation of Bucholtz relay by Half yearly or during shutdown air injection c) Noting the oil level in the inspection glass or Monthly or as when shut down Bucholtz relay, arresting availed 1.

139

14 15 16

Tap changer a) Lubricating / greasing all moving parts Checking of all connection on the transformer for tightness such as bushings, tank earth connection, etc. Forced cooling system a) Megger testing of motors (pump) lubricating the mechanical parts and cooling fans b) Cleaning of water jacket c) Cleaning of water jacket circuits of oil pumps and cooling fans for earth leakage overload trip alarm, etc. d) Checking of interlocks for pumps. Cooling of interlocks for pumps. Cooling Air Blast fans for Auto Start and Stop operation at correct temperature setting and for manual operation Oil level in oil seal and replacement Testing of oil for dissolved gas analysis for 100 MVA and above. If the results show abnormality, frequency of DGA may be increased as per the recommendations of R&D

Quarterly Quarterly Yearly Quarterly Quarterly Quarterly

17 18

Quarterly Half yearly

Other Transformers such as 50 MVA, 31.5 MVA and 10/16 MVA Trs. Which are in service for more than 5 years

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

30

Pressure testing of oil coolers Half Yearly Testing of motors, pumps and calibrating pressure Half Yearly gauges, etc. Overhauling of pumps, motors and cooling fans Yearly or as and when necessary Testing of oil in main tank for acidity, tan delta, Yearly IFT and resistivity Bushings testing for tan delta Yearly Calibration of oil and winding temperature Yearly indicator Measurement of excitation current at low voltage Yearly at normal tap and extreme taps Measurement of DC winding resistance Yearly Ratio test at all taps Yearly Checking the bushing CT for WTI for correct ratio Yearly OLTC a) Inspection of contacts in diverter Depending upon the no. of operations as recommended by the manufacturer b) Driving mechanism visual check-up, Yearly overhauling if necessary a) Tap position indicator Yearly

140

31 32 33 34 35

36

b) Checking for proper working of remote tap Yearly position indicator, remote winding test indicator Operatingof Bucholtz relay for alarm and trip by Yearly draining of oil and injection of air with cycle pump Checking for leakage in air cell (for transformers Yearly fitted with Air Cell) Oil level in Thermometer pocket top up if required Yearly Bushing partial discharge test and capacitance Once in 5 years General Overhaul Once in 10 years a) Core tightening b) De-sludging / washing of windings c) Inspection of core and windings d) Replacement of all gaskets e) Check core bolt insulation Filtration of oil Whenever oil test results are below permissible limits

141

INTERPRETATION OF THE ANALYSIS OF GASES IN TRANSFORMERS AND OTHER OIL FILLED ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN SERVICE 1.0 Introduction IEC 599 ANNEXURE 1A

This standard is a result of a survey carried out jointly by the IEC and the CIGRE in order to compare available method of interpretation of gas in Oil analysis. One hundred samples were collected of faulty transformers for which the actual faults had been identified by the examination and the gas dissolved in oil and sometimes the Bucholz gas, had been analysed. The diagnostic methods given in this standard were applied. All these methods of interpretation appear to be capable of discriminating reliably between electrical faults and thermal faults. Exemption were rare and they perhaps reflect occasional mis-judgement rather than the inadequacy of the methods. 2.0 SCOPE Electrical discharges of thermal stresses in the oil or solid insulation, for example, paper press board etc. of an oil filled transformer cause degradation of these materials with the formation of gases of various types. To some extent these gases dissolved in the oil filled electrical equipment and for the analysis of free and dissolved gases, they may be removed from a sample of the oil and analysed quantitatively by gas chromatography. This standard describes how the concentration of dissolved gasses or of free gases may be interpreted to diagnose the condition of a transformer in service and suggest future action. These methods of interpretation have been developed for power transformers wound with copper conductors insulated paper of pressboard based solid insulation and filled with hydrocarbon mineral oil, in service on power networks until further experience has been gained the method should be applied with caution in relation to other materials. The method may also apply in principle to instrument transformers, oil filled cables, switchgears etc. but insufficient experience is available to formulate suitable interpretation and limits. In any case, the indication obtained must be viewed only as a guide and resulting action must be undertaken with proper engineering judgement. 3.0 3.1 Recommended basic method for interpreting gas analysis : Gases generated from oil : The basic diagnosis is found upon the types and relative quantities of gases generated by the composition of oil under various fault conditions. It will be appreciated that oil either alone or as an impregnant is present practically everywhere that a fault can arise in large oil filled transformers. The most significant gases generated by the decomposition of oil are hydrogen (H2) Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6) Acetylene (C2H2) and Ethelene (C2H4). 142

Note : The hydro carbons quoted above are by no means the only one generated, for example, C4 hydrocarbons are also formed. But experience to date has shown that a satisfactory diagnosis can be made without accepting these gases and for the simplicity, they have been analysed and the method of interpretation described below. Where celulosic materials are involved at a fault, further gases, chiefly carbondioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) are also generated by the information obtained from concentration of these in supplementary to the basis diagnosis as explained in clause 4. The relative quantities of the above gases show how the energy available to decompose the oil is released at the fault and hence always characteristic type of fault, if fault is present. Partial discharge has occurred in case of fault of low level energy (break down in gas filled voids oil filled impregnated material) the main cause of the decomposition in this case is ionic bombardment of the oil molecules and the gas produced is hydrocarbon. In other cases, the decomposition of oil is mainly caused by heat with variations, in the types of hydrocarbons produced mainly hydrogen and methane. Higher temperatures and higher energies are caused by hot spots or conductor overheating, temperatures from a little above normal operating temperatures (say 15 Deg. C) to as high as 100 deg. C may occur in such cases to decompose the oil. The principal gas produced by the low temperature hot spots is CH4 but as the fault temperature at room rise C2H6 and C2H4 appear in increasing quantities. In the much higher temperatures occurring at sparking, flashovers or in power arcing where temperature of over 3000 deg. C may be produced C2H2 becomes significant. The recommended method of codifying these changing concentrations to enable ready diagnosis of a fault is given in the sub-clause 3.3 Note : The techniques described apply only where there is a single or predominant type of fault present where there are more types of fault each producing considerable quantities of gases, additional information may be obtained, periods of observations may be required. Levels at which dissolved gases are significant : Before proceeding with any diagnosis method it is necessary to be satisfied that the measured gas contents are significant. There are questions to be answered. 1) Are the measured values well above the sensitivity of the analysis methods and equipment ? 2) If they are, are the gas concentration high enough to warrant further investigations as to whether there may be a fault in the transformers ? The answer to the first question depends on the analysis method and equipment. IEC publication 567 sets requirement for the sensitivity of the analysis. Before considering that any gases present insignificant quantity, its concentration should be atleast 10 times these sensitivity limits. The answer to the 2nd question related to the likelihood of a gas being present in a transformer due to normal operating conditions, without any fault being present. Even 143

in re-impregnated transformer, gases may be present in quantities sufficient to be misleading. Sources of these gases may be : gases formed during the refining processes and not completely removed by oil degassing gases formed during drying and impregnating the transformer in the factory gases formed on the occasion of previous faults and not completely removed from the oil-impregnated insulation before being refilled with degassed oil : gases formed during repairs by brazing welding etc.

To overcome this problem it is suggested that the initial gas contents of the oil in transformer should be established as a matter of routing by analyzing gases from an oil sample obtained shortly before or a limited period after, energizing the transformer at site. The result of this analysis is taken as a benchmark at when examining later analysis which are regarded as indicative of trouble only if the concentration of gases substantially exceed the benchmark values. During ordinary operation also gases are formed, particularly CO2 and CO by normal aging processes in a transformer, so that concentrations of all gases may be expected to increase over the life of a transformer (along with some times stable values are reached, set by interchange with the air at the conservator. Actual values of concentrations for various ages of transformers vary, widely as a result of different operational methods and transformer designs, it is strongly recommended that each utility should endeavour to build up data from which these normal concentrations) or norms for healthy transformers of various ages may be know. If, on carrying out a routine analysis of the gases in the oil of particular transformer norms are found to be exceeded, this does not necessarily indicate that there is a fault, but does indicate the greater attention to that transformer is advisable. One would usually institute more frequent sampling any analysis but the urgency and nature of action would to some extent depend on the amounts by which actual concentrations are found to exceed the norms as well as on the particular composing of dissolved gases. INTERNATIONAL data covering all types of transformers and all operating methods will be published by CIGRE. However, since these are average values covering very many cases, they are by no means reliable as those built up by experience by a particular manufacturer. 3.3 DIAGNOSIS OF FAULTS FORM RELATIVE INDIVIDUAL GASES DISSOLVED IN OIL CONCENTRATION OF

A convenient basis for fault diagnosis is the calculation of ratio of the concentrations of the gases listed in sub clause 3.1. The ratio used in the following interpretation scheme are : C2H2 CH4 C2H4 C2H4 H2 C2H6

other ratios can be used for further discrimination

144

Table-I shows various limits of the ratios corresponding to normal ageing and to various types of faults from which a diagnosis of the nature of a fault may be obtained. The table shows code for each range of the ratios of the characteristic gases numbers as have been allowed so that code 000 represents normal ageing conditions. Table III shows a flow chart summarizing action following the taking of a routine oil sample and steps that should be followed after diagnosis shows a fault to be likely. In clause 4 and 5 are given methods of obtaining information supplementary to the above main diagnosis. The significance of CO2 and CO content in relation to deterioration of cellulosic is discussed in clause 4 ; the significance of free gases is gas collecting relays and the application of the above diagnostic methods to these gases are discussed in clause 5. NOTE Additional information concerning diagnostic methods can be found in the review Electra, No.42, October 1974 (pages 51-52)

145

CODE FOR EXAMINING ANALYSIS OF GAS DISSOLVED IN OIL NUMERICAL TABLE-1

RATIOS OF CHARACTERISTIC GASES CODE OF RANGE OF RATIOS RATIOS OF C2H2 CH4 C2H4 CHARACTERISTIC GASES C2H4 H2 C2H6 < 0.1 0 1 0 0.1 1 1 0 0 13 1 2 2 >3 2 2 2 TYPICAL EXAMPLES CODE CHARACTERISTIC FAULT No. Fault 0 No fault 0 0 0 Normal ageing 1 0 Discharge in gas filled 1 Partial discharge of low 0 (but not cavities resulting from energy density signiincomplete impregnation, ficant) or super-saturation or cavitation or high humidity 2 Partial discharge of 1 1 0 As above, but leading to tracking or deformation of solid insulation 3 Discharges of low energy 1-2 0 1-2 Continuous sparking in (see notes) oil between bad connections of different potential or to floating potential breakdown of oil between solid materials 4 Discharges of high energy 1 0 2 Discharges with power (see notes) follow through, arcing, breakdown of oil between windings of coils or between coils or between coils to earth 0 0 1 General insulated 5 Thermal fault of low conductor overheating temperature 150oc (see note.2) Local overheating of the 0 2 0 6 Thermal fault of low o core due to concentration temperature (range 150 c of flux increasing hot 300oc) o o spot temperature varying 7 300 c - 700 c

146

Thermal fault of high temperature > 700oc (see note.4)

from small hot spots in core. Shorting links in core. Overheating of copper due to eddy current, bad contacts joint (pyrolitic carbon formation) upto core and tank circulation currents

NOTES: For the purpose of this table there will be a tendency for the ration C2H2 / C2H4 to rise from a value between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 and for the ratio C2H4 / C2H6 from a value between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 as the spark develops in intensity. In this case the gases come mainly from the decomposition of the solid insulation, this explains the value of the ratio C2H4 / C2H6. This fault condition is normally indicate by increasing gas concentrations. Ratio CH4/H2 is normally about 1. The actual value above or below unity is dependent on many factors such as design of oil preservation system, actual level of temperature and oil quality. An increasing value of the amount of C2/H2 may indicate that the hot point temperature is higher than 1000oc. REMARKS: 1. Significant values quoted for ratios should be regarded as typical only. 2. Transformers fitted with in tank on load tap-changers may indicate fault of type 202 102 depending on seepage of transmission of arc decomposition products in the diverter switch tank into the transformer tank oil. 3. Combination of the ratios not included in Table-1 may occur in practice. Consideration is being given to the interpretation of such combinations. 4. Degradation of Cellulosic insulation : Degradation of cellulosic materials characteristically produces CO2 and CO together with much smaller quantities of other gases. Both CO2 and CO are produced at normally operating temperatures as a result of normal ageing of the insulation. Also, the factory drying and impregnating processes cause some degradation of the cellulose from which some CO2 and CO may remain. When a transformer has been shipped filled with CO2 instead of oil, it is nearly impossible to remove all of this gas from the impregnated insulation and this will account for some quantity of CO2 in the operating transformer. In the case of conservator transformer, CO2 may enter the oil from the atmosphere-up to about 300 of oil may be so introduced. Thus, where there is suspicious that a fault might have involved cellulose, the significance of these two gases must be considered against the possibility that both gases may have been present in moderately high concentrations before the fault occurred. 4.1 Examining CO2 and CO concentration found dissolved in oil : For cellulose degrading by heat along at normal operating temperatures statistical analysis for normally operating conservator transformers gives a ratio CO2 CO of about 7, although conservator with a wide spread of values (standard deviation of about 4). High temperature degradation of cellulose, no matter how cased (e.g., hot147

spot or rate) tends to increase the relative amount of CO2. However, the rates of CO2 and CO production depends great on oxygen availability, moisture content and the temperature of degradation. Consequently, any case in which CO2CO is below about 3 or above about 11 should be regarded as perhaps indicating a fault involving cellulose, provided results obtained according to Sub Clause 3.3 are also indicating excessive oil deterioration. If possible, the ratio should be compared with previous values for the same transformer, or with values for similarly loaded transformers of the same design. In sealed transformers, where the concentrations of CO2 and of CO are low during the earlier life of the transformer the ratio CO2 CO is generally below 7 but the ratio is likely to increase as normal ageing proceeds. 4.2 Examining CO2 and CO concentrations in fresh gases found the gas collection relay : As a rule, serious involvement of cellulosic insulation may be assumed if concentration of carbon oxides in the free gas are significantly higher than they would be equilibrium with the concentrations found in the oil (for calculation of the equivalent concentrations - see clause 5)the implication being that sufficient of thee gases has been generated and sufficiently rapidly, to pass into the relay without coming into equilibrium with the body of the oil (compare the parallel case of an arcing fault, discussed below). 5. Application of diagnostic method to free gases in a gas-collecting relay : During a fault, the rate of production of gases of all types is closely linked to the rate of energy liberation. Thus, the low rate of energy liberation in partial discharges, or in a low temperature hot spot, will cause gases to evolve slowly and there is every probability that all the gas produced gets dissolved in the oil. The higher rate of energy liberation at high temperature core fault for example, can cause moderately rapid evolution of gas: the resulting gas bubbles ascending towards the conservator will usually partially dissolve in the oil and exchange with gases already dissolved) but some gas may well reach the gas collecting relay or as cushion: this gas may approach equilibrium with the gases dissolved in the oil. The very high rate of energy liberation associated with a power arcing fault causes a rapid and substantial evolution of gas (the resulting pressure surge normally operated the surge element of the gas collecting relay): the large gas bubbles rise quickly to the relay and exchange little gas with the oil so that the gas that collects in the relay is initially far from being in equilibrium with the gases dissolved in the oil. However, if this gas is left for a long time in the relay, some constituents will dissolve, modifying the composition of the gas collected: acetylene, which is produced in significance quantities by an arcing fault and which is very soluble, is a noteworthy example of a gas which may dissolve comparatively quickly to produce misleading results. In principle, analysis of free gases from a gas collecting relay or from a gas cushion may be evaluated in the same way as gases dissolved in the oil. However, where the surge element has operated and gas has accumulated in substantial quantities is 148

rarely any doubt that there is a serious fault, and analysis of gases should be undertaken on identify the fault. Where gas has accumulated slowly, assessment of the gases dissolved in the oil is more informative than that of the free gases : the gas-in-oil determination is also essential in order to determine the total rate of evolution of gases and thus check whether the fault is growing, which is a most important matter to investigate. When analysis of free gases is undertaken, it is necessary to convert the concentrations of the various gases in the free state into equivalent concentrations in the dissolved state before applying the diagnostic methods set out in Table-I. Applying the principles set out above, comparison of the actual concentrations in the oil with the equivalent concentrations in the free gas may give valuable information how far gas bubbles may have risen through the oil and hence on the rate of gas evolution. 5.1 Calculation of dissolved gas concentrations equivalent to free gas concentrations This calculation is made by applying the Ostwald co-efficient for each gas separately. For a particular gas, the Ostwald co-efficient K is defined as : K : Concentration of gas in liquid phase Concentration of gas in gas phase

The Ostwald Co-efficients for various gases in mineral insulating oils at 20oc and 50 oc are given in Table below : Gas N2 O2 H2 CO CO2 K at 20 c 0.09 0.17 0.05 0.12 1.08
o

TABLE K at 50 oc 0.09 0.17 0.05 0.12 1.00

Gas CH4 C2H6 C2H4 C2H2

K at 20 oc 0.43 2.40 1.70 1.20

K at 50 oc 1.40 1.80 1.40 0.9

NOTE : Data given in this table represent mean values obtained on some of the current transformer oils. Actual data may differ a little from these figures. Nevertheless, date given above may be used without influencing conclusions drawn from recalculated test results. The Ostwald co-efficient is independent of the normal partial pressure of the gas concerned. The gas and liquid phases are assumed to be at the same temperature: this is rarely the case but the error introduced by any different will not invalidate the conclusions reached.

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2. Maintenance Schedule for Circuit breakers of 33 KV and above

S.No. Item of maintenance Periodicity Remarks

1. A. SULPHER HEXA FLOURIDE (SF6) GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER 1 SF6 density monitoring Daily in each shift Yearly If appreciable change is observed compared to earlier readings, leakage check to be carried out Use Dew Point meter. If deviation from standard norms is observed, the evacuation, recycling and refilling of SF6 gas is to be carried out

Measurement of Humidity of SF6 gas

3 4 5

Acid concentration measurement of SF6 Gas Air content measurement of SF6 gas SF6 gas leakage test

Yearly Yearly Yearly Check the complete breaker for SF6 gas leakage including the seal assembly of driving rod. If any leakage is detected the same should be arrested in consultation with manufacturer and after arresting the leakage the SF6 gas pressure is to be brought upto rated pressure by topping up SF6 gas Minimum 2 Mega Ohms with a 500 V megger To be done by 2.5 KV megger or above This may be done whenever the humidity in SF6 gas in excess of permissible value.

7 8 B 1

a. Checking of insulation of control circuit wirings b. Measurement of Insulation resistance across contacts (with breaker off) and pole to earth with breaker on Evacuation, recycling and refilling of SF6 gas Checking the Br.level with spirit level

Yearly Yearly

5 yearly Yearly

AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER Checking of air pressure Daily in each shift Twice daily at 6 AM and 6 PM Monthly Monthly Yearly If appreciable changes is observed, compared to earlier readings, leakage check to be carried out Frequency of draining may be increased during rainy season and winter -do-

2 3 4 5

Draining out condensed water from HP cylinders Draining out condensed water from circuit breaker tanks Visual checking of oil level in the dash pot; checking of manometer readings Capatiance measurement for Grading capacitors

150

6 7 8

Measuring insulation resistance of control circuit wiring and measuring IR values Measurement of IR values across contacts (each break) with breaker off and pole to earth with breaker ON Checking the Br. Level with spirit level

Yearly Yearly Yearly

Minimum 2 Mega Ohms with a 500V Megger Minimum 2.5 KV megger to be used

C. VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS 1 2 3 4 Measuring I.R values of the poles with breaker open (i.e., across contacts) and breaker closed (pole to earth) High voltage test across contacts of each vacuum interrupter Measuring insulation resistance of control circuit wiring Anti condensation heathers Monthly Yearly Yearly Daily Record the value and compare with earlier values To ensure dielectric strength of vacuum interrupters Minimum 2 Mega ohms with a 500 V megger Ensure that heater is on and is working

D. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER 1 2 Checking of oil leakage from guage glass, drain valve and other joints Testing of oil samples for dielectric strength Daily Quarterly If the valve is low oil should be replaced with fresh tested oil. Oil shall also be replaced after 12 trippings on fault or as per recommendations of manufacturer. Oil filling instructions given by the manufacturer s hall be followed. NOTE : Before closing MOCB on a fault, the operator should ensure that adequate oil level is available in the breaker by observing the guage glass and if adequate oil is not available, the breaker should not be test charged. Yearly

Measuring IR values across contacts with breaker off and pole to earth with breaker on

Quarterly

Checking the Br. Level with spirit level E. GENERAL MAINTENACE (Common to all Breakers)

1 2 3

Operating time including Pre-insertion resistor (wherever applicable) Contract travel Speed curves

Yearly Yearly Yearly

Circuit breaker analyser may be used. Results are to be recorded and compared with the commissioning test result. If

151

Pole discrepancy (for individual pole operted)

Yearly

there is difference in the values, or if the values are beyond limits prescribed by the Manufacturer, the manufacturer has to be informed and all the operation checks are to be made in the presence of manufacturer & remedial measures are to be taken

5 6 7 8 9 10

Functional checks duty cycle operation including rapid reclosing Checking of all operational lock outs Checking of all interlocks Contact resistance measurement Checking of pressure setting sand calibration of meters Through checking up of close and trip coils

Yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly Resistance and pickup voltage are to be checked and compared with previous values (precommissioning results)

Not to exceed 100 Micro ohms (by measuring DC voltage drop)

II

OPERATING MECHANISM

A i) ii) iii) iv) B i) ii) iii) iv) v)

SPRING OPERATING MECHANISM Checking conditions of spring tension Lubricating the motor bearings I.R values of motor winding Checking interlocking mechanism Quarterly Quarterly Quarterly Quarterly

PNEUMATIC OPERATING MECHANISM Checking of air pressure Draining of moisture from air receiver, visual inspection cleaning Checking of tightness of compressed air pipes work and coupling Checking of cumulative running hour of compressor Checking of air pressure drop during duty cycle operation Check for compressor running sound Lubrication, greasing of moving parts of the compressor Blowing out dust in the windings of compressor motor Checking for proper functioning of safety valves in compressed air system Daily Daily/ Weekly Yearly Once in each shift Yearly Action to be taken as per manufacturers recommendations Pressure drop in the air pressure to be checked for each sequence of operation and to be compared with data sheets Daily for central compressor unit and weekly for individual compressor unit

vi) vii) viii) ix)

Monthly Yearly Monthly yearly

152

x) xi)

Overhauling of compressor motors Checking interlocks low and high air pressure and correct operation

Yearly Yearly

C i)

ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii)

ix) x) xi) xii)

HYDRAULIC (ELECTRO) OPERATING MECHANISM Checking of oil pressure and level Daily If appreciable change is observed as compared to previous readings, leakage check is to be carried out Visual check for oil leakage Daily Checking for cumulative pump running Once in each hours shift Replacement/topping up of oil As and when required Visual checking of accumulator, main Weekly valves and operating cylinders Checking of printing pressure of Yearly nitrogen, nitrogen replenishment (if necessary) Checking operating pressure of safety Yearly valve Checking oil pressure drop during duty Yearly Drop in pressure of oil to be cycle operation checked for each sequence of operation and to be compared with data sheets. Checking condition of oil Yearly If the oil is found to be contaminated, drain the oil and clean both oil tank and oil filter. Overhauling of oil pump Yearly Checking for tightness of oil pipe work Yearly and couplings Checking of various pressure switches Yearly for proper operation MAJOR MAINTENANCE AND OVERHAUL OF CIRCUIT BREAKER Evacuation, recycling and refilling of 5 yearly Assistance of manufacturer may SF6 gas be availed Replacement of gaskets Operating rod cleaning and inspection Dismantling, cleaning and reassembly of operating mechanism Interrupting chamber overhaul Maintenance schedule for Batteries/Battery chargers/ DC Distribution system Item of maintenance Periodicity Remarks Cleaning of battery surface joints and Daily To be done on rotation so as to all connections cover all the cells in10 days Specific gravity measurement of pilot Daily -docell Voltage reading of pilot cells Daily -doVisual checking of battery room Daily ventilation and lighting Checking of electrical connections for Weekly tightness

1 2 3 4 5 3 S.No 1 2 3 4 5

153

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Application of petroleum jelly to joints and cell connections Checking electrolyte level and topping up with DM water Shallow discharge (10 hour rate) and recharging Readjustment of specific gravity Checking of healthiness of AC supply to the charger Checking of float charging current (DC) Output voltage check Charger cleaning with blower Checking control chords Complete overhaul Checking for DC earth fault Check of emergency lights Auto-start and running up of DG set Checking DC distribution i. External ii. Internal Checking of all electrical connections of charger panel for tightness and cleaning Calibration of all meters and relays in the charger and the DCB Bs

Weekly Weekly Yearly Yearly Daily Daily Daily Fortnightly Yearly Yearly Daily Daily Daily Daily Quarterly Quarterly Yearly

The discharge to be done for a specified period Earth fault to be attended immediately Fused lights to be replaced immediately -

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Maintenance Schedule for Lightning Arrestors Item of maintenance Periodicity Remarks Visual Inspection Daily If chipping / crack in the insulators is observed replacement action may be taken Surge counter reading Daily Leakage current reading and analysis Once for Should be in green zone shift Earth resistance Quarterly For gapless lighting arrestors only Leakage current analysis Quarterly IR value Yearly Compare results with those obtained previously Connections Yearly Calibration of leakage current ammeter Yearly Cleaning of Insulator Yearly 5. Maintenance Schedule for Isolators Item of maintenance Periodicity Remarks Visual inspection Daily Visual inspection for cleanliness of insulation, proper alignment of contact arm blades, any abnormal noise and arcing will be carried out. (a) Main contacts checking including Yearly Opportunity of shut down

S.No. 1

154

earth switch high voltage terminal tightning contact resistance checking including cleaning and lubrication of main contacts 2 (b) Main blades and main contacts checking of (i) alignment (ii) bolds, nuts, washers, cotterpins, terminal connectors, are in place and tight. Examine the contacts, heck to determine that they are aligned and contact surfaces bear with a firm uniform pressure, check contact surfaces, replace any pitted or burnt contacts or smoothen down the surface of the contacts with fine sand paper depending upon the condition of the contacts. See the bolts, nuts, washers, cotter pins and terminal connectors are in place and tight. If the switch in group operated inter phase linkage, line operating parts, rods, levers, bearings etc. should be cleaned and lubricated, as required to the manufacturers recommendations Operating mechanism Checking of Linkages including transmission gears - Stopper bolts - Limit switch setting - Greasing of drive - Greasing of auxiliary switch contacts - Position and tightening of cable glands (before start of the rainy season) Insulators MOM box cleaning and lubrication of operating mechanism hinges locks, joints on levers, etc, check all mounting booth for tightness Visual check of Auxiliary contact Checking for proper functioning of space heaters, illumination etc. Checking of electrical/ mechanical inter locks Earth-switch checking of Alignment of earth blade Contact cleanliness Yearly

should be availed of whenever possible, the checks and measurements should be performed without disturbing the connections

Quarterly

Check the isolator operation. If the operating efforts appear to be excessive check the rotor bearings, all the linkages for the proper operation

Yearly

Opportunity of shut down should be availed of whenever possible The check should be done for any arcing marks on contacts, burning of switch housing etc.

5 6 7 8

Quarterly Quarterly Yearly

Yearly

155

Correct operation of earthin switch Alluminium/Copper flexible (if provided) Checking of earth connections - Structure - MOM Box

Yearly

S.No 1 2

Standard Acceptance Norms for Isolator during preventive maintenance Type of Isolator and name of Voltage Current rating/ Manufacturer (KV) Value of contact resistance Between terminal pads 220 KV HEB - SMC 245 KV 1600A/100 micro ohms - HIVELM 245 KV 1600A/175 micro ohms 13 KV HEM - BIMCS 145 KV 1250A/146 micro ohms - SSPL 145 KV 1250A/200 micro ohms

NOTE : The values of contact resistance given above are the measured during type tests, the measured values during site tests should be within 120% of the values indicated.
6. Maintenance Schedule for Current Transformers S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Item of Maintenance Visual check (Porcelain, Unusual noise, discolouration of terminals etc.) Oil leakage Oil level Space heater and lighting of marshalling box Cleaning of marshalling box and junction boxes All connections IR value Earth resistance Tan Delta test Periodicity Daily Daily Monthly Monthly Half- yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly Check for looseness Compare with precommissioning test results Compare results with factory test Remarks

Visual check only To be recorded Operation check

Cleaning of Insulator Yearly DGA oil sample including BDV and 4 to 5 days Oil sample to be taken after moisture content after first obtaining permission from charging manufacturer

Maintenance for CVTs S.No 1 2 3 Item of Maintenance Oil leakage Cattering sounds Oil level Periodicity Daily Daily Monthly Remarks Visual checks If present, measure capacitance and compare with the designed value To be recorded

156

4 5 6 7 8 9

Earthing of PLCC link (in case it is Monthly not being used) H.F. Bushing Monthly Spartik gap cleaning Yearly Cleaning of insulator Yearly Capacitance measurement Yearly Earthpit resistance Yearly

Check for any breakage If accessible Compare with the factory test results/designed value

8. Maintenance schedule for earth pits in sub-stations S.No 1 2 3 4 Item of Maintenance Watering of earth pits Measurement of earth resistance of individual pits Measurement of combined earth resistance of all the pits Checking of interconnections between earth pits and tightness of bolts and nuts Periodicity Daily Half-yearly Half-yearly Quarterly Remarks

Special Note : Complete and comprehensive record of pre-commissioning test result for each equipment is to be maintained and periodical test values must be compared with the pre-commissioning Test results for taking appropriate action. The following are guidelines for maintaining voltage and specific gravity of the cells at a uniform value : a. When the battery is to be stored for long period, before putting into service, necessary care is to be taken for proper storage, other-wise there may be possibility of oxidation which may have adverse impact on the porosity of the plates. The Cells will develop uniform poraoity only after repeated charge/discharge cycles and adjustment of specific gravity has to be made thereafter in all the Cells. b. Variation in the quantity of Distilled water while topping up or failure to tope up some cells may also contribute to the variations in cell voltage and specific gravity c. After installation of the battery, if voltages and specific gravities are not uniform and varying then equalizing charge shall be made by adjustment of electrolyte, ie., in addition or removal of electrolyte and/or addition of Distilled water is made until the specific gravities are uniform. This adjustment may be repeated after some cycles of operation ie., after 30 or 45 days.

157

d. Batteries should not be kept under continuous Boost Charge. Batteries shall be on float charge only. After sufficient discharge of the Battery (as indicated by the Voltage and specific gravity of the Cell, Battery shall be kept under Boost charge for the required number of hours only to get the normal voltage and specific gravity. GUIDELINES FOR SHIFT PERSONNEL TO THE EHT SUBSTATIONS 1. Sub-station layout in detail including various equipment, particulars of Power Transformers, Breakers, CTs, PTs, Isolators, LAs, Batteries and Battery Charges, Station Transformers, Fire fighting equipment, Capacitor banks etc., 2. In-feeding sources 3. Outgoing feeders and important load centers connected to their sub-station 4. Normal infeed and alternate in feeds Comprehensive idea of the grid and location of the substation with reference to grid. A grid map showing the in-feeding sources and important load centers connected to the substation to be prepared and displayed. 5. Importance of various equipment available in the substation including capacitor banks 6. Thorough knowledge of normal operations and emergency operations to be carried out. 7. Battery charger operation change from Float to Boost and Boost to Float rates changing in each mode. 8. Paralleling and deparalleling operation of transformers 9. Operating instructions for all contingencies including issue and receipt of line clear. 10. Lock-out values of gas pressures minimum air pressure where compressors shall start automatically and hydraulic fluid pressure where pump shall start automatically for different makes of Circuit breakers. A chart showing make, type, reference to P.O of power transformers, and breakers and the available and set parameters such as temperature alarms, trips Auto start and stop of cooler fans in respect of power transformers and gas pressures, air/hydraulic pressures, densities in respect of breakers shall be displayed for ready reference. 11. CT available and adopted ratios, relay settings meaning of relay indications on all circuit breakers. 12. Bucholtz and differential relay indications. All annunciations and meaning and consequences of each. 13. Knowledge of all the relays and their functioning, purpose and shall be able to interpret correctly to decide whether the equipment can be charged again or to be kept isolated for further inspection/check-up by the concerned Maintenance/MRT personnel (especially when lockout relays, pressure relief relays, temperature relays, bucholtz relay sand differential relays operate) 14. The works being done by MRT/Maintenance staff in the sub-station whenever they attend to the same shall follow the works being done by them. 15. While taking over the shift duty, he shall go through the entire log of operations from the time last handed over to charge to know the important events happened, works done, condition of the equipment, line clears pending etc. 16. While taking over shift duty he has to check condition of communication equipment, lines, battery charger, batteries, feeders and transformers, breakers as pressures, air pressures, healthy trip circuits, any relay indications not reset etc. 17. Whenever any feeder/equipment is loaded beyond normal load due to emergencies, such equipment shall be kept under close observation until normalcy is restored, temperature on transformers under such overloading conditions and cooler fans operation shall be constantly monitored. 158

18. In case of certain emergencies where operations started in particular shift are likely to be carried out during next shift the personnel of both the shifts shall be available till the operations are completed and normalcy is restored. Shift duties should not be handed over to successor staff in the middle of an emergency. 19. Whenever new ADEs/AEs are posted to shift, senior personnel of other cadres in the Station shall be attached to them atleast for a fortnight, so that, new personnel get themselves acquainted with the operations and equipment 20. Red hot joints at the substation shall not be continued even for brief periods. They shall be attended on priority. Each day during evening peak hours, the yard lighting should be switched off for a while and bad clamps joints should be identified and intimated to maintenance staff. 21. Operating instructions shall be available in the control room on the shift incharge table. All the shift supervisory personnel shall sign in the operation instruction booklet to the effect that they have read the same and understood them completely. CHECKS & OBSERVATIONS TO BE MADE DURING SHIFTS 1. Voltages 220 KV, 132 KV, 33 KV and 11 KV shall be observed and to be maintained nearest to the rated values by operation of tap changes of transformers. A little higher voltage is to be maintained (not exceeding 10%) so that tail end voltages are normal. Constant monitoring of capacitor banks. 2. Healthy trips of all the breakers. Healthy trips of all breakers shall be checked every hour. If healthy trip fails, the breaker shall immediately be hand tripped, fault in the healthy trip circuit shall be immediately attended and rectified. Only after ensuring DC supply, the breaker shall be closed. Healthy trip indicating lamps shall be in working condition. 3. Batttery voltages, DC leakage, Charger condition, AC switch to charger (once in a shift) and observe any fall in DC battery voltage. 4. Communication equipment such as PLCC, P&T and wireless shall always be in working condition. They are to be treated on par with all other equipment at the Substations. 5. Check the loading on the transformers and capacitor banks. Load current in all the three phases and in neutral circuit (wherever available) to be checked. Any difference in phase currents shall be brought to the notice of maintenance staff and the concerned transformer or capacitor bank shall be cut off from service for detailed examination. 6. Note the oil and winding temperature and physically check-up by feeling the temperature of transformers by hand. 7. Note the tap position of various transformers. The tap position of the transformers in parallel shall be same i.e., the voltage corresponding to the tap shall be same. 8. Note the oil levels in conservator tanks 9. Check up for any oil leaks and red hots. 10. Check-up dehydrating breathers of transformers 11. Ensure that alarams and indications on annunciation panel are working 12. Check the diesel generator and trial run for 5 minutes daily once in the morning shift and note down the voltage. 13. Check the condition of Air compressors provided either common or separately for each breaker and drain the moisture accumulated once in a day during morning shift. During Rainy season this should be done once in each shift. Drain sufficient air to ensure auto start of compressors. 14. Running hours of each station compressors to be noted periodically and they shall be changed stand by to running to stand by. Register of running h ours of each station compressor shall be maintained. 159

15. Check the entire yard for any unusual sounds, sparkings and red hots during evening shift. 16. Compressed air lines to be checked for any air leakage. The oil levels in air compressors are to be checked 17. Check oil levels and condition of breather if available for the MOCBs 18. Check up gas pressures in SF 6 breakers. 19. Check up for any sparking and flash over marks in the earth pits specially whenever feeders trip on faults. 20. Watering of earth pits to be done daily. 21. Ensure proper working of Energy meters on all CBs. If the energy meters are slow or not working, check the potential supply to the meters, fuses etc. 22. Ensure the tripping of breakers on activation of relays whenever the LCs are issued on breakers. 23. When LC is issued on Power Transformers, Alarms and Trips are to be invariably checked up with the assistance of MRT/maintenance personnel 24. Check-up fire fighting equipment once in a week. 25. OLTC counter reading to be noted. 26. Ensure that lightening arrestors micro ammeter reading is in safe zone (Green) 27. Whenever feeders trip, find out the position of breakers at other end and note down relay indications if any at other end. 28. Whenever the relays of feeders/Transformers become due for periodical testing intimate the same to Divisional Engineer in charge of sub-station and give a message to MRT for testing the same. 29. Check-up the marshalling boxes of breakers, CT junction boxes, PT junction boxes etc. and ensure that no creepers can enter into the same. 30. Check up the batteries, exhaust fans in the battery room for proper operation once in every shift, and report any abnormalities to the maintenance staff immediately. 31. Ensure that hind doors of al control and relay panels are properly closed, and the panels are properly sealed from the bottom and made vermin proof. CAPACITORS : Installation : Clean capacitors thoroughly Tighten up all electrical connections and other screws and nuts Measure the IR values with a 500 V meggar between handed terminals and earth. Minimum value shall be 50 Mega Ohms. Do not put a u nit with less than 50 Mega Ohms into service iv) Ensure free circulation of air around capacitor units. Adequate clearances as per the drawing shall be maintained v) Temperature of atmosphere surrounding capacitor units shall be within their temperature category under steady working conditions. vi) Adequate earthing of capacitor banks (structures etc.) to be ensured. vii) Neutral of star connected capacitor banks with residual voltage transformer should not be earthed. viii) Before commissioning a capacitor bank, capacitance of each capacitor shall be measured with a capacitance meter. These shall be compared with the value obtained by calculation u sing the formula C = KVAr x 109 Micro Farads 2 II f (V)2 160 i) ii) iii)

where V is the rated voltage of capacitor and KVAr is the rated KVAr of capacitor. As per IS t he tolerance in the capacitance value for a capacitor unit is + 10% to 5% . Operating instructions : a) The following points may be checked before energizing the capacitors : b) Supply voltage, frequency and temperature of the area with the rating plate c) Ensure no hardware or tools are left inside the rack assembly. This may cause short circuit and breakdown. d) Ensure proper ventilation e) Ensure all electrical and technical connections are done properly and tightly. f) Ensure that there is no oil leakage from terminal at collar of the bushin and welded seam of the capacitor unit After charging the capacitors, the following checks shall be made : a) Voltage : Within 110% of rated voltage especially during light load periods b) KVAr : Operation KVAr are within 130% of the rated KVAr at the highest system voltage c) Temperature rise : Contained temperature should not exceed 75 Deg. C. This should be measured by having a thermometer fixed with the wall of the container, keeping the bulbs at one quarter of height of capacitor box down from the top edge. d) Fuse : ensure correct type of fuse e) Light Load : At light load capacitors cause voltage rise in the system exceeding the permissible value some times. They may have harmful effects on capacitor or on other electrical equipment. Voltage at no time should go beyond the rated voltage by more than 10%. While removing the faulty/defective capacitor units the remaining healthy capacitors are connected in such a way that all the phases are balanced with equal number of units and phase capacitance. Operation with unbalance phases may cause further damage. For capacitor banks operated with series reactors, operating the bank with less number of units than the originally supplied, may cause the capacitor with series reactor tuned to fifth harmonics. Best way to check the healthyness of a capacitor is to check the capacitance with a capacitance meter, partial or complete failure of a capacitor can be established from this. Shorting of one internal series group on a capacitor results in a predictable increase in the capacitance level. This is the basis for the capacitances of partially failed capacitors.

Vaccum Circuit Breakers : Vaccum interruptors have a long contact life due to less arcing time.

161

Ideally suited for special applications : 1. Frequent switching duty 2. Rapid auto reclosing 3. Capacitor switching 4. Arc furnace duty 5. Freedom from fire hazards. DEFECTS IN CAPACITORS CAUSES AND REMEDY
Sl.No Symptom 1 Leakage of impregnant 2 Overheating of units Cause Leak in welded seam Leak from terminal cap a) Poor ventilation b) Excessive ambient temperature c) Over voltage Remedy After cleaning and abrading by emery cloth apply Araldite or solder the spot carefully Increase spacing for free circulation of air Arrange for forced ventilation Reduce voltage or switch of capacitors (OR) adjust over voltage relay tripping to achieve below 10% of rated voltage of bank Usual Tighten carefully Disconnect the unit properly balance remaining units. Refer to company Measure insulation resistance between terminals and case. If the reading is zero the units is shorted and not fit. No repair is possible. Reduce voltage and reduce/eliminate harmonics by adding suitable series reactors after advice by the company Check and remove the short and ensure the unit O.K after checking insulation resistance Replace the unit. Refer to the manufacturer Check and control manufacturers application Engineers.

3 4 5

Current below normal value Noise inside the unit Fuse blowing

a) Low voltage b) Loose connection Internal fault a) Short circuit in unit

b) Over current due to over voltage and harmonics c) Short external to the unit 6 7 Abnormal bulging/ bursting Capacitor Bank tripping on unbalanced protection but expulsion fuse not blown Gas formation due to internal arcing causing unit to bulge or burst Co-ordination of expulsion fuse blowing with neutral protection not proper

GUIDELINES TO SHIFT ENGINEERS OF EHT SUBSTATIONS : 1. 220/132/33/11 KV Bus Voltages, frequency and station load 2. Check healthy trip of all the breakers 3. Check battery voltages, D.C leakage, charger condition. Switch off the charger and note battery voltage 4. Check whether the battery is in Boost or Trickle charge condition 162

5. Check the Carrier Phones in all directions and intimate the Telecom wing in case of trouble. Similarly wire-less and P&T phones are to be checked up. 6. Check the diesel generator and make a Trial run for 2 minutes once in a day. Check the voltages. 7. Check the annunciation panels. Press the lamp test and report the failure of lamps to Maintenance wing. 8. Check the load on each feeders. 9. Check the Power Transformers physically. Note the oil and winding temperatures, load and tap position, cooling fans condition and oil levels in the conservator, tap changer Diverter Switch, Bushings and Dehydrating Breather. 10. Check the condition of the Air Compressor. Note the amperage, air pressure, air pressure at different locations (i.e wherever pressure gauge is available). 11. Check the entire yard for any unusual sounds. 12. During night shift check for sparking at joints / jumpers 13. Check for compressor air leak at all locations where the main line is tapped. 14. Check the oil level in the MOCBS 15. Check the Gas pressure in SF6 C.Bs and oil level in the Air Compressor. 16. Check for any sparking or flashover marks at the earth pit connections and intimate the maintenance staff 17. To note the running hours of each compressor and periodically change over the compressor. Separate Register for running of the compressors to be maintained. 18. Check for proper watering of EARTH-PITS 19. Check whether all the energy meters of the feeders are working or not. Report to maintenance staff on defect noticed 20. Activate protection trip whenever L.C is issued on any feeder / Transformer besides ensuring hand tripping. 21. Check the Fire Fighting Appliances availability at assigned locations. 22. Ensure that all the relevant Relays flags are in Reset position 23. Note down the OLTC counter 24. Ensure that the L.A Micro Ammeter reading is in safe zone (green band) 25. Whenever a feeder tripping occurs, contact the other end station and note down the Relay indications 26. When the C.B is provided within a separate compressor / Air Tank, drain Air to sufficient quantity for ensuring auto-start of Air Compressor
B B

PERIODIC MAINTENANCE ASPECTS a) Daily i) The floating voltage of the charger across the battery should be noted at the charger end, as well as at the battery end and it should be ensured that the floating voltage is kept at 2.16 volt per cell stabilized within 1%. ii) The float charger has to be examined to check whether the same is working in Auto mode only which the 1% voltage stability across the battery can be guaranteed. If the float charger has gone defective in the Auto mode and can work only in manual mode, the charger manufacturer has to be called, to set right the float charger for ensuring its working in Auto mode. iii) Electrolyte specific gravities of a few chosen cells, have to be taken everyday, 5% of the cells of the battery bank can be used as pilot cells for daily specified gravity measurements. 163

iv) The cell containers, stands, insulators, connectors, vent plugs, terminals, etc., have to be cleaned everyday. v) In order to ensure that the full battery is available across the DC lead terminals, it is necessary to switch-off the float charger, for a one-minute duration everyday, at a specific time to note the battery discharging through the load of the busbar. This will also ensure that battery is healthy and that there is no open circuit anywhere. b) Weekly In addition to the daily maintenance procedure detailed above, the following additional maintenance has to be done every-week i) Check the electrolyte level in each of the cells to ensure the electrolyte level to correspond to the top red mark on the float-guide. If the level is lower, top-up with pure battery grade distilled water. Tighten the various inter-connections so that there is no loose contact and apply petroleum jelly at the battery terminals to avoid sulphation.

ii)

c) Monthly In addition to the daily and weekly maintenance procedure it is necessary to adopt the following procedures, every month. i) Check the electrolyte specific gravity of all the cells to ensure the same to be within 1.200 0.005. If the specific gravity is higher than the upper limit, replace a little quantity of electrolyte, by an equal of distilled water by using judgement. If the specific gravity of any or more cells is lower than the lower limit, charge the battery bank as a whole for a short duration at a current equal to two and half percent of the Ampere-hour capacity to that the lower specific gravity of the cells could improve. ii) Only when it is found that the specific gravity are not uniform, discharge the battery bank for a short duration of 15 minutes to 30 minutes at 10 hour rate current or even less and then recharge thereafter at equalizing charge current, which is at a current equal to two and half percent of the AH capacity and the voltage applied could go upto 2.35 to 2.40 V per cell. A specific gravity adjustment may be done at the end of this equalizing charge, using only distilled water. d) Quarterly: Apart from the daily, weekly and monthly maintenance procedures, we recommend you adopting the following procedure of curative discharge and recharge once in three month, after switching-off the float charger. Discharge the battery at its 10 hours rate discharge current for a period of 2 hours and recharge the battery at the normal recharging current till the specific gravities stabilize within 1.200 0.005 or adjust if required. This discharge for 2 hours called the curative discharge, helps to correct some imbalance. Also a battery continuously floated, when made to discharges, has a higher probability of a longer life. However, certain situation of clients prohibit any discharging for duration of one-hour at the 10-hour rate current may be adopted. However, whenever shutdowns can be arranged by the user, the battery can be discharged for period of 10-hours at the 10-hours rate current, to be recharged back to the full charged state. 164

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE LEAD ACID STATIONARY BATTERIES AT EHV SUBSTATIONS (220 VOLTS 80 AH AND 200 AH)
S. No. Particulars STANDARD BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH AMCO BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH UBHEC BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH ELECTROFLO BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH

1 INITIAL FILLING OF CELLS Electrolyte specific 1.190 @ Gravity 27oc Soaking Time 12 to 16 Hrs., but not more than 24 Hrs.
P P

1.180 @ 1.190 @ 1.190 @ 1.190 @ 27oc o o o 27 c 27 c. 27 c. 12 to 16 Not less Not less than 12 to 24 Hrs., Hrs., but than 12 Hrs., 12 Hrs., and not more and not not more than 24 more than than 24 Hrs. Hrs. 24 Hrs.
P P P P P P P P

1.190 @ 1.190 @ 1.190 @ 27oc. 27oc. 27oc 12 to 24 Minimum Minimum Hrs., of 12 Hrs., of 12 and not Hrs., and exceeding not 24 Hrs. exceeding 24 Hrs.
P P P P P P

2. FIRST CHARGE Initial charging 100 Hrs. 100 Hrs. 80 Hrs. 80 Hrs. 80 Hrs. 80 Hrs. 100 Hrs. Duration Rate of charging 5% of 5% of 4% of C10 4% of C10 80 Hrs. 80 Hrs. 5% of C10 60 C10 60 80 Hrs., 80 Hrs., continuously at continuously C10 60 Hrs., @ 4 Hrs., @ continuously continuously 4 amps. at 4 amps. Hrs., @ 4 Amp., 10 Amp., @ 3.2 amps @ 8.0 amps Amps., rest for 4 rest for 4 rest for 4 Hrs., 40 Hrs., 40 Hrs., 40 Hrs., @ 4 Hrs., @ Hrs., @4 Amp. 10 Amp. Amp Max. permissible While charging if the temperature temperature of the cell rises 40oc charging rate should be decreased. If temperature rises above 50oc charging should be discontinued. After cooling, further charging should be done, increasing charging time proportionately. During charging 50oc 50oc 50oc 50oc 50oc 50oc 50oc Reading at the end of charge Voltage specific 2.25 V 2.25 V 2.40 v 2.40 v 2.70 V 2.70 V 2.60 V gravity @27oc 1.200 + 1.200 + 1.200 + 1.200 + 1.200 + 0.005 1.200 + 1.200 + 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 3. CAPACITY / DISCHARGE TEST (Discharge Current 8 Amps 20 Amps 8 Amps 20 Amps 8 Amps 20 Amps 8 Amps (I=0.1 C10)
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P

100 Hrs. 5% of C10 60 Hrs., @ 10 Amps., rest for 4 Hrs., 40 Hrs., @10 Amp

50oc
P P

2.60 V 1.200 + 0.005

20 Amps

165

Test Procedure : After completion of First charge, allow the battery to stand on open circuit for not less than 12 hours, but not more than 24 hours. Discharge the battery through a variable resistance OR Acidulated water load at a constant current equal to I=0.1 x c10 amps. Discharge shall be stopped when closed circuit voltage of the battery falls to 1.85 volts in each cell and specific gravity falls to 1.130 contained duration shall be a minimum of 10 Hrs., deg. C
S. No. Particulars STANDARD BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH AMCO BATTERIES 80 AH 112 Amps upto 2.4 volts 5.6 Amps. 2.4 or full vol. 1.200+/0.005 16 amps 200 AH 28 Amps upto 2.4 volts 14 amps upto 2.4 or full vol. 1.200+/0.005 40 Amps. UBHEC BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH ELECTROFLO BATTERIES 80 AH 200 AH 8 Amps 20 Amps upto upto 2.4 volts 2.4 volts 4 Amps upto 2.6 volts 1.200+/0.005 12 Amps. 10 Amps. Upto 2.60 volts 1.200+/0.005 30 Amps.

4 RECHARGING Normal Recharge 8 Amps 20 amps current & upto upto End voltage per 2.35 to 2.35 to cell 2.4 V 2.4 V Furnishing charge 4 Amps 10 amps current upto 2.55 upto 2.55 to 2.65 V to 2.65 V 1.200+/- 1.200+/End specific 0.005 0.005 gravity @27oc Maximum charging 12 Amps 30 Amps rate
P P

CARE, CLEANLINESS & SAFETY

1. Maintenance Keep the battery room well ventilated Keep the battery and its surrounding dry & clean Check and keep the electrical connections always tight Always keep the top surface of the battery clean and dry The joints and cell connections shall be kept clean and smeared with Vaseline and petroleum jelly f) Remove traces of corrosion promptly by cleaning with pure distilled water g) Metal vessels should not be used topping up h) Protective measures (wearing apron & rubber gloves) should be taken when handling electrolytic concentrated acid. i) Care must be taken when using metal tools to prevent them from coming into accidental contact with connectors and causing short circuit j) Naked lights, smoking of cigarettes are anything which may create a spark should be avoided in battery room. If cell temperature is different from 27oc correction to specific gravity to be applied is +/-0.0007 per each degrees of variation above or below 27oc respectively a) Top up often as necessary with distilled water (as per IS:1069) or demineralised water to avoid the necessary of adding a large quantity of water at a time which would cause pronounced drop in the specific gravity b) Top up the black mark of the float is just visible above the surface of the float guide and the level should never be allowed to go so low that the red mar on the float-steer comes in line with the top surface of the plug. c) It is advisable, if necessary to top up cells during early part of charging or before charges so that the water would link (mix) with the electrolyte during charge Cells which do not pick up specific gravity inspite of repeated charging are called WEAK CELLS The weak cells must be removed from the battery and charged
P P P P

a) b) c) d) e)

2. Temperature correction 3. Topping up

4 Weak Cells

166

5 Caution

separately at normal charging rate until gassing point is reached and the reduced to half the normal rate. When the cells appear to be in fully charged condition (i.e.) specific gravity of the acid seems to be stationary the charging should be stopped for an hour and then be resumed at half the normal rate until free gassing again takes place. Again after another one hour stop, charging should be resumed at half the normal rate. These stops of one hour duration alternated by charging should be repeated until gassing starts instantaneously with switching on the charging current. While preparing the acid solution (electrolyte) it is very much important to note that always acid is added to the water and never add water to acid

167

TROUBLE SHOOTING
Sl.No. Battery Troubles 1. Over charging Symptoms / Cause a) Excessive gassing Remedies a) Reduce the Boost / Float voltage or charing rate reduced to lower value till the specific gravity attains 1.200 b) Add distilled water c) Check the accuracy of voltmeter in the charger if necessary

b) Falling active positive plates c) Buckling of plates

Under charging

Corrosion of plates

Shedding of active material

A) Loss of voltage

B) Battery voltage falling too rapidly on discharge

Continuous lowering of

a) Increase the float voltage 2.16 to 2.20 volts per cell or increase the charging rate till the specific gravity attains 1.200 b) Check for leakage of electrolyte of current conductors in the charge and battery circuit c) Reversal of cell voltage d) Buckling of plates Electrolyte impure a) Remove electrolyte b) Flush with distilled water c) Refill with pure electrolyte Charging and discharging a) Over charging of plates b) Charging done at high rate limits should be maintained c) Material improperly applied at 2.40 volts an 1.85 volts respectively on plates Sulphation at initial stage Excessive sulphation can be cured by low rate of repeated charging and discharging. Contact manufacturer / supplier for special treatment a) Check up connections a) Loose connections b) Corroded parts should b) Corroded terminals be cleaned with warm distilled water and coated with vaseline a) Replace container a) Leakage of electrolyte immediately in case of leakage b) Addition of distilled water b) Loss of water in the to maintain the electrolyte electrolyte due to level in the leaking cell will evaporation by too high result in diminution of floating voltage or excessive capacity and continuous charging
lowering of specific gravity

d) Increased temperature a) Low specific gravity

168

Overflowing in cells due to increase in electrolyte level even without the addition or distilled

Due to dump atmosphere in the Improve ventilation in the battery room causing Battery Room condensation on the cell covers

i)

Oil in the diverter switch compartment of all power transformers in service for more than 2 years shall be replaced with filtered and tested oil. Before replacing with fresh oil, flushing of the diverter switch with oil shall be done and the flushed oil sucked out. Thereafter the oil sample shall be tested once every six months and values recorded. If the results are poor the oil shall be immediately replaced availing shutdown. This is compulsory

ii)

A plan of action for thorough inspection of diverter switch for loosening of bolts and connected parts, excessive or uneven burning of the contacts, damage to braided contact leads, carbonization of oil and deposition of carbon on diverter switch, etc, shall be made, on all the diverters of power transformers in service for over 5 years and the defective diverters rectified within a span of 6 months.

33 KV Capacitor Banks Maintenance and balancing of capacitors in the event of failure at one or more capacitor units guidelines - Issued In the 33 KV Capacitor banks existing at various substations, the capacitor units are connected in two or three series groups to maintain uniform voltage distribution depending upon the rated voltage of the capacitor units. At present capacitor units are supplied at rated voltage of 7.3 KV or 10.3 KV. Also to obtain the required MVAR, the capacitor units are connected in parallel (numbering 2 to 9) in each series group. Typical examples of Parallel / Series combination of capacitor units in each case are given below in Fig.(1) and Fig(2). Whether it is single star or double star, the number of series groups / phase depends upon the rated voltage of the capacitor unit viz., 3 series groups if the rated voltage is 7.3 KV and 2 series groups if rated voltage is 10.3 KV. In the event of failure of one capacitor unit (say in R-phase) it is observed that balancing is done by removing one capacitor each from Y and B-phases as shown in Fig(3) The above arrangement is not correct, since it results in unequal voltage distribution between the capacitors in series groups. It can be seen from the figure that against a voltage distribution of V/3 across each series group, the series group containing less capacitors in parallel gets V/2 (i.e.) gets overstressed. Whereas, the other series groups have V/4 (i.e.) are understressed. This result in ultimate failure of the over-stressed capacitors. It is therefore necessary that number of capacitor units in parallel in each series group in all the three phases on one star bank shall be same. The correct arrangement of capacitors in the given example is illustrated in Fig(4). 169

170

Maintenance schedule for Instrument Transformers Instructions - Issued The following routine checks / inspection may be carried out on all Instrument Transformers for increasing the life of the Instrument Transformers and thereby avoiding failures. a) The oil level of the Instrument Transformers shall be checked periodically. If there is any fall in the oil levels there can be leakage through gaskets or welded joints which should be rectified The surface of the Porcelain insulators should be cleaned periodically. The frequency of cleaning may be altered depending on the pollution level of the Environment. Megger value of primary and secondary winding shall be checked periodically. The minimum values recommended for Instrument Transformers are a. Primary Winding 100 Mega Ohms with 1000 V Megger b. Secondary Winding 20 Mega Ohms with 500 V Megger Whenever there is any doubt regarding the condition of Instrument Transformer, oil samples shall be tested. The limiting values specified for oil are i) Water content 40 ppm (max) ii) Tan delta 3% (max) iii) Resistivity 1 x 20 Ohm Cm. (min) iv) Acidity 0.2 (max) v) Breakdown voltage 30 KV (min)

b) c)

d)

171

e)

When oil samples are drawn the hermetic sealing of the Instrument Transformers is broken. To prevent ingress of moisture the Instrument Transformer shall be sealed with dry Nitrogen. The Tangent delta values of primary coil insulation of C.Ts shall be measured if a test tap is provided. The limiting value of Tan delta is 3% (max)

f)

172

14.5 USEFUL LIVES OF PLANTS (Extracted from the Electricity (supply) Act, 1948 and as amended upto 1968) Description of asset A. Land owned under full title B. Land held under lease: a) for investment in the land b) for cost of cleaning site No. of years of period Infinity The period of the lease or the period remaining unexpired on the assignment of the lease. The period of the lease remaining unexpired at the date of clearing the site.

C. Asset purchased now: a) plant and machinery in generating stations, including plant foundations. i) Hydro-electric Thirty-five ii) Steam-electric Twenty-five iii) Diesel-electric Fifteen b) Cooling towers and circulating water system c) Hydraulic works forming part of a Hydro-electric system including i) dams, spillways, weirs, canals, reinforced concrete flumes and syphens. ii) Reinforced concrete pipelines and surge tanks, steel pipe lines, sluice gates, steel surge tanks, hydraulic control valves and other hydraulic works. d) Buildings and civil engineering works of a permanent character, not mentioned above: i) Offices and showrooms ii) Containing thermoelectric generating plant. iii) Containing hydro electric generating plant. iv) Temporary erections such as wooden structures. v) Roads other than kucha roads. vi) Others. e) Transformers, transformer kiosks, substation equipment and other fixed apparatus ( including plant foundations): i) Transformers (including foundation) having a rating of 100 kilovolt amperes and over. ii) Others 173 Thirty

One hundred Forty

Fifty Thirty Thirty five Five One hundred Fifty

Thirty five Twenty five

D.

f) Switchgear, including cable connections switching arrestors i) Station type ii) Line type iii) Synchronous connections g) Batteries h) i) Underground cables including joint boxes and disconnecting boxes. ii) Cable duct system. i) overhead including supports: i) Lines on fabricated steel supports operating at nominal voltage higher than 66 KV. ii) Lines on steel supports operating at nominal voltages, higher than 132 KV but not exceeding 66 KV. iii) Lines on steel or reinforced concrete supports. iv) Lines on treated wood supports j) Meters k) Self-propelled vehicles l) Static machine tools m) Air-conditioning plant: i) Static ii) Portable n) i) Office furniture and fittings ii) Office equipment iii) Internal wiring including fitting and apparatus. iv) Street-light fittings o) apparatus let out on hire i) Other than motors ii) Meters p) communication equipment: i) Radio and high frequency carrier system ii) Telephone lines and telephones Assets purchased second hand and assets not otherwise provided for in this table.

Twenty Twenty Fifteen Thirty five Ten Forty Sixty Thirty five Thirty five Twenty five Twenty Fifteen Seven Twenty Fifteen Seven Twenty Ten Fifteen Fifteen Seven twenty Fifteen Twenty Such reasonable period as the state Government determines in each case having regard to the nature, age and condition of the asset at the time of its acquisition by the owner.

174