Chapter 6

Mathematics

CHAPTER 6 Complex Variables

Complex Variable
, where x & y are real numbers and they are called real and imaginary part of Z. | | ( ) . /

Function of a Complex Variable I c then , w = f (z) Where, z = x + iy, w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) Limits and Continuity Let w = f(z) be any function of z defined in a bounded or closed domain D, then, ( ) = , if for every real we can find real wh ch D, p c p w

Such that | ( ) | |< for | Basically it means: Single value for all values of z in the neighbourhood of z = possible exception of z = itself

with the

f(z) )

z - Plane

w - Plane

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Note: In real calculus x approaches only along a line, whereas in complex calculus, z approaches from any direction in the z- plane [i.e. limit is independent of the manner in which ] Continuity of f (z) ( ) A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at if ( ) Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at every point of that region. Also is w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also continuous at x = xo & y = yo.

Q (x +

,y+

P(x, y)

Derivative of f(z)
= 2 = ( )
( ( ) ) ( ) ( )

,
( ) ( )

, ( ) +i = i

Provided the limit exists and has the same value for all the different ways in which approaches zero. Differential rule are same as real calculus . / =
( )

Theorem The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all values of in a region R. i) ii) , , , , , are continuous functions of x and y in R. , Cauchy-Riemann equations (CR Equations)

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Example Evaluate Solution If limit exists, it is independent of the manner in which Now let along x-axis, then y = 0

, if it exists.

z = x + iy =x = x iy = x

= =1

___________ (i)

Now let z = iy = iy

along y-axis, then x = 0

= -1

___________ (ii)

Hence limit do not exists.

Example f(z) = Is it differentiable? y z Solution z = x + iy ( )= = = If If ( ) = 1 (path 1) ( ) = 1 (path 2) Not differentiable

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Path 2 z+

Path 1 = .
( ) ( )

/=.

/
)

Chapter 6

Mathematics

Analytic Functions (or Regular Functions) or Holomorphic Functions

A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is said to be analytic in that domain. A point at which an analytic function causes to posses a derivative is called Singular point. Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations = h c c = c h c ( ) c R , , , are

Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function. Analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.

Harmonic functions
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are satisfied. = ,

Differentiating with respect to x and y respectively, = , =0 (Laplace Equation)

Methods of constructing Analytic functions 1. If real part of a function is given then, f ( ) -i

Integrate with points at (z, 0) f (z) = . /

( , )

dz

i . /

dz + c

( , )

Similarly in case v(x, y) is known, then (z) = +i

( , )

f (z) = . /

dz + i . /

( , )

dz + c

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

2.

If u (x, y) is known, then to find v(x, y) we have dv = dv = dx + dx + dy dy

Integrate this equation to find v. 3. f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) If a real part of the analytic function f(z) is a given harmonic function u (x, y), then f(z) = 2u . , / u(0, 0)

Example Find analytic function of u = Solution Approach 1 = = - 6xy ( ) . = = f(z) = = Approach 2: f(z) = u + iv where, u = u . , / = . / 3 . / . / + 3. / + 1 = = u (0, 0) = 1 f(z) = 2u . , / f(z) = Approach 3: dv = = dx + dy ) dy ) dy u (0, 0) +ci + + + +1 +1 i z+ci /
( , )

( 6xy) dx + (

= (6xy) dx + (

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

V= V = 6y. =3 =( = ( = y

+ ( + (-3 + 3y) + c

+ 3y + c f(z) = u + iv = 3x + 3x + 1 + i (3 y+3y) + c i ) + 3x + 1 + 3yi + c i ) + 3(x + iy) +1 + c i

+ 3z + 1 +c i

Complex integration
Line integral = ( ) , C need not be closed path Here, f(z) = integrand curve C = path of integration Contour integral = ( ) , if C is closed path

If f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) and dz = dx + i dy ( ) =( ) ( )

Theorem f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain then Integration is independent of the path Dependence on path I C p p h p (However analytic function in simple connected domain is independent of path.) h p h ( ) = f( ) ( )

ch

theorem

If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,

( )

=0 -------(A) D

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Note I h w , C ch h (z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) C ch I

If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then f(a) = f ( ) f ( ) . f n(a) = Note complex analytic function has derivative of all order. in real calculus if a real function is differentiated once, nothing follows, about the existence of second or higher derivative Example Find the complex integral of Solution 2 , because is analytic over entire region (C : circle of radius 3 )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

Example = ? ( C : circle of radius 3 )

Solution =0

Example If g(z) = ( ) =? 0 1 2

where, C is circle shown as, Here C : |z 1| = 1

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Solution g(z) = =
( )( )

g(z) is not analytic at z = +1 & z = 1 (Hence watch these points ) Hence circle C, |z 1| = 1 encloses Hence we write g(z) = ( ( ) ) = =
( )

= 1,

Where g(z) is not analytic

( )

2 ( )

Example In the above problem, if the circle shown is Solution 2 =? 1

Example
( )( )

=? If circle C is as shown as

Solution
( )( ( ) )

= 2 , 2 , ] = - 2

Example
( )( )

, if the circle is as shown

Solution -1
( )( )

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Example
( )( )

=?

where C is circle |z| = 3

Solution 0 c
( )( )

1 , [ note: 3>2, 3>1] inside circle (2) ] ( ) c

Hence 2 , 2 ( Example
( )

)(

(2)

2 ,

( ) ]

) - 2 ( 1) = 4

where C is circle |z| = 3 Solution f(z) =

( ( ) )

at a = 1, (a) =
( ( ) )

Comparing n = 3 2 = = {Since f(z) = f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f (-1) = } 2 (

( )

= )

(-1) 1 3

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Example =? , 2 -2

around a rectangle with vertices 2 Solution = ( = = ,2 c ( ))c

1 -i

,2 c ( (

)-

= [ 2 -

[ 2 -

h
If f(z) is continuous in a region and ( ) analytic in that region. T S = 0 around every simple closed C then f(z) is

If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C f(z) = f(a) + f ( ) ( f(z) = Where = (
(

a) + )
() )

( )

(z-a) + - - - - - - -

Other form, put z = a + h f(a+h) = f(a) + h f ( ) f ( ) -------

If f(z) in analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric circles c and c of radii and ( ) and with centre at a then for all z in R f(z) = where, = (
(

)
() )

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

If f(z) is analytic inside the curve then of Analytic Function The value of z for which f(z) = 0 I ( ) f(z) = = Where, if = = ( = ( )
( )

h ) (

h )

p (

h )

=------

= 0, then f(z) is said to have a zero of order n at z =a.

Singularities Of An Analytic Function 1. p c h p wh ch h c c c

Isolated Singularity If z =a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its neighborhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularity 1, then z =a is called an isolated singularity). Removable Singularity If all the negative powers of (z-a) in Laurent series are zero then f(z) = ( ) Singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at z =a ( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity. Example: f(z) = , then z = 0 is a removable singularity. Essential singularity If the numbers of negative power of ( an essential singularity. ( ) does not exist in this case

2.

3.

, h

4.

Poles If all the negative power of (z ) L singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n. p c p p

are missing then, the

Example F T p ( )
( )

about the point z = i

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Solution To expand about z = i, i.e. power of z +i, put t =z + i, ( ) ( )

) 0

=( =( = .

) )

. . (
(

/
) ( ) ) ) ( )

( (

Residue Theorem
If f(z) is analytic in and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular point within C then ( ) 2 ( h h p w h C)

Calculation of Residues 1. If f(x) has a simple pole at z=a , then Res f(a) = 2. If ( ) Res ( ) ,(
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

) ( )( ) ( ), ( )

where ( )

C
2 ,( ) ( )-3

3. If ( ) has a pole of order n at z=a , then ( )

( )

Here n =order of singularity Example Solve using Residue Theorem Solution

( )( ) ( )( )

, if the circle is as shown

2 *R 2 R 2 (-1) ,(

w h

C+ -1

) ( )-

,(

)(

- = 2

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

Note C p h R h C ch

Basic concepts of complex number if z = x + iy r =

z r x y

In trigonometric from C S c (c I ) c

Modulus of complex number |z| = r . Argument of complex Number = tan

1

=. /

In exponential form , =1 [ | =1 |z| = r = | ] c c +

If the any pole is outside the closed contour |z| = a Its residue at this pole is always zero.

|z| = a

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Chapter 6

Mathematics

We always find the residue at the poles, where poles are inside the closed contour, and for any outside point residue is zero. Cube root of unity (

(1, 0)

2 = (

Point to remember 1. 2. 3. 2 = 0 , , 2

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