CHAPTER 2

Properties of Fluids

I
2.1

n this chapter we discuss a number of fundamental properties of uids. An understanding of these properties is essential for us to apply basic principles of uid mechanics to the solution of practical problems.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SOLID AND A FLUID

The molecules of a solid are usually closer together than those of a uid. The attractive forces between the molecules of a solid are so large that a solid tends to retain its shape. This is not the case for a uid, where the attractive forces between the molecules are smaller. An ideal elastic solid will deform under load and, once the load is removed, will return to its original state. Some solids are plastic. These deform under the action of a sufcient load and deformation continues as long as a load is applied, providing the material does not rupture. Deformation ceases when the load is removed, but the plastic solid does not return to its original state. The intermolecular cohesive forces in a uid are not great enough to hold the various elements of the uid together. Hence a uid will ow under the action of the slightest stress and ow will continue as long as the stress is present.

2.2

DISTINCTION BETWEEN A GAS AND A LIQUID

A uid may be either a gas or a liquid. The molecules of a gas are much farther apart than those of a liquid. Hence a gas is very compressible, and when all external pressure is removed, it tends to expand indenitely. A gas is therefore in equilibrium only when it is completely enclosed. A liquid is relatively incompressible, and if all pressure, except that of its own vapor pressure, is removed, the cohesion between molecules holds them together, so that the liquid does not expand indenitely. Therefore a liquid may have a free surface, i.e., a surface from which all pressure is removed, except that of its own vapor. A vapor is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near the liquid phase. Thus steam is considered a vapor because its state is

13

14

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

normally not far from that of water. A gas may be dened as a highly superheated vapor; that is, its state is far removed from the liquid phase. Thus air is considered a gas because its state is normally very far from that of liquid air. The volume of a gas or vapor is greatly affected by changes in pressure or temperature or both. It is usually necessary, therefore, to take account of changes in volume and temperature in dealing with gases or vapors. Whenever signicant temperature or phase changes are involved in dealing with vapors and gases, the subject is largely dependent on heat phenomena (thermodynamics). Thus uid mechanics and thermodynamics are interrelated.

2.3

DENSITY, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, SPECIFIC VOLUME, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The density r (rho),1 or more strictly, mass density, of a uid is its mass per unit volume, while the specic weight g (gamma) is its weight per unit volume. In the British Gravitational (BG) system (Sec. 1.5) density r will be in slugs per cubic foot (kg/m3 in SI units), which can also be expressed as units of lbsec2/ft4 (Ns2/m4 in SI units) (Sec. 1.5 and inside covers). Specic weight g represents the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of uid, and therefore must have the units of force per unit volume, such as pounds per cubic foot (N/m3 in SI units). Density and specic weight of a uid are related as: r g g or g rg (2.1)

Since the physical equations are dimensionally homogeneous, the dimensions of density are Dimensions of r In SI units Dimensions of r kg dimensions of g N/m3 Ns2 mass 3 2 dimensions of g volume m/s m4 m slugs dimensions of g lbsec2 mass lb/ft3 2 4 dimensions of g volume ft/sec ft ft3

Note that density r is absolute, since it depends on mass, which is independent of location. Specic weight g, on the other hand, is not absolute, since it depends on the value of the gravitational acceleration g, which varies with location, primarily latitude and elevation above mean sea level. Densities and specic weights of uids vary with temperature. Appendix A provides commonly needed temperature variations of these quantities for water

1 The

names of Greek letters are given in the List of Symbols on page xix.

2.3 Density, Specic Weight, Specic Volume, and Specic Gravity

15

and air. It also contains densities and specic weights of common gases at standard atmospheric pressure and temperature. We shall discuss the specic weight of liquids further in Sec. 2.6. Specic volume v is the volume occupied by a unit mass of uid.2 We commonly apply it to gases, and usually express it in cubic feet per slug (m3/kg in SI units). Specic volume is the reciprocal of density. Thus v 1 r (2.2)

Specic gravity s of a liquid is the dimensionless ratio sliquid rliquid rwater at standard temperature

Physicists use 4C (39.2F) as the standard, but engineers often use 60F (15.56C). In the metric system the density of water at 4C is 1.00 g/cm3 (or 1.00 g/mL),3 equivalent to 1000 kg/m3, and hence the specic gravity (which is dimensionless) of a liquid has the same numerical value as its density expressed in g/mL or Mg/m3. Appendix A contains information on specic gravities and densities of various liquids at standard atmospheric pressure. The specic gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or air at some specied temperature and pressure, but there is no general agreement on these standards, and so we must explicitly state them in any given case. Since the density of a uid varies with temperature, we must determine and specify specic gravities at particular temperatures.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1 The specic weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4 lb/ft3. The specic gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specic weight and density of mercury.
Solution rwater gmercury gwater 62.4 lb/ft3 1.938 slugs/ft3 g 32.2 ft/sec2 smercurygwater 13.56(62.4) 846 lb/ft3 ANS ANS ANS

rmercury smercuryrwater 13.56(1.938) 26.3 slugs/ft3

that in this book we use a rounded lower case v (vee), to help distinguish it from a capital V and from the Greek n (nu). 3 One cubic centimeter (cm3) is equivalent to one milliliter (mL).

2 Note

16

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2 The specic weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 9.81 kN/m3. The specic gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specic weight and density of mercury.
Solution rwater gmercury 9.81 kN/m3 1.00 Mg/m3 1.00 g/mL 9.81 m/s2 smercurygwater 13.56(9.81) 133.0 kN/m3
3

ANS ANS ANS

rmercury smercuryrwater 13.56(1.00) 13.56 Mg/m

EXERCISES
2.3.1 If the specic weight of a liquid is 52 lb/ft3, what is its density? 2.3.2 If the specic weight of a liquid is 8.1 kN/m3, what is its density? 2.3.3 If the specic volume of a gas is 375 ft3/slug, what is its specic weight in lb/ft3? 2.3.4 If the specic volume of a gas is 0.70 m3/kg, what is its specic weight in N/m3? 2.3.5 A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What are the values of its density, specic volume, and specic gravity relative to air weighing 12.0 N/m3? 2.3.6 The specic weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft3. Compute its density and specic gravity. What is its specic weight in kN/m3? 2.3.7 If a certain gasoline weighs 43 lb/ft3, what are the values of its density, specic volume, and specic gravity relative to water at 60F? Use Appendix A.

2.4

COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

Fluid mechanics deals with both incompressible and compressible uids, that is, with liquids and gases of either constant or variable density. Although there is no such thing in reality as an incompressible uid, we use this term where the change in density with pressure is so small as to be negligible. This is usually the case with liquids. We may also consider gases to be incompressible when the pressure variation is small compared with the absolute pressure. Ordinarily we consider liquids to be incompressible uids, yet sound waves, which are really pressure waves, travel through them. This is evidence of the elasticity of liquids. In problems involving water hammer (Sec. 12.6) we must consider the compressibility of the liquid. The ow of air in a ventilating system is a case where we may treat a gas as incompressible, for the pressure variation is so small that the change in density is of no importance. But for a gas or steam owing at high velocity through a long pipeline, the drop in pressure may be so great that we cannot ignore the change in density. For an airplane ying at speeds below 250 mph (100 m/s), we

2.5 Compressibility of Liquids

17

may consider the air to be of constant density. But as an object moving through the air approaches the velocity of sound, which is of the order of 760 mph (1200 km/h) depending on temperature, the pressure and density of the air adjacent to the body become materially different from those of the air at some distance away, and we must then treat the air as a compressible uid (Chap. 13).

2.5

COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS
The compressibility (change in volume due to change in pressure) of a liquid is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity, also known as the bulk modulus. This modulus is dened as Ev v dp v a b dp dv dv

where v specic volume and p pressure. As vdv is a dimensionless ratio, the units of Ev and p are identical. The bulk modulus is analogous to the modulus of elasticity for solids; however, for uids it is dened on a volume basis rather than in terms of the familiar one-dimensional stressstrain relation for solid bodies. In most engineering problems, the bulk modulus at or near atmospheric pressure is the one of interest. The bulk modulus is a property of the uid and for liquids is a function of temperature and pressure. A few values of the bulk modulus for water are given in Table 2.1. At any temperature we see that the value of Ev increases continuously with pressure, but at any one pressure the value of Ev is a maximum at about 120F (50C). Thus water has a minimum compressibility at about 120F (50C). Note that we often specify applied pressures, such as those in Table 2.1, in absolute terms, because atmospheric pressure varies. The units psia or kN/m2 abs indicate absolute pressure, which is the actual pressure on the uid, relative

TABLE 2.1 Bulk modulus of water Ev, psia

Temperature, F Pressure, psia 15 1,500 4,500 15,000 32 293,000 300,000 317,000 380,000 68 320,000 330,000 348,000 410,000 120 333,000 342,000 362,000 426,000 200 308,000 319,000 338,000 405,000 300 248,000 271,000 350,000

a These values can be transformed to meganewtons per square meter by multiplying them by 0.006 895. The values in the rst line are for conditions close to normal atmospheric pressure; for a more complete set of values at normal atmospheric pressure, see Table A.1 in Appendix A. The ve temperatures are equal to 0, 20, 48.9, 93.3, and 148.9C, respectively.

18

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

to absolute zero. The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 14.7 psia or 101.3 kN/m2 abs (1013 mb abs) (see Sec. 2.9 and Table A.3). Bars and millibars were previously used in metric systems to express pressure; 1 mb 100 N/m2. We measure most pressures relative to the atmosphere, and call them gage pressures. This is explained more fully in Sec. 3.4. The volume modulus of mild steel is about 26,000,000 psi (170000 MN/m2). Taking a typical value for the volume modulus of cold water to be 320,000 psi (2200 MN/m2), we see that water is about 80 times as compressible as steel. The compressibility of liquids covers a wide range. Mercury, for example, is approximately 8% as compressible as water, while the compressibility of nitric acid is nearly six times greater than that of water. In Table 2.1 we see that at any one temperature the bulk modulus of water does not vary a great deal for a moderate range in pressure. By rearranging the denition of Ev, as an approximation we may use for the case of a xed mass of liquid at constant temperature Dp Dv v Ev p2 p1 v2 v1 v1 Ev (2.3a)

or

(2.3b)

where Ev is the mean value of the modulus for the pressure range and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the before and after conditions. Assuming Ev to have a value of 320,000 psi, we see that increasing the pres1 , or 0.3%, of its original volume. sure of water by 1000 psi will compress it only 320 Therefore we nd that the usual assumption regarding water as being incompressible is justied.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3 At a depth of 8 km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8 MPa. Assume that the specic weight of seawater at the surface is 10.05 kN/m3 and that the average volume modulus is 2.34 109 N/m2 for that pressure range. (a) What will be the change in specic volume between that at the surface and at that depth? (b) What will be the specic volume at that depth? (c) What will be the specic weight at that depth?
Solution
1

1 10.05 kN/m3

8 km

Sea water

p2 81.8 MPa

2.6 Specic Weight of Liquids (a) Eq. (2.2): Eq. (2.3a): (b) Eq. (2.3b): v1 1 r1 gg1 9.8110050 0.000976 m3/kg Dv 0.000 976(81.8 106 0)(2.34 109) 34.1 10 6 m3/kg ANS ANS
3

19

v2 v1 Dv 0.000 942 m3/kg ANS

(c) g2 gv2 9.810.000942 10410 N/m

EXERCISES
2.5.1 To two signicant gures what is the bulk modulus of water in MN/m2 at 50C under a pressure of 30 MN/m2? Use Table 2.1. 2.5.2 At normal atmospheric conditions, approximately what pressure in psi must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 2%? Use Table 2.1. 2.5.3 Water in a hydraulic press is subjected to a pressure of 4500 psia at 68F. If the initial pressure is 15 psia, approximately what will be the percentage decrease in specic volume? Use Table 2.1. 2.5.4 At normal atmospheric conditions, approximately what pressure in MPa must be applied to water to reduce its volume by 3%? 2.5.5 A rigid cylinder, inside diameter 15 mm, contains a column of water 500 mm long. What will the column length be if a force of 2 kN is applied to its end by a frictionless plunger? Assume no leakage.
2 kN

L1 500 mm

Water

Rigid

Water

L2

Figure X2.5.5

2.6

SPECIFIC WEIGHT OF LIQUIDS

The specic weights g of some common liquids at 68F (20C) and standard sealevel atmospheric pressure4 with g 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/s2) are given in Table 2.2. The specic weight of a liquid varies only slightly with pressure, depending on the bulk modulus of the liquid (Sec. 2.5); it also depends on temperature, and the variation may be considerable. Since specic weight g is equal to rg, the
4 See

Secs. 2.9 and 3.5.

20

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids TABLE 2.2 Specic weights g of common liquids at 68F (20C), 14.7 psia (1013 mb abs) with g 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/s2)
lb/ft3 Carbon tetrachloride Ethyl alcohol Gasoline Glycerin Kerosene Motor oil Seawater Water 99.4 49.3 42 78.7 50 54 63.9 62.3 kN/m3 15.6 7.76 6.6 12.3 7.9 8.5 10.03 9.79

specic weight of a uid depends on the local value of the acceleration of gravity in addition to the variations with temperature and pressure. The variation of the specic weight of water with temperature and pressure, where g 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/s2), is shown in Fig. 2.1. The presence of dissolved air, salts in solution, and suspended matter will increase these values a very slight amount. Ordinarily
Temperature, C 0 63.2 63.0 62.8 9.85 62.6 Specific weight , kN/m3 62.4 Specific weight , lb/ft3 62.2 62.0 61.8 61.6 61.4 61.2 61.0 60.8 60.6 30 50 70 90 110 Temperature, F 130 150 170 9.55
At m

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80 9.90

9.80

os

ph

e ri

20 00 ps 10 0 cp 0 p ia ( 1 re s 3. ia ss 79 (6 ur M .8 e, 9 Pa 14 M .7 Pa a b ps a b s) ia s (1 01 ) .3 kP a ab s)

9.75

9.70

9.65

9.60

Figure 2.1
Specic weight g of pure water as a function of temperature and pressure for the condition where g 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/s2).

2.6 Specic Weight of Liquids

21

we assume ocean water to weigh 64.0 lb/ft3 (10.1 kN/m3). Unless otherwise specied or implied by a given temperature, the value to use for water in the problems in this book is g 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81 kN/m3). Under extreme conditions the specic weight of water is quite different. For example, at 500F (260C) and 6000 psi (42 MN/m2) the specic weight of water is 51 lb/ft3 (8.0 kN/m3).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.4

A vessel contains 85 L of water at 10C and atmospheric pressure. If the water is heated to 70C, what will be the percentage change in its volume? What weight of water must be removed to maintain the volume at its original value? Use Appendix A. Solution
V
10C 70C

patm V 10 85 L V70

Volume, Table A.1:

V10 85 L 0.085 m3 g10 9.804 kN/m3, g70 9.589 kN/m3

Weight of water, W gV g10V10 g70V70 i.e., 9.804(0.085) kN 9.589 V70; V70 0.086 91 m3

D V V70 V10 0.086 91 0.085 00 0.001 906 m3 at g70 D VV10 0.001 9060.085 2.24% increase Must remove (at g70): Wa DV b g70 D V V70 ANS ANS

(9589 N/m3)(0.001 906 m3) 18.27 N

EXERCISES
2.6.1 Use Fig. 2.1 to nd the approximate specic weight of water in lb/ft3 under the following conditions: (a) at a temperature of 60C under 101.3 kPa abs pressure; (b) at 60C under a pressure of 13.79 MPa abs. 2.6.2 Use Fig. 2.1 to nd the approximate specic weight of water in kN/m3 under the following conditions: (a) at a temperature of 160F under normal atmospheric pressure; (b) at 160F under a pressure of 2000 psia.

22

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

2.6.3 A vessel contains 5.0 ft3 of water at 40F and atmospheric pressure. If the water is heated to 80F, what will be the percentage change in its volume? What weight of water must be removed to maintain the volume at its original value? Use Appendix A. 2.6.4 A cylindrical tank (diameter 8.00 m and depth 5.00 m) contains water at 15C and is brimful. If the water is heated to 60C, how much water will spill over the edge of the tank? Assume the tank does not expand with the change in temperature. Use Appendix A.

2.7

PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES

The various properties of a gas, listed below, are related to one another (see, e.g., Appendix A, Tables A.2 and A.5). They differ for each gas. When the conditions of most real gases are far removed from the liquid phase, these relations closely approximate those of hypothetical perfect gases. Perfect gases, are here (and often) dened to have constant specic heats5 and to obey the perfect-gas law, p pv RT r where p r v R T (2.4)

absolute pressure (Sec. 3.4) density (mass per unit volume) specic volume (volume per unit mass, 1r) a gas constant, the value of which depends upon the particular gas absolute temperature in degrees Rankine or Kelvin6

For air, the value of R is 1715 ftlb/(slugR) or 287 Nm/(kgK) (Appendix A, Table A.5); making use of the denitions of a slug and a newton (Sec. 1.5), these units are sometimes given as ft2/(sec2R) and m2/(s2K), respectively. Since g rg, Eq. (2.4) can also be written gp (2.5) g RT from which the specic weight of any gas at any temperature and pressure can be computed if R and g are known. Because Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) relate the various gas properties at a particular state, they are known as equations of state and as property relations. In this book we shall assume that all gases are perfect. Perfect gases are sometimes also called ideal gases. Do not confuse a perfect (ideal) gas with an ideal uid (Sec. 2.10).
5

6 Absolute

Specic heat and other thermodynamic properties of gases are discussed in Sec. 13.1. temperature is measured above absolute zero. This occurs on the Fahrenheit scale at 459.67F (0 Rankine) and on the Celsius scale at 273.15C (0 Kelvin). Except for low-temperature work, these values are usually taken as 460F and 273C. Remember that no degree symbol is used with Kelvin.

2.7 Property Relations for Perfect Gases

23

Avogadros law states that all gases at the same temperature and pressure under the action of a given value of g have the same number of molecules per unit of volume, from which it follows that the specic weight of a gas7 is proportional to its molar mass. Thus, if M denotes molar mass (formerly called molecular weight), g2g1 M2M1 and, from Eq. (2.5), g2g1 R1R2 for the same temperature, pressure, and value of g. Hence for a perfect gas M1R1 M2R2 constant R0 R0 is known as the universal gas constant, and has a value of 49,709 ftlb/ (slug-molR) or 8312 Nm/(kg-molK). Rewriting the preceding equation in the form R0 R M enables us to obtain any gas constant R required for Eq. (2.4) or (2.5). For real (nonperfect) gases, the specic heats may vary over large temperature ranges, and the right-hand side of Eq. (2.4) is replaced by zRT, so that R0 MzR, where z is a compressibility factor that varies with pressure and temperature. Values of z and R are given in thermodynamics texts and in handbooks. However, for normally encountered monatomic and diatomic gases, z varies from unity by less than 3%, so the perfect-gas idealizations yield good approximations, and Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) will give good results. When various gases exist as a mixture, as in air, Daltons law of partial pressures states that each gas exerts its own pressure as if the other(s) were not present. Hence it is the partial pressure of each that we must use in Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) (see Sample Prob. 2.5). Water vapor as it naturally occurs in the atmosphere has a low partial pressure, so we may treat it as a perfect gas with R 49,70918 2760 ftlb/(slugR) [462 Nm/(kgK)]. But for steam at higher pressures this value is not applicable. As we increase the pressure and simultaneously lower the temperature, a gas becomes a vapor, and as gases depart more and more from the gas phase and approach the liquid phase, the property relations become much more complicated than Eq (2.4), and we must then obtain specic weight and other properties from vapor tables or charts. Such tables and charts exist for steam, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, freon, and other vapors in common engineering use. Another fundamental equation for a perfect gas is pvn p1vn 1 constant or p r n a b constant r1 p1 (2.6a) (2.6b)

where p is absolute pressure, v ( 1r) is specic volume, r is density, and n may have any nonnegative value from zero to innity, depending on the process to
7

The specic weight of air (molar mass 29.0) at 68F (20C) and 14.7 psia (1013 mb abs) with g 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/s2) is 0.0752 lb/ft3 (11.82 N/m3).

24

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

which the gas is subjected. Since this equation describes the change of the gas properties from one state to another for a particular process, we call it a process equation. If the process of change is at a constant temperature (isothermal), n 1. If there is no heat transfer to or from the gas, the process is adiabatic. A frictionless (and reversible) adiabatic process is an isentropic process, for which we denote n by k, where k cpcv, the ratio of specic heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume.8 This specic heat ratio k is also called the adiabatic exponent. For expansion with friction n is less than k, and for compression with friction n is greater than k. Values for k are given in Appendix A, Table A.5, and in thermodynamics texts and handbooks. For air and diatomic gases at usual temperatures, we can take k as 1.4. By combining Eqs. (2.4) and (2.6), we can obtain other useful relations such as p2 (n1)n r2 n1 v1 n1 T2 a b a b a b r1 p1 v2 T1 (2.7)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5 If an articial atmosphere consists of 20% oxygen and

80% nitrogen by volume, at 14.7 psia and 60F, what are (a) the specic weight and partial pressure of the oxygen and (b) the specic weight of the mixture? Solution Table A.5: R (oxygen) 1554 ft2/(sec2R), R (nitrogen) 1773 ft2/(sec2R) Eq. (2.5): Eq. (2.5): 100% O2: g 32.2(14.7 144) 0.0843 lb/ft3 1554(460 60) 32.2(14.7 144) 0.0739 lb/ft3 1773(520) ANS

100% N2: g

(a) Each ft3 of mixture contains 0.2 ft3 of O2 and 0.8 ft3 of N2. So for 20% O2, g 0.20(0.0843) 0.016 87 lb/ft3 p

From Eq. (2.5), for 20% O2,

0.016 87(1554)520 gRT g 32.2 ANS

423 lb/ft 2 abs 2.94 psia Note that this 20%(14.7 psia). (b) For 80% N2, g 0.80(0.0739) 0.0591 lb/ft3. Mixture: g 0.016 87 0.0591 0.0760 lb/ft3

ANS

8 Specic

heat and other thermodynamic properties of gases are discussed in Sec. 13.1.

2.8 Compressibility of Perfect Gases

25

EXERCISES
2.7.1 A gas at 60C under a pressure of 10 000 mb abs has a specic weight of 99 N/m3. What is the value of R for the gas? What gas might this be? Refer to Appendix A, Table A.5. 2.7.2 A hydrogen-lled balloon of the type used in cosmic-ray studies is to be expanded to its full size, which is a 100-ft-diameter sphere, without stress in the wall at an altitude of 150,000 ft. If the pressure and temperature at this altitude are 0.14 psia and 67F respectively, nd the volume of hydrogen at 14.7 psia and 60F that should be added on the ground. Neglect the balloons weight. 2.7.3 Calculate the density, specic weight, and specic volume of air at 120F and 50 psia. 2.7.4 Calculate the density, specic weight, and specic volume of air at 50C and 3400 mb abs. 2.7.5 If natural gas has a specic gravity of 0.6 relative to air at 14.7 psia and 68F, what are its specic weight and specic volume at that same pressure and temperature. What is the value of R for the gas? Solve without using Table A.2. 2.7.6 Given that a sample of dry air at 40F and 14.7 psia contains 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen by volume. What is the partial pressure (psia) and specic weight of each gas? 2.7.7 Prove that Eq. (2.7) follows from Eqs. (2.4) and (2.6).

2.8

COMPRESSIBILITY OF PERFECT GASES

Differentiating Eq. (2.6) gives npv n1dv vndp 0. Inserting the value of dp from this into Ev (vdv) dp from Sec. 2.5 yields Ev np (2.8)

So for an isothermal process of a gas Ev p, and for an isentropic process Ev kp. Thus, at a pressure of 15 psia, the isothermal modulus of elasticity for a gas is 15 psi, and for air in an isentropic process it is 1.4(15 psi) 21 psi. Assuming from Table 2.1 a typical value of the modulus of elasticity of cold water to be 320,000 psi, we see that air at 15 psia is 320,00015 21,000 times as compressible as cold water isothermally, or 320,00021 15,000 times as compressible isentropically. This emphasizes the great difference between the compressibility of normal atmospheric air and that of water.

26

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 (a) Calculate the density, specic weight, and specic volume of oxygen at 100F and 15 psia (pounds per square inch absolute; see Sec. 2.7). (b) What would be the temperature and pressure of this gas if we compressed it isentropically to 40% of its original volume? (c) If the process described in (b) had been isothermal, what would the temperature and pressure have been?
Solution

n k 1.4 0.4V

n1 0.4V T2 100F, p2 (c)

100F, 15 psia

T2, p2 (b)

(a)

Table A.5 for oxygen (O2): Molar mass M 32.0, k 1.40 (a) Sec. 2.7: R R0 49,709 1553 ftlb/(slugR) M 32.0 (as in Table A.5)

From Eq. (2.4):

p 15 144 lb/ft 2 RT [1553 ftlb/(slugR)][(460 100)R] 0.002 48 slug/ft 3 ANS ANS ANS

With g 32.2 ft/sec2, g rg 0.002 48(32.2) 0.0800 lb/ft3 Eq. (2.2): v 1 1 403 ft3/slug r 0.002 48

(b) Isentropic compression: v2 40% v1 0.4(403) 161.1 ft 3/slug r2 1v2 0.006 21 slug/ft3 Eq. (2.6) with n k: pvk (15 144)(403)1.4 ( p2 144)(161.1)1.4 p2 54.1 psia From Eq. (2.4): ANS

p2 54.1 144 psia rRT 0.006 21(1553)(460 T2) T2 348F ANS ANS ANS

(c) Isothermal compression: T2 T1 100F

pv constant: (15 144)(403) (p2 144)(0.4 403) p2 37.5 psia

2.9 Standard Atmosphere

27

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.7 Calculate the density, specic weight, and specic
volume of chlorine gas at 25C and pressure of 600 kN/m2 abs (kilonewtons per square meter absolute; see Sec. 2.7). Given the molar mass of chlorine (Cl2 ) 71. Solution Sec. 2.7: From Eq. (2.4): R r R0 8312 117.1 Nm/(kgK) M 71

p 600 000 N/m2 RT [117.1 Nm/(kgK)][(273 25)K] 17.20 kg/m3 ANS ANS

With g 9.81 m/s2, g rg 17.20(9.81) 168.7 N/m3 Eq. (2.2): v 1 1 0.0581 m3/kg r 17.20

ANS

EXERCISES
2.8.1 Methane at 22 psia is compressed isothermally, and nitrogen at 16 psia is compressed isentropically. What is the modulus of elasticity of each gas? Which is the more compressible? 2.8.2 Methane at 140 kPa abs is compressed isothermally, and nitrogen at 100 kPa abs is compressed isentropically. What is the modulus of elasticity of each gas? Which is the more compressible? 2.8.3 (a) If 10 m3 of nitrogen at 30C and 125 kPa are expanded isothermally to 25 m3, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the pressure and temperature have been if the process had been isentropic? The adiabatic exponent k for nitrogen is 1.40. 2.8.4 Helium at 25 psia and 65F is isentropically compressed to one-fth of its original volume. What is its nal pressure?

2.9

STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Standard atmospheres were rst adopted in the 1920s in the United States and in Europe to satisfy a need for standardization of aircraft instruments and aircraft performance. As knowledge of the atmosphere increased, and mans activities in it rose to ever greater altitudes, such standards have been frequently extended and improved. The International Civil Aviation Organization adopted its latest ICAO Standard Atmosphere in 1964, which extends up to 32 km (105,000 ft). The International Standards Organization adopted an ISO Standard Atmosphere to

28

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

50 km (164,000 ft) in 1973, which incorporates the ICAO standard. The United States has adopted the U.S. Standard Atmosphere, last revised in 1976. This incorporates the ICAO and ISO standards, and extends to at least 86 km (282,000 ft or 53.4 mi); for some quantities it extends as far as 1000 km (621 mi). Figure 2.2 graphically presents variations of temperature and pressure in the U.S. Standard Atmosphere. In the lowest 11.02 km (36,200 ft), called the troposphere, the temperature decreases rapidly and linearly at a lapse rate of 6.489C/km (3.560F 1000 ft). In the next layer, called the stratosphere, about 9 km (30,000 ft) thick, the temperature remains constant at 56.5C (69.7F). Next, in the mesosphere, it increases, rst slowly and then more rapidly, to a maximum of 2.5C (27.5F) at an altitude around 50 km (165,000 ft or 31 mi). Above this, in the upper part of the mesosphere known as the ionosphere, the temperature again decreases. The standard absolute pressure9 behaves very differently from temperature (Fig. 2.2), decreasing quite rapidly and smoothly to almost zero at an altitude of
9 Absolute

pressure is discussed in Secs. 2.7 and 3.4.

Temperature, F 100 50 0 50 0 Absolute pressure, psia 5 10 15 20 300

90

86.28C, 123.30F 86.000 km Mesosphere

80 250 70 58.5C at 71.802 km

60 Altitude, km ISO limit 51.413 km 2.5C, 47.350 km 27.5F Ionosphere

200 Altitude, 1000 ft

50

150

40 ICAO limit 44.5C at 32.162 km

30

0.868 kPa at 32.162 km Mesosphere

100

20

20.063 km 56.5C, 69.7F Stratosphere Troposphere 101.325 kPa 14.696 psia 50 11.019 km 6.489C/km 3.560F/1000 ft 80 60 40 20 Temperature, C 0

10 0 100

15C, 59F 20 0

0 50 100 150 Absolute pressure, kPa

Figure 2.2
The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, temperature, and pressure distributions.

2.11 Viscosity

29

30 km (98,000 ft). The pressure prole was computed from the standard temperatures using methods of uid statics (Sec. 3.2). The representation of the standard temperature prole by a number of linear functions of elevation (Fig. 2.2) greatly facilitates such computations (see Sample Prob. 3.1d). Temperature, pressure, and other variables from the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, including density and viscosity, are tabulated together with gravitational acceleration out to 30 km and 100,000 ft in Appendix A, Table A.3. Engineers generally use such data in design calculations where the performance of high-altitude aircraft is of interest. The standard atmosphere serves as a good approximation of conditions in the atmosphere; of course the actual conditions vary somewhat with the weather, the seasons, and the latitude.

2.10

IDEAL FLUID
An ideal uid is usually dened as a uid in which there is no friction; it is inviscid (its viscosity is zero). Thus the internal forces at any section within it are always normal to the section, even during motion. So these forces are purely pressure forces. Although such a uid does not exist in reality, many uids approximate frictionless ow at sufcient distances from solid boundaries, and so we can often conveniently analyze their behaviors by assuming an ideal uid. As noted in Sec. 2.7, take care to not confuse an ideal uid with a perfect (ideal) gas. In a real uid, either liquid or gas, tangential or shearing forces always develop whenever there is motion relative to a body, thus creating uid friction, because these forces oppose the motion of one particle past another. These friction forces give rise to a uid property called viscosity.

2.11

VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a uid is a measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. Motor oil, for example, has high viscosity and resistance to shear, is cohesive, and feels sticky, whereas gasoline has low viscosity. The friction forces in owing uid result from the cohesion and momentum interchange between molecules. Figure 2.3 indicates how the viscosities of typical uids depend on temperature. As the temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids decrease, while the viscosities of all gases increase. This is because the force of cohesion, which diminishes with temperature, predominates with liquids, while with gases the predominating factor is the interchange of molecules between the layers of different velocities. Thus a rapidly-moving gas molecule shifting into a slowermoving layer tends to speed up the latter. And a slow-moving molecule entering a faster-moving layer tends to slow down the faster-moving layer. This molecular interchange sets up a shear, or produces a friction force between adjacent layers. At higher temperatures molecular activity increases, so causing the viscosity of gases to increase with temperature.

30

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

s uid Liq

Viscosity (absolute and kinematic)

Ga

se

Temperature

Figure 2.3
Trends in viscosity variation with temperature.

Figures A.1 and A.2 in Appendix A graphically present numerical values of absolute and kinematic viscosities for a variety of liquids and gases, and show how they vary with temperature. Consider the classic case of two parallel plates (Fig. 2.4), sufciently large that we can neglect edge conditions, a small distance Y apart, with uid lling the space between. The lower plate is stationary, while the upper one moves parallel to it with a velocity U due to a force F corresponding to some area A of the moving plate. At boundaries, particles of uid adhere to the walls, and so their velocities are zero relative to the wall. This so-called no-slip condition occurs with all viscous uids. Thus in Fig. 2.4 the uid velocities must be U where in contact with the plate at the upper boundary and zero at the lower boundary. We call the form of the velocity variation with distance between these two extremes, as depicted in Fig. 2.4, a velocity prole. If the separation distance Y is not too great, if the velocity U is not too high, and if there is no net ow of uid through the space, the velocity prole will be linear, as in Fig. 2.4a. If, in addition, there is a small amount of bulk uid transport between the plates, as could result from pressure-fed lubrication for example, the velocity prole becomes the sum of
U dy Y y u
Velocity profile

F, U

U
Velocity profile Slope

F, U

u y

du

du dy

(a) Linear (no bulk flow)

(b) Curved (bulk flow to the right)

Figure 2.4
Velocity proles.

2.11 Viscosity

31

the previous linear prole plus a parabolic prole (Fig. 2.4b); the parabolic additions to (or subtractions from) the linear prole are zero at the walls (plates) and maximum at the centerline. The behavior of the uid is much as if it consisted of a series of thin layers, each of which slips a little relative to the next. For a large class of uids under the conditions of Fig. 2.4a, experiments have shown that AU F Y We see from similar triangles that we can replace UY by the velocity gradient dudy. If we now introduce a constant of proportionality m (mu), we can express the shearing stress t (tau) between any two thin sheets of uid by t F U du m m A Y dy (2.9)

We call Eq. (2.9) Newtons equation of viscosity, since Sir Isaac Newton (16421727) rst suggested it. Although better known for his formulation of the fundamental laws of motion and gravity and for the development of differential calculus, Newton, an English mathematician and natural philosopher, also made many pioneering studies in uid mechanics. In transposed form, Eq. (2.9) denes the proportionality constant m t dudy (2.10)

known as the coefcient of viscosity, the absolute viscosity, the dynamic viscosity (since it involves force), or simply the viscosity of the uid. We shall use absolute viscosity to help differentiate it from another viscosity that we will discuss shortly. We noted in Sec. 2.1 that the distinction between a solid and a uid lies in the manner in which each can resist shearing stresses. We will clarify a further distinction among various kinds of uids and solids by referring to Fig. 2.5. In

Elastic solid

t shear stress

Id

ea

lp

la

st ic

on

Ne

ia to n

nf

lu id

Ne

n wto

ian

flui

Ideal fluid

Figure 2.5

du/dy

32

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

the case of a solid, shear stress depends on the magnitude of the deformation; but Eq. (2.9) shows that in many uids the shear stress is proportional to the time rate of (angular) deformation. A uid for which the constant of proportionality (i.e., the absolute viscosity) does not change with rate of deformation is called a Newtonian uid, and this plots as a straight line in Fig. 2.5. The slope of this line is the absolute viscosity, m. The ideal uid, with no viscosity (Sec. 2.10), falls on the horizontal axis, while the true elastic solid plots along the vertical axis. A plastic that sustains a certain amount of stress before suffering a plastic ow corresponds to a straight line intersecting the vertical axis at the yield stress. There are certain non-Newtonian uids10 in which m varies with the rate of deformation. These are relatively uncommon in engineering usage, so we will restrict the remainder of this text to the common uids that under normal conditions obey Newtons equation of viscosity. In a journal bearing, lubricating uid lls the small annular space between a shaft and its surrounding support. This uid layer is very similar to the layer between the two parallel plates, except it is curved. There is another more subtle difference, however. For coaxial cylinders (Fig. 2.6) with constant rotative speed v (omega), the resisting and driving torques are equal. But because the radii at the inner and outer walls are different, it follows that the shear stresses
Typical non-Newtonian uids include paints, printers ink, gels and emulsions, sludges and slurries, and certain plastics. An excellent treatment of the subject is given by W. L. Wilkinson in NonNewtonian Fluids, Pergamon Press, New York, 1960.
Tr 0 Td r1 r2 Y r1 r2 U1 r1 0 Tr Td
10

U2 r2 (a) (b)

Figure 2.6
Velocity prole, rotating coaxial cylinders with gap completely lled with liquid. (a) Inner cylinder rotating. (b) Outer cylinder rotating. Z is the dimension at right angles to the plane of the sketch. Resisting torque driving torque and t (dudy). t1(2pr1 Z)r1 t2(2pr2 Z)r2,
2 du du r2 a b a b 2 dy 1 dy 2 r1

2.11 Viscosity

33

and velocity gradients there must also be different (see Fig. 2.6 and equations that accompany it). The shear stress and velocity gradient must vary continuously across the gap, and so the velocity prole must curve. However, as the gap distance Y S 0, dudy S UY constant. So, when the gap is very small, we can assume the velocity prole to be a straight line, and we can solve problems in a similar manner as for at plates. The dimensions of absolute viscosity are force per unit area divided by velocity gradient. In the British Gravitational (BG) system the dimensions of absolute viscosity are as follows: Dimensions of m In SI units Dimensions of m N/m2 Ns/m2 s1 dimensions of t lb/ft2 lbsec/ft2 dimensions of dudy fps/ft

A widely used unit for viscosity in the metric system is the poise (P), named after Jean Louis Poiseuille (17991869). A French anatomist, Poiseuille was one of the rst investigators of viscosity. The poise 0.10 Ns/m2. The centipoise (cP) ( 0.01 P 1 mNs/m2) is frequently a more convenient unit. It has a further advantage in that the viscosity of water at 68.4F is 1 cP. Thus the value of the viscosity in centipoises is an indication of the viscosity of the uid relative to that of water at 68.4F. In many problems involving viscosity the absolute viscosity is divided by density. This ratio denes the kinematic viscosity n (nu), so called because force is not involved, the only dimensions being length and time, as in kinematics (Sec. 1.1). Thus n m r (2.11)

We usually measure kinematic viscosity n in ft2/sec in the BG system, and in m2/s in the SI. Previously, in the metric system the common units were cm2/s, also called the stoke (St), after Sir George Stokes (18191903), an English physicist and pioneering investigator of viscosity. Many found the centistoke (cSt) (0.01 St 106 m2/s) a more convenient unit to work with. An important practical distinction between the two viscosities is the following. The absolute viscosity m of most uids is virtually independent of pressure for the range that is ordinarily encountered in engineering work; for extremely high pressures, the values are a little higher than those shown in Fig. A.1. The kinematic viscosity n of gases, however, varies strongly with pressure because of changes in density. Therefore, if we need to determine the kinematic viscosity n at a nonstandard pressure, we can look up the (pressure-independent) value of m and calculate n from Eq. (2.11). This will require knowing the gas density, r, which, if necessary, we can calculate using Eq. (2.4). The measurement of viscosity is described in Sec. 11.1.

34

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.8 A 1-in-wide space between two horizontal plane

surfaces is lled with SAE 30 Western lubricating oil at 80F. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of 4-ft2 area through the oil at a velocity of 20 ft/min if the plate is 0.33 in from one surface? Solution
0.33 in 0.67 in

t1 t2

Oil Oil

F, 20 ft/min
4-ft2 plate

Fig. A.1:

m 0.0063 lbsec/ft2

t1 0.0063 (2060)(0.3312) 0.0764 lb/ft2 Eq. (2.9): t2 0.0063 (2060)(0.6712) 0.0394 lb/ft2 Eq. (2.9): F1 t1A 0.0764 4 0.305 lb From Eq. (2.9): F2 t2A 0.0394 4 0.158 lb From Eq. (2.9): Force F1 F2 0.463 lb ANS

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.9 In Fig. S2.9 oil of absolute viscosity m lls the small
gap of thickness Y. (a) Neglecting uid stress exerted on the circular underside, obtain an expression for the torque T required to rotate the truncated cone at constant speed v. (b) What is the rate of heat generation, in joules per second, if the oils absolute viscosity is 0.20 Ns/m2, a 45, a 45 mm, b 60 mm, Y 0.2 mm, and the speed of rotation is 90 rpm?
b Y a

Figure S2.9

Solution (a) U vr ; Eq. (2.9): for small gap Y, t m U vr du dy Y Y dA 2pr ds 2pr dy cos a

mvr du ; dy Y

2.11 Viscosity From Eq. (2.9): dF t dA

35

m vr 2pr dy a b Y cos a 2pm 3 r dy; r y tan a dT r dF Y cos a 2pmv tan3 a 3 y dy dT Y cos a (a b)4 y4 ab 2pmv tan3 a ab 3 a4 T ` d y dy; c Y cos a 4 a 4 4 a

2pmv tan3 a [(a b)4 a4] 4Y cos a

ANS

(b) [(a b)4 a4] (0.105 m)4 (0.045 m)4 0.000 117 5 m4 v a 90 rev radians 1 min ba 2p b 3p rad/s 3p s 1 ba rev min 60 s 2pmv2 tan3 a [(a b)4 a4] 4Y cos a 2p(0.20 Ns/m2)(3p s 1)2(1)3[0.000 117 5 m4] 4(2 10 4 m) cos 45 23.2 Nm/s 23.2 J/s ANS

Heat generation rate power Tv

EXERCISES
2.11.1 2.11.2 At 60F what is the kinematic viscosity of the gasoline in Fig. A.2, the specic gravity of which is 0.680? Give the answer in both BG and SI units. To what temperature must the fuel oil with the higher specic gravity in Fig. A.2 be heated in order that its kinematic viscosity may be reduced to three times that of water at 40F? Compare the ratio of the absolute viscosities of air and water at 70F with the ratio of their kinematic viscosities at the same temperature and at 14.7 psia. A at plate 200 mm 750 mm slides on oil (m 0.85 Ns/m2) over a large plane surface (Fig. X2.11.4). What force F is required to drag the plate at a velocity v of 1.2 m/s, if the thickness t of the separating oil lm is 0.6 mm?
Oil Plate

2.11.3 2.11.4

F,

Figure X2.11.4
2.11.5 Refer to Fig. X2.11.4. A at plate 2 ft 3 ft slides on oil (m 0.024 lbsec/ft2) over a large plane surface. What force F is required to drag the plate at a velocity v of 4 ft/sec, if the thickness t of the separating oil lm is 0.025 in?

36

CHAPTER 2:
2.11.6 2.11.7

Properties of Fluids
A liquid has an absolute viscosity of 3.2 104 lbsec/ft2. It weighs 56 lb/ft3. What are its absolute and kinematic viscosities in SI units? (a) What is the ratio of the absolute viscosity of water at a temperature of 70F to that of water at 200F? (b) What is the ratio of the absolute viscosity of the crude oil in Fig. A.1 (s 0.925) to that of the gasoline (s 0.680), both being at a temperature of 60F? (c) In cooling from 300 to 80F, what is the ratio of the change of the absolute viscosity of the SAE 30 Western oil to that of the SAE 30 Eastern oil? Refer to Appendix A. A space 16 mm wide between two large plane surfaces is lled with SAE 30 Western lubricating oil at 35C (Fig. X2.11.8). What force F is required to drag a very thin plate of 0.4 m2 area between the surfaces at a speed v 0.25 m/s (a) if the plate is equally spaced between the two surfaces, and (b) if t 5 mm? Refer to Appendix A.

2.11.8

16 mm

Plate

Oil Oil

F,

Figure X2.11.8
2.11.9 A journal bearing consists of an 80-mm shaft in an 80.4-mm sleeve 120 mm long, the clearance space (assumed to be uniform) being lled with SAE 30 Western lubricating oil at 40C (Fig. X2.11.9). Calculate the rate at which heat is generated at the bearing when the shaft turns at 150 rpm. Express the answer in kNm/s, J/s, Btu/hr, ftlb/sec, and hp. Refer to Appendix A.
Fixed sleeve 120 mm Rotating shaft, 80 mm dia

Oil film, 0.2 mm thick

Figure X2.11.9
2.11.10 In using a rotating-cylinder viscometer, a bottom correction must be applied to account for the drag on the at bottom of the inner cylinder. Calculate the theoretical amount of this torque correction, neglecting centrifugal effects, for a cylinder of diameter d, rotated at a constant angular velocity v, in a liquid of absolute viscosity m, with a clearance D h between the bottom of the inner cylinder and the oor of the outer one. 2.11.11 Assuming a velocity distribution as shown in Fig. X2.11.11, which is a parabola having its vertex 12 in from the boundary, calculate the velocity gradients for y 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 in. Also calculate the shear stresses in lb/ft2 at these points if the uids absolute viscosity is 600 cP.

2.12 Surface Tension

umax 10 fps u

37

12 in

Figure X2.11.11
2.11.12 Air at 50 psia and 60F is owing through a pipe. Table A.2 indicates that its kinematic viscosity n is 0.158 103 ft2/sec. (a) Why is this n value incorrect? (b) What is the correct value?

2.12

SURFACE TENSION
Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which are forms of molecular attraction. Cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stress, while adhesion enables it to adhere to another body.11 At the interface between a liquid and a gas, i.e., at the liquid surface, and at the interface between two immiscible (not mixable) liquids, the out-of-balance attraction force between molecules forms an imaginary surface lm which exerts a tension force in the surface. This liquid property is known as surface tension. Because this tension acts in a surface, we compare such forces by measuring the tension force per unit length of surface. When a second uid is not specied at the interface, it is understood that the liquid surface is in contact with air. The surface tensions of various liquids cover a wide range, and they decrease slightly with increasing temperature. Values of the surface tension for water between the freezing and boiling points vary from 0.005 18 to 0.004 04 lb/ft (0.0756 to 0.0589 N/m); Table A.1 of Appendix A contains more typical values. Table A.4 includes values for other liquids. Capillarity is the property of exerting forces on uids by ne tubes or porous media; it is due to both cohesion and adhesion. When the cohesion is of less effect than the adhesion, the liquid will wet a solid surface it touches and rise at the point of contact; if cohesion predominates, the liquid surface will depress at the point of contact. For example, capillarity makes water rise in a glass tube, while mercury depresses below the true level, as shown in the insert in Fig. 2.7, which is drawn to scale and reproduced actual size. We call the curved liquid surface that develops in a tube a meniscus. A cross section through capillary rise in a tube looks like Fig. 2.8. From free-body considerations, equating the lifting force created by surface tension to
1877 Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that a 1 4 -in-diameter column of mercury could withstand a tensile stress (negative pressure, below atmospheric) of 3 atm (44 psi or 304 kPa) for a time, but that it would separate upon external jarring of the tube. Liquid tensile stress (said to be as high as 400 atm) accounts for the rise of water in the very small channels of xylem tissue in tall trees. For practical engineering purposes, however, we assume liquids are incapable of resisting any direct tensile stress.
11 In

38

CHAPTER 2:
25 Diameter of tube, mm

Properties of Fluids
1.0 0.2 in 0.2 in 0.4 in

20

Diameter of tube, in

0.8

h
32F 68F 104F Mercury

h
Water

15

0.6

10

0.4

er

cu

ry

Distil Tap led w wat ater er 6 8F

0.2

0.02

0.04

0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 h capillary rise or depression, in 2 3

0.16

0.18

0.20

h capillary rise or depression, mm

Figure 2.7
Capillarity in clean circular glass tubes, for liquid in contact with air.

Meniscus

Figure 2.8
Capillary rise.

the gravity force, 2prs cos u pr2hg so h 2s cos u gr (2.12)

where s surface tension (sigma) in units of force per unit length u wetting angle (theta) g specic weight of liquid r radius of tube h capillary rise12
12

Measurements to a meniscus are usually taken to the point on the centerline.

2.12 Surface Tension

39

We can use this expression to compute the approximate capillary rise or depression in a tube. If the tube is clean, u 0 for water and about 140 for mercury. Note that the meniscus (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8) lifts a small volume of liquid, near the tube walls, in addition to the volume pr2h used in Eq. (2.12). For larger tube diameters, with smaller capillary rise heights, this small additional volume can become a large fraction of pr 2h. So Eq. (2.12) overestimates the amount of capillary rise or depression, particularly for larger diameter tubes. The curves of Fig. 2.7 are for water or mercury in contact with air; if mercury is in contact with water, the surface tension effect is slightly less than when in contact with air. For tube diameters larger than 1 2 in (12 mm), capillary effects are negligible. Surface tension effects are generally negligible in most engineering situations. However, they can be important in problems involving capillary rise, such as in the soil water zone; without capillarity most forms of vegetable life would perish. When we use small tubes to measure uid properties, such as pressures, we must take the readings while aware of the surface tension effects; a true reading would occur if surface tension effects were zero. These effects are also important in hydraulic model studies when the model is small, in the breakup of liquid jets, and in the formation of drops and bubbles. The formation of drops is extremely complex to analyze, but is, for example, of critical concern in the design of inkjet printers, a multi-billion-dollar business.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.10 Water at 10C stands in a clean glass tube of 2-mm diameter at a height of 35 mm. What is the true static height?
Solution Table A.1 at 10C: g 9804 N/m3, s 0.0742 N/m. u 0. 2(0.0742 N/m) 2s gr (9804 N/m3 )0.001 m 0.015 14 m 15.14 mm Sec. 2.12: True static height 35.00 15.14 19.86 mm ANS Sec. 2.12 for clean glass tube: Eq. (2.12): h

EXERCISES
2.12.1 Tap water at 68F stands in a glass tube of 0.32-in diameter at a height of 4.50 in. What is the true static height? 2.12.2 Distilled water at 20C stands in a glass tube of 6.0-mm diameter at a height of 18.0 mm. What is the true static height? 2.12.3 Use Eq. (2.12) to compute the capillary depression of mercury at 68F (u 140) to be expected in a 0.05-in-diameter tube.

40

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids

2.12.4 Compute the capillary rise in mm of pure water at 10C expected in an 0.8-mmdiameter tube. 2.12.5 Use Eq. (2.12) to compute the capillary rise of water to be expected in a 0.28-in-diameter tube. Assume pure water at 68F. Compare the result with Fig. 2.7.

2.13

VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS

All liquids tend to evaporate or vaporize, which they do by projecting molecules into the space above their surfaces. If this is a conned space, the partial pressure exerted by the molecules increases until the rate at which molecules reenter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave. For this equilibrium condition, we call the vapor pressure the saturation pressure. Molecular activity increases with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure, and so the saturation pressure does the same. At any given temperature, if the pressure on the liquid surface falls below the saturation pressure, a rapid rate of evaporation results, known as boiling. Thus we can refer to the saturation pressure as the boiling pressure for a given temperature, and it is of practical importance for liquids.13 We call the rapid vaporization and recondensation of liquid as it briey passes through a region of low absolute pressure cavitation. This phenomenon is often very damaging, and so we must avoid it; we shall discuss it in more detail in Sec. 5.10. Table 2.3 calls attention to the wide variation in saturation vapor pressure of various liquids; Appendix A, Table A.4 contains more values. The very low vapor pressure of mercury makes it particularly suitable for use in barometers. Values for the vapor pressure of water at different temperatures are in Appendix A, Table A.1. TABLE 2.3 Saturation vapor pressure of selected liquids at 68F (20C)
psia Mercury Water Carbon tetrachloride Gasoline 0.000025 0.34 1.90 8.0 N/m2 abs 0.17 2340 13100 55200 mb abs 0.0017 23.4 131 552

13 Values

of the saturation pressure for water for temperatures from 32 to 705.4F can be found in J. H. Keenan, Thermodynamic Properties of Water including Vapor, Liquid and Solid States, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1969, and in other steam tables. There are similar vapor tables published for ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other vapors of engineering interest.

2 Problems

41

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.11

if the elevation is 10,000 ft?

At approximately what temperature will water boil

Solution From Appendix A, Table A.3, the pressure of the standard atmosphere at 10,000-ft elevation is 10.11 psia. From Appendix A, Table A.1, the saturation vapor pressure pv of water is 10.11 psia at about 193F (by interpolation). Hence the water at 10,000 ft will boil at about 193F. ANS Compared with the boiling temperature of 212F at sea level, this explains why it takes longer to cook at high elevations.

EXERCISES
2.13.1 At what pressure in millibars absolute will 70C water boil? 2.13.2 At approximately what temperature will water boil in Mexico City (elevation 7400 ft)? Refer to Appendix A.

PROBLEMS
2.1 2.2 If the specic weight of a gas is 12.40 N/m3, what is its specic volume in m3/kg? A gas sample weighs 0.108 lb/ft3 at a certain temperature and pressure. What are the values of its density, specic volume, and specic gravity relative to air weighing 0.075 lb/ft3? If a certain liquid weighs 8600 N/m3, what are the values of its density, specic volume, and specic gravity relative to water at 15C? Use Appendix A. Find the change in volume of 15.00 lb of water at ordinary atmospheric pressure for the following conditions: (a) reducing the temperature by 50F from 200F to 150F; (b) reducing the temperature by 50F from 150F to 100F; (c) reducing the temperature by 50F from 100F to 50F. Calculate each and note the trend in the changes in volume. Initially when 1000.00 mL of water at 10C are poured into a glass cylinder, the height of the water column is 1000.0 mm. The water and its container are heated to 70C. Assuming no evaporation, what then will be the depth of the water column if the coefcient of thermal expansion for the glass is 3.8 106 mm/mm per C?

2.3

1000.0 mm

1000.00 mL, 10C

70C

2.4

Figure P2.5
2.6 At a depth of 4 miles in the ocean the pressure is 9520 psi. Assume that the specic weight at the surface is 64.00 lb/ft3 and that the average volume modulus is 320,000 psi for that pressure range. (a) What will be the change in specic volume between that at the surface and at that depth? (b) What will be the specic volume at that depth? (c) What will be the specic weight at that depth? (d) What is the

2.5

42

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids
new pressure of the water? The coefcient of thermal expansion of the steel is 6.6 106 in/in per F; assume the chamber is unaffected by the water pressure. Use Table A.1 and Fig. 2.1.

percentage change in the specic volume? (e) What is the percentage change in the specic weight?
1

1 64.00 lb/ft3

4 miles Ocean

Water

40F

Water

80F

p2 9520 psia

patm

V 40

p80

V80

Steel at 40F

Steel at 80F

Figure P2.6
2.7 Water at 68F is in a long, rigid cylinder of inside diameter 0.600 in. A plunger applies pressure to the water. If, with zero force, the initial length of the water column is 25.00 in, what will its length be if a force of 420 lb is applied to the plunger. Assume no leakage and no friction.
25.00 in Water 0 lb

Figure P2.9
2.10 Repeat Exer. 2.6.4 for the case where the tank is made of a material that has a coefcient of thermal expansion of 4.6 106 mm/mm per C. 2.11 (a) Calculate the density, specic weight, and specic volume of oxygen at 20C and 50 kN/m2 abs. (b) If the oxygen is enclosed in a rigid container of constant volume, what will be the pressure if the temperature is reduced to100C? 2.12 (a) If water vapor in the atmosphere has a partial pressure of 0.50 psia and the temperature is 90F, what is its specic weight? (b) If the barometer reads 14.50 psia, what is the partial pressure of the (dry) air, and what is its specic weight? (c) What is the specic weight of the atmosphere (air plus the water vapor present)? 2.13 (a) If water vapor in the atmosphere has a partial pressure of 3500 Pa and the temperature is 30C, what is its specic weight? (b) If the barometer reads 102 kPa abs, what is the partial pressure of the (dry) air, and what is its specic weight? (c) What is the specic weight of the atmosphere (air plus the water vapor present)? 2.14 If the specic weight of water vapor in the atmosphere is 0.00065 lb/ft3 and that of the (dry) air is 0.074 lb/ft3 when the temperature is 70F, (a) what are the partial pressures of the water vapor and the dry air in psia, (b) what is the specic weight of the atmosphere (air and water vapor), and (c) what is the barometric pressure in psia?

0.600 in dia (rigid) 68F (both)

L2
Water 420 lb

Figure P2.7
2.8 Find the change in volume of 10 m3 of water for the following situations: (a) a temperature increase from 60C to 70C with constant atmospheric pressure, (b) a pressure increase from zero to 10 MN/m2 with temperature remaining constant at 60C, (c) a temperature decrease from 60C to 50C combined with a pressure increase of 10 MN/m2. A heavy closed steel chamber is lled with water at 40F and atmospheric pressure. If the temperature of the water and the chamber is raised to 80F, what will be the

2.9

2 Problems
2.15 If an articial atmosphere consists of 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen by volume, at 101.32 kN/m2 abs and 20C, what are (a) the specic weight and partial pressure of the oxygen, (b) the specic weight and partial pressure of the nitrogen, and (c) the specic weight of the mixture? 2.16 When the ambient air is at 70F, 14.7 psia, and contains 21% oxygen by volume, 4.5 lb of air are pumped into a scuba tank, capacity 0.75 ft3. (a) What volume of ambient air was compressed? (b) When the lled tank has cooled to ambient conditions, what is the (gage) pressure of the air in the tank? (c) What is the partial pressure (psia) and specic weight of the ambient oxygen? (d) What weight of oxygen was put in the tank? (e) What is the partial pressure (psia) and specic weight of the oxygen in the tank? 2.17 (a) If 10 ft of carbon dioxide at 50F and 15 psia is compressed isothermally to 2 ft3, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the pressure and temperature have been if the process had been isentropic? The adiabatic exponent k for carbon dioxide is 1.28. 2.18 (a) If 350 L of carbon dioxide at 20C and 120 kN/m2 abs is compressed isothermally to 50 L, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the pressure and temperature have been if the process had been isentropic? The isentropic exponent k for carbon dioxide is 1.28. 2.19 Helium at 180 kN/m2 abs and 20C is isentropically compressed to one-fth of its original volume. What is its nal pressure? 2.20 The absolute viscosity of a certain gas is 0.0234 cP while its kinematic viscosity is 181 cSt, both measured at 1013 mb abs and 100C. Calculate its approximate molar mass, and suggest what gas it may be. 2.21 A hydraulic lift of the type commonly used for greasing automobiles consists of a 10.000-in-diameter ram that slides in a 10.006-in-diameter cylinder (Fig. P2.21), the annular space being lled with oil having a kinematic viscosity of 0.0038 ft2/sec and
3

43

specic gravity of 0.83. If the rate of travel of the ram v is 0.5 fps, nd the frictional resistance, F when 6 ft of the ram is engaged in the cylinder.
F,
Ram, 10.000 in dia Oil film, 0.003 in thick

Fixed cylinder

Figure P2.21
2.22 A hydraulic lift of the type commonly used for greasing automobiles consists of a 280.00-mm-diameter ram that slides in a 280.18-mm-diameter cylinder (similar to Fig. P2.21), the annular space being lled with oil having a kinematic viscosity of 0.000 42 m2/s and specic gravity of 0.86. If the rate of travel of the ram is 0.22 m/s, nd the frictional resistance when 2 m of the ram is engaged in the cylinder. 2.23 A journal bearing consists of an 8.00-in shaft in an 8.01-in sleeve 10 in long, the clearance space (assumed to be uniform) being lled with SAE 30 Eastern lubricating oil at 100F. Calculate the rate at which heat is generated at the bearing when the shaft turns at 100 rpm. Refer to Appendix A. Express the answer in Btu/hr.
10 in Rotating shaft, 8.00 in dia

Fixed sleeve

Oil film, 0.005 in thick

Figure P2.23

44

CHAPTER 2:

Properties of Fluids
80C. Table A.2 indicates that its kinematic viscosity n is 20.9 106 m2/s. (a) Why is this n incorrect? (b) What is the correct value? (c) What would the correct value be if the compression were isothermal instead? 2.29 Pure water at 50F stands in a glass tube of 0.04-in diameter at a height of 6.78 in. Compute the true static height. 2.30 (a) Derive an expression for capillary rise (or depression) between two vertical parallel plates. (b) How much would you expect 10C water to rise (in mm) if the clean glass plates are separated by 1.2 mm? 2.31 By how much does the pressure inside a 2-mm-diameter air bubble in 15C water exceed the pressure in the surrounding water? 2.32 Determine the excess pressure inside an 0.5-in-diameter soap bubble oating in air, given the surface tension of the soap solution is 0.0035 lb/ft. 2.33 Water at 170F in a beaker is placed within an airtight container. Air is gradually pumped out of the container. What reduction below standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia must be achieved before the water boils? 2.34 At approximately what temperature will water boil on top of Mount Kilimanjaro (elevation 5895 m)? Refer to Appendix A.

2.24 Repeat Prob. 2.23 for the case where the sleeve has a diameter of 8.50 in. Compute as accurately as possible the velocity gradient in the uid at the shaft and sleeve. 2.25 A disk spins within an oil-lled enclosure, having 2.4-mm clearance from at surfaces each side of the disk. The disk surface extends from radius 12 to 86 mm. What torque is required to drive the disk at 660 rpm if the oils absolute viscosity is 0.12 Ns/m2? 2.26 It is desired to apply the general case of Sample Prob. 2.9 to the extreme cases of a journal bearing (a 0) and an end bearing (a 90). But when a 0, r tan a 0, so T 0; when a 90, contact area due to b, so T . Therefore devise an alternative general derivation that will also provide solutions to these two extreme cases. 2.27 Some free air at standard sea-level pressure (101.33 kPa abs) and 20C has been compressed. Its pressure is now 200 kPa abs and its temperature is 20C. Table A.2 indicates that its kinematic viscosity n is 15 106 m2/s. (a) Why is this n incorrect? (b) What is the correct value? 2.28 Some free air at standard sea-level pressure (101.33 kPa abs) and 20C has been compressed isentropically. Its pressure is now 194.5 kPa abs and its temperature is